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Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Business Ethics
Concepts & Cases
Manuel G. Velasquez

Chapter Five
Ethics and the Environment

Pollution and Resource Depletion
• Threats to the environment come from two
sources:
– Pollution: The undesirable and unintended
contamination of the environment by human
activity such as manufacturing, waste disposal,
burning fossil fuels, etc.
– Resource Depletion: The consumption of finite or
scarce resources.

Major Types of Air Pollution
• Greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide.
• Ozone depleting gases: chlorofluorocarbons
• Acid rain gases: sulfur oxides.
• Airborne toxics: benzene, formaldehyde, toluene,
trichloroethylene, and 329 others.
• Common air pollutants: carbon monoxide, sulfur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, airborne lead, ozone,
particulates.

Major Types of Water Pollution
• Organic wastes: human sewage, animal
wastes, bacteria, oil.
• Inorganic pollutants: salt brines, acids,
phosphates, heavy metals, asbestos, PCBs,
radioactive chemicals.

Major Types of Land Pollution
• Toxic substances: acids, heavy metals,
solvents, pesticides, herbicides, and phenols.
• Solid wastes: residential garbage, industrial
wastes, agricultural wastes, and mining
wastes.
• Nuclear wastes: high level, transuranic, low-level.

Depletion of Non-Renewable
Resources
• Extinction of species through destruction of natural
habitats.
• Natural resources depleted at peaked rate, not exponential
rate.
• Fossil fuel depletion:
– Coal in 150 years
– Natural gas in 30–40 years
– Oil between 2010 and 2040
• Mineral depletion:
– Copper and mercury in 2100
– Aluminum during 21st century
– Indium and antimony in 10 years
– Tantalum in 20–116 years.

The Ethics of Pollution Control
• Ecological Ethics = The ethical view that nonhuman
parts of the environment deserve to be preserved
for their own sake, regardless of whether this
benefits human beings.
– The “Last Man” Argument
• Asks us to imagine a man who is Earth’s last survivor.
• We recognize it is wrong for the last man to destroy all
nonhumans.
• So we must recognize some nonhumans have intrinsic
value apart from humans.

Environmental Rights
• Humans have a right to fulfill their capacities
as free and rational and a livable environment
is essential to such fulfillment.
• So humans have a right to a livable
environment and this right is violated by
practices that destroy the environment.
• Such environmental rights can lead to
absolute bans on pollution even when the
costs far outweigh the benefits.

Private and Social Costs
• Private cost: The cost an individual or
company must pay out of its own pocket to
engage in a particular economic activity.
• Social cost: The private internal costs plus the
external costs of engaging in a particular
economic activity.

Markets and Pollution
• Total costs of making a product include a seller’s
internal private costs and the external costs of
pollution paid by society.
• A supply curve based on all costs of making a product
lies higher than one based only on sellers’ internal
private costs.
– The higher supply curve crosses the demand curve at a
lower quantity and a higher price than the lower supply
curve.
• When sellers’ costs include only private costs, too
much is produced and price is too low.
– This lowers utility, and violates rights, and justice.

Ethical Approaches to
Environmental Protection
• Ecological approach.
– nonhumans have intrinsic value
• Environmental rights approach.
– humans have a right to a livable environment
• Market approach.
– external costs violate utility, rights, and justice;
therefore, they should be internalized.

Internalization of the
Costs of Pollution
• Absorption of external costs by the producer,
who then takes them into account when
determining the price of goods.
– But this process leads to environmental injustice
because the external costs of pollution are borne
largely by those who do not enjoy a net benefit
from the activity that produces the pollution.

Optimal Level of Pollution Removal
(Utilitarian Approach)
• Costs of removing pollutants rise as benefits
of removal fall.
• Optimal level of removal is point where its
costs equal its benefits.
• But when costs and benefits are not
measurable, utilitarian approach fails.
• When costs and benefits are not measurable
some use the precautionary principle, others
the maximin rule.

Precautionary Principle
• The principle that if a practice carries an
unknown risk of catastrophic and irreversible
consequences, but it is uncertain how large
that risk is, then the practice should be
rejected until it is certain the risk is
nonexistent or insignificant.

Maximin Rule
• When risks cannot be measured, the most
rational procedure is to first assume that the
worst will happen and then choose the option
that leaves us best off when the worst
happens.

Alternative Approaches to Pollution
• Social Ecology
– Get rid of social systems of hierarchy and
domination
• Ecofeminism
– Change male pattern of dominating nature and
women
• Other feminists
– Extend the ethic of care toward nature

Conservation Based on Ethics
• Rawls:
– Leave the world no worse than we found it.
• Care Ethic:
– Leave our children a world no worse than we
received.
• Attfield:
– Leave the world as productive as we found it.

Sustainability
• We must deal with the environment, society,
and economy so that they have the capacity
to continue to meet the needs of present
generations without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own
needs.
• Environmental sustainability, economic
sustainability, and social sustainability are
interdependent.

Environmental Sustainability
• Not depleting renewable resources faster
than their replacement.
• Not creating more pollution than environment
can absorb.
• Not depleting non-renewable resources faster
than we find replacements.

Economic Growth
• Schumacher
– We must abandon the goal of economic growth if
we are to allow future generations to live as we
do.
• Others
– We must achieve a “steady state” where births
equal deaths and production equals consumption
and these remain constant at their lowest feasible
level.

Club of Rome Projections
• Suggest that continued economic growth will
deplete resources and increase pollution until
industrial output, food production, and
services decline, causing catastrophic
population loss sometime during the twenty-first
century.

Moral Questions Related to Economic
Growth
• It is troubling that current economic growth
policies that have led to high rates of energy
and resource consumption in developed
nations while developing nations are left to
consume at low rates.

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