Basic introduction to research for beginners.pdf

Chapter: One
Introduction to Research
 Research is an endeavour to discover answers to intellectual and
practical problems through the application of scientific method.
 “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”.
-Redman and Mory.
 Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
 Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a
thorough study and analysis of the situational factors
 Research provides the needed information that guides managers to
make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems
 The information provided could be the result of a careful analysis of data
gathered firsthand or of data that are already available (in the company)
Objectives of Research
 The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application
of scientific procedures.
 The objectives are:

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into
it – Exploratory or Formulative Research.
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group – Descriptive Research.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else – Diagnostic Research.
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables –
Hypothesis-Testing Research.
Characteristics of Research
 Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
 Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
 Research demands accurate observation and description.
 Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
 Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.
 Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout
investigation, search the related literature and to understand and
analyze the data gathered.
 Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to
validate the data collected and conclusions reached.
 Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
 Research requires courage.

 Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
 Research is carefully recorded and reported.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 Science’ refers to the body of systematic and organised knowledge
which makes use of scientific method to acquire knowledge in a
particular field of enquiry.
 Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts) and their
theoretical treatment through proper observation, experimentation
and interpretation.
 Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic interrelation of
facts by experimentation, observation, and logical arguments from
accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying
proportions.
BASIC POSTULATES
IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 It relies on empirical evidence.
 It utilizes relevant concepts.
 It is committed to only objective considerations.
 It presupposes ethical neutrality.
 It results into probabilistic predictions.
 The methodology is made known.
 Aims at formulating scientific theories.

CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH
 Purpose clearly defined.
 Research process detailed.
 Research design thoroughly planned.
 High ethical standards applied.
 Limitations frankly revealed.
 Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
 Findings presented unambiguously.
 Conclusions justified.
 Researcher’s experience reflected.

Notion of Scientific Method/ Method of knowing
Human beings are always inquisitive. They try to understand the causes and
consequences of happening or not happening of something or events or
phenomena and to predict their occurrence and extent in future. Some of the
understandings come in natural ways while others have to be generated
through complex procedure of investigation. Generally, there are 4 methods of
understanding or knowing.
a) Method of Tenacity: In this method people know something to be true
simply because a lot of people believe it is to be true. In this method
human kind fix the truth or fact firmly. Knowing by the method of
tenacity is retentive and not forgetting.
b) Method of Authority: This is the method of transformation of
established belief. In this method of knowing, men fix the belief if it from
the authorized source. This method is superior than the method of
tenacity.
c) Method of Intuition: In this method beliefs are fixed by the inclination,
not by the deep study which is also known as prior method or rational
method. This method is based on the notion that people will reach truth
because their natural inclination will to do so. It is based on the notion
that intuitive proposition should agree with reason and not necessarily
with experiences. In this method biases play important role for knowing.
d) Scientific Method: In this method truths are not ascertained by beliefs
but by something upon which thinking have no effects. In this method
the ultimate conclusion of every man shall be same. The method deals

with real things whose characters are independent of our opinions about
them.
Characteristic of Scientific method
The main characteristic of scientific methods are as follows
 Verifiability: The conclusion drawn through a scientific method is
subjected to verification at any time. The proposition that the
phenomenon under investigation must be capable of being observed
and measured.
 Generality: Laws derived through scientific method are universal in their
application. They are not limited to individual object or individual groups
but applicable to whole universe. But because of the heterogeneous
nature of social phenomena, complete universality is rarely achieved in
social science.
 Predictability: It is the one of the main characteristic of a scientific
research. The scientific method and its derivation are predictable at any
time and circumstances with sufficient accuracy.
 Objectivity: the result obtained through a scientific method should be
free from investigators own views. The main criteria of objectivity is that
all persons should arrive to the same conclusion about something. It is
important for verification. It permits repetition of observation under
practically identical conditions.
 System: In every scientific study, there is an accepted mode of
investigation. The result arrived by means of haphazard method, even
true, cannot be called scientific because its accuracy is purely accidental.

Importance of Research
Research is undertaking not only to solve the problem but also to improve the
personal stock of knowledge and to extend the existing base of knowledge.
Thus, research is a knowledge building process. The possible importance for
doing research are as follows-
 Research enables us to make intelligent decision concerning problem
facing in a practical life at different point of time.
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and
planning problem of physical and biological phenomenon.
 Research Provides foundation for government to make plan and polices.
 Research Report provides the base for the different development work
 Research is important for getting improved information about the
people and society for their needs and relationship and problem.
 Research helps to generation of new theories
Rigor in research
The term Rigor is used to refer the extent to which the method
employed strictly follows the fundamental requirements of scientific is
the thoroughness, the carefulness or the three level of Rigor.
1) First level Rigor: -
At this level the variables are analyzed using qualitative and
narrative approach. The event and phenome are described in the
narrative or easy type sentences and hence very much subjective.
No rule scientific method is followed and conclusion are mainly
based on authoritative opinion.

2) Second level: -
At this level the measurement of variables in more quantity the
form, being to play an important part in the research method.
Survey research
Uncontrived experiments belong to this level. In this level emphases
made to measure established relationship among the variables.
3) Third level: -
Here the research is carried out using scientific methods. It can be
concerned wish the manipulation of variables. At this level,
research is carried out in laboratories or in controlled field setting.

Basic Types of Research
i) Fundamental and Applied Research
A research which is conducted for the depth knowledge about any issue for the
development of theory is known as fundamental or pure research. The main
purpose of pure research is to generate more knowledge and understanding of
the issue and built theories based on research result.
Research which is conducted to find out a solution for an immediate problem
faced by the society or organization is known as applied research. Research to
identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particulars
institution or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of
applied research.
ii) Descriptive and Analytical Research
Descriptive research is surveys and fact finding enquires of different kinds. The
main purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present. This method assumes that the researcher has no control over
the variables, he can only report that has happened or what is happening.
The research where the researches have to use facts or information already
available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material. The
main purpose of this research is to draw inference for the data with regards for
implication to the theory, model or body of knowledge.
iii) Quantitative and Qualitative research
Quantitative research is applicable to the phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity or amount where the result is purely numeric. In this type of
research, concepts are assigned numerical values and small amount of data

would be collected from large number of populations to make result
generalized.
Qualitative research uses the less mathematical techniques and doesn’t
describe numbers but describe in words, sometimes there may be counting it
is also to interpretive research. This research aims to discovering the
underlying motives and desires by depth interviews.
IV) Conceptual and Empirical Research
Conceptual research is related to some abstract ideas or theory. It is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concept or to reinterpret
existing one.
Empirical research is data-based research, coming us with conclusion which is
capable of being verified by observation research. This research is appropriate
when proof is required that certain variable affect other variables in some
ways.
V) Diagnostic and Hypothetical Testing Research
Diagnostic research is related with medical science. It is also called clinical or
diagnostic research where researcher follows case study methods or in-depth
approaches to reads the basic causal relations.
Hypothesis testing researches are those where the research tests the
hypothesis of causal relationship between variables. In such research, the
researcher setup Hypothesis or guess as to the problem results. He then works
to get data to prove or disprove the Hypothesis.

VI) Theoretical and action research
Theoretical research is such one in which the goal is to prove/disprove a
hypothesized truth or proposed future research plans that may be carried out
in the future but not at the current moment. The term theoretical is
sometimes informally used in place of hypothesis to describe a result which is
adequately tested by observation or experiment.
In action research this will be continues gathering and analysis of research data
of ongoing operation of the organization and it concern with the identification
of the effective ways of dealing with the real world Problems. This research
helps organization to change its mode of operation according to situation.
VII) Longitudinal and cross-sectional research
If researcher conduct several observations of the same subjects over a period
of time, sometimes lasting many years then such research is called longitudinal
research. The benefit of this study is that researcher is able to detect
developments or change in the characteristics of the target population at both
the group and the individual level.
Cross Sectional research is an observational study at a particulars period of
time. The benefit of a cross sectional research is that it allows researchers to
compare many different variables of the different population at the same time.

Important steps/component of research:
Research Problem ( Topic)
First and foremost, step in a scientific method is the identification of research
problem. An investigation is not carried out simply for the sake of
investigation. To initial on investigation there should be pre-occurred ideas
that generate the necessity for an investigation to be carried out. The ideas are
developed while going through literature discuss with experts. These ideas
develop in to some specific topics will be interesting or rewarding if
investigated. These topics are generally called research problems.
Identification of Research Problem
The research problem undertaken for the study must be carefully selected.
This step is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be. Identifying the
exact nature and dimensions of a problem is of major importance in research
work. It is very essential that an investigator should leave how to recognize and
define a problem. The following steps to be followed in identifying a research
problem.
a. Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the
research work.
b. Develop the mastery on the area or in field of specialization.
c. Review the recent research conducted in the selected area.
d. Select the priority field of study on the basis of review.
e. Draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ the
personal experience of the field in locating the problem.

f. Pin-point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated.
Way of understanding Research Problem
The selection of a suitable problem is not an easy task. It is a serious
responsibility to commit oneself to a problem that will inevitably require much
time and energy and which is so academically significant. The following are the
generally ways for understanding problem to which one may proceed for a
suitable research.
I) Personal experience of the investigator at any field is the
means for understanding a suitable problem.
II) The other ways of understanding of problem, most
frequently used by the investigator as suggested by the
supervisors.
III) In the choice of a suitable problem, the researcher has to
decide his field of investigation; this may enable him to
identify a problem from the specific field.
IV) The new innovations, technological changes and curriculum
developments are constantly bringing new problem for
research.
V) The most practical ways of understanding problem is to
consult supervisor, expects of the field and most
experienced person of the field.
VI) In general practice researcher suggest some problems in
their research reports so the researcher can understand a
suitable problem for his own study.

Criteria of a Good problem
According to Kerlinger “A good problem is defined as interrogative sentence
that asks what relation exists between two or more variables."
1. The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously.
2. It should express a relationship between two or more variables.
3. It should be economical and able to conduct within a certain time
period.
4. The problem should itself imply the probability of empirical testing
the relationship between the variables.
 Guidelines for selecting problems
The following all the guidelines to be followed in selecting problems.
I) The problem should be such in which the researcher is deeply
interested.
II) The problem should be restated with the chain of thinking.
III) The research problem selected should not necessarily new one. It
may be old problem or on which work has already been done.
IV) The problem selected should be within manageable limits.
V) The problem must have some direct utility.
VI) The problem should be feasible is terms of time, money and other
resources available.

Research Question
Research question is the most important elements of any research for the
effective execution of research activity. We often define research goals in
terms of questions and hence research questions describe the ideas contained
in the research objectives. Research questions are the interrogative term of
research objectives.
Formulation of research question is the real starting point in preparation of
research process. The data required to be collected for the study are
determined by the help of the research questions. The data analysis tools and
methods, result interpretation process and the writing phase of the reports are
also determined the research question. If the researcher does not have clear
formulated research questions at the starting point of the research in this
practical field, then researcher may face different challengers to precede the
direction of research.
Types of research Question
There are different types of research questions, among them what, why and
how questions are important one. What question describe the characteristics
of trend and pattern in the given situation. Why question relate to the cause or
reasons for the characteristics of the particular phenomenon and the behavior
of the individual involved. It explains the relationship between events and
activities. And Lastly how question is concerned with bringing about change
and the outcomes of change.
Identification of research question

The main purpose of formulating research question is to define the scope of
the research. It is used to determine what is to be studied and the extent to
which it will be studied.
- Record all questions that occur in mind after reading literature or after
discussions with other or after thinking on various aspect of study
- Review all their questions whether each is necessary and delete those
which are beyond the scope of the study.
- Classify questions on the basis of their nature, what, why and how
questions.
- Enamine the scope of the questions for availability of time and money.
- Separate major or key question from subsidiary questions.
Research objectives
Research is an organized investigation of a problem where an investigator attempts
to gain solution to a problem. In order to get the right solution a clearly defined
objectives are very important. A clearly defined objective directs a researcher in the
right direction. • A clearly defined objectives are important feature of a good research
study. Without a clear objective a researcher is aimless and directionless in
conducting the study. Without focused objectives, no replicable scientific findings can
be expected.
A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides
direction to investigate the variables under the study.Research objectives focus
on the ways to measure the variables, such as to identify or describe the. • The
objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the
study.Research objective is a concrete statement describing what the research is

trying to achieve. • A well-known objective will be SMART ie. S – SPECIFIC • M –
MEASURABLE. • A – ATTAINABLE. • R – REALISTIC. • T – TIME BOUND
A clearly defined research objective will help the researcher to focus on the study. •
The formulation of research objectives helps in narrowing down the study to its
essentials. It will avoid unnecessary findings, which otherwise lead to wastage of
resources.
Formulation of research objective is an important aspect of the study after
the problem stated. Research objectives of a research project summarizes
what is to be achieved by the study. A research objective is a clear, concise,
declarative statement, which provides direction to investigate the variables under the
study.Objective of research should be clearly related to the statement of
problem and stated as the affirmative form of research questions. The
formulation of the objectives of a research is the task of defining what the
study is about and why it is being made. Generally objective of a research
work is classified as broad and specific objective.
Broad objective/General Objective
1. General objectives are broad goals to be achieved. The general objectives of the
study states what the researcher expects to achieve by the study in general
terms.
It is stated is one or two paragraphs outlining the broad prospective of the
study. It is also a statement of the main association and relationship that we
seek to discover or establish.
Specific objectives: -

Specific objective is the breakdown of the broad objective
in to smaller and logically connected parts in terms of points preferably in
sequential order. specific objective consists of no of specific points of
achievements which the research aims to fulfill. Each specific objective should
contain only one aspect of the study and should have action oriented words
such as to determine, to find out, to measure, to explore, to test etc.
Goal of research
When the objective of the research is fulfilled it is said that the goal of
research has been achieved. Thus fulfillment of the objective of research can
be called as the goal of that research. So the convergence point of the
objective statement is the goal of the study. Hence the goal of the study is
such statement which reflects a set of the objective for the study.
Research hypothesis
Hypothesis is considered as an intelligent guess or prediction, that gives
directional to the researcher to answer the research question. • Hypothesis or
Hypotheses are defined as the formal statement of the tentative or expected
prediction or explanation of the relationship between two or more variables in a
specified population.A hypothesis is a formal tentative statement of the
expected relationship between two or more variables under study. • A
hypothesis helps to translate the research problem and objective into a clear
explanation or prediction of the expected results or outcomes of the study.
A research hypothesis is tentative generalization or imaginative statement that
relates an independent variable. The word hypothesis is composed of two

words “Hypo”means under or below and “Thesis” means reasoned theory or
rational point of view. Hypothesis is a preposition which can put to test for
determining validity. A hypothesis is not the same as theory although two are
clearly related.
According to Kerlinger “Hypothesis is a conjected statement of the
relationship between two or more variables’’.
Examples:
1. Suppose a new brand of sleeping tablet claims its effect as 7 hours
sleeps. The claims is a null hypothesis and stated as,
Ho:µ = 7, i.e. the mean effect of tablet is 7 hours
2. Problem: Does training increase the job performance?
Ho: training helps to increase is performance
Function/Importance/Utilities of Hypothesis
 It adequately explained all the facts connected with the variables.
 It determines the method of verification as well as the procedure of
inquiry.
 It leads to the discovery of laws.
 It helps in drawing specific conclusions.
 It saves time, cost and resources of research.
 It helps for pin pointing and focusing the problem.
Sources of hypothesis
There are different sources which help in building a hypothesis.
1) General culture: -

In social studies, a hypothesis may be formulated with the help of
general pattern of culture. The culture has a great influence upon the
thinking process of people and hypothesis may be formed to test one or
more these ideas.
2) Scientific Theory: -
A theory gives the basic idea of what has been found to be correct. The
knowledge of theory helps to form generation or corollaries. These
generation and corollaries form parts of a hypothesis.
3) Analogies: -
An analogy implies similarities. Sometimes hypothesis is formed
from the analog. A similarity between two phenomena is observed at a
circumstance. A hypothesis is then formed to test whether two
phenomenon are similar in other circumstance too.
4) Personal Experience:-
Sometimes, the facts are there, but only a right individual see it in
right prospective and formulates a hypothesis. Facts, results,
phenomena constraints are there and they inspire to search for new
knowledge. For example, Newton was the person who coined the
concept of gravitational force from his personal experience of falling
apple below the apple free.
Qualities of a workable Hypothesis

A hypothesis should be compared with the facts of experience directly or
indirectly. The most important condition for a valid hypothesis that it
should be empirically verifiable. In order to be a workable hypothesis, it
must have following qualities.
a. It should be specific:
The hypothesis should not be too vague or general. A good and
general hypothesis may only serve as indicator of an area of study
rather than serving as a hypothesis. So, it must be narrow and
specific which have real use.
b. It must be conceptually clear
The hypothesis should be properly expressed. The terms used in
hypothesis must be commonly accepted terms rather than your own
creation. In case new terms are introduced, their definitions and
meanings should be made clear.
c. It should be related to available techniques.
A hypothesis formulated has to be tested and verified. So it has to be
stated in such a way that it is easily tested or verified by an available
technique. If it is not possible to test, that hypothesis is useless.
d. It should be related to the body of theory
The hypothesis should be selected in such a way that it has some
relation with the older theory in existence.
e. It should be capable of empirical test.

The hypothesis should be such one that it can be put to empirical
test. Empirical test is necessary to achieve the objective of the
research.
f. It should be simple
The hypothesis should be simple and to the point. Only the
necessary causes are to be assumed while forming the hypothesis.
Hypothesis Setting
The first step in hypothesis testing is to setup a hypothesis about a
population parameter. There are two types of hypothesis.
i) Null hypothesis (HO)
ii) Alternative hypothesis (H1)
i.e. at first a null hypothesis (HO) is stated. Then against this hypothesis,
alternative hypothesis also stated. The hypothesis must be so
constructed that if one hypothesis is accepted the other is rejected and
vice versa.
i) Null hypothesis: -
It is a statement about the unknown values of a parameter of a
variable/attributes in a population under investigation. Parameters are the
statistical characteristics of a variable under investigation. The most commonly
used parameters are mean (µ) and standard deviation () of the variable.
Suppose a drug company manufactures a new drug and claims that its mean
effect is 6 hours. The null hypothesis is stated as,
HO: µ = 6, i.e. the mean effect of drug is 6 hours.

iii) Alternative Hypothesis:
Any hypothesis which is accepted when null hypothesis is rejected is called
alternative hypothesis. In hypothesis testing procedure we always test null
hypothesis against the alternative hypothesis. If alternative hypothesis is
stated without pointing to a definite direction of difference, it is called two
tails. If it is pointed in only one direction it is called one tail.
Suppose a drug company manufacturing a new drug and claimed that,
a) Its mean effect is 6 hours.
Then,
Ho:= 6 hours; i.e. mean effect of drug is 6 hours
Vs H1: 6 hours; i.e. mean effect of drug is not 6 hours. (Two tail)
b) If its effect is at least 6 hours
Ho :  6 hour
H1 : > 6 hours, i.e. mean effect of drug is at least 6 hours (one tail)
c) If its effect is at most 6 hours
Ho: = 6 hour
Vs H1 : < 6 i.e. the mean effect of drug is at must 6 hours ( one tail)

Test criterion of a hypothesis
If Tcal is the value of a test statistics computed from the sample and Ttas is the
corresponding critical value given in statistical test, then reject null hypothesis
if Tcal > Ttas, otherwise accept null hypothesis.
Utilities of Hypothesis
1. Hypothesis forms the starting point of investigation and inquiry.
2. Hypothesis makes observation and experiment possible by deciding the
direction.
3. Hypothesis is an aid to explanation and it helps in selecting pertinent
facts and data to proceed.
4. Hypothesis makes deduction possible and helps is drawing specific
conclusions.
1.4 Designing of research work
Research Design
An important step of any research work is to prepare a research design.
Research design phase deals with the detailing of procedure that will be
adopted to carry out the research. It is the plan, structure and strategy
of investigation carried by researcher. It outlines how the study will be
executed with the minimum of complications. It is a mapping strategy
which essentially includes objectives, sampling method, research

strategy, tools and techniques for collecting the evidences, analyzing the
data and reporting the findings.
To sum up, research design is an overall plan for activities to be
undertaken during the course of research study. It serves as a
framework for the study, guiding data collection and analysis. The
research instruments to be utilized and sampling plan to be followed are
also included within it. It is an organized and integrated system that
guides the researcher in formulating, Implementing and controlling the
study. In other words, it is a blue point that specifies the method to be
adopted for getting and analyzing data.
Purpose of research design
Basically there are two purpose of research design. They are,
i) To provide answers to research questions.
ii) To control variance
Most importantly design helps the researchers to meet the solution of
research question and also helps to control the experimental extraneous and
error variance of research problems.
Research design helps to facilitate the researchers to answer research question
validity accurately, objectively, precisely, economically. A good research design
suggests the researchers what observation to make, how to collect them, how

analyze them, what model is used, how many observations should be made
and which are the active variables. The use of statistical test makes the
research easy and clear.
Characteristics/Criteria of good design
The following are the characteristics of a good research design.
i. A good design is characterized by activities like flexible, appropriate,
efficient, economical.
ii. It minimizes the bias and maximizes reliability while collecting and
analyzing data.
iii. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed
to be the best design in many investigations.
iv. The question of good design is related to objective of the research
problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied.
v. A good design must be flexible enough to permit the consideration
of many different aspects of a phenomena.
vi. It should include the time and budget of the research work.
Sectors of Research Design:
A research design includes different components of the research process
including the research strategy. The research strategy is a plan along with
technical move by employing which the problem is resolved. The different
components of the design which represents segments of a complete research
design are commonly termed as sectors of research design. The sectors of
research design are,

i) Sampling design: - It is the designing of the process of selection of
samples which we have to study during the research
ii) Observational design: - It includes the observational methods used in
collecting of information. It also encompasses conditions under which
the observations to be made.
iii) Statistical design: - This design concern to the number of items to be
observed and the method of information analysis. It includes the tools
and techniques used to analyze the data.
iv) Operational design: - It an overall design that describes all other
designs included in the research project. It is the layout of the
procedures of implementing the stated design.
v) Experimental design: - In any experimental science, an experimenter
expects to arrive at a reliable conclusion or to valid inference. For this,
experimenter has to take proper consideration of the analysis before
the experiment is conducted. The planning of experiment before it is
conducted is known as experimental design, commonly called design of
experiment.
Research method and research design
Research method is the organized system applies in different stages of
research project. In a scientific research project, research method includes the
methods and techniques of sample selection, data collection, data analysis and
interpretation. Broadly speaking we talk about research methods in each stage
of research investigation.
Research methodology is a way to solve research problem systematically.
Research method is a type of research methodology. Research methodology
consider the logic behind the particular methods used in different stages of

research project. It explains why particular method or technique is used in
different stages. It also highlights about how the research problem had been
defined, what type of data have been collected and also gives the reason for
formulating particular hypothesis. It is the approach to entire process of
research.
Many researchers use the term research design synonymously with Research
methodology. But It is not true. Research design is the overall plan of proposed
study to specify the appropriate methods and procedure for obtaining specific
findings as correctly and economically as possible. It is only a strategy, not an
approach which not prefer to give logic of selecting particular method. It
specifies the policy behind adopting particular method or techniques in
different stage for research process. It is a strategy used while selecting
sample, collecting and analyzing data.
Similarities and different between research Design and Research method
 Research design focus on the end-product. what kind of study is being
planned and what kind of results are arrived at. whereasResearch method
focus on the research process consequently the kind of tools and procedures
to be used.
 For the research design the point of departure is the research problem or
research question and for R method the point of departure is specific tasks
(data collection or sampling)
 Research design focuses on the logic research “what evidence is required to
address the question adequately?”. And Research method focuses on the

individual steps in the research process and the most “objective” procedures
to be employed.
Research design tells what is to be done at what time and how the goals of a
research project can be accomplished.A research method is a general
framework guiding a research project.
Basic principles of experimental design
i) Principle of replication
ii) Principle of randomization
iii) Principle of local control
i) Principle of replication
According to this principle, the experiment should be replicated
(repeated) more than one so that the statistical accuracy of experiment
is increased.
ii) Principle of randomization
Randomization is the process of providing equal chance to the each &
every items of a population for out coming/ representing the samples.
Randomization protect the research from biasness&provide better
estimate of experimental error so randomization is the process of
assigning the treatment to various experimental units in a passing
chance basis.
iii) Principle of local control

Local control refers to the controlling error. In other word, the process
of reducing the experimental error by dividing the relativity
heterogeneous experimental area/ field in homogeneous blocks is local
control.
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual/theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how
one theory makes logical sense of the relationship among several
factors that have been identified as important to the problem. It is
logically developed network of the variables (independent and
depended)related to research topic in which entire research study is
based. Generally, it is presented in graphic form/ diagrammaticform.
Basic components of conceptual framework
1) The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly
identified.
2) The discussion should state how two or more variables are related
to each other.
3) Whether the relationship would be positive or negative it should
also be stated.
4) There should be a clear explanationof why we would expect these
relationships to be exist, the argument could be drawn from the
previous research findings.

5) A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be gives
so that the reader can easily understand the theorized
relationship.
Operationalization
Operationalization is a process of defining the measurement of a
phenomenon that is not directly measurable, through its existence
is indicated by other phenomena. It is the process of defining an
unclear concept so as to make the theoretical concept clearly
distinguishable or measurable and to understand it in terms of
empirical observations.
In a wider sense, operationalization refers to the process of
specifying the extension of a concept describing what is and is not
a part of that concept. Some phenomena are directly difficult to
observe but their existence can be inferred by means of their
observable effects. For example, the nutritional status of a child
cannot be infer directly but can be operationalized by measuring
body mass index, height for age and weight for height
operationalization is the development of specific operational
definitions of the variables selected for the research.

Basic introduction to research for beginners.pdf

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