Basic Civil And Mechanical Engineering G Shanmugam M S Palanichamy

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Basic Civil
and
Mechanical Engineering

G Shanmugam obtained his BE in Mechanical Engineering in 1951 from the College of Engineering, Guindy,
Chennai, and ME in IC Engines in 1958 from Purdue University, USA, where he had an opportunity to serve
as a part-time teaching Assistant. During his distinguished academic career, he has been in the teaching
profession for the past 65 years, out of which he has taught abroad for 20 years. He has served as Professor
of Mechanical Engineering at PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, University of Basrah, Iraq, and Gulf
Polytechnic, Bahrain. As founder Principal, he served in Mepco Schlenk Engineering College for a period of
18 years and developed it as the numero uno Technical Institution in Tamil Nadu. The college received the first
National Award as the Best Engineering College in 1998 from ISTE, instituted by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
Mumbai.
Prof. Shanmugam has received more than 13 personal awards at the regional, state and national levels
including the Best Principal Award, Outstanding Engineer Award, Achiever Award and many more. He is
a fellow of the Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata. He is a Life Member of ISTE Quality Forum of India
and Acoustic Society of India. At present, even at the age of 88, he is actively serving as Advisor at Kamaraj
College of Engineering and Sri Vidya College of Engineering. He is also a member of the Governing Council
at Dhanalakshmi College of Engineering, Chennai. He is a widely travelled person having visited more than
17 countries so far. He has recently authored an autobiography titled Secret of Success and this book is being
distributed to many school, college and polytechnic libraries, free of cost.
M S Palanichamy obtained a bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering from PSG College of Technology and
MTech and PhD degrees from the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai. His teaching experience
spans over 43 years.
He was a faculty of Anna University in the Structural Engineering Department for a decade. He served as the
Professor and Head of Civil Engineering Department and then as the Principal of Mepco Schlenk Engineering
College, Sivakasi. Later he served as the Vice Chancellor of Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai, for two
terms and Vice Chairman of Tamil Nadu State Council for Technical Education. Currently, he is serving as the
Advisor of RMK Group of Engineering Colleges, Kavaraipettai, Chennai. He has published six books and 60
papers in his professional career. Also, four candidates have obtained their PhD degrees under his guidance.
He is a member of various professional bodies like American Concrete Institute (AUI), Institution of
Engineers (India), Indian Concrete Institute (ICI), Institution of Valuers, etc., and he has also served as the
member of National Executive Council of the Indian Society of Technical Educational and All India Council
for Technical Education and as member of Engineering Accreditation Committee, NBA, New Delhi. He was
the Chairman, Board of Studies, Civil Engineering, of Madurai Kamaraj University and Anna University.
He has been conferred with many awards such as Lifetime Achievement Award and Honorary Fellowship
by the Indian Society for Technical Education at State and National Level respectively, Live Award by Loyola
College, Chennai, and France Heritage Award by Gavoty Foundation, France.
At present, he is serving in the governing councils of many technical institutions and private universities
in Tamil Nadu.
About the Authors

G Shanmugam
Advisor, Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology
Sri Vidya College of Engineering and Technology
Founder Principal
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi
M S Palanichamy
Advisor, RMK Group of Engineering Colleges, Chennai
Former Principal
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi
&
Former Vice Chancellor
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai
Basic Civil
and
Mechanical Engineering
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Chennai
McGraw Hill Education Offices
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Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
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Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering
Copyright © 2018 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
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This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
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Printed and bound in India.
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Dedicated to our parents
Late Sri C Gurusamy Nadar
&
Late Smt. Sivahami Ammal
– G Shanmugam
Late Sri K M Selliah Thevar
&
Late Smt. Seethalakshmi Ammal
– M S Palanichamy

Preface vii
Unit 1, 2 and 3 of this book concisely covers the syllabus for the Civil Engineering part of
the Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering course. It will be useful not only to the first year
engineering students, but also to diploma and AMIE students. It will also serve as a good
reference material for those preparing for competitive examinations.
This book is presented in a simple and comprehensive manner. Solved problems and
illustrative diagrams have been included to explain the various concepts. Exercises are
appended at the end of each chapter to provide adequate practice to the students and to help
them comprehend the subject. It covers all the latest topics included in the syllabi to help
students in learning and teachers in classroom teaching.
I am thankful to the Management of Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, and
R M K Group of Engineering Colleges, Kavaraipettai, Chennai, for their encouragement in
completing this project. I express my gratitude to the faculty of Civil Engineering Department
for the help extended to me at various stages of the project, when I was serving at Mepco
Schlenk Engineering College.
I convey my thanks and appreciation to McGraw Hill Education (India) in bringing out this
high-quality edition in a short span of time.
M S PalanichaMy
Unit 1, 4 and 5 of this book covers the syllabus for the Mechanical Engineering part of the
Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering course, which caters to the first year engineering
students.
Throughout the text, an attempt has been made to present the subject matter in a simple,
lucid and precise manner. More than two illustrations, supported by simple theoretical
presentations, help in easy understanding of the concepts. Great care has been taken to make
the text student- and teacher-friendly. Varieties of questions are appended at the end of each
chapter to provide adequate practice to the students and to help them comprehend the subject.
All the topics have been included as per the latest syllabus.
PreFACe

Preface
viii
I express my gratitude to the support rendered by my son, Dr S Ravindran, Mechanical
Engineering Department, Hindustan Institute of Science and Technology, Hindustan
University, Chennai, in helping me with preparation and finalization of the manuscript.
I convey my thanks and appreciation to McGraw Hill Education (India) in bringing out this
high-quality edition in a short time span.
G ShanMuGaM

Preface vii
uNIt 1 sCoPe oF CIvIl ANd MeChANICAl eNgINeerINg
1. Scope of Civil Engineering 1.1–82
1.1 Civil Engineering 1.1
1.2 Smart City Development – Infrastructure Development 1.34
1.3 Role of Civil Engineers 1.35
1.4 Civil Engineering Contribution to the Welfare of Society 1.36
1.5 Ethical Principle 1.38
1.6 Contribution of Mechanical Engineering to the Society 1.39
1.7 Introduction to Metal Casting Process 1.39
1.8 Advantages of the Casting Process 1.39
1.9 Patterns 1.40
1.10 Moulding 1.47
1.11 Melting of Cast Iron 1.53
1.12 Cupola Furnace 1.53
1.13 Crucible Furnace 1.56
1.14 Fettling 1.58
1.15 Casting Defects 1.58
1.16 Introduction to Metal Joining Processes 1.59
1.17 Welding 1.59
1.18 Arc Welding 1.61
1.19 Gas Welding 1.63
1.20 Gas Cutting 1.65
1.21 Brazing 1.65
1.22 Soldering 1.67
CoNteNts

Contents
x
1.23 Lathe 1.68
1.24 Drilling Machines 1.74
1.25 Automobile 1.75
1.26 Energy Engineering 1.75
1.27 Interdisciplinary Concepts in civil and Mechanical Engineering 1.75
Short-Answer Questions 1.78
Exercises 1.81
uNIt 2 surveyINg ANd sCoPe oF CIvIl eNgINeerINg MAterIAls
2. Surveying 2.1–2.40
2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Importance of Surveying 2.1
2.3 Objectives of Surveying 2.1
2.4 Types of Surveying 2.1
2.5 Classification of Surveys 2.2
2.6 Principles of Surveying 2.4
2.7 Measurement of Distances 2.5
2.8 Measurement of Angles 2.9
2.9 Levelling 2.17
2.10 Determination of Areas 2.25
2.11 Contouring 2.29
Illustrative Examples 2.32
Exercises 2.36
3. Civil Engineering and Materials 3.1–3.55
3.2 Civil Engineering 3.1
3.3 Construction Materials—Bricks 3.5
3.4 Stones 3.10
3.5 Cement 3.15
3.6 Cement Concrete 3.23
3.7 Steel Sections 3.34
3.8 Wood 3.42
3.9 Plastics 3.47
3.10 Properties of Building Materials 3.49
Exercises 3.54

Contents xi
uNIt 3 buIldINg CoMPoNeNts ANd struCtures
4. Foundation 4.1–4.31
4.1 Selection of Site 4.1
4.2 Substructure 4.2
4.3 Objectives of a Foundation 4.2
4.4 Site Inspection 4.3
4.5 Soils 4.3
4.6 Loads on Foundations 4.6
4.7 Essential Requirements of a Good Foundation 4.7
4.8 Types of Foundation 4.7
4.9 Caisson Foundation or Well Foundation 4.16
4.10 Failure of Foundations and Remedial Measures 4.17
4.11 Foundations for Machinery 4.18
4.12 Foundations for Special Structures 4.21
Exercises 4.31
5. Superstructure 5.1–5.66
5.2 Brick Masonry 5.1
5.3 Stone Masonry 5.9
5.4 RCC Structural Members 5.18
5.5 Columns 5.23
5.6 Lintels 5.25
5.7 Roofing 5.28
5.8 Flooring 5.40
5.9 Damp-Proofing 5.51
5.10 Plastering 5.54
5.11 Valuation 5.57
Illustrative Examples 5.61
Exercises 5.65
6. Bridges 6.1–6.18
6.2 Necessity of Bridges 6.1
6.3 Site Investigation 6.1
6.4 Preliminary Data to be Collected 6.2

Contents
xii
6.5 Components of a Bridge 6.3
6.6 Technical Terms 6.5
6.7 Classification of Bridges 6.6
6.8 Culverts 6.14
6.9 Causeways 6.16
7. Dams 7.1–7.14
7.2 Purpose of Dams 7.2
7.3 Components of a Reservoir 7.2
7.4 Selection of Site 7.2
7.5 Classification of Dams 7.3
7.6 Geological Effects 7.12
Exercises 7.13
uNIt 4 INterNAl CoMbustIoN eNgINes ANd Power PlANts
8. Power Plants, Gas Turbines and Alternate Sources of Energy 8.1–8.27
8.2 Classification of Power Plants 8.1
8.3 Steam Power Plants 8.1
8.4 Nuclear Power Plant 8.3
8.5 Gas Turbines 8.7
8.6 Diesel Power Plant 8.10
8.7 Hydroelectric Power Plant 8.12
8.8 Environmental Constraints of Power Generation 8.14
8.9 Alternate Sources of Energy 8.15
Exercises 8.27
9. Steam Boilers and Steam Turbines 9.1–9.21
9.2 Formation of Steam 9.1
9.3 Cochran Boiler 9.2
9.4 Boiler Mountings 9.4
9.5 Locomotive Boiler 9.7
9.6 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler 9.8

Contents xiii
9.7 Lamont Boiler 9.9
9.8 Benson Boiler 9.10
9.9 Advantages of High Pressure Boilers 9.11
9.10 Characteristics of a Good Boiler 9.11
9.11 Indian Boiler Act 9.12
9.12 Differences between Fire-Tube and Water-Tube Boilers 9.12
9.13 Cogeneration 9.12
9.14 Introduction to Steam Turbines 9.13
9.15 Main Parts of a Steam Turbine 9.13
9.16 Types of Turbines 9.14
9.17 Working of a Single-Stage Impulse Turbine (De-Laval Turbine) 9.14
9.18 Compounding of Impulse Steam Turbines 9.15
9.19 Working of Parson’s Reaction Turbine 9.16
9.20 Differences between Impulse and Reaction Turbines 9.18
10. Pumps 10.1–10.8
10.1 Application of Pumps 10.1
10.2 Classification 10.2
10.3 Reciprocating Pumps 10.2
10.4 Centrifugal Pumps 10.4
11. IC Engine 11.1–11.24
11.2 Classification of IC Engines 11.1
11.3 Main Components of IC Engines 11.2
11.4 Working of a Four-Stroke Petrol Engine 11.4
11.5 Working of a Four-Stroke Diesel Engine 11.7
11.6 Differences between Petrol Engines and Diesel Engines 11.7
11.7 Working of a Two-Stroke Petrol Engine 11.8
11.8 Working of a Two-Stroke Diesel Engine 11.10
11.9 Differences between a 4-Stroke and a 2-Stroke Engine 11.11
11.10 Fuel System in a Petrol Engine 11.11
11.11 Battery or Coil-Ignition System 11.13
11.12 Cooling System in IC Engines 11.15
11.13 Lubrication System 11.17
11.14 Fuel System for Diesel Engines 11.19

Contents
xiv
11.15 Petrol Injection 11.20
11.16 Difference between Diesel Injection and Petrol Injection 11.22
uNIt 5 reFrIgerAtIoN ANd AIr-CoNdItIoNINg systeM
12. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 12.1–12.14
Part A Refrigeration
12.2 Unit of Refrigeration 12.1
12.3 Performance of a Refrigerator 12.1
12.4 Applications of Refrigeration 12.2
12.5 Refrigerants 12.2
12.6 Desirable Properties of Refrigerants 12.2
12.7 Types of Refrigerants 12.2
12.8 Methods of Refrigeration 12.3
12.9 Comparison between Vapour-Compression and
Vapour-Absorption System 12.6
12.10 Solar Refrigerator/
Air-Conditioning System 12.6
Part B Air Conditioning
12.12 Applications of Air Conditioning 12.7
12.13 Important Terminology in Air Conditioning 12.7
12.14 Requirements of Comfort Air Conditioning 12.7
12.15 Window Air Conditioner 12.7
12.16 Split Air-Conditioner 12.9
12.17 Central Air Conditioning 12.10
12.18 Thermoelectric Cooling 12.11
Exercises 12.13
Short Questions and Answers S.1–S.13
Model Question Paper-1 MQP.1–MQP.3
Index I.1–I.10

UNIT-1
Scope of cIvIl aNd MechaNIcal
eNgINeerINg

chapter 1
Scope of cIvIl eNgINeerINg
1.1 cIvIl eNgINeerINg
Civil Engineering is the field of engineering concerned with planning, design and
construction for environmental control, development of natural resources, buildings,
transportation facilities and other structures required for health, welfare, safety,
employment and pleasure of mankind.
The main scope of civil engineering or the task of civil engineering is planning,
designing, estimating, supervising construction, execution, and maintenance of structures
like building, roads, bridges, dams, etc.
Population demographics along with increasing urbanization have facilitated the need
for sustainable and efficient infrastructure solutions. Development in green buildings,
sensor-embedded roads and buildings, geopolymer concrete, and water management
will stimulate global civil engineering industry growth.
1.1.1 field of civil engineering
Civil engineering is a wide field and includes many types of structures such as residential
buildings, public buildings, industrial buildings, roads, bridges, tunnels, railways,
dams, canal and canal structures, airports, harbours, ports, water treatment plants,
waste water treatment plants, water supply networks, and drainage networks. It also
covers environmental protection, irrigation and water resources, soil investigations and
foundations, transport systems management, etc.
1.1.2 Specialized disciplines in civil engineering
Civil engineering may be divided into the following fields:
• Building materials
• Building construction
• Structural engineering
• Geotechnical engineering
• Hydraulics, water resources and irrigation engineering

1.2
• Water supply and sanitary engineering
• Environmental engineering
• Transportation engineering
• Town planning and architecture
• Surveying
• Drawing
• Estimation and specification
• Management techniques
• Computer application
1.1.3 Building Materials
Shelter is the basic need of civilized society. Stones, bricks, timber and lime
•
concrete are the traditional materials used for the construction of houses and other
buildings.
The invention of cement and concrete has provided durable buildings.
•
Reinforced concrete which is composite construction of steel and concrete has
•
helped in building large structures.
Steel, aluminium, glass, plastics, glazed tiles, plaster of Paris, linoleum, paints and
•
varnishes have improved the quality of buildings.
Improved versions of many building materials keep on appearing in the market
•
regularly. A civil engineer has to make use of all these materials judiciously.
1.1.4 Building construction
Construction Engineering is a professional discipline that deals with the designing,
planning, construction, and management of infrastructures such as roads, tunnels, bridges,
airports, railroads, facilities, buildings, dams, utilities and other projects. It is considered a
professional sub-practice area of civil engineering or architectural engineering.
The following stages are carried out for any type of project:
1. In the beginning, technical feasibility, environmental impact assessment and
economical viability of the project are studied.
2. Soil investigation includes collecting data regarding soil and bearing capacity of
soil. Soil investigations are done for the purpose of foundation design.
3. Surveying includes preparing site plan, contour map and measurement of field
dimensions and levels.
4. On the basis of the data collected, planning and designing are carried out and
drawings are prepared. Buildings are planned according to the fundamental
principles of planning and by laws of local municipal bodies. Building planning
also requires basic knowledge of principles of architecture.

Scope of Civil Engineering 1.3
fig 1.1 Bonding of Stone Masonry
fig 1.2 Bonding of Brick Masonry
5. Estimates are prepared to know the probable cost of completion of work and
detailed planning and scheduling are prepared to carry out different activities in
time without any delay.
I. During Construction Owner, engineer and contractor are the three constituents of a
constructionteaminengineeringprofession,hencecontinuousliaisonamongthemselvesis
very essential for the speedy progress of the work. Execution of work is actual construction
carried out on the site with materials and equipment, by skilled and unskilled work force,
under the technical guidance and supervision of engineer in charge. During construction,
engineer has to supervise the work carried out as per the specifications for quality control.
Costing is the accounts procedure of arriving at the actual cost of construction.
II. After Construction Maintenance and repairs, valuation after the construction, regular
maintenance of structures are to be carried out. Valuation is carried out for the purpose of
sale, purchase and many others.
III. Importance of Construction Management and its Functions
It gives guidelines regarding the execution of construction work to be carried out.
•

1.4
It helps in preparing construction schedule. Schedule is a systematic path of
•
different activities carried out one after another. It helps in defining goals and
planning procedure.
It helps in proper management of material, labour and equipment.
•
It helps in arranging for finance and due to proper construction management, there
•
is financial and overall control on the work.
Due to proper construction management, project can be completed in estimated
•
completion cost and time.
IV. Functions of Construction Management
1. Project is divided into different phases.
2. Planning and preparing construction schedule.
3. Estimating requirements of material and labour.
4. Procurement of material plant, machinery and employing labours.
5. Arranging for finance and payment of material, and salaries of labours.
6. To establish communication between various sections.
7. To have overall control which includes financial control of the project and to
maintain quality and workmanship.
1.1.5 Structural engineering
This branch of civil engineering deals with structural analysis and design of structures.
fig 1.3 Reinforced Concrete Structures – Footings and Columns
The object of structural analysis is to determine the internal forces and the corresponding
displacements of all structural elements as well as those of the entire structural system.
The safety and proper functioning of the structure can be ensured only through a thorough
structural analysis.
Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical
knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries. Structural
engineering design utilizes a number of relatively simple structural elements to build
complex structural systems.

fig 1.4 Reinforced Concrete Structures – Beams
The aspects of analysis and design are as follows:
Structural analysis is done to calculate stresses in structural components, on the
•
basis of loads acting on structures.
Before building a structure, it should be analyzed and designed to decide about its
•
size to resist the possible forces coming on it.
The structure should be safe and at the same time its components should be as
•
small as possible.
Requirement of large column free structures gave rise to analysis and design of
•
shell roofs (curved surfaces), geodetic towers and tension structures.
Up to mid-1960s, lot of improvements were seen in the classical methods of analysis.
•
Need of tall structures and improvements in computers gave rise to matrix method
and finite element method of analysis.
The role of structural engineers is as follows:
Structural engineers are trained to understand, predict, and calculate the stability,
•
strength and rigidity of built structures for buildings and nonbuilding structures.
Develop designs and integrate their design with that of other designers, and
•
supervise construction of projects on site.
A structural engineer has to not only give a safe structure but he has to give
•
an economical structure also. Hence, there is need for studying mathematical
optimization techniques.
Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds,
•
structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.
Disasters due to earthquakes have made civil engineers to study earthquake forces
•
and build earthquake resistant structures. It needs the knowledge of structural
dynamics.

1.6
They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment, and
•
vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety.
1.1.6 geotechnical engineering
Geotechnicalengineeringisthatfieldofcivilengineeringwhichdealswithsoilinvestigation
and design of proper foundations of structures.
1.1.6.1 Soil Investigation Geotechnical engineering uses principles of soil mechanics
and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions and materials. It deals with
determination of the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these
materials; evaluates stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits; assesses risks
posed by site conditions.
Soil investigation includes collection and testing of soil samples. Soils are considered
as three-phase materials composed of rock or mineral particles, water and air. The voids
of soil, the spaces in between mineral particles, contain water and air. The engineering
properties of soils are affected by four main factors: the predominant size of the mineral
particles,thetypeofmineralparticles,thegrainsizedistribution,andtherelativequantities
of mineral, water and air present in the soil matrix. Fine particles (fines) are defined as
particles less than 0.075 mm in diameter.
All structures have to finally transfer the load acting on them to soil safely. Soil property
changes from place to place. Even in the same place it may not be uniform at different
depth and in different seasons. Hence, a civil engineer has to properly investigate soil
and decide about the safe load that can be spread on the soil. Geotechnical engineering
includes measurement of soil parameters and safe bearing capacity.
1.1.6.2 Foundation Design Foundations built for above-ground structures include
shallow and deep foundations. Retaining structures include earth-filled dams and
retaining walls. Apart from finding safe bearing capacity for foundation of buildings,
geotechnical engineering involves various studies required for the design of pavements,
tunnels, earthen dam, canals and earth retaining structures. It involves study of ground
improvement techniques also. It also includes construction and design of simple
foundations, pile foundations, well foundations, caissons, coffer dams, construction of
foundation of dams, construction of tunnels, sub base of road, earthen dams, and earth
related constructions.
Sound knowledge of geology and geotechnical engineering is necessary for construction
of earth related structures. Earthworks include embankments, tunnels, dikes and levees,
channels, reservoirs, deposition of hazardous waste and sanitary landfills.
Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal
engineering can involve the design and construction of wharves, marinas, and jetties.
Ocean engineering can involve foundation and anchor systems for offshore structures
such as oil platforms.

The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology are closely related, and
have large areas of overlap. However, the field of geotechnical engineering is a specialty
of engineering, whereas the field of engineering geology is a specialty of geology.
fig 1.5 Cross Section of Foundation
Geotechnical engineering is important in civil engineering, but it also has applications
in military, mining, petroleum and other engineering disciplines that are concerned with
construction occurring on the surface or within the ground.
1.1.7 hydraulics, Water resources and Irrigation engineering
Water is an important need for all living beings. Study of mechanics of water and its flow
characteristics is another important field in civil engineering and it is known as hydraulics.
Requirement of water in cities for domestic purpose and for industries is continuously
increasing.
Water resource engineering means measurement, utilization and development of
water resources for agriculture, municipal and power generation purpose. Rural areas
need water for agricultural field also. Hence, civil engineers have to look for new water
resources and for storing them. It involves the design of new systems and equipment that
help manage human water resources. Water resource engineering deals with planning,
designing and developing water resources by constructing several hydraulic structures
like dams, barrages, hydropower stations, canal and pipe networks, etc.
Water stored in reservoirs by building bunds and dams should be brought to
agricultural fields through canals and distributories. Study connected with this aspect is
known as irrigation engineering. It also includes watershed planning, water harvesting
techniques, soil conservation and soil reclamation. Hydrology is also a part of water
resource engineering. It includes study of sources of water, measurement of rainfall, study
of rainfall, runoff, and flood control.

1.8
1.1.8 Water Supply and Sanitary engineering
When water is required for drinking purpose, it should be purified and made potable.
Purification of water and the technology involved in taking it to the houses is known as
water supply engineering. Waste water and solid waste should be treated and disposed
so that they do not create health hazard. This branch of civil engineering is known as
sanitary engineering.
The five essential requirements for human existence are air, water, food, heat and light.
Contamination of these elements may cause serious health hazard not only to man but
also to animal and plant life. The use of water by man, plants and animals is universal.
Without it, there can be no life. Every living thing requires water.
Man and animals not only consume water, but they also consume vegetation for their
food. Vegetation, in turn, cannot grow without water. Growth of vegetation also depends
upon bacterial action, while bacteria need water in order to thrive. The bacterial action
can convert vegetable matter into productive soil. New plants, which grow in this soil,
grow by sucking nutrients through their roots in the form of solution in water. Thus, an
ecological chain is maintained. Water maintains an ecological balance, i.e., balance in the
relationship between living things and environment in which they live.
The use of water is increasing rapidly with our growing population. Already there are
acute shortages of both surface and undergroundwaters in many parts of the country.
Careless pollution and contamination of the streams, lakes, reservoirs, wells and other
underground sources has greatly impaired the quality of available water. This pollution
results because of improper disposal of waste water – both domestic as well as industrial.
Organized community life requires twin services of water supply and sewage disposal.
Good sanitation cannot be maintained without adequate water supply system. Without
properdisposal,thewastesofacommunitycancreateintolerablenuisance, spreaddiseases
and create other health hazards. The planning, designing, financing and operation of
water and waste water systems are complex undertakings, and they require a high degree
of skill and judgement.
1.1.8.1 Need for Protected Water Supplies It is necessary that the water which is supplied
to the public must be invariably free from all types of impurities both suspended and/
or dissolved in it, any kind of bacteria and any other contamination which may cause
serious harm to the health of the public. It is therefore imperative to plan and build
such a water supply scheme which would provide potable water free from any kind of
contamination.
In general, the water obtained from wells or springs, i.e., groundwater, is free from
impurities and it may be supplied to public without adopting any method of purification.
This is so because, in the course of its movement through the porous sub-strata, the
water is completely relieved of its suspended impurities. However, before supplying to
the public this water may have to be disinfected by chlorination (i.e., by adding chlorine
or chlorine compound to water) or any other methods, in order to remove any harmful
bacteria responsible for causing diseases.

The Water obtained from any of the surface source needs to be purified before it can
be supplied to the public. The most commonly adopted method of purification of water
is filtration. In the process of filtration, water is allowed to pass through sand beds and
gravel whereby minute suspended and dissolved particles are removed. It has been
found that the process of filtration is greatly accelerated if water is pretreated with certain
substances, which when added to water forms large masses of precipitates or flocs out of
the impurities present which in the process settle down and are ultimately removed. This
prefiltration treatment of water is known as coagulation which involves the use of alum.
The water having undergone through the process of filtration is still found to contain
some harmful disease producing bacteria which are minutely-sized living organisms not
visible to naked eye. As such in order to ensure protected supplies of water free from
any health hazard, it is necessary to kill these bacteria by disinfecting water. The most
commonly adopted method of disinfecting is chlorination which is a process of adding
chlorine or chlorine compound to water. Other methods of disinfecting water viz.,
treatments through ozone or ultraviolet rays or excess lime are also in use.
Thus, it may be seen that a public water supply system should be such that it is able to
provide an adequate and reliable supply of water catering to all the public needs and also
ensure that the supplies so made are not only potable but also fully protected against any
inflection which might pollute water and cause epidemics resulting in human suffering
and loss.
1.1.8.2 Objectives of Public Water Supply System The main objectives of any public water
supply system are as follows:
To supply safe and wholesome water to the consumers
•
To supply water in adequate quantity
•
To make water available within easy reach of the consumers so as to encourage the
•
general cleanliness.
1.1.8.3 Planning of Water Supply Scheme for A Town or City In planning a water supply
scheme for a town or city the following points need to be considered:
Sources of water
•
Quality of water
•
Population
•
Rate of consumption
•
Topography of area
•
Financial aspects
•
Trends of future development
•
1.1.8.4 Sources of Water The various sources of water available on the earth can be
classified into the following two categories:
1. Surface sources of water
2. Sub-surface or underground sources of water

1.10
fig 1.6 Cross Section of Storage Reservoir
1. Surface sources of water These are those sources of water which are available at the
ground surface. The various sources of water included in this category are as follows:
(a) Lakes and Ponds
(b) Streams or rivers
(c) Storage reservoirs
(d) Oceans
(a) Lakes and Ponds A large natural depression or hollow formed in the earth’s surface,
which gets filled with water is called a lake. The surface runoff from the catchment
area contributing to a lake enters the lake through small natural streams. The
groundwater may also enter a lake through springs.
The quantity of water available from a lake depends upon its size, catchment area,
annual rainfall and geological formations. The quality of water available from a
lake mainly depends upon the characteristics of its catchment. Thus water in a lake
would be relatively pure and of good quality if it draws water from uninhabited
upland hilly areas free from soluble salts. On the other hand the water in a lake
would be contaminated if it draws from low land areas containing large quantities
of soluble salts and other impurities. Moreover, a small lake containing still water
may have plenty of algae, weed and other vegetable growth imparting bad smell,
taste and colour to the water.
Thus, if a sufficient quantity of good quality water is available from a lake then it
will be a very useful source of water supply from which water may be supplied
without any treatment or with some preliminary treatment. However, if the water

in the lake is of relatively poor quality then it should be properly analyzed and
treated before supplying to the public.
A pond is a man-made body of standing water smaller than a lake . The ponds are
formed by digging of ground and they are filled up with water in rainy season.
The quantity of water in a pond is generally very small and often it contains many
impurities. As such pond water is generally not suitable for drinking purposes and
it can be used only for bathing, washing of clothes or for animals.
(b) Streams or Rivers A stream or river is a natural channel which carries surface runoff
received by it from its catchment or drainage basin. It also carries the groundwater
flow added to it and the runoff resulting from the melted snow. Rivers are the most
important sources of water supply. It is a well-known fact that several big and
important cities of the world are situated on the banks of important rivers. Some of
the examples in our country are the cities such as Delhi, Calcutta, Ahmedabad, etc.
This is due to the availability of large quantity of the water from rivers for water
supply throughout the year.
The rivers may be either perennial or non-perennial. Perennial rivers are those in
which water is available throughout the year. Such rivers are fed by rains during the
rainy season and by melting of snow during the summer season. On the other hand,
non-perennial rivers are those in which water is not available throughout the year.
Generally, from perennial rivers, water may be utilized directly for public supplies
without any arrangement for storage of water. However, if during dry weather
periods, the flow in the river is considerably reduced, either the arrangement for
raising the water level in the river or the arrangement for storage of water will
have to be made to ensure the supply of water in the required quantity. This may
be achieved either by constructing a weir or barrage, or by constructing a dam and
creating a storage reservoir. Evidently, non-perennial rivers can be used for water
supply only by providing necessary storage arrangements.
Close to the point of origin in the mountains, the river water is fairly pure but
as the river approaches plains, the quality of its water deteriorates considerably,
because it picks up lot of suspended matter, clay, silt, etc., and becomes muddy
appearances. Further, the disposal of the untreated or ever treated sewage into
the river is liable to contaminate the river water. As such the river water must be
properly analyzed and treated before supplying to the public.
(c) Storage reservoirs The flow rate of a river or natural stream may vary considerably
during different periods of the year. It may carry little or no water during dry
weather periods and may carry huge amount of water during rainy season. Thus, if
water is drawn directly from a river then during extremely low flows it may not be
possible to meet the demands of the consumers, while during high flows there may
be operational problems. As such it is essential to create a storage reservoir or an
artificial lake by constructing a dam across the river, which can store excess water
that flows in the river during the periods of high flows, for use during the periods
of low flows or draughts.

1.12
The quality of water in a storage reservoir mainly depends on the quality of the
water flowing in the river on which the reservoir is created. As such the water
from a storage reservoir also needs to be properly analyzed and treated before
supplying to the public.
The storage reservoirs are the main sources of water supply for big cities. However,
the storage reservoirs are created not only for water supply but also for other
purposes such as irrigation, hydropower generation, navigation, flood control, etc.
A storage reservoir for supplying water for more than one purpose is termed as
multipurpose reservoir.
(d) Oceans Oceans carry huge amount of water which is estimated to be about 94 to
97 percent of the total quantity of water available on our planet Earth. However,
the ocean water being highly saline cannot be used for water supply unless the
excessive salt content of the water is removed. The process of removing salt from
water is known as desalination and the salt free water so obtained is known as fresh
water. As indicated, several methods of desalination have been developed later for
the conversion of salt into fresh water. However, because of the tremendous cost
involved, the procurement of fresh water for water supply by desalination of ocean
water has not become common.
2. Sub-Surface or Underground sources of water The underground (or sub surface) sources of
water are of the following four forms.
(a) Infiltration galleries
(b) Infiltration wells
(c) Springs
(d) Wells
From each of the first three forms, relatively small quantity of groundwater is obtained
and hence, these may be considered as the minor forms of underground sources of water.
On the other hand, most of the groundwater is extracted from the last form viz., wells, and
hence it is a major form of underground source of water.
(a) Infiltration galleries. An infiltration gallery is horizontal or nearly horizontal
tunnel usually rectangular in cross-section having permeable boundaries so that
groundwater can infiltrate into the same, and hence it is also sometimes known
as horizontal well. It is generally provided in highly permeable aquifers with high
water table so that adequate head is available for gravity flow of groundwater into
the gallery. It is frequently located near a perennial recharge source and hence, it is
usually placed along the bank or under the bed of river. The usual depth at which
the gallery is placed ranges from 3 to 10 m below the ground surface.

fig 1.7 Cross Section of Infiltration Gallery
(b) Infiltration wells. Infiltration wells are the shallow wells constructed in series along
the banks of river to collect the water seeping through the banks of the river. The
wells are closed at top and open at bottom. These wells are constructed of brick
masonry with open joints. For the purpose of inspection, manhole is provided in
the top cover of the well. The water infiltrates through the bottom of these wells
and as it has to pass through sand bed it gets purified to some extent.
The various infiltration wells are connected by porous pipes to a collecting sump
well known as jack well. The water collected in the infiltration wells flows by
gravity into the jack well. The water from the jack well is pumped to treatment
plant and supplied to the consumers.
(c) Springs. A spring is natural outflow of groundwater which appears at the ground
surface as a current or stream of flowing water. Springs may be classified into
(i) those resulting from gravitational forces, and (ii) those resulting from non-
gravitational forces.
(i) Gravity springs results from water flowing under hydrostatic pressure. The
following are the different types of gravity springs.

1.14
(a) Depression springs. These springs are formed due to overflowing of the
water table, where the ground intersects the water table. The flow from such
a spring is variable with the rise or fall of water table and hence in order to
meet with such fluctuations, a deep trench may be constructed near such a
spring. The deeper is the trench, the greater is the certainty of continuous
flow because the saturated ground above the elevation of the trench bottom
will act as a storage reservoir to compensate for the fluctuations of the water
table.
(b) Contactspringsofsurfacesprings.Thesespringsarecreatedbyapermeable
water bearing formation overlying a less permeable or impermeable
formation that intersects the ground surface. However, in such springs,
because of the relatively small amount of underground storage available
above the elevation of the overflow crest, the flow from them is uncertain
and is likely to cease after a drought. As such, these springs can also be
developed by the construction of a cutoff trench or a cutoff wall.
(c) Artesian springs. These springs result from release of water under pressure
from confined aquifers either at an outcrop of the aquifer or through an
opening in the confining bed. The amount of water available in an artesian
spring may be large if the catchment area is large. The flow may be slightly
increased by the removal of obstructions from the mouth of the spring.
(ii) Non-gravity springs include volcanic springs and fissure springs. The volcanic
springs are associated with volcanic rocks and the fissure springs result from
fractures extending to great depths in the earth’s crust these are usually thermal
springs. Thermal springs discharge water having a temperature in excess of the
normal local groundwater. These are also designated as warm springs and hot
springs. Waters of thermal springs are usually highly mineralized and often
contain sulphur.
In general springs are capable of supplying small quantity of water and hence
these may serve as sources of water supply only for small towns, especially
near hills or bases of hills. Further the hot springs cannot be used to supply
water for domestic purposes. However, the water obtained from some of the
hot springs is found to be useful for the cure of certain skin diseases.
(d) Wells A water well is a hole or shaft, usually vertical, excavated in the groundwater
to the surface. Water wells may be classified as
(i) Open wells or dug wells
(ii) Tube wells
(i) OpenwellsorDugwells:Openwellsarethewellswhichhavecomparativelylarge
diameters but low yields (or discharge) and are not very deep. The diameters of
the open wells usually vary from 1 m to 10 m. The yield of such wells in most
of the cases is about 20 m3
/hour or less. However, a properly constructed open
well penetrating a permeable aquifer can yield 100 to 300 m3
/hour. The depths

of open wells may generally range from 2 m to 20 m. Since these wells are
usually constructed by digging, these are also known as dug wells. The walls of
an open well may be built of brick or stone masonry or precast concrete rings.
The thickness generally varies from 0.5 m to 0.75 m depending on the depth of
the well.
fig 1.8 Cross Section of Open Well
Open wells may be further classified as:
(a) Shallow open wells
(b) Deep open wells
Shallow open wells are those which rest in the top water bearing strata and
draw their supplies from the surrounding material. On the other hand, deep
open wells are those which rest on impervious strata and draw their supplies
from the previous formation lying below the impervious strata through bore
holes made in the impervious strata. The impervious strata is generally known
as mota layer and it is a layer of clay, cemented sand, kankar or other hard
materials. The term mota layer is however not applied to layers of hard materials
laying above the water table. The main advantage of such a mota layer is that it
gives structural support to the open well resting on its surface. Further, since
the previous formations below the mota layer generally contain large quantity
of water. The yield of deep wells is more than that of shallow wells. It may,
however, be mentioned that the nomenclature of shallow and deep open wells
is purely technical and it has nothing to do with the actual depth of the well
because sometimes a shallow well may have more depth than a deep well.
(ii) Tube wells. A tube well is along pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or
more water bearing strata. As compared to open wells, the diameters of tube
wells are much less and usually range from 80 mm to 600 mm. The tube wells
can also be further classified as:
(a) Shallow tube wells
(b) Deep tube wells

1.16
fig 1.9 Cross Section of Tube Well
Shallow tube wells have their depths limited to about 30 m and may have a
maximum yield of about 20 m3
/hour. On the other hand, deep tube wells may
have maximum depth of about 600 m yield more than 800 m3
/hour.
The tube wells may also be classified as:
(a) Strainer type tube well
(b) Cavity type tube well
(c) Slotted type tube well
Some of the common types of strainers used for the tube wells are as follows:
(a) Cook strainer
(b) Tej strainer
(c) Brownlie strainer
(d) Ashford strainer
(e) Leggett strainer
(f) Phoenix strainer
(g) Layne and Bowler strainer
1.1.8.5 Quality of Water
The water required for public water supply schemes should be potable or wholesome
water that is fir for drinking purposes. The potable water or wholesome water with
relation to various uses of water are discussed below.
1. domestic use The water required for domestic consumption should posses a high degree
of purity and it should be free from suspended impurities, bacteria etc. A tolerance of
small degree of hardness developed due to certain dissolved salts is however permissible.
Thus the drinking water and water used in the food industry and some other industries
must meet the highest standard of purity.
Following are the requirements of potable or wholesome water for domestic use.
1. It should be clear, odourless and colourless

2. It should be free from harmful and disease producing bacteria
3. It should be free from all objectionable substances
4. It should be fresh and cool
5. It should be palatable that is aesthetically attractive
6. It should be tasty
7. It should not cause corrosion to the pipes and other fittings
2. civic use For this purpose, a large quantity of water is required to fulfill various civic
purposes such as washing of roads, cleaning of sewers etc. The nature of use of water is such
that any degree of impurity can be tolerated. Hence, the water containing large amount
of suspended and dissolved impurities may be permitted for this purpose. But the water
considerably mixed up with sewage and other refuse cannot be tolerated for this purpose.
3. Trade or business use The water required for a particular trade will depend upon nature
of that trade. For instance, the water required for laundry should not be hard as it well
result in more consumption of soap. Similarly the water required for bathing cattles and
washing floors in case of stables may contain any type of impurities.
4. commercial or industrial use The water required for this purpose should be chemically
pure. The various chemical processes involved in the production make it essential to use
chemically pure water. A slight amount of impurity may considerably affect the final
results of the product.
1.1.8.5.1 Analysis of water In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is subjected to the
various tests. Theses test can be divided into the following three categories.
1. Physical test
2. Chemical test
3. Bacteriological tests
1. physical tests Under this category, the tests are carried out to examine water for the
following:
(a) Colour
(b) Taste and odour
(c) Temperature
(d) Turbidity
Other physical characteristics for which tests are sometimes carried out are density,
electrical conductivity, radioactivity and viscosity.
(a) Colour The pure waster is colourless and following are the sources which contribute
colour to the water.
∑ Algae metabolism
∑ End products of degraded organic matter
∑ Dischargeofuntreatedandpartiallytreatedwastewaterfromvariousindustries
like food processing, textile industry tanneries, paper production etc.
∑ Divalent species containing iron and manganese etc.

1.18
(b) Taste and odour The water possess taste and odour due to various causes and they
make the water unpleasant for drinking. The taste and odour of water may also be
tested by threshold number. In this method, the water to be tested is diluted with
odour-free water and mixture at which odour becomes detectable is determined. It
indicates threshold number and other intensities of odour are then worked out. For
public water supply, the threshold number not more than 3.
(c) Temperature The test for temperature of water has no practical meaning in the sense
that it is not possible to give any treatment to control the temperature in any water
supply project. The measurement of temperature of water is done with the help of
ordinary thermometers. The desirable temperature of potable water is 10°C while
temperature of 25°C is considered to be objectionable.
(d) Turbidity The colloidal matter present in water interfers with passage of light and
thus imparts turbidity to the water. The turbidity is expressed in terms of parts
of suspended matter per million parts of water or shortly written as p.p.m. The
permissibleturbidityfordrinkingwateris5to10p.p.m.Themeasurementofturbidity
in the field is done by means of a turbidity rod and it is referred to as the visual
method of turbidity measurement. For laboratory, the various instruments known
as the Jackson turbidimeter, Baylis turbidimeter and Nephelometric turbidimeter.
2. chemical Test Under this category, the tests are carried out to examine water for the
following:
(a) Chlorides
(b) Dissolved gases
(c) Hardness
(d) Hydrogen-ion Concentration (pH Value)
(e) Alkalinity
(f) Acidity
(g) Metals and other chemical substances
(h) Nitrogen and its compounds
(i) Total solids
(a) Chlorides The chloride contents, especially of sodium chloride or salt, are worked
out for a sample of water. The measurement of chloride contents is carried out
by the titration method. For potable water, the highest desirable level of chloride
content is 250 mg/litre and its maximum permissible level is 600 mg/litre.
(b) Dissolved gas The water contains various gases from its contact with the atmosphere
and ground surfaces. The usual gases are nitrogen, methane, hydrogen sulphide,
carbon dioxide and oxygen. The contents of these dissolved gases in a sample of
water are suitably worked out. The quantity of oxygen for potable water should be
5 to 10 ppm.
(c) Hardness Thetermhardnessisdefinedastheabilityofthewatertocauseprecipitation
ofinsolublecalciumandmagnesiumslatsofhigherfattyacidsfromsoap.Thehardness

is usually measured by the soap solution test. For potable water, the hardness should
preferably be more than 5 degrees but less than 8 degrees or so.
(d) Hydrogen–ion Concentration (pH Value) The acidity or alkalinity of water is measured in
terms of pH value or H-ion concentration. Two methods are employed to measure
the pH value of water. One is electrometric method and colourimetric method. It is
desirable to maintain pH value of water very close to 7.
(e) Alkalinity The term alkalinity with reference to the water and waste water is defined
as the capacity of substances contained in the water to take up hydronium to reach
a defined pH value 4.3 to 14. The alkalinity of a sample can be determined by the
process of titration.
(f) Acidity The term acidity with reference to the water and waste water is defined as
the capacity of substances contained in the water to take up hydroxyl ions to reach
a defined pH value 0 to 8.2.
(g) Metals and other chemical substances The various tests are made to detect the presence
of different metals and other chemical substances in a sample of water. Table gives
the maximum concentration of metals and other chemical substances in potable
water as recommended by U.S Public Health Service standards.
concentration of metals and other chemical Substances in potable water
S. No. Name of metal
Maximum permissible
concentration in mg/litre
1 Alkyl Benzene Suphonate ……(ABS) 0.50
2 Arsenic…………………… (As) 0.05
3 Barium……………. …….. (Ba) 1
4 Cadium……………………(Cd) 0.01
5 CarbonChloroform Extract…………………. (CCE) 0.20
6 Copper……………………(Cu) 1
7 Cyanide…………………..(CN) 0.20
8 Fluoride……………………(F) 1.70
9 Hexavalent chromium 0.05
10 Iron……………………….(Fe) 0.30
11 Lead………………………(Pb) 0.05
12 Manganese……………….(Mn) 0.05
13 Phenols 0.001
14 Selenium………………….(Se) 0.01
15 Silver……………………..(Ag) 0.05
16 Sulphate…………………(SO4) 250
17 Zinc……………………….(Zn) 5.00

1.20
(h) Nitrogen and its compounds: The nitrogen is present in water in the following four
forms
∑ Free ammonia
∑ Aibuminoid ammonia
∑ Nitrites
∑ Nitrates
The amount of free ammonia in potable water should not exceed 0.15 p.p.m and
the albuminoid ammonia should not exceed 0.3 p.p.m. The amount of nitrites in
potable water should be nil. For potable water the highest desirable level of nitrates
is 45 mg per litre.
(i) Total solids: The term solid with reference to the environmental engineering is
defined as the residue in water left after evaporation and drying in oven at 103° C
to 105°C. The total solids consist dissolved and suspended matter. The permissible
total dissolved solids for drinking water to BIS is 500 mg/l with tolerable limit as
1500 mg/l.
3. Bacteriological Tests The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is very
important. The bacteria are very small organisms and it is not possible to detect them by
microscopes. Hence they are detected by circumstantial evidences or chemical reactions.
Two standard Bacteriological Tests for the bacteriological examinations of water.
(a) Total count or Agar plate count test
(b) B-coli test
(a) Total count or Agar plate count test: In this test, the bacteria are cultivated on specially
prepared medium of agar for different dilutions of sample of water with sterilized
water. The diluted sample is placed in an incubator for 24 hours at 37 C or for 48
hours at 20 C. These represent the so-called hot counts and cold counts respectively.
The bacterial colonies which are formed, are then counted and the results are
computed for 1 cc. For potable water, the total count should not exceed 100 per
c.c.
(b) B-coli test: This test is divided into the following three parts
∑ Presumptive test
∑ Confirmed test
∑ Completed test
The presumptive test is based on the ability of coliform group to ferment the
lactose broth and producing gas. The confirmed test consists of growing cultures
of coliform bacteria on media which suppress the growth of other organisms. The
completed test is based on the ability of the culture grown in the confirmed test to
again the lactose broth.
B-coli index: This is an index or number which represents approximately the
number of B-coli per c.c of sample of water under consideration. For potable water,

the b-coli index should be preferably less than 3 and it should not exceed 10 in any
event.
The Physical and Chemical Quality of Water Standards Prepared by The Central Public
Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation, Under the Ministry of Urban
Development (MUD) India is Given Below:
phYSIcal aNd cheMIcal STaNdardS (MUd, INdIa)
S. No.
(1)
Characteristics
(2)
Acceptable*
(3)
Cause for ** rejection
(4)
1 Turbidity (units on J.T.U. scale) 2.5 10
2 Colour (units of platinum cobalt scale) Taste and odour 5.0 2.5
3 pH unobjectionable unobjectionable
4 Total dissolved solids (mg/1) 7.0 to 8.5 6.5 to 9.2
5 Total hardness (as CaCO3) (mg/1) 500 1500
6 Chloride (as CI) (mg/1) 200 600
7 Sulphates (as SO4) (mg/1) 200 1000
8 Fluorides (as F) (mg/1) 200 400
9 Nitrates (as NO3) (mg/1) 1.0 1.5
10 Calcium (as Ca) (mg/1) 45 45
11 Magnesium (as Mg) (mg/1) 75 200
12 Iron (as Fe) (mg/1) >30*** 150
13 Manganese (as Mn) (mg/1) 0.1 1.0
14 Copper (as Cu) (mg/1) 0.05 0.5
15 Zinc (as Zn) (mg/1) 0.05 1.5
16 Phenolic compounds (as phenol) (mg/1) 5.0 15.0
17 Anionic detergents (as MBAS) (mg/1) 0.001 0.002
18 Mineral oil (mg/1) 0.2 1.0
19 Toxic Materials – Arsenic (as As) mg/1 0.01 0.3
20 Cadmium (as Cd) mg/1 0.05 0.05
21 Chromium (as hexavalent Cr) mg/1 0.01 0.01
22 Cynides (as CN) mg/1 0.05 0.05
23 Lead (as Pb) mg/1 0.05 0.05
24 Selenium (as Se) mg/1 0.1 0.1
25 Mercury (total Hg) mg/1 0.01 0.01
26 Polynuclear aromatic 0.001 0.001
27 Hydrocarbons (PAH) mg/1
Radio activity
Gross Alpha activity
0.2 mg/l 0.2 mg/l
28 Gross Beta activity 3 pci/1 3 pci/1
29 pCi = pico Curie 30 pci/1 30 pci/1

1.22
1.1.8.6 Rainwater Harvesting In the present scenario, management and distribution of
water has become centralized. Living creatures of the universe are made of five basic
elements, viz., Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Sky. Obviously, water is one of the main
resource, without which, it is not possible for us to sustain our lives. A country’s level
of water use is one of the key measure of its level of economic development. Developing
countries like India uses 90 percent of its water for agricultural purpose, just 7 percent for
industry and hardly 3 percent for domestic use.
Despite having a great regard for water, we seem to have failed to address this sector
seriously.Humanbeingcouldnotsaveandconservewateranditsources,probablybecause
of its availability in abundance. But this irresponsible attitude resulted in deterioration
of water bodies with respect to quantity and quality both. Now, situation has arrived
when even a single drop of water matters. However, “better late than never”, we have
not realized the seriousness of this issue and initiated efforts to overcome these problems.
System of collection of rainwater and conserving for future needs has traditionally been
practiced in India. The Government of Tamil Nadu passed a Government Order (GO) to
implement the Rainwater harvesting as compulsory in the state. This scheme was highly
appreciated by the Government of India in the parliament house. Now-a-days, many
states are following this scheme and ultimately they found the benefits.
The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days; however, the concept
of water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had been evolved
and developed centuries ago. Groundwater resource gets naturally recharged through
percolation. But due to indiscriminate development and rapid urbanization, exposed
surface for soil has been reduced drastically with resultant reduction in percolation of
rainwater, thereby depleting groundwater resource. Rainwater harvesting is the process
of augmenting the natural filtration of rainwater into the underground formation by
some artificial methods. “Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to the
demands of water, for drinking, domestic purpose and irrigation is termed as Rainwater
Harvesting.”
I. Objectives of Rainwater Harvesting
To provide water for domestic purposes
•
To increase water resource
•
To reduce water scarcity
•
To arrest groundwater decline and augment groundwater table
•
To beneficiate water quality in aquifers
•
To conserve surface water runoff during monsoon
•
To reduce soil erosion and run-off losses
•
To inculcate a culture of water conservation
•
II. Methods of Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater can be harvested by any one of the following methods after analyzing the soil
characteristics, topography, rainfall pattern and the climatic conditions.

By storing in vessels, tanks and reservoirs above or below the ground
•
By constructing pits, lagoons, dug wells or check dams, etc.
•
By recharging the groundwater.
•
Broadly, there are two ways of harvesting Rainwater:
(i) Surface runoff harvesting
(ii) Rooftop rainwater harvesting
(i) Surface runoff harvesting In urban areas, rainwater flows away as surface runoff.
This runoff could be caught and used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate
methods.
(ii) Rooftop rainwater harvesting (RTRWH) It is a system of catching rainwater where it
falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments and the rainwater is collected
from the roof of the house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial
recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective and if implemented
properly, helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the area.
fig. 1.10 Rooftop rainwater harvesting
III. Components of the Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting System
The system mainly constitutes of the following sub components:
(i) Catchment The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater
harvesting system. It may be terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground. The
terrace may be flat RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore, the catchment is the area,
which actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system.
(ii) Transportation Rainwater from rooftop should be carried through down take water
pipes or drains to storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI

1.24
HDPE/PVC - High-density polyethylene, Polyvinyl chloride - pipes) of required capacity.
Water from sloping roofs could be caught through gutters and down take pipe. At terraces,
mouth of the each drain should have wire mesh to restrict floating material.
(iii) First Flush First flush is a device used to flush off the water received in first shower.
The first shower of rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/
rechargeable water by the probable contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment
roof. It will also help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited on roof during dry
seasons. Provisions of first rain separator should be made at outlet of each drain pipe.
(iv) Filter There is always some skepticism regarding roof top rainwater harvesting,
since doubts are raised that rainwater may contaminate groundwater. There is remote
possibility of this fear coming true if proper filter mechanism is not adopted. Secondly,
all care must be taken to see that underground sewer drains are not punctured and no
leakage is taking place in close vicinity. Filters are used for treatment of water to effectively
remove turbidity, colour and microorganisms. After first flushing of rainfall, water should
pass through filters. There are different types of filters in practice, but basic function is to
purify water.
IV. Methods of Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting
(i) Storage of Direct Use In this method, rainwater collected from the roof of the building
is diverted to a storage tank. The storage tank has to be designed according to the water
requirements, rainfall and catchment availability. Each drain pipe should have mesh filter
at mouth and first flush device followed by filtration system before connecting to the
storage tank. It is advisable that each tank should have excess water overflow system.
Excess water could be diverted to recharge system. Water from storage tank can be
used for secondary purposes such as washing and gardening, etc. This is the most cost
effective way of rainwater harvesting. The main advantage of collecting and using the
rainwater during rainy season is not only to save water from conventional sources, but
also to save energy incurred on transportation and distribution of water at the doorstep.
This also conserve groundwater, if it is being extracted to meet the demand when rains
are on.
(ii) Recharging Groundwater Aquifers Groundwater aquifers can be recharged by various
kinds of structures to ensure percolation of rainwater in the ground instead of draining
away from the surface. Commonly used recharging methods are:
(a) recharging of bore wells Rainwater collected from rooftop of the building is diverted
through drainpipes to settlement or filtration tank. After settlement, filtered water is
diverted to bore wells to recharge deep aquifers. Abandoned bore wells can also be used
for recharge.
Optimum capacity of settlement tank/filtration tank can be designed on the basis of area
of catchment, intensity of rainfall and recharge rate. While recharging, entry of floating
matter and silt should be restricted because it may clog the recharge structure. First one or

two showers should be flushed out through rain separator to avoid contamination. This is
very important, and all care should be taken to ensure that this has been done.
(b) recharge pits Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square or circular,
constructed with brick or stone masonry wall with deep hole at regular intervals. The
top of pit can be covered with perforated covers. Bottom of pit should be filled with filter
media.
The capacity of the pit can be designed on the basis of catchment area, rainfall intensity
and recharge rate of soil. Usually, the dimensions of the pit may be of 1 m to 2 m wide
and 2 to 3 m deep depending on the depth of pervious strata. These pits are suitable for
recharging of shallow aquifers and small houses.
(c) Soak away or recharge shafts Soak away or recharge shafts are provided where upper
layer of soil is alluvial or less pervious. These are bored hole of 30 cm diameter up to 10 m
to 15 m deep, depending on depth of pervious layer. Bore should be lined with slotted/
perforated PVC/MS pipe to prevent collapse of the vertical sides. At the top of soak away,
required size sump is constructed to retain runoff before the filters through soak away.
Sump should be filled with filter media.
(d) recharging of dug wells Dug well can be used as recharge structure. Rainwater from
the rooftop is diverted to dug wells after passing it through filtration bed. Cleaning and
desalting of dug well should be done regularly to enhance the recharge rate. The filtration
method suggested for bore well recharging could be used.
(e) recharge Trenches Recharge trench is provided where upper impervious layer of soil
is shallow. It is a trench excavated on the ground and refilled with porous media like
pebbles, boulder or brickbats. It is usually made for harvesting the surface runoff. Bore
wells can also be provided inside the trench as recharge shafts to enhance percolation.
The length of the trench is decided as per the amount of runoff expected. This method is
suitable for small houses, playgrounds, parks and roadside drains. The recharge trench
can be of size 0.50 to 1.0 m wide and 1.0 to 1.5 m deep.
(f) percolation Tanks Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies,
submerging a land area with adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to
recharge the groundwater. These can be built in big campuses where land is available and
topography is suitable.
Surface run-off and rooftop water can be diverted to this tank. Water accumulating in
the tank percolates in the solid to augment the groundwater. The stored water can be used
directly for gardening and raw use. Percolation tanks should be built in gardens, open
spaces and roadside green belts of urban area.
V. Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting
Improves the quality of groundwater
•
Rises the water levels in wells for future use
•
Improves soil moisture
•

1.26
Low cost expenses with little maintenance
•
Helps in recharging the aquifers
•
Reduces water scarcity
•
1.1.9 environmental engineering
Environmental engineering deals with pollution control and public health engineering.
Different types of pollutions are water, air, noise and others. Due to large scale
industrialization, population growth, rapid urbanization and several other human
activities like construction, mining, transportation, etc., environment gets polluted.
Environmental engineering deals with technologies and facilities which are engaged in
reducing pollution. It includes design, construction and maintenance of water treatment
plant, waste water treatment plant, water distribution network and sewerage system; it
also deals with solid waste management in towns and cities. Public health engineering
includes water treatment, water distribution network and solid waste management.
Environmental engineering is concerned with the application of scientific and
engineering principles for protection of human population from the effects of adverse
environmental factors; protection of environments, both local and global, from potentially
deleterious effects of natural and human activities; and improvement of environmental
quality.
Environmental engineering can also be described as a branch of applied science and
technology that addresses the issues of energy preservation, protection of assets and
control of waste from human and animal activities. Furthermore, it is concerned with
finding possible solutions in the field of public health, such as waterborne diseases,
implementing laws which promote adequate sanitation in urban, rural and recreational
areas. It involves waste water management, air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal,
radiation protection, industrial hygiene, animal agriculture, environmental sustainability,
health and environmental engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental
impact of proposed construction projects.
Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the environment.
Todoso,theyconductstudiesonhazardous-wastemanagementtoevaluatethesignificance
of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to
prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers design municipal water supply and industrial
wastewater treatment systems. They address local and worldwide environmental issues
such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air
pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.
Apart from tackling solid and waste water disposal, civil engineers have to tackle air
pollution problem also. Due to industrialization air pollution is becoming a major problem.
It is estimated that for every tonne of cement produced, one tonne of CO2 is released
in the environment. Vehicles also produce lot of CO2. During the last one century, the
environmental pollution has resulted in global warming by 4°C.

An environmental disaster will be unavoidable if China, India and other developing
countries start consuming as much energy and materials as the West did it in its march to
industrialization. Hence, environmental engineering is emerging as an important field of
study in civil engineering.
1.1.10 Transportation engineering
Transportation means movement of passengers and goods by means of vehicles on
land, ship on water and aircrafts in air. Transportation engineering is that branch of civil
engineering which deals with planning, designing and construction of roads, bridges,
railways, tunnels, harbors, ports, docks, runways, and airports. As for the development of
any nation, good transportation network is of prime importance.
Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific principles
to the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities for any mode
of transportation in order to provide for safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods. It is a sub-
discipline of civil engineering.
Providing good and economical road links is an important duty of civil engineers. It
involves design and construction of base courses, suitable surface finishes, cross drainage
works, intersections, culverts, bridges and tunnels, etc.
Railways is another important long-way transport facility. Design, construction and
maintenance of railway lines are parts of transportation engineering. Globalization has
resulted into requirement of airports and harbors. For proper planning of these transport
facilities, traffic survey is to be carried out. Carrying out traffic survey and then planning,
designing, construction and maintenance of roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, airports
and harbours is known as transportation engineering.
The planning aspects of transportation engineering relate to elements of urban planning,
and involve technical forecasting decisions and political factors. Technical forecasting of
passenger travel usually involves an urban transportation planning model, requiring
the estimation of trip generation (how many trips for what purpose), trip distribution
(destination choice, where is the traveler going), mode choice (what mode is being
taken), and route assignment (which streets or routes are being used). More sophisticated
forecasting can include other aspects of traveler decisions, including auto ownership,
trip chaining (the decision to link individual trips together in a tour) and the choice of
residential or business location (known as land use forecasting). Passenger trips are the
focus of transportation engineering because they often represent the peak of demand on
any transportation system.
The design aspects of transportation engineering include the sizing of transportation
facilities (how many lanes or how much capacity the facility has), determining the
materials and thickness used in pavement, designing the geometry (vertical and horizontal
alignment) of the roadway (or track).

1.28
Roads are the key to the development of an economy. A good road network constitutes
the basic infrastructure that accelerates the development process through connectivity and
opening up of the backward regions to trade and investment. Roads also play a key role in
inter-modal transport development establishing links with airports, railway stations and
ports. In addition, they have an important role in promoting national integration, which
is particularly important in a large country like India. Since independence, there has been
a tremendous increase in the volume of road traffic, both passenger and freight.
Of all the modes of transport, road transport is nearest and at the easiest approach of
people. The goods and people have to be first moved by road before reaching other modes
of transport.
I. Advantages of Road Transport
Less capital outlay
•
Door to door service
•
Service in rural areas
•
Flexible service
•
Suitable for short distance
•
Lesser risk of damage in transit
•
Saving in packing cost
•
Rapid speed
•
Less cost
•
II. Disadvantages of Road Transport
Seasonal nature
•
Accidents and breakdowns
•
Unsuitable for long distance and bulky traffic
•
Slow speed
•
Lack of organization
•
III. Advantages of Railway Transport
Dependable
•
Better organised
•
High speed over long distances
•
Suitable for bulky and heavy goods
•
Cheaper transport
•
Safety
•
Larger capacity
•
Public welfare
•
Administrative facilities of government
•
Employment opportunities
•

IV. Disadvantages of Railway Transport
1. Huge capital outlay
2. Lack of flexibility
3. Lack of door to door service
4. Monopoly
5. Unsuitable for short distance and small loads
6. Booking formalities
7. No rural service
8. Under-utilized capacity
9. Centralised administration
1.1.10.1 Highway Engineering
Road network provides the arterial network to facilitate trade, transport, social integration
and economic development. It facilitates specialization, extension of markets and
exploitation of economies of scale. It is used for the smooth conveyance of both people and
goods. Transportation by road has the advantage over other means of transport because
of its easy accessibility, flexibility of operations, door-to-door service and reliability.
Consequently, passenger and freight movement in India over the years have increasingly
shifted towards roads vis-à-vis other means of transport.
fig 1.11 Cross section of Highway
The history of highway engineering gives us an idea about the roads of ancient times.
Roads in Rome were constructed on a large scale and radiated in many directions
helping them in military operations. Thus, they are considered to be pioneers in road
construction.
1. roman roads The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to Romans who
constructed an extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome.
Romans recognized that the fundamentals of good road construction were to provide

1.30
good drainage, good material and good workmanship. Their roads were very durable,
and some still exist. The roads were bordered on both sides by longitudinal drains.
2. British road The British government also gave importance to road construction. The
British engineer John Macadam introduced what can be considered as the first scientific
road construction method. Stone size was an important element of Macadam recipe.
By empirical observation of many roads, he came to realize that 250 mm layers of well
compacted broken angular stone would provide the same strength and a better running
surface than an expensive pavement founded on large stone blocks. Thus, he introduced
an economical method of road construction.
Use of bituminous concrete and cement concrete is the most important development.
Development of new equipment helps in the faster construction of roads. Many easily and
locally available materials are tested in the laboratories and then implemented on roads
for making economical and durable pavements.
3. classification of highways The roads can be classified in many ways. The classification
based on speed and accessibility is the most generic one. Note that as the accessibility of
road increases, the speed reduces. Accordingly, the roads can be classified as follows in
the order of increased accessibility and reduced speeds.
Freeways: Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways are
•
four lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate more
lanes as they enter urban areas. Access is controlled through the use of interchanges,
and the type of interchange depends upon the kind of intersecting roadway.
Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high speeds
•
(120 km/h is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are generally provided
with grade separations at intersections. Parking, loading and unloading of goods
and pedestrian traffic is not allowed on expressways.
Highways: They represent the superior type of roads in a country. Highways are of
•
two types: rural highways and urban highways. Rural highways are those passing
through rural areas (villages) and urban highways are those passing through large
cities and towns, i.e. urban areas.
Based on Usage This classification is based on whether the roads can be used during
differentseasonsoftheyear.All-weatherroadsarethoseroadswhicharenegotiableduring
all weathers, except at major river crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible up
to a certain extent. Fair-weather roads are negotiable only during fair weather.
Based on Carriage Way This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the
road pavement. Paved roads with hard surface are provided with a hard pavement course
(for example, stones, Water bound macadam (WBM), Bituminous macadam (BM), concrete
roads). Unpaved roads are not provided with a hard course of at least a WBM layer. Thus,
earth and gravel roads come under this category.
Based on Pavement Surface Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, roads are
classified as surfaced and unsurfaced roads. Surfaced roads (BM, concrete) are provided

with a bituminous or cement concreting surface. Unsurfaced roads (soil/gravel) are not
provided with a bituminous or cement concreting surface.
Other Criteria Roads may also be classified based on the traffic volume in that road, load
transported through that road, or location and function of that road. Based on traffic
volume, they are classified as heavy, medium and light traffic roads. Based on the load
carried by these roads, they can be classified as class I, class II, etc. or class A, class B, etc.
and the limits may be expressed as tones per day. The classification based on location and
function should be a more acceptable classification since they may be defined clearly.
1.1.10.2 Railway Engineering
1. Introduction In 1832, the first railway running on steam engine was launched in England.
Thereafter, on 1st of August 1849, the Great Indian Peninsular Railways Company was
established in India.
On 17th of August 1849, a contract was signed between the Great Indian Peninsular
Railways Company and East India Company. As a result of the contract, an experiment
was made by laying a railway track between Bombay and Thane (56 km).
On 16th April 1853, the first train service was started from Bombay to Thane. On 15th
August 1854, the second train service commenced between Howrah and Hubli. On the
1st July, 1856, the third train service in India and first in South India commenced between
Vyasarpadi and Walajah Road and on the same day, the section between Vyasarpadi and
Royapuram by Madras Railway Company was also opened. Subsequently, construction
of this efficient transport system began simultaneously in different parts of the country.
By the end of 19th century, 24752 km of rail track was laid for traffic. At this juncture
the power, capital and revenue rested with the British. Revenue started flowing through
passenger as well as through goods traffic.
fig. 1.12 Cross section of Railway Track
2. gauge The clear minimum horizontal distance between the inner (running) faces of
the two rails forming a track is known as gauge. Indian railway followed this practice. In
European countries, the gauge is measured between the inner faces of two rails at a point
14 mm below the top of the rail.

1.32
Different gauges in Indian Railways are as follows:
1. Broad gauge (BG) 1676 mm
2. Metre gauge (MG) 1000 mm
3. Narrow gauge (NG) 762 mm
Broad Gauge: When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
•
parallel rails forming a track is 1676 mm, the gauge is called broad gauge (BG).
Metre Gauge: When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
•
parallel rails forming a track is 1000 mm, the gauge is known as metre gauge
(MG).
Narrow Gauge: When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
•
parallel rails forming a track is either 762 mm or 610 mm, the gauge is known as
narrow gauge (NG).
3. rails Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide an
unchanging, continuous, and level surface for the movement of trains. To be able to
withstand stresses, they are made of high-carbon steel.
4. Sleepers Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails. They have an
important role in the track as they transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast.
Several types of sleepers are used in Indian Railways.
5. Ballast Ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or any other granular
material placed and packed below and around sleepers for distributing load from the
sleepers to the formation. It provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral stability
to the track.
6. Requirement of an Ideal Permanent Railway Track
The following are the principal requirements of an ideal permanent way or of a good
railway track:
The gauge of the permanent way should be uniform, correct and should not get
•
altered.
Both the rails should be at the same level on tangent (straight) portion of the
•
track.
Proper amount of superelevation should be provided to the outer rail above the
•
inner rail on curved portion of the track.
The permanent way should be sufficiently strong against lateral forces.
•
The curves provided in the track should be properly designed.
•
An even and uniform gradient should be provided throughout the length of the
•
track.
The tractive resistance of the track should be minimum.
•
The design of the permanent way should be such that the load of the train is
•
uniformly distributed on both the rails so as to prevent unequal settlement of the
track.

It should provide adequate elasticity in order to prevent the harshness of impacts
•
between the rails and the moving wheel loads of a train.
It should be free from excessive rail joints and all the joining should be properly
•
designed and constructed.
All the component parts such as rails, sleepers, ballast, fixtures and fastenings, etc.
•
should satisfy the design requirements.
All the fixtures and fastenings such as chairs, bearing plates, fish plates, fish bolts,
•
spikes, etc. should be strong enough to withstand the stresses occurring in the
track.
All the points and crossings laid in the permanent way should be properly designed
•
and carefully constructed.
It should be provided with fence near level crossings and also in urban areas.
•
It should be provided with proper drainage facilities so as to drain off the Rainwater
•
quickly away from the track.
It should be provided with safe and strong bridges coming in the alignment of the
•
track.
It should be so constructed that repairs and renewals of any of its portion can be
•
carried out without any difficulty.
1.1.11 Town planning and architecture
Town planning means planned and controlled growth of town by dividing it into different
land use zones and regulating building construction to provide better environment for
the people of the town. In town planning, areas of town are divided into residential,
commercial, recreational and industrial zones, which is called zoning.
With the growth of population and industries, new towns are coming up and existing
ones are growing. Proper town planning is to be made by civil engineers. Structures should
be aesthetically good also. Architecture covers this area. This field of civil engineering has
grown up so much that it has become a separate branch of engineering.
1.1.12 Surveying
For planning all developmental activities, proper maps are required. The science of map
making is known as surveying. Survey maps provide the relative positions of various
objects of the area in the horizontal as well as vertical directions. Earlier conventional
instruments like chain, tape, compasses, theodolites and levels were used for various
measurements in surveying.
In this electronic era, the modern equipment like electronic distance meters and total
stations are used for measurements. Modern technology like remote sensing has made
surveying vast area possible in a short period. Surveying includes measurements of
distances and angles in horizontal and vertical planes, while leveling is the measurement
of heights in vertical plane. Surveying fixes the relative positions of different points on the
basis of surface of earth.

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education is to some extent unavoidable, and those who educate
have to find a way of exercising authority in accordance with the
spirit of liberty.
Where authority is unavoidable, what is needed is reverence. A
man who is to educate really well, and is to make the young grow
and develop into their full stature, must be filled through and
through with the spirit of reverence. It is reverence towards others
that is lacking in those who advocate machine-made cast-iron
systems: militarism, capitalism, Fabian scientific organization, and all
the other prisons into which reformers and reactionaries try to force
the human spirit. In education, with its codes of rules emanating
from a Government office, its large classes and fixed curriculum and
overworked teachers, its determination to produce a dead level of
glib mediocrity, the lack of reverence for the child is all but universal.
Reverence requires imagination and vital warmth; it requires most
imagination in respect of those who have least actual achievement
or power. The child is weak and superficially foolish, the teacher is
strong, and in an every-day sense wiser than the child. The teacher
without reverence, or the bureaucrat without reverence, easily
despises the child for these outward inferiorities. He thinks it is his
duty to “mold” the child: in imagination he is the potter with the
clay. And so he gives to the child some unnatural shape, which
hardens with age, producing strains and spiritual dissatisfactions, out
of which grow cruelty and envy, and the belief that others must be
compelled to undergo the same distortions.
Tho man who has reverence will not think it his duty to “mold”
the young. He feels in all that lives, but especially in human beings,
and most of all in children, something sacred, indefinable, unlimited,
something individual and strangely precious, the growing principle of
life, an embodied fragment of the dumb striving of the world. In the
presence of a child he feels an unaccountable humility—a humility
not easily defensible on any rational ground, and yet somehow
nearer to wisdom than the easy self-confidence of many parents and
teachers. The outward helplessness of the child and the appeal of
dependence make him conscious of the responsibility of a trust. His

imagination shows him what the child may become, for good or evil,
how its impulses may be developed or thwarted, how its hopes must
be dimmed and the life in it grow less living, how its trust will be
bruised and its quick desires replaced by brooding will. All this gives
him a longing to help the child in its own battle; he would equip and
strengthen it, not for some outside end proposed by the State or by
any other impersonal authority, but for the ends which the child’s
own spirit is obscurely seeking. The man who feels this can wield the
authority of an educator without infringing the principle of liberty.
It is not in a spirit of reverence that education is conducted by
States and Churches and the great institutions that are subservient
to them. What is considered in education is hardly ever the boy or
girl, the young man or young woman, but almost always, in some
form, the maintenance of the existing order. When the individual is
considered, it is almost exclusively with a view to worldly success—
making money or achieving a good position. To be ordinary, and to
acquire the art of getting on, is the ideal which is set before the
youthful mind, except by a few rare teachers who have enough
energy of belief to break through the system within which they are
expected to work. Almost all education has a political motive: it aims
at strengthening some group, national or religious or even social, in
the competition with other groups. It is this motive, in the main,
which determines the subjects taught, the knowledge offered and
the knowledge withheld, and also decides what mental habits the
pupils are expected to acquire. Hardly anything is done to foster the
inward growth of mind and spirit; in fact, those who have had most
education are very often atrophied in their mental and spiritual life,
devoid of impulse, and possessing only certain mechanical aptitudes
which take the place of living thought.
Some of the things which education achieves at present must
continue to be achieved by education in any civilized country. All
children must continue to be taught how to read and write, and
some must continue to acquire the knowledge needed for such
professions as medicine or law or engineering. The higher education
required for the sciences and the arts is necessary for those to

whom it is suited. Except in history and religion and kindred matters,
the actual instruction is only inadequate, not positively harmful. The
instruction might be given in a more liberal spirit, with more attempt
to show its ultimate uses; and of course much of it is traditional and
dead. But in the main it is necessary, and would have to form a part
of any educational system.
It is in history and religion and other controversial subjects that
the actual instruction is positively harmful. These subjects touch the
interests by which schools are maintained; and the interests
maintain the schools in order that certain views on these subjects
may be instilled. History, in every country, is so taught as to magnify
that country: children learn to believe that their own country has
always been in the right and almost always victorious, that it has
produced almost all the great men, and that it is in all respects
superior to all other countries. Since these beliefs are flattering, they
are easily absorbed, and hardly ever dislodged from instinct by later
knowledge.
To take a simple and almost trivial example: the facts about the
battle of Waterloo are known in great detail and with minute
accuracy; but the facts as taught in elementary schools will be
widely different in England, France, and Germany. The ordinary
English boy imagines that the Prussians played hardly any part; the
ordinary German boy imagines that Wellington was practically
defeated when the day was retrieved by Blücher’s gallantry. If the
facts were taught accurately in both countries, national pride would
not be fostered to the same extent, neither nation would feel so
certain of victory in the event of war, and the willingness to fight
would be diminished. It is this result which has to be prevented.
Every State wishes to promote national pride, and is conscious that
this cannot be done by unbiased history. The defenseless children
are taught by distortions and suppressions and suggestions. The
false ideas as to the history of the world which are taught in the
various countries are of a kind which encourages strife and serves to
keep alive a bigoted nationalism. If good relations between States
were desired, one of the first steps ought to be to submit all

teaching of history to an international commission, which should
produce neutral textbooks free from the patriotic bias which is now
demanded everywhere.
15
Exactly the same thing applies to religion. Elementary schools
are practically always in the hands either of some religious body or
of a State which has a certain attitude towards religion. A religious
body exists through the fact that its members all have certain
definite beliefs on subjects as to which the truth is not ascertainable.
Schools conducted by religious bodies have to prevent the young,
who are often inquiring by nature, from discovering that these
definite beliefs are opposed by others which are no more
unreasonable, and that many of the men best qualified to judge
think that there is no good evidence in favor of any definite belief.
When the State is militantly secular, as in France, State schools
become as dogmatic as those that are in the hands of the Churches
(I understand that the word “God” must not be mentioned in a
French elementary school). The result in all these cases is the same:
free inquiry is checked, and on the most important matter in the
world the child is met with dogma or with stony silence.
It is not only in elementary education that these evils exist. In
more advanced education they take subtler forms, and there is more
attempt to conceal them, but they are still present. Eton and Oxford
set a certain stamp upon a man’s mind, just as a Jesuit College
does. It can hardly be said that Eton and Oxford have a conscious
purpose, but they have a purpose which is none the less strong and
effective for not being formulated. In almost all who have been
through them they produce a worship of “good form,” which is as
destructive to life and thought as the medieval Church. “Good form”
is quite compatible with a superficial open-mindedness, a readiness
to hear all sides, and a certain urbanity towards opponents. But it is
not compatible with fundamental open-mindedness, or with any
inward readiness to give weight to the other side. Its essence is the
assumption that what is most important is a certain kind of behavior,
a behavior which minimizes friction between equals and delicately

impresses inferiors with a conviction of their own crudity. As a
political weapon for preserving the privileges of the rich in a
snobbish democracy it is unsurpassable. As a means of producing an
agreeable social milieu for those who have money with no strong
beliefs or unusual desires it has some merit. In every other respect it
is abominable.
The evils of “good form” arise from two sources: its perfect
assurance of its own rightness, and its belief that correct manners
are more to be desired than intellect, or artistic creation, or vital
energy, or any of the other sources of progress in the world. Perfect
assurance, by itself, is enough to destroy all mental progress in
those who have it. And when it is combined with contempt for the
angularities and awkwardnesses that are almost invariably
associated with great mental power, it becomes a source of
destruction to all who come in contact with it. “Good form” is itself
dead and incapable of growth; and by its attitude to those who are
without it it spreads its own death to many who might otherwise
have life. The harm which it has done to well-to-do Englishmen, and
to men whose abilities have led the well-to-do to notice them, is
incalculable.
The prevention of free inquiry is unavoidable so long as the
purpose of education is to produce belief rather than thought, to
compel the young to hold positive opinions on doubtful matters
rather than to let them see the doubtfulness and be encouraged to
independence of mind. Education ought to foster the wish for truth,
not the conviction that some particular creed is the truth. But it is
creeds that hold men together in fighting organizations: Churches,
States, political parties. It is intensity of belief in a creed that
produces efficiency in fighting: victory comes to those who feel the
strongest certainty about matters on which doubt is the only rational
attitude. To produce this intensity of belief and this efficiency in
fighting, the child’s nature is warped, and its free outlook is
cramped, by cultivating inhibitions as a check to the growth of new
ideas. In those whose minds are not very active the result is the
omnipotence of prejudice; while the few whose thought cannot be

wholly killed become cynical, intellectually hopeless, destructively
critical, able to make all that is living seem foolish, unable
themselves to supply the creative impulses which they destroy in
others.
The success in fighting which is achieved by suppressing
freedom of thought is brief and very worthless. In the long run
mental vigor is as essential to success as it is to a good life. The
conception of education as a form of drill, a means of producing
unanimity through slavishness, is very common, and is defended
chiefly on the ground that it leads to victory. Those who enjoy
parallels from ancient history will point to the victory of Sparta over
Athens to enforce their moral. But it is Athens that has had power
over men’s thoughts and imaginations, not Sparta: any one of us, if
we could be born again into some past epoch, would rather be born
an Athenian than a Spartan. And in the modern world so much
intellect is required in practical affairs that even the external victory
is more likely to be won by intelligence than by docility. Education in
credulity leads by quick stages to mental decay; it is only by keeping
alive the spirit of free inquiry that the indispensable minimum of
progress can be achieved.
Certain mental habits are commonly instilled by those who are
engaged in educating: obedience and discipline, ruthlessness in the
struggle for worldly success, contempt towards opposing groups,
and an unquestioning credulity, a passive acceptance of the
teacher’s wisdom. All these habits are against life. Instead of
obedience and discipline, we ought to aim at preserving
independence and impulse. Instead of ruthlessness, education
should try to develop justice in thought. Instead of contempt, it
ought to instil reverence, and the attempt at understanding; towards
the opinions of others it ought to produce, not necessarily
acquiescence, but only such opposition as is combined with
imaginative apprehension and a clear realization of the grounds for
opposition. Instead of credulity, the object should be to stimulate
constructive doubt, the love of mental adventure, the sense of
worlds to conquer by enterprise and boldness in thought.

Contentment with the status quo, and subordination of the individual
pupil to political aims, owing to the indifference to the things of the
mind, are the immediate causes of these evils; but beneath these
causes there is one more fundamental, the fact that education is
treated as a means of acquiring power over the pupil, not as a
means of nourishing his own growth. It is in this that lack of
reverence shows itself; and it is only by more reverence that a
fundamental reform can be effected.
Obedience and discipline are supposed to be indispensable if
order is to be kept in a class, and if any instruction is to be given. To
some extent this is true; but the extent is much less than it is
thought to be by those who regard obedience and discipline as in
themselves desirable. Obedience, the yielding of one’s will to outside
direction, is the counterpart of authority. Both may be necessary in
certain cases. Refractory children, lunatics, and criminals may
require authority, and may need to be forced to obey. But in so far
as this is necessary it is a misfortune: what is to be desired is the
free choice of ends with which it is not necessary to interfere. And
educational reformers have shown that this is far more possible than
our fathers would ever have believed.
16
What makes obedience seem necessary in schools is the large
classes and overworked teachers demanded by a false economy.
Those who have no experience of teaching are incapable of
imagining the expense of spirit entailed by any really living
instruction. They think that teachers can reasonably be expected to
work as many hours as bank clerks. Intense fatigue and irritable
nerves are the result, and an absolute necessity of performing the
day’s task mechanically. But the task cannot be performed
mechanically except by exacting obedience.
If we took education seriously, and thought it as important to
keep alive the minds of children as to secure victory in war, we
should conduct education quite differently: we should make sure of
achieving the end, even if the expense were a hundredfold greater
than it is. To many men and women a small amount of teaching is a

delight, and can be done with a fresh zest and life which keeps most
pupils interested without any need of discipline. The few who do not
become interested might be separated from the rest, and given a
different kind of instruction. A teacher ought to have only as much
teaching as can be done, on most days, with actual pleasure in the
work, and with an awareness of the pupil’s mental needs. The result
would be a relation of friendliness instead of hostility between
teacher and pupil, a realization on the part of most pupils that
education serves to develop their own lives and is not merely an
outside imposition, interfering with play and demanding many hours
of sitting still. All that is necessary to this end is a (greater
expenditure of money), to secure teachers with more leisure and
with a natural love of teaching.
Discipline, as it exists in schools, is very largely an evil. There is
a kind of discipline which is necessary to almost all achievement, and
which perhaps is not sufficiently valued by those who react against
the purely external discipline of traditional methods. The desirable
kind of discipline is the kind that comes from within, which consists
in the power of pursuing a distant object steadily, foregoing and
suffering many things on the way. This involves the subordination of
impulse to will, the power of a directing action by large creative
desires even at moments when they are not vividly alive. Without
this, no serious ambition, good or bad, can be realized, no consistent
purpose can dominate. This kind of discipline is very necessary, but
can only result from strong desires for ends not immediately
attainable, and can only be produced by education if education
fosters such desires, which it seldom does at present. Such discipline
springs from one’s own will, not from outside authority. It is not this
kind which is sought in most schools, and it is not this kind which
seems to me an evil.
Although elementary education encourages the undesirable
discipline that consists in passive obedience, and although hardly
any existing education encourages the moral discipline of consistent
self-direction, there is a certain kind of purely mental discipline
which is produced by the traditional higher education. The kind I

mean is that which enables a man to concentrate his thoughts at will
upon any matter that he has occasion to consider, regardless of
preoccupations or boredom or intellectual difficulty. This quality,
though it has no important intrinsic excellence, greatly enhances the
efficiency of the mind as an instrument. It is this that enables a
lawyer to master the scientific details of a patent case which he
forgets as soon as judgment has been given, or a civil servant to
deal quickly with many different administrative questions in
succession. It is this that enables men to forget private cares during
business hours. In a complicated world it is a very necessary faculty
for those whose work requires mental concentration.
Success in producing mental discipline is the chief merit of
traditional higher education. I doubt whether it can be achieved
except by compelling or persuading active attention to a prescribed
task. It is for this reason chiefly that I do not believe methods such
as Madame Montessori’s applicable when the age of childhood has
been passed. The essence of her method consists in giving a choice
of occupations, any one of which is interesting to most children, and
all of which are instructive. The child’s attention is wholly
spontaneous, as in play; it enjoys acquiring knowledge in this way,
and does not acquire any knowledge which it does not desire. I am
convinced that this is the best method of education with young
children: the actual results make it almost impossible to think
otherwise. But it is difficult to see how this method can lead to
control of attention by the will. Many things which must be thought
about are uninteresting, and even those that are interesting at first
often become very wearisome before they have been considered as
long as is necessary. The power of giving prolonged attention is very
important, and it is hardly to be widely acquired except as a habit
induced originally by outside pressure. Some few boys, it is true,
have sufficiently strong intellectual desires to be willing to undergo
all that is necessary by their own initiative and free will; but for all
others an external inducement is required in order to make them
learn any subject thoroughly. There is among educational reformers
a certain fear of demanding great efforts, and in the world at large a

growing unwillingness to be bored. Both these tendencies have their
good sides, but both also have their dangers. The mental discipline
which is jeopardized can be preserved by mere advice without
external compulsion whenever a boy’s intellectual interest and
ambition can be sufficiently stimulated. A good teacher ought to be
able to do this for any boy who is capable of much mental
achievement; and for many of the others the present purely bookish
education is probably not the best. In this way, so long as the
importance of mental discipline is realized, it can probably be
attained, whenever it is attainable, by appealing to the pupil’s
consciousness of his own needs. So long as teachers are not
expected to succeed by this method, it is easy for them to slip into a
slothful dullness, and blame their pupils when the fault is really their
own.
Ruthlessness in the economic struggle will almost unavoidably
be taught in schools so long as the economic structure of society
remains unchanged. This must be particularly the case in middle-
class schools, which depend for their numbers upon the good
opinion of parents, and secure the good opinion of parents by
advertising the successes of pupils. This is one of many ways in
which the competitive organization of the State is harmful.
Spontaneous and disinterested desire for knowledge is not at all
uncommon in the young, and might be easily aroused in many in
whom it remains latent. But it is remorselessly checked by teachers
who think only of examinations, diplomas, and degrees. For the
abler boys there is no time for thought, no time for the indulgence of
intellectual taste, from the moment of first going to school until the
moment of leaving the university. From first to last there is nothing
but one long drudgery of examination tips and textbook facts. The
most intelligent, at the end, are disgusted with learning, longing only
to forget it and to escape into a life of action. Yet there, as before,
the economic machine holds them prisoners, and all their
spontaneous desires are bruised and thwarted.
The examination system, and the fact that instruction is treated
mainly as training for a livelihood, leads the young to regard

knowledge, from a purely utilitarian point of view, as the road to
money, not as the gateway to wisdom. This would not matter so
much if it affected only those who have no genuine intellectual
interests. But unfortunately it affects most those whose intellectual
interests are strongest, since it is upon them that the pressure of
examinations falls with most severity. To them most, but to all in
some degree, education appears as a means of acquiring superiority
over others; it is infected through and through with ruthlessness and
glorification of social inequality. Any free, disinterested consideration
shows that, whatever inequalities might remain in a Utopia, the
actual inequalities are almost all contrary to justice. But our
educational system tends to conceal this from all except the failures,
since those who succeed are on the way to profit by the inequalities,
with every encouragement from the men who have directed their
education.
Passive acceptance of the teacher’s wisdom is easy to most boys
and girls. It involves no effort of independent thought, and seems
rational because the teacher knows more than his pupils; it is
moreover the way to win the favor of the teacher unless he is a very
exceptional man. Yet the habit of passive acceptance is a disastrous
one in later life. It causes men to seek a leader, and to accept as a
leader whoever is established in that position. It makes the power of
Churches, Governments, party caucuses, and all the other
organizations by which plain men are misled into supporting old
systems which are harmful to the nation and to themselves. It is
possible that there would not be much independence of thought
even if education did everything to promote it; but there would
certainly be more than there is at present. If the object were to
make pupils think, rather than to make them accept certain
conclusions, education would be conducted quite differently: there
would be less rapidity of instruction and more discussion, more
occasions when pupils were encouraged to express themselves,
more attempt to make education concern itself with matters in which
the pupils felt some interest.

Above all, there would be an endeavor to rouse and stimulate
the love of mental adventure. The world in which we live is various
and astonishing: some of the things that seem plainest grow more
and more difficult the more they are considered; other things, which
might have been thought quite impossible to discover, have
nevertheless been laid bare by genius and industry. The powers of
thought, the vast regions which it can master, the much more vast
regions which it can only dimly suggest to imagination, give to those
whose minds have traveled beyond the daily round an amazing
richness of material, an escape from the triviality and wearisomeness
of familiar routine, by which the whole of life is filled with interest,
and the prison walls of the commonplace are broken down. The
same love of adventure which takes men to the South Pole, the
same passion for a conclusive trial of strength which leads some
men to welcome war, can find in creative thought an outlet which is
neither wasteful nor cruel, but increases the dignity of man by
incarnating in life some of that shining splendor which the human
spirit is bringing down out of the unknown. To give this joy, in a
greater or less measure, to all who are capable of it, is the supreme
end for which the education of the mind is to be valued.
It will be said that the joy of mental adventure must be rare,
that there are few who can appreciate it, and that ordinary
education can take no account of so aristocratic a good. I do not
believe this. The joy of mental adventure is far commoner in the
young than in grown men and women. Among children it is very
common, and grows naturally out of the period of make-believe and
fancy. It is rare in later life because everything is done to kill it
during education. Men fear thought as they fear nothing else on
earth—more than ruin, more even than death. Thought is subversive
and revolutionary, destructive and terrible; thought is merciless to
privilege, established institutions, and comfortable habits; thought is
anarchic and lawless, indifferent to authority, careless of the well-
tried wisdom of the ages. Thought looks into the pit of hell and is
not afraid. It sees man, a feeble speck, surrounded by unfathomable
depths of silence; yet it bears itself proudly, as unmoved as if it were

lord of the universe. Thought is great and swift and free, the light of
the world, and the chief glory of man.
But if thought is to become the possession of many, not the
privilege of the few, we must have done with fear. It is fear that
holds men back—fear lest their cherished beliefs should prove
delusions, fear lest the institutions by which they live should prove
harmful, fear lest they themselves should prove less worthy of
respect than they have supposed themselves to be. “Should the
working man think freely about property? Then what will become of
us, the rich? Should young men and young women think freely
about sex? Then what will become of morality? Should soldiers think
freely about war? Then what will become of military discipline? Away
with thought! Back into the shades of prejudice, lest property,
morals, and war should be endangered! Better men should be
stupid, slothful, and oppressive than that their thoughts should be
free. For if their thoughts were free they might not think as we do.
And at all costs this disaster must be averted.” So the opponents of
thought argue in the unconscious depths of their souls. And so they
act in their churches, their schools, and their universities.
No institution inspired by fear can further life. Hope, not fear, is
the creative principle in human affairs. All that has made man great
has sprung from the attempt to secure what is good, not from the
struggle to avert what was thought evil. It is because modern
education is so seldom inspired by a great hope that it so seldom
achieves a great result. The wish to preserve the past rather than
the hope of creating the future dominates the minds of those who
control the teaching of the young. Education should not aim at a
passive awareness of dead facts, but at an activity directed towards
the world that our efforts are to create. It should be inspired, not by
a regretful hankering after the extinct beauties of Greece and the
Renaissance, but by a shining vision of the society that is to be, of
the triumphs that thought will achieve in the time to come, and of
the ever-widening horizon of man’s survey over the universe. Those
who are taught in this spirit will be filled with life and hope and joy,

able to bear their part in bringing to mankind a future less somber
than the past, with faith in the glory that human effort can create.

T
VI
MARRIAGE AND THE POPULATION QUESTION
he influence of the Christian religion on daily life has decayed
very rapidly throughout Europe during the last hundred years.
Not only has the proportion of nominal believers declined, but even
among those who believe the intensity and dogmatism of belief is
enormously diminished. But there is one social institution which is
still profoundly affected by the Christian tradition—I mean the
institution of marriage. The law and public opinion as regards
marriage are dominated even now to a very great extent by the
teachings of the Church, which continue to influence in this way the
lives of men, women, and children in their most intimate concerns.
It is marriage as a political institution that I wish to consider, not
marriage as a matter for the private morality of each individual.
Marriage is regulated by law, and is regarded as a matter in which
the community has a right to interfere. It is only the action of the
community in regard to marriage that I am concerned to discuss:
whether the present action furthers the life of the community, and if
not, in what ways it ought to be changed.
There are two questions to be asked in regard to any marriage
system: first, how it affects the development and character of the
men and women concerned; secondly, what is its influence on the
propagation and education of children. These two questions are
entirely distinct, and a system may well be desirable from one of

these two points of view when it is very undesirable from the other. I
propose first to describe the present English law and public opinion
and practice in regard to the relations of the sexes, then to consider
their effects as regards children, and finally to consider how these
effects, which are bad, could be obviated by a system which would
also have a better influence on the character and development of
men and women.
The law in England is based upon the expectation that the great
majority of marriages will be lifelong. A marriage can only be
dissolved if either the wife or the husband, but not both, can be
proved to have committed adultery. In case the husband is the
“guilty party,” he must also be guilty of cruelty or desertion. Even
when these conditions are fulfilled, in practice only the well-to-do
can be divorced, because the expense is very great.
17
A marriage
cannot be dissolved for insanity or crime, or for cruelty, however
abominable, or for desertion, or for adultery by both parties; and it
cannot be dissolved for any cause whatever if both husband and
wife have agreed that they wish it dissolved. In all these cases the
law regards the man and woman as bound together for life. A
special official, the King’s Proctor, is employed to prevent divorce
when there is collusion and when both parties have committed
adultery.
18
This interesting system embodies the opinions held by the
Church of England some fifty years ago, and by most
Nonconformists then and now. It rests upon the assumption that
adultery is sin, and that when this sin has been committed by one
party to the marriage, the other is entitled to revenge if he is rich.
But when both have committed the same sin, or when the one who
has not committed it feels no righteous anger, the right to revenge
does not exist. As soon as this point of view is understood, the law,
which at first seems somewhat strange, is seen to be perfectly
consistent. It rests, broadly speaking, upon four propositions: (1)
that sexual intercourse outside marriage is sin; (2) that resentment
of adultery by the “innocent” party is a righteous horror of wrong-

doing; (3) that his resentment, but nothing else, may be rightly
regarded as making a common life impossible; (4) that the poor
have no right to fine feelings. The Church of England, under the
influence of the High Church, has ceased to believe the third of
these propositions, but it still believes the first and second, and does
nothing actively to show that it disbelieves the fourth.
The penalty for infringing the marriage law is partly financial, but
depends mainly upon public opinion. A rather small section of the
public genuinely believes that sexual relations outside marriage are
wicked; those who believe this are naturally kept in ignorance of the
conduct of friends who feel otherwise, and are able to go through
life not knowing how others live or what others think. This small
section of the public regards as depraved not only actions, but
opinions, which are contrary to its principles. It is able to control the
professions of politicians through its influence on elections, and the
votes of the House of Lords through the presence of the Bishops. By
these means it governs legislation, and makes any change in the
marriage law almost impossible. It is able, also, to secure in most
cases that a man who openly infringes the marriage law shall be
dismissed from his employment or ruined by the defection of his
customers or clients. A doctor or lawyer, or a tradesman in a country
town, cannot make a living, nor can a politician be in Parliament, if
he is publicly known to be “immoral.” Whatever a man’s own conduct
may be, he is not likely to defend publicly those who have been
branded, lest some of the odium should fall on him. Yet so long as a
man has not been branded, few men will object to him, whatever
they may know privately of his behavior in these respects.
Owing to the nature of the penalty, it falls very unequally upon
different professions. An actor or journalist usually escapes all
punishment. An urban workingman can almost always do as he likes.
A man of private means, unless he wishes to take part in public life,
need not suffer at all if he has chosen his friends suitably. Women,
who formerly suffered more than men, now suffer less, since there
are large circles in which no social penalty is inflicted, and a very
rapidly increasing number of women who do not believe the

conventional code. But for the majority of men outside the working
classes the penalty is still sufficiently severe to be prohibitive.
The result of this state of things is a widespread but very flimsy
hypocrisy, which allows many infractions of the code, and forbids
only those which must become public. A man may not live openly
with a woman who is not his wife, an unmarried woman may not
have a child, and neither man nor woman may get into the divorce
court. Subject to these restrictions, there is in practice very great
freedom. It is this practical freedom which makes the state of the
law seem tolerable to those who do not accept the principles upon
which it is based. What has to be sacrificed to propitiate the holders
of strict views is not pleasure, but only children and a common life
and truth and honesty. It cannot be supposed that this is the result
desired by those who maintain the code, but equally it cannot be
denied that this is the result which they do in fact achieve. Extra-
matrimonial relations which do not lead to children and are
accompanied by a certain amount of deceit remain unpunished, but
severe penalties fall on those which are honest or lead to children.
Within marriage, the expense of children leads to continually
greater limitation of families. The limitation is greatest among those
who have most sense of parental responsibility and most wish to
educate their children well, since it is to them that the expense of
children is most severe. But although the economic motive for
limiting families has hitherto probably been the strongest, it is being
continually reinforced by another. Women are acquiring freedom—
not merely outward and formal freedom, but inward freedom,
enabling them to think and feel genuinely, not according to received
maxims. To the men who have prated confidently of women’s natural
instincts, the result would be surprising if they were aware of it. Very
large numbers of women, when they are sufficiently free to think for
themselves, do not desire to have children, or at most desire one
child in order not to miss the experience which a child brings. There
are women who are intelligent and active-minded who resent the
slavery to the body which is involved in having children. There are
ambitious women, who desire a career which leaves no time for

children. There are women who love pleasure and gaiety, and
women who love the admiration of men; such women will at least
postpone child-bearing until their youth is past. All these classes of
women are rapidly becoming more numerous, and it may be safely
assumed that their numbers will continue to increase for many years
to come.
It is too soon to judge with any confidence as to the effects of
women’s freedom upon private life and upon the life of the nation.
But I think it is not too soon to see that it will be profoundly different
from the effect expected by the pioneers of the women’s movement.
Men have invented, and women in the past have often accepted, a
theory that women are the guardians of the race, that their life
centers in motherhood, that all their instincts and desires are
directed, consciously or unconsciously, to this end. Tolstoy’s Natacha
illustrates this theory: she is charming, gay, liable to passion, until
she is married; then she becomes merely a virtuous mother, without
any mental life. This result has Tolstoy’s entire approval. It must be
admitted that it is very desirable from the point of view of the
nation, whatever we may think of it in relation to private life. It must
also be admitted that it is probably common among women who are
physically vigorous and not highly civilized. But in countries like
France and England it is becoming increasingly rare. More and more
women find motherhood unsatisfying, not what their needs demand.
And more and more there comes to be a conflict between their
personal development and the future of the community. It is difficult
to know what ought to be done to mitigate this conflict, but I think it
is worth while to see what are likely to be its effects if it is not
mitigated.
Owing to the combination of economic prudence with the
increasing freedom of women, there is at present a selective birth-
rate of a very singular kind.
19
In France the population is practically
stationary, and in England it is rapidly becoming so; this means that
some sections are dwindling while others are increasing. Unless
some change occurs, the sections that are dwindling will practically

become extinct, and the population will be almost wholly replenished
from the sections that are now increasing.
20
The sections that are
dwindling include the whole middle-class and the skilled artisans.
The sections that are increasing are the very poor, the shiftless and
drunken, the feeble-minded—feeble-minded women, especially, are
apt to be very prolific. There is an increase in those sections of the
population which still actively believe the Catholic religion, such as
the Irish and the Bretons, because the Catholic religion forbids
limitation of families. Within the classes that are dwindling, it is the
best elements that are dwindling most rapidly. Working-class boys of
exceptional ability rise, by means of scholarships, into the
professional class; they naturally desire to marry into the class to
which they belong by education, not into the class from which they
spring; but as they have no money beyond what they earn, they
cannot marry young, or afford a large family. The result is that in
each generation the best elements are extracted from the working
classes and artificially sterilized, at least in comparison with those
who are left. In the professional classes the young women who have
initiative, energy, or intelligence are as a rule not inclined to marry
young, or to have more than one or two children when they do
marry. Marriage has been in the past the only obvious means of
livelihood for women; pressure from parents and fear of becoming
an old maid combined to force many women to marry in spite of a
complete absence of inclination for the duties of a wife. But now a
young woman of ordinary intelligence can easily earn her own living,
and can acquire freedom and experience without the permanent ties
of a husband and a family of children. The result is that if she
marries she marries late.
For these reasons, if an average sample of children were taken
out of the population of England, and their parents were examined,
it would be found that prudence, energy, intellect, and
enlightenment were less common among the parents than in the
population in general; while shiftlessness, feeble-mindedness,
stupidity, and superstition were more common than in the population
in general. It would be found that those who are prudent or

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Basic Civil And Mechanical Engineering G Shanmugam M S Palanichamy

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