![1
CHapTer ONE
Introduction
1.1
A new type of bioreactor
Nowadays, to cope with various diseases—new or old—in
terms of vaccinations and an improved variety of drug produc-
tion, we have to culture animal cell lines. The main difficulty
with culturing animal cell lines is that the cell membrane of
animal cells is very thin and weak, so many difficulties crop
up when culturing animal cell lines with the existing conven-
tional bioreactors. For example, in the case of the continuous
stirred tank reactor (CSTR), a substantial amount of animal
cells will be destroyed by the impinging fan blades and the
resultant shear force generated inside the bioreactor. Many
cells may also be destroyed because of entrapment in the air
bubbles meant for aeration. These are also valid issues in the
case of bubble column or airlift type of bioreactors. This book
describes the design and development of a new type of bioreac-
tor suitable for animal cell line culture.
In this bioreactor the above-mentioned difficulties, which
cause cell death, are absent due to this somewhat different
design. This novel bioreactor is called the see-saw bioreactor [1].
The name was derived from its underlying principle of opera-
tion. The working volume of the prototype bioreactor is small
(within 15 L), but we cannot underestimate its importance, as
the cost of the enzymes (and so forth) produced from this animal
cell line culture is very high. Moreover, the cost of the substrate
used is also very high; so it is not profitable to use commercial
size bioreactors for this purpose. The above justifies the cost-
effectiveness of the design and development of a smaller reactor
for animal cell line culture. Rather, emphasis should be given](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3502363-250623102346-1418c165/85/Bioreactors-Animal-Cell-Culture-Control-For-Bioprocess-Engineering-Goutam-Saha-20-320.jpg)
![EXPLANATION OF SIGNS
§ = section.
ibid. = the same.
op. cit. = work cited.
f. = and following page.
ff. = and following pages.
cf. = compare.
v. = verse.
col. = column.
p. = page.
[ ] in translations of tablets indicate words
supplied where not decipherable.
..... in translations of tablets indicate missing
line or words which cannot be supplied.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3502363-250623102346-1418c165/85/Bioreactors-Animal-Cell-Culture-Control-For-Bioprocess-Engineering-Goutam-Saha-30-320.jpg)
![these upon the different parts of the Sacred Volume. Those who
hold the second of the views mentioned above will not, therefore, be
disappointed.
Neither of the views mentioned corresponds, however, with the
limits of archæology. Archæology is “that branch of knowledge which
takes cognizance of past civilizations, and investigates their history
in all fields, by means of the remains of art, architecture,
monuments, inscriptions, literature, language, implements, customs,
and all other examples which have survived.”[1] This definition is
accepted by the writer of this work and has guided him in the
preparation of the following pages. It has, of course, been
impossible in one volume to deal adequately with the antiquities and
the ancient documents and to treat fully the history of the
civilizations of the Biblical countries, but an endeavor has been made
to place the reader in possession of an intelligent point of view with
reference to these things. As the physical structure of a country
determines to a large degree the nature of its buildings, the utensils
employed by its inhabitants, their writing materials, and their
relations with other peoples,—as well as the way the objects were
preserved from ancient to modern times,—brief descriptions of the
physical features of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Palestine, the three
most prominent of Biblical countries, have been introduced.
Our knowledge of the early history of Egypt and Babylonia has come
almost wholly from archæological exploration; it has seemed fitting,
therefore, to introduce in Part I, Chapter I, § 6, and Chapter II, § 6,
brief sketches of the history of these countries. This appeared all the
more necessary since the inhabitants of these two countries worked
out, in advance of any other peoples, the initial problems of
civilization. Palestine borrowed from them both, so that it is
impossible to understand the history and archæology of Palestine
apart from Egyptian and Babylonian antecedents. Whenever it is
possible the reader should supplement these sketches by reference
to the larger works cited in the notes.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3502363-250623102346-1418c165/85/Bioreactors-Animal-Cell-Culture-Control-For-Bioprocess-Engineering-Goutam-Saha-32-320.jpg)
![Similarly in Part I, Chapter V, an outline of the history of Palestine
from the earliest times is presented. To some this may seem
unnecessary, since centuries of that history passed before the
Hebrew people came to the country, but it is hoped that every
reader will be glad to know the various vicissitudes through which
passed the land that was chosen by God as the home of the
religious leaders of the human race. This history also gives emphasis
to the promise “to give thee great and goodly cities, which thou
buildedst not, and houses full of all good things, which thou filledst
not, and cisterns hewn out, which thou hewedst not, vineyards and
olive-trees, which thou plantedst not” (Deut. 6:10, 11).
Some, too, may be surprised that the chronologies of Egypt and
Babylonia and Assyria should be treated as fully as they are in Part I,
Chapter I, § 5, and Chapter II, § 5, but in the writer’s view this
treatment was necessary and appropriate for several reasons: (1)
The data on which these chronologies are built up are for the most
part the fruits of archæological research. (2) They are our only
means of measuring the antiquity of civilization, since the Bible itself
affords no continuous system of chronology.[2] If the student of the
Bible is to have any intelligent idea of what “the fulness of time”
(Gal. 4:4) means, he should know what the sources of our
chronology are and how they are rightly used. (3) Such a
presentation seemed all the more necessary because in many books,
especially those of some English Egyptologists, the materials are
employed uncritically, and civilization is made to appear much older
than it really is.
To accomplish all these aims the writer has adopted the following
plan: In three chapters the archæology, history, and civilization of
Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria, and the Hittites are briefly treated,
together with the discoveries which especially interest the Biblical
student. These are the three great civilizations which preceded the
Israelitish. A much more detailed treatment is given to Palestine, to
which Chapters IV-XIV of Part I are devoted. In the last chapter of
Part I an attempt has been made to present the discoveries in](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3502363-250623102346-1418c165/85/Bioreactors-Animal-Cell-Culture-Control-For-Bioprocess-Engineering-Goutam-Saha-33-320.jpg)
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- 6. Bioreactors Animal Cell Culture Control for Bioprocess Engineering
- 8. Bioreactors Animal Cell Culture Control for Bioprocess Engineering Goutam Saha Alok Barua Satyabroto Sinha Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
- 9. First published in paperback 2018 First published 2015 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-3599-5 (Hardback) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-74968-9 (Paperback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
- 10. v Contents Preface ix Authors xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 A new type of bioreactor 1 1.2 Bioreactor modeling and control 2 1.3 Organization of the book 3 2 Novel see-saw bioreactor 7 2.1 Construction and working of the see-saw bioreactor 8 2.2 Theoretical modeling and simulation 10 Oxygen transfer to the falling film 11 Oxygen transfer to the flat surface 13 Total oxygen transfer in the bioreactor 13 2.3 Experiments to verify the modeling 15 2.4 Discussion of the results 17 2.5 Future scope of work 17
- 11. vi CONTENTS 3 Simulation of bioprocess and development of BIPROSIM: A general purpose simulation program 19 3.1 Mathematical formulation of the bioprocess 20 3.2 Modes of operation 22 3.3 Adoption in the model parameters 23 3.4 The algorithm of BIPROSIM 23 3.5 Sample run 24 4 Dynamic optimization of a bioprocess using genetic algorithm 31 4.1 Historical background 31 4.2 Bioprocess model development 32 4.3 Application of genetic algorithm for control input optimization 34 4.4 Explanation of the application of GA 35 Algorithm 4.1 35 Flowchart of Algorithm 4.1 36 Subroutine “Child” 37 Subroutine “Mutate” 38 Algorithm 4.2 39 Flowchart of Algorithm 4.2 39 4.5 Results of the application of GA 40 5 Bioprocesses and time delay control 53 5.1 The problem of bioprocess control 53 5.2 Development of dynamic model 56 5.3 Time delay control 58 5.4 Time delay controller as bioprocess controller 62 5.5 Observer design 68 5.6 PID controllers for bioprocess control 70 5.7 Simulation results and discussions 71 6 Experimentation on the bioreactor 91 6.1 Instrumentation 91 6.2 Experimentation 93
- 12. vii CONTENTS Presentation of experimental results 95 Comparison between experimental and theoretical results 107 6.3 Summary 109 7 General conclusion and future scope of research 111 7.1 Overview of the work 111 7.2 General conclusion 112 7.3 Future scope of research 113 References 115 Appendix A: Environmental control and sterilization of the bioreactor 119 Index 131
- 14. ix Preface Bioprocess engineering is the most important component for industries that produce commercial products such as industrial alcohol, organic solvent, and baker’s yeast, special products such as antibiotics, antibodies, therapeutic proteins, vaccines, and recombinant products such as insulin. The bioreactor is where the bioprocess operation takes place, and its design and controlled operation are important for production aspects such as purity, quantity, efficiency, and safety. Several excellent textbooks on bioprocess engineering are currently available; these generally are written almost exclu- sively with either biotechnology or chemical engineering in mind. However, these books do not cover the details of control system engineering. Bioreactors: Animal Cell Culture Control for Bioprocess Engineering will bridge the gap between control system engineering and biotechnology. The rigorous theoreti- cal analysis it presents for the control of nonlinear systems such as bioprocesses is the major strength of the book. Bioprocesses require effective control techniques due to increased demand on productivity, product quality, and envi- ronmental responsibility. This is especially important where the biomaterials are costly and require stringent control over product formation, as in animal cell cultures. Animal cell cul- ture technologies are used for the production of many enzymes, hormones, vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, and anticancer agents. Among them, the most important product is mono- clonal antibodies, which are produced by hybridoma cells.
- 15. x PREFAcE Monoclonal antibodies have been used as diagnostic agents to develop many drugs, toxins, vitamins, and other biological compounds. There are several types of bioreactors used in the labora- tory as well as in large-scale industrial applications. Some of these are continuous stirred tank, bubble column, airlift, see- saw, and packed bed reactors. As their names indicate, they are meant for aerobic bioreaction processes. The technique used for fermentation of animal cells differs from that used with bacte- ria, yeasts, and fungi. The typical size of animal cells is 10–30 µm. Animal cells do not have a cell wall, but are surrounded by a thin and fragile plasma membrane, and therefore the cells are very sensitive to shear force. For the efficient growth of cells, the fermenter or bioreactor should operate with essentially no or minimum shear force. The design, fabrication, and control of a new type of biore- actor meant especially for animal cell culture are covered in this book. Existing bioreactors like the continuous stirred tank reactor, bubble column reactor, and airlift reactors are briefly discussed. However, these conventional reactors are not suit- able for fermentation of animal cells, as they cause shear dam- age to the cells. Moreover, large support material surface areas are to be provided for anchorage of dependent cells. The labora- tory-scale cultivation of animal cells is carried out in T-flasks, spinner flasks, and other extremely small reactors, and these are not suitable for any commercial production. The new bioreactor is called the see-saw bioreactor and is ideal for the growth of cells with a sensitive membrane. The name is derived from its principle of operation, in which liq- uid columns in either limb of the reactor alternately go up and down. The oxygen transfer in this type of bioreactor has been studied by a distributed parameter model. The working volume of the reactor is small, to within 15 L. However, it can be eas- ily scaled up for large production in volume of cell mass in the drug and pharmaceutical industries. The see-saw bioreactor was developed at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. The authors neither experimented on animal cells nor made any animal cell culture in the prototype reactor developed and pat- ented due to limited facilities in the department; however, its description and analysis clearly command its suitability for the said culture. The primary aim of this book is to describe the principle of operation of a new type of bioreactor and how to automati- cally control the bioprocess. In this context different control
- 16. xi PREFAcE strategies have been discussed. The authors have conducted thorough experimental research on this prototype bioreac- tor and applied a time delay control for yield maximization. Emphasis has been placed on the development of a suitable con- trol strategy and mode of operation such that more products can be made from this bioreactor. However, the model that is devel- oped from the mass balance concept does not describe the bio- process completely. The model parameters often vary with time due to metabolic variations and physiological and genetic mod- ifications. The reproducibility of the biotechnological experi- ments is also poor. Thus a bioprocess, in general, is a nonlinear, undermodeled multivariable system with uncertainties. The limitations of conventional control such as proportional- integral-derivative have been discussed here. Time delay control, which has never before been used as a controller in bioreactor control, has been applied. It is designed as a track- ing controller such that the process variables allow optimal tra- jectories within finite error bounds. In a bioprocess some of the process variables are not measurable. A suitable observer, or “software sensor,” has been designed. The optimal trajecto- ries of different bioprocess variables have been derived using genetic algorithms. However, separate controllers are used for controlling the temperature and pH of the bioreactor fluid. The authors would like to express their appreciation and gratitude to the many individuals who have contributed to the development of the see-saw bioreactor. Our best wishes go to the students and researchers who are the ultimate users of this book. Goutam Saha Alok Barua Satyabroto Sinha Kharagpur MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information, please contact: The MathWorks, Inc. 3 Apple Hill Drive Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA Tel: 508-647-7000 Fax: 508-647-7001 E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.mathworks.com
- 18. xiii Authors Goutam Saha earned his BE in electrical engineering, his ME in electronics and telecommunication engineering, and his PhD in electrical engineering from Bengal Engineering and Science University (formerly known as B.E. College) and IIT Kharagpur in 1984, 1989, and 1999, respectively. He worked as a postdoctoral research fellow at Ben Gurion University, Israel, from January to August 2002. He is currently a full pro- fessor in the Department of Information Technology, North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India. With more than 25 years of teaching experience in various engineering colleges including the National Institute of Technology (Durgapur), the National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research (Kolkata), and other government engineering colleges of West Bengal. He has published several papers in the areas of instru- mentation, bioreactor design and control, bioinformatics, and system biology. He has supervised many MS theses and five PhD theses on bioinformatics and system biology. He is also one of the team members holding a patent for the design of a see-saw bioreactor. He is a member of the Sixth Reconstituted Task Force Committee on Bioinformatics, Computational and System Biology for the Government of India. Alok Barua received his bachelor of technology in instrumenta- tion and electronics engineering, master of electronics and tele- communication engineering, and PhD in electrical engineering
- 19. xiv AUTHORS from Jadavpur University and Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur in 1977, 1980, and 1992, respectively. He is full professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur. With more than 30 years of teaching experience at IIT, he has published many papers in his teaching and research areas: instrumentation, bioreactor design and control, testing and fault diagnosis of analog and mixed-signal circuits, and image processing. He has supervised several MS theses and two PhD theses on bioreactor control and instrumentation. He also holds a patent for the design of the see-saw bioreactor. He has delivered invited lectures at many different universities in the United States, Europe, and the Far East. He has worked as a visiting professor, guest professor, and research professor at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville; University of Karlsruhe and Frankfurt University (Germany); Yonsei University and Korea University (Seoul); and other institutions. Dr. Barua is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Professor Barua is the author or coauthor of several books: Computer Aided Analysis, Synthesis and Expertise of Active Filters (Dhanpat Rai, New Delhi, 1995), Fault Diagnosis of Analog Integrated Circuit (Springer, the Netherlands, 2005), Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation (Wiley India, New Delhi, 2011), and Analog Signal Processing: Analysis and Synthesis (Wiley India, New Delhi, 2014). He also coauthored a research monogram, 3D Reconstruction with Feature Level Fusion (Lambert Academic, Germany, 2010). Satyabroto Sinha (deceased) earned a PhD in electrical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur. He taught electrical engineering at IIT Kharagpur from December 1963 to May 2005 ( professor, 1982–2002; pro- fessor emeritus, 2002–2005). He advised 13 doctoral students, coauthored several books, and published approximately 60 conference and journal papers, nationally and internationally. His area of specialization was instrumentation and control. He was a national coordinator for the Technology Development Mission on Communication, Networking and Intelligent Automation for the Government of India from 1995 to 2000. He was a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and a chartered engineer and fellow of the Institution of Engineers (India).
- 20. 1 CHapTer ONE Introduction 1.1 A new type of bioreactor Nowadays, to cope with various diseases—new or old—in terms of vaccinations and an improved variety of drug produc- tion, we have to culture animal cell lines. The main difficulty with culturing animal cell lines is that the cell membrane of animal cells is very thin and weak, so many difficulties crop up when culturing animal cell lines with the existing conven- tional bioreactors. For example, in the case of the continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR), a substantial amount of animal cells will be destroyed by the impinging fan blades and the resultant shear force generated inside the bioreactor. Many cells may also be destroyed because of entrapment in the air bubbles meant for aeration. These are also valid issues in the case of bubble column or airlift type of bioreactors. This book describes the design and development of a new type of bioreac- tor suitable for animal cell line culture. In this bioreactor the above-mentioned difficulties, which cause cell death, are absent due to this somewhat different design. This novel bioreactor is called the see-saw bioreactor [1]. The name was derived from its underlying principle of opera- tion. The working volume of the prototype bioreactor is small (within 15 L), but we cannot underestimate its importance, as the cost of the enzymes (and so forth) produced from this animal cell line culture is very high. Moreover, the cost of the substrate used is also very high; so it is not profitable to use commercial size bioreactors for this purpose. The above justifies the cost- effectiveness of the design and development of a smaller reactor for animal cell line culture. Rather, emphasis should be given
- 21. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 22. 148 Lamp-Stands from Megiddo (after Schumacher) 53 149 Flint Knives from Jericho (after Sellin) 53 150 Iron Knives from Gezer (after Macalister) 54 151 Bronze Knives from Gezer (after Macalister) 54 152 A Chisel from Gezer (after Macalister) 55 153 A File from Gezer (after Macalister) 55 154 A Cone of Flint for making Knives, Gezer (after Macalister) 55 155 A Bronze Hammer-Head, Gezer (after Macalister) 55 156 A Fish-Hook, Gezer (after Macalister) 55 157 A Bone Awl-Handle from Gezer (after Macalister) 55 158 Whetstones from Jericho (after Sellin) 55 159 Nails from Gezer (after Macalister) 55 160 Axe-Heads from Gezer (after Macalister) 56 161 Carpenters’ Tools from Gezer (after Macalister) 56 162 A Scimitar from Gezer (after Macalister) 57 163 Impression of a Basket on Mud, Gezer (after Macalister) 57 164 Flint Arrow-Heads from Gezer (after Macalister) 57 165 Bronze Arrow-Heads from Gezer (after Macalister) 57 166 Bronze Swords from Gezer (after Macalister) 58 167 Bronze Spear-Heads, Gezer (after Macalister) 58 168 A Pipe from Gezer (after Macalister) 59 169 An Egyptian Harp (after Haupt) 59 170 An Assyrian Upright Harp (after Haupt) 59 171 An Assyrian Horizontal Harp (after Haupt) 59
- 23. 172 A Babylonian Harp (after Haupt) 59 173 Jewish Harps on Coins of Bar Cocheba, 132-135 a. d. (after Madden) 59 174 Assyrian Dulcimer (after Haupt) 59 175 Seals from Gezer (after Macalister) 60 176 A Comb from Gezer (after Macalister) 60 177 Toys from Gezer (after Macalister) 60 178 Styli from Gezer (after Macalister) 60 179 Children’s Rattles from Gezer (after Macalister) 60 180 A Perfume-Box, Gezer (after Macalister) 61 181 A Necklace from Gezer (after Macalister) 61 182 Bracelets from Gezer (after Macalister) 61 183 Spatulæ from Gezer (after Macalister) 61 184 Rings from Gezer (after Macalister) 61 185 Supposed Hebrew Measures from Jerusalem (after Germer-Durand) 62 186 A Neseph Weight 63 187 A Payim Weight belonging to Haverford College 63 188 A Beqa Weight (after Torrey) 63 189 A “Daric” of Darius (after Benzinger) 63 190 A Tetradrachma of Alexander the Great (after Benzinger) 63 191 A Coin of Ptolemy Lagi (after Benzinger) 63 192 Half-Shekel of Simon the Maccabee (after Benzinger) 64 193 A Coin of John Hyrcanus (after Madden) 64 194 Tetradrachma of Lysimachus 64 195 A Coin of Augustus 64
- 24. 196 A Denarius of Tiberius 64 197 A Coin of Claudius 64 198 A Coin of Herod the Great 64 199 A Roman Quadrans (?) 64 200 A Coin of Herod Agrippa I 64 201 A Shekel of the Revolt of a. d. 70 64 202 Cave-Dwellers’ Place of Sacrifice, Gezer (after Macalister) 65 203 Plan of Caves at Semitic High Place, Gezer (after Macalister) 65 204 “Pillars” of the High Place at Gezer 65 205 Rock-Altar at Megiddo (after Schumacher) 66 206 The “Beth-el” of Gezer (after Macalister) 66 207 The Supposed Serpent-Pen at Gezer (after Macalister) 66 208 The Rock-Altar at Jerusalem (after Dalman) 67 209 The Laver at Gezer (after Macalister) 67 210 The Terra-cotta Altar from Taanach (after Sellin) 68 211 Supposed High Place at Taanach (after Sellin) 68 212 High Place at Tell es-Safi (after Bliss and Macalister) 69 213 Libation Bowl from Taanach (after Sellin) 69 214 An Astarte Plaque from Gezer (after Macalister) 69 215 Plan of the High Place at Petra (after Brünnow) 70 216 Plan of Herod’s Temple at Samaria (after Lyon) 70 217 The Altar at Petra (after Brünnow) 71 218 The “Round Altar” at Petra (after Brünnow) 71 219 Supposed “Pillars” at Petra (after Brünnow) 71
- 25. 219a A Brazen Serpent from Gezer (after Macalister) 72 220 Plan of Supposed Semitic Temple at Gezer (after Macalister) 72 221 Walls of Herod’s Temple, Samaria (after Reisner) 72 222 “Pillars” of a Supposed Temple, Gezer (after Macalister) 73 223 Chapel of the Palace at Megiddo (after Schumacher) 73 224 Voluted Capital (probably Philistine) from Megiddo (after Schumacher) 74 225 Incense-Burner from Megiddo (after Schumacher) 74 226 Philistine Graves, Gezer (after Macalister) 75 227 A Rock-hewn Tomb at Siloam (after Benzinger) 75 228 A Shaft-Tomb (after Bliss and Macalister) 75 229 A Cistern-Burial at Gezer (after Macalister) 75 230 A Columbarium at Petra (after Dalman) 76 231 Entrance to the Tomb of the Judges 76 232 A Sunken-Door Tomb (after Mitt. u. Nach. d. Deutsch. Palästina-Vereins) 77 233 Kokim in the Tomb of the Judges 77 234 Plan of a Hellenistic Tomb at Marissa (after Peters and Thiersch) 78 235 A Cross-Section of the Tomb of the Judges 78 236 Architectural Decoration of a Hellenistic Tomb at Marissa (after Peters and Thiersch) 79 237 Plan of the Upper Floor of the Tomb of the Judges 79 238 A Tomb with a Rolling-Stone at Beit Jibrin (after Moulton) 80
- 26. 239 Interior of a Hellenistic Tomb at Marissa (after Peters and Thiersch) 80 240 The Hills and Valleys of Jerusalem (after Vincent) 81 241 Underground Jebusite Tunnel at Gihon, Jerusalem (after Vincent) 82 242 Maudsley’s Scarp, Jerusalem 82 243 Plan of Solomon’s Buildings, Jerusalem (after Stade) 83 244 Phœnician Quarry-Marks, Jerusalem (after Warren) 83 245 Shaft at the Southeast Corner of the Temple Area (after Warren) 84 246 Examining Ancient Walls in an Underground Tunnel (after Warren) 84 247 Front Views of Solomon’s Temple (after Stade) 85 248 Side Views of Solomon’s Temple (after Stade) 85 249 Plan of Solomon’s Temple (after Stade) 86 250 The Seven-branched Lamp-Stand from the Arch of Titus 86 251 The Brazen Laver of Solomon’s Temple (after Stade) 87 252 A Portable Laver of Solomon’s Temple (after Stade) 87 253 Stone-Work of a Wall of Jerusalem built in the Fifth Century a. d. 88 254 Stone-Work in Nehemiah’s Wall, Jerusalem 88 255 Restoration of the Asmonæan Bridge over the Tyropœon Valley (after Hanauer) 89 256 Front of “David’s Tower” (Herod’s Palace) Today 89
- 27. (after Breen) 257 Reconstruction of Herod’s Temple (after Caldecott) 90 258 “Solomon’s Stables” 90 259 One of the Supposed Pools of Bethesda (after Hanauer) 91 260 Front of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher 91 261 “Gordon’s Calvary,” looking toward Jerusalem (after Breen) 92 262 “Gordon’s Calvary,” from the City Wall (after Breen) 92 263 Outside of “Gordon’s Holy Sepulcher” (after Breen) 93 264 Inside of “Gordon’s Holy Sepulcher” (after Breen) 93 265 The Barada (Abana), Damascus 94 266 The Street Called Straight, Damascus 94 267 Palace at Kanatha (after Brünnow) 95 268 Circular Forum and Colonnaded Street, Gerasa 95 269 Temple of the Sun, Gerasa 96 270 Site of Rabbah Ammon 96 271 Theater at Amman (Palestinian Philadelphia) 97 272 Roman Forum at Athens 97 273 Mars’ Hill, Athens 98 274 Fountain in the Agora, Corinth 98 275 Lintel of Jewish Synagogue, Corinth (after Richardson) 99 276 Lechæum Road, Corinth (after Richardson) 99 277 Parthenon, Athens, from the East 100
- 28. 278 Main Street at Ephesus 100 279 Site of the Temple of Diana, Ephesus, in 1902 101 280 The Theater, Ephesus 101 281 The Amphitheater, Ephesus 102 282 The Stadium, Ephesus 102 283 Pergamum (after Ramsay) 103 284 The Acropolis and partly Excavated Temple, Sardis (after Butler) 103 285 Excavated Temple, Sardis, looking toward the Hermus Valley (after Butler) 104 286 A Christian Church at Sardis (after Butler) 105 287 Smyrna (after Ramsay) 105 288 A Ruin at Laodicea (after Ramsay) 106 289 A Bridge over the Jordan on the Line of a Roman Road 106 290 Fragment of a Creation-Tablet 107 291 Assyrian Sacred Tree Conventionalized 107 292 Hammurapi Receiving the Laws from the Sun- God 107 293 The So-called Adam and Eve Seal 107 294 A Tablet from Nippur, Relating the Beginnings of Irrigation and Agriculture (after Langdon) 108 295 Top of the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser 108 296 Jehu of Israel Doing Homage to Shalmaneser 108 297 The Siloam Inscription 109 298 Sennacherib Receiving Tribute at Lachish (after Ball) 109 299 An Altar to Unknown Gods (after Deissmann) 110 300 The Moabite Stone 110
- 29. 301 Papyrus Containing Sayings of Jesus (after Grenfell and Hunt) 111 MAPS Map of Egypt to First Cataract 18 Map of the Ancient World 40 Map of Palestine 104 Plate Map of Jerusalem in the Time of the Jebusites and David 112 Map of Solomon’s Jerusalem 112 Map of Jerusalem from Hezekiah to the Exile 113 Map of Nehemiah’s Jerusalem 113 Map of Asmonæan Jerusalem 114 Map of Herodian Jerusalem 114
- 30. EXPLANATION OF SIGNS § = section. ibid. = the same. op. cit. = work cited. f. = and following page. ff. = and following pages. cf. = compare. v. = verse. col. = column. p. = page. [ ] in translations of tablets indicate words supplied where not decipherable. ..... in translations of tablets indicate missing line or words which cannot be supplied.
- 31. INTRODUCTION One who would write on archæology and the Bible must at the outset define the scope of his undertaking, for the word archæology conveys different meanings to different people. Judgments also differ as to how things ancient can best serve the interests of the Biblical student. To many the word archæology calls up visions of ancient pottery, jewelry, swords, utensils, etc., which are valued as objects of curiosity simply because they are old. Others, when they think of archæology, call to mind excavations, in which the walls of ancient temples and cities are laid bare, so that we may see how men lived in other days. To such, archæology is identical with antiquarianism. A book on archæology and the Bible written from this point of view would confine itself to the way in which texts of Scripture are illustrated or illumined by antiquarian objects. To still others the word archæology calls up ancient tablets or papyri, inscribed with hieroglyphics or some other strange characters, from which the initiated can decipher texts that prove the truth of one’s views of Scripture. According to this view, archæology is the science of ancient documents, and a book dealing with archæology and the Bible should confine itself to the discussion of documents which confirm or illustrate the Biblical text. Those who hold either of these views of archæology will find in this book much that will accord with their expectations, but much also that will seem to them irrelevant. In Part I, Chapters IV, VI-XII deal with antiquities, their discovery, and the light which these shed upon the inspired page, for antiquarianism is a part of archæology. Portions of Part I are devoted to the discovery of inscribed objects; in Part II the reader will find a full presentation of the bearing of
- 32. these upon the different parts of the Sacred Volume. Those who hold the second of the views mentioned above will not, therefore, be disappointed. Neither of the views mentioned corresponds, however, with the limits of archæology. Archæology is “that branch of knowledge which takes cognizance of past civilizations, and investigates their history in all fields, by means of the remains of art, architecture, monuments, inscriptions, literature, language, implements, customs, and all other examples which have survived.”[1] This definition is accepted by the writer of this work and has guided him in the preparation of the following pages. It has, of course, been impossible in one volume to deal adequately with the antiquities and the ancient documents and to treat fully the history of the civilizations of the Biblical countries, but an endeavor has been made to place the reader in possession of an intelligent point of view with reference to these things. As the physical structure of a country determines to a large degree the nature of its buildings, the utensils employed by its inhabitants, their writing materials, and their relations with other peoples,—as well as the way the objects were preserved from ancient to modern times,—brief descriptions of the physical features of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Palestine, the three most prominent of Biblical countries, have been introduced. Our knowledge of the early history of Egypt and Babylonia has come almost wholly from archæological exploration; it has seemed fitting, therefore, to introduce in Part I, Chapter I, § 6, and Chapter II, § 6, brief sketches of the history of these countries. This appeared all the more necessary since the inhabitants of these two countries worked out, in advance of any other peoples, the initial problems of civilization. Palestine borrowed from them both, so that it is impossible to understand the history and archæology of Palestine apart from Egyptian and Babylonian antecedents. Whenever it is possible the reader should supplement these sketches by reference to the larger works cited in the notes.
- 33. Similarly in Part I, Chapter V, an outline of the history of Palestine from the earliest times is presented. To some this may seem unnecessary, since centuries of that history passed before the Hebrew people came to the country, but it is hoped that every reader will be glad to know the various vicissitudes through which passed the land that was chosen by God as the home of the religious leaders of the human race. This history also gives emphasis to the promise “to give thee great and goodly cities, which thou buildedst not, and houses full of all good things, which thou filledst not, and cisterns hewn out, which thou hewedst not, vineyards and olive-trees, which thou plantedst not” (Deut. 6:10, 11). Some, too, may be surprised that the chronologies of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria should be treated as fully as they are in Part I, Chapter I, § 5, and Chapter II, § 5, but in the writer’s view this treatment was necessary and appropriate for several reasons: (1) The data on which these chronologies are built up are for the most part the fruits of archæological research. (2) They are our only means of measuring the antiquity of civilization, since the Bible itself affords no continuous system of chronology.[2] If the student of the Bible is to have any intelligent idea of what “the fulness of time” (Gal. 4:4) means, he should know what the sources of our chronology are and how they are rightly used. (3) Such a presentation seemed all the more necessary because in many books, especially those of some English Egyptologists, the materials are employed uncritically, and civilization is made to appear much older than it really is. To accomplish all these aims the writer has adopted the following plan: In three chapters the archæology, history, and civilization of Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria, and the Hittites are briefly treated, together with the discoveries which especially interest the Biblical student. These are the three great civilizations which preceded the Israelitish. A much more detailed treatment is given to Palestine, to which Chapters IV-XIV of Part I are devoted. In the last chapter of Part I an attempt has been made to present the discoveries in
- 34. Greece and Asia Minor which throw light on the New Testament. In Part II the texts, Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Hebrew, Moabitish, Phœnician, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin, which bear on the Bible, are translated. They are arranged in the order of the Biblical books which they illuminate. Each translation is accompanied by a brief discussion in which its chief bearing on the Bible is pointed out. In conclusion it may not be out of place to offer a word of guidance to two or three classes of readers. Those who are not interested in the history of Babylonia and Egypt, but wish simply to know what has been discovered in those countries which throws light on the Scriptures, should turn at once to Part I, Chapter I, § 7, and Chapter II, § 7, and to the translations of the various texts in Part II. A reader that is interested especially in Palestine, rather than in the ancient civilizations to which the Hebrews were indebted, should begin Part I at Chapter IV. Possibly after he has read that which the Holy Land has contributed to the understanding of the Bible, he may be ready to give a little attention to such outlying peoples as the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Hittites. In that case he will turn back and read Chapters I-III. Pastors or Sunday-school teachers who wish to employ the book as a tool by means of which to study certain texts or lessons should follow a different course. These will be able with the aid of the full index of Scripture references to turn at once to all the material bearing on the passage in question. If the use of this index does not afford all the information desired, reference should then be made to the analytical table of contents at the beginning, or to the index of subjects at the end, or to both. It is the writer’s hope that, in addition to its use as a book of reference for the elucidation or illustration of individual texts, there may be some who will enjoy reading the whole work, and who will find, as he himself has found, that every scrap of knowledge of ancient life in Bible lands serves to make the Bible story and the lives of Biblical characters so much more real, or puts them or their words in a perspective so much more clear, that the eternal message
- 35. comes with new power and can be transmitted with greater efficiency.
- 36. PART I THE BIBLE LANDS, THEIR EXPLORATION, AND THE RESULTANT LIGHT ON THE BIBLE AND HISTORY ARCHÆOLOGY AND THE BIBLE
- 37. CHAPTER I EGYPT The Land. The Preservation of Antiquities. Egyptian Discoveries. Decipherment. Chronology. Outline of the History: The pre-dynastic period. The archaic period. The old kingdom. The first period of disintegration. The middle kingdom. Second period of disintegration. The empire period. The period of foreign dynasties. The lower empire. The Persian period. The Ptolemaic period. The Roman period. Egyptian Discoveries Which Bear on the Bible: Texts bearing on the story of Joseph. The Invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos. The El-Amarna letters. Period of the Oppression and the Exodus. Campaign of Sheshonk I. Papyri discovered at Elephantine. The palace of Hophra. The castle at Tahpanhes. The Jewish temple at Leontopolis. Papyri from Oxyrhynchus. Discoveries in Nubia. 1. The Land.—Egypt is in many ways unique among the countries of the world. One of these unique features is its form. If we omit the Delta, it has but one dimension,—length. From Cairo to the First Cataract is a distance of 583 miles, while the breadth of the valley, including the barren lands on each side of it, varies from 12½ to 31 miles. If we include Nubia to the Fourth Cataract, which the Egyptians ultimately conquered, the length is much greater, being about 1,100 miles. In Nubia the banks are much more precipitous, the valley varying from 5 to 9½ miles. The verdant portion is, however, often not more than a mile in width.
- 38. This land is flanked on each side by extensive barren deserts on which there is almost no rainfall. Egypt itself would be a part of this desert, were it not for the overflow of the Nile. This overflow is caused by the peculiar formation of this marvelous river. The upper part of the Nile consists of two main branches, called, respectively, the White and the Blue Nile. The White Nile rises 3 degrees south of the equator, some 4,000 miles south of the Mediterranean, to the south of Lake Victoria Nyanza. This region is watered by tropical rains, which fall almost daily. This steady water supply gives to the Nile its constant volume. At Khartum, 1,350 miles from the Mediterranean in a direct line, and 1,650 miles as the river winds, the White Nile is joined by the Blue Nile. This branch of the river drains a large part of Abyssinia, an upland and mountainous region which has a dry and a rainy season. In the dry season this stream dwindles almost to nothing; in the rainy season it is a turbid mountain torrent, which rushes impetuously onward, laden with loose soil from all the land which it drains. For this reason it is called the Blue, i. e., the Dark or Turbid, Nile. At a distance of 140 miles north of the union of the two Niles the river receives its only other tributary, the Atbara, which also flows in from the eastern side. The Atbara, like the Blue Nile, is an insignificant stream except in the rainy season, when it is a torrent. It is the variation of the water supply from the Blue Nile and Atbara which causes the overflow of the river in Egypt. At the beginning of June the river begins slowly to swell; between the 15th and the 20th of July the increase becomes very rapid; toward the end of September the water ceases to rise and remains at the same height for twenty to thirty days. In October it rises again, attaining its greatest height. It then decreases, and in January, February, and March the fields gradually dry off. This overflow prepares the soil of Egypt for cultivation, first by softening it and then by fertilizing it. It was easy, under these conditions, to develop agriculture there.
- 39. Indeed, the width of productive Egypt is determined by the lateral extent of this overflow. For the last 1,500 miles of its course the Nile receives no tributary. It plows its way through regions of desert which, but for the Nile itself, are unbroken. At six points, beginning at Khartum and ending at Assuan, the river makes its way over granite ridges, through which it has never succeeded in cutting a smooth channel. These are called the Cataracts. As civilized man discovered these from the north, that at Assuan is known as the First Cataract, and that at Khartum as the Sixth. The calendar of ancient Egypt was shaped in part by the Nile. The year was divided into three seasons of four months each. Beginning with the rise of the water about July 19th, there was the season of the inundation, which was followed by four months of winter and four months of summer.
- 40. Larger Image Map of Egypt. In late geologic time all Egypt north of Cairo was a bay of the Mediterranean. In the course of the centuries the sea has been driven out by deposits of detritus brought down by the Nile. As the mud was deposited in this level region, the water continued to make its way through it here and there. Several mouths were kept open, and thus the Delta was formed. This Delta is called Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt extends from Cairo to the First Cataract; Nubia, from the First Cataract to the Sixth.
- 41. 2. The Preservation of Antiquities.—Rain in Egypt is very, very rare. One might almost say that it never rains. The country lies in a latitude so far south that frost is rarely known. These two conditions have united to preserve the ruins of many ancient buildings in both Egypt and Nubia in a state of perfection which is rare in other countries. It was the custom of the ancient Egyptians to bury their dead in the dry land beyond the reach of the Nile’s overflow. Like many other peoples, they placed in the tombs of their dead many objects used by the departed in life. Further, their peculiar beliefs concerning immortality led them to mummify the bodies of the departed; i. e., they fortified them against decay. Thus archæological objects have been preserved in Egypt in an abundance and a perfection without parallel. So many of these are massive temples of stone, which, through all the ages, have stood unconcealed as silent witnesses of a past greatness, that from Cairo to the First Cataract Egypt is one great archæological museum. 3. Egyptian Discoveries.—Although many Egyptian antiquities have always been visible, they attracted little attention until modern times. Egyptian temple walls are covered with hieroglyphic writing, but the art of reading it had long been lost. Coptic, a language descended from the ancient Egyptian, was still preserved as the sacred language of the Egyptian Church, as Latin is the ecclesiastical language of Roman Catholics, but no one realized that Coptic was simply late Egyptian. In the seventeenth century European travelers began to bring home Egyptian antiquities. In 1683 a specimen of Egyptian art was presented to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. In the eighteenth century R. Pococke (1704-1765) and F. L. Norden (1704-1742) described a number of Egyptian ruins and identified a number of the sites mentioned by classical authors. Pococke was an Englishman and Norden a Dane. Others, like the explorer Bruce, who was seeking the sources of the Nile (1768-1773), participated to some extent in the work.
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