Calcium Factsheet

Calcium Factsheet

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  Boning up onCalcium! Why Plant Calcium is Best By Dr Justine Butler Most p e o ple in d evelo p e d c o untrie s h ave b e e n bro u g ht u p to b elieve th at o ur te eth a n d o ur b o n e s c a n o nly grow h e althily if w e drink c ow’s milk. O ver th e la st thre e d e c a d e s w e h ave witn e ss e d a b arra g e of m ark etin g c a m p aig ns d e sig n e d to reinforc e th e id e a th at o nly milk c a n su p ply c alciu m in sufficie nt q u a ntitie s to h elp us grow big a n d stro n g . B ut is milk re ally g o o d for y o u? A n in cre a sin g a m o unt of re s e arc h c h alle n g e s th e o utd ate d n otio n th at c ow’s milk is b e st a n d in fa ct sh ows th at o ur c o nsu m ptio n of d airy pro d u cts is d oin g us m u c h m ore h arm th a n g o o d . Wh at is C alciu m a n d Why D o We N e e d It? between dairy or dietary calcium intake and measures of bone Calcium is a soft grey metallic element. It is the fifth most health. In the remaining studies the effects on bone health were abundant element on the earth’s crust and occurs in compounds either small or results were confounded by the fortification of such as limestone, chalk and marble. Calcium is required for milk with vitamin D. An increasing amount of evidence now normal growth and development in animals. It is the most suggests that milk is not the best source of calcium at all and goes abundant mineral in the human body accounting for around two further to suggest that our bone health would benefit enormously per cent of the total body weight. Calcium plays an important if we switched to plant-based sources. In addition, research structural role in maintaining bone health and strength, in fact suggests that physical exercise is the most critical factor for around 99 per cent of our calcium is deposited in the bones and maintaining healthy bones, followed by improving the diet and teeth. The other one per cent is responsible for a range of lifestyle; this means eating plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables, important metabolic functions that regulate muscle contraction, and for young adults cutting down on caffeine and avoiding heart beat, blood clotting and functioning of the nervous system. alcohol and smoking. H ow Mu c h C alciu m D o We N e e d? In 2004 the Government’s Food Standards Agency (FSA) looked There is no international consensus on what the healthiest or at sources of calcium in the National Diet and Nutrition Survey safest amount of calcium we need is. In the UK, the reference and found that only 43 per cent of the mean intake of calcium in nutrient intake value (RNI) is used; this is similar to the adults in the UK comes from milk and milk products (1). So Recommended Daily Amount (RDA) used previously. The RNI despite the misconceived notion that milk is the best (or only) value for a nutrient is the amount of that nutrient that is sufficient source of calcium the facts show that a large share of the calcium for 97.5 per cent of the people in a given group. The UK in our diets is derived from sources other than dairy foods. This government currently suggests that the RNI value for calcium in is not surprising as most people in the world (around 70 per adults aged between 19 and 50 years of age is 700 mg per day (1). cent) obtain their calcium from plant-based sources rather than In the US, the recommended daily intake is slightly higher at dairy products. 1000mg per day (2). However, in many countries such as India, China, Japan, Gambia and Peru the average daily intake of B ut Milk is a N atural Fo o d… Isn’t It? calcium can be as low as 300 mg. Humans are mammals, and as with all mammals, we are designed to drink the milk of our mothers until we are weaned onto solid Wh ere D o We G et It? foods. We are the only mammals that continue to drink milk after The body obtains calcium in two ways, either from our diet or our weaning, and not just that, we are the only mammals to drink the bones. When the diet does not provide sufficient levels, calcium is milk of another species (apart from pets that we control). To state ‘borrowed’ (reabsorbed) from the bones in order to restore blood the obvious (but often overlooked fact) cow’s milk has evolved to levels and maintain calcium-dependent biological functions. help turn a small calf into a cow in less than a year. That’s why Calcium in our bones is reabsorbed and replaced continuously as cow’s milk contains around four times as much calcium as human old bone cells break down and new ones form. If adequate calcium milk; 118mg per 100g compared to 34mg per 100g respectively is then supplied in the diet, bone levels are restored, but if the diet (4). This discrepancy is for a good reason; calves need a huge fails to supply enough calcium, bone loss persists. amount of calcium to promote the massive level of skeletal growth required over the first year of life. A human infant does not C hildre n, Yo u n g A d ults a n d B o n e H e alth require such high levels of calcium; indeed the high mineral The idea that cow’s milk is the best source of calcium is deeply content of cow’s milk puts a strain on the human infant kidney entrenched in the British psyche and is sustained by the which is why most governments recommend children do not drink government-sponsored dairy industry and Milk Development cow’s milk in their first year. Indeed the mineral content of cow’s Council who work with schools, dairies and LEAs to encourage milk is so out of balance with human biochemistry that it is more children to drink milk at school. However, a recent review difficult for human adults to absorb the optimum amounts on dairy products and bone health published in the official required for health (5). journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics challenged this C h arity num b er: 1037486 misleading notion by concluding that there is very little evidence La ctos e Intolera n c e to support increasing the consumption of dairy products in Many people are unable to consume cow’s milk and milk children and young adults in order to promote bone health (3). products because they are unable to digest the sugar in milk This review examined the effects of dairy products and total called lactose. This sugar only exists in mammals’ milk, including dietary calcium on bone integrity in children and young adults human breast milk. In order for lactose to be digested it must be and found that out of 37 studies, 27 showed no relationship broken down in the small intestine by the enzyme lactase. Most VV F, To p S uite , 8 York C o urt, Wild er Stre et, Bristol B S2 8 Q H . Tel: 0117 970 5190. E m ail: info @ ve g etaria n.org.uk We b : www.ve g etaria n.org .uk F S?
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  infants possess theenzyme lactase, and can therefore digest Food (and serving size) Calcium lactose, but this ability is lost in many people after weaning (milligrams) (commonly after the age of two). Losing the ability to digest Cauldron Foods Organic Plain Tofu (one 500 lactose at this age is a clear indication of how humans are not pack - 250g) designed to drink milk as adults; it is not a natural food for us. Sesame seeds (25g - a small handful) 168 The frequency of lactose intolerance varies from around 90-100 Sunflower seeds (25g - a small handful) 28 per cent of Asians, 65-70 per cent of Africans, to 10 per cent of Broccoli (80g portion boiled in unsalted water) 32 Caucasians (6). In the absence of lactase, lactose is fermented by Curly kale (80g portion boiled in unsalted water) 120 bacteria in the large intestine, this leads to a build up of gas. Watercress (80g portion raw) 136 Symptoms of lactose intolerance include nausea, cramps, Almonds (30g - a small handful) 51 bloating, wind, and diarrhoea. The treatment is straightforward: Brazil nuts (30g - a small handful) 87 avoid lactose. This means cutting out all dairy foods and Alpro Soya Milk (200ml glass) 240 checking labels for lactose in bread, chocolate and other Dried Figs (100g - four to six pieces of fruit) 250 processed foods. Many lactose intolerant people obtain their Tahini (10g - two teaspoonfuls generously spread 68 calcium from plant-based sources. on one piece of toast or stirred into a bowl of soup) A ll e rgie s An allergic reaction to cow’s milk is very different to lactose dates, nuts, particularly almonds and brazil nuts, and seeds intolerance and can, in extreme circumstances, be fatal. An allergic including sesame seeds and tahini (sesame seed paste) which reaction to milk occurs when the body’s immune system perceives contains a massive 680 milligrams of calcium per 100 grams. one of the proteins in milk (either whey or casein) as a foreign Pulses including soya beans, kidney beans, chick peas, baked beans, invader and launches an attack. Symptoms are generally more broad beans, lentils, peas and calcium-set tofu (soya bean curd) extreme than in lactose intolerance and include excessive mucus provide a good source of calcium. Other fruit and vegetable production resulting in a runny nose and blocked ears. More sources include parsnips, swede, turnips, lemons, serious symptoms include eczema, colic, diarrhoea, asthma and oranges, olives and molasses. A good additional vomiting. Casein is more difficult to avoid as it is commonly used source is calcium-enriched soya milk. in the production of bread, processed cereals, instant soups, margarine, salad dressings, sweets and cake mix. People with milk allergies tend to obtain their calcium from plant-based sources. C alciu m U pta k e a n d A b s orptio n C ow’s Milk a n d Dia b ete s The amount of calcium Type I diabetes is an autoimmune disease where the immune present in a particular food system’s ‘soldiers’, known as T-cells, destroy the body’s own is not the only important insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. This type of response factor to consider. The is thought to involve a genetic predisposition (diabetes in the bioavailability of the family) coupled to an environmental trigger such as cow insulin or calcium should be casein – both from cow’s milk. Research shows that some infants considered when may be more vulnerable to type I diabetes later in life if exposed to deciding which foods cow's milk formula while very young. A Finnish study of children are a good source. (with at least one close relative with type I diabetes) examined This means how much whether early exposure to insulin in cow’s milk formula increased calcium is actually the risk of type I diabetes. Results showed that infants given cow's available for milk formula at three months old had immune systems which absorption into the reacted far more strongly to cow’s insulin (7). This raises concerns body from the food. that exposure to cow’s insulin plays a role in the autoimmune The calcium in dairy process leading to type I diabetes. products is not as well absorbed as that in many Another environmental trigger in cow’s milk is thought to be a dark green leafy protein called casein (8). Casein is similar in shape to the vegetables (3). For insulin producing cells in the pancreas. Because the body may example, calcium see casein as a foreign invader and attack it, it may also start to absorbability from kale was attack the pancreas cells having confused them for casein; again demonstrated to be considerably leading to diabetes. higher than that from cow’s milk (10). While spinach contains a A review of the clinical evidence suggests that the incidence of type relatively high amount of calcium, it I diabetes is related to the early consumption of cow’s milk; is bound to a substance called oxalate children with type I diabetes were more likely to have been breast- which hinders calcium absorption (11) fed for less than three months and to have been exposed to cow’s so it is important to obtain calcium milk protein before four months of age (9). The avoidance of from low-oxalate green vegetables. cow’s milk during the first few months of life may reduce the risk Grains, nuts and seeds contain a of type I diabetes. Infants who cannot breastfeed from their substance called phytic acid which until mothers would benefit more from taking a plant-based formula recently was also considered to hinder such as soya-based formula rather than one based on cow’s milk. calcium absorption, now phytic acid is believed to have only a minor influence (12). Pla nt-B a s e d S o urc e s of C alciu m Caffeine and smoking have been shown to There are many plant-based sources of calcium. Good sources reduce calcium absorption (13). include non-oxalate (see below) dark green leafy vegetables such as broccoli, kale, spring greens, cabbage, bok choy, parsley and Vita min D watercress. Also rich in calcium are dried fruits, such as figs and The body requires vitamin D to absorb and retain calcium in the
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  bones. Vitamin Dis either obtained from the diet or it is However, American women are among the biggest consumers of synthesised in the skin following exposure to sunlight. But recent calcium in the world yet they have one of the highest levels of concerns about skin cancer have encouraged us to cover up and osteoporosis (18). African Bantu women, on the other hand, eat avoid the sun. Subsequently people in the UK could be at risk of almost no dairy products at all; they have a relatively low vitamin D deficiency if they get too little sun exposure year round calcium intake, mainly from vegetable sources, and typically have (14). Without sufficient vitamin D, calcium deficiency is likely to up to 10 children each. Yet osteoporosis is virtually unknown occur even if the diet provides enough calcium. The consequences among Bantu women (19). may be serious, resulting in rickets or osteomalacia (softening of the bones). Over the last few years there have been cases of It seems that the more dairy produce we consume, the higher our vitamin D deficiency in some large UK cities (15). Vegans obtain risk of fracture. The Harvard Nurses Health study examined vitamin D from sunlight and fortified foods such as soya milks, whether higher intakes of milk can reduce the risk of osteoporotic cereals and margarines. It is important to get the balance right fractures. The study observed over 75000 women for 12 years and between being cautious about exposure to the sun and aware of concluded that increasing milk consumption did not confer a the need for some exposure. It is now advised by the UK protective effect against hip or forearm fracture. In fact the report government that we apply sun block after 10 to 15 minutes suggested that an increased calcium intake from dairy foods was exposure to the sun, this is so that we can synthesise vitamin D in associated with a higher risk of fracture (20). the skin. It has been suggested that calcium loss from the bone is M a g n e siu m, Pota ssiu m, Vita min C a n d Vita min K promoted by a high intake of animal protein. One study of 1600 Magnesium, potassium, vitamin C and vitamin K are all required older women examined the level of bone loss and found for good bone health. A healthy diet that vegetarians had only 18 per cent less bone mineral compared to includes at least five servings a day of omnivores who had lost 35 per cent bone mineral by the age of fruit and vegetables should optimise 80 (21). Another study of 1035 elderly women found that the intake of these and other women with a high ratio of animal to vegetable protein intake micronutrients required (16). had a greater risk of hip fracture than those with a low ratio (22). In a similar study that analysed the incidence of hip A nim a l Protein a n d fracture in relation to the consumption of animal and vegetable O ste o p oro sis protein in 33 countries it was concluded that moderating the Bones consist of a thick consumption of animal food might protect against hip fracture outer shell and a strong (23). Cross-cultural studies summarising data on protein intake inner mesh filled with a and fracture rates from 16 countries compared industrialised protein called collagen, and non-industrialised lifestyles and revealed strong links calcium salts and other between a high animal protein diet, bone degeneration and the minerals. Osteoporosis occurrence of hip fractures (24). In Professor T. Colin (meaning porous bones) Campbell’s extensive ‘China Study’ (the largest study in the occurs when calcium is world of the effects of diet on health) Campbell observed that in lost from the bones and rural communities where animal protein made up just 10 per they become more fragile cent of the total protein intake (the other 90 per cent coming and prone to fracture. from plant-based sources) the bone fracture rate was one-fifth of This debilitating that in the US where a much higher ratio of animal to vegetable condition tends to occur protein is consumed (25), again indicating a link between animal mostly in post- protein and bone degeneration. menopausal women due to a lack of the hormone But what is the mechanism for this process? As food is digested oestrogen, which helps acids are released into the blood, the body attempts to neutralise to regulate the the acid by drawing calcium from the bones. This calcium is incorporation of calcium then excreted in the urine (the calciuric response). Animal into the bones. protein has a particularly bad effect because of the greater Osteoporosis tends to amount of sulphur-containing amino acids it contains compared occur mostly among to plant protein. As the sulphur content of the diet increases so postmenopausal women does the level of calcium in the urine. Studies reveal that an aged between 51 and 75. It animal protein diet (with the same total quantity of protein as a can occur earlier, or later vegetarian diet) confers an increased risk for uric acid stones and not all women are at equal (26). Furthermore the animal-protein induced calciuric response risk of developing osteoporosis. may be a risk factor for the development of osteoporosis. The traditional Inuit (or Eskimo) diet is made up almost entirely of Osteoporosis is sometimes called the animal protein. Inuits potentially have one of the highest silent disease as there are often no calcium intakes in the world (up to 2,500 mg a day) depending symptoms until a fracture occurs. on whether they eat whole fish, including the bones, or not. Although the whole skeleton is usually They also have a high rate of osteoporosis, even higher than affected fractures mostly occur in the wrist, white Americans. (27, 28, 29). spine and hip. One in two women and one in five men in the UK will suffer a fracture after the There are many factors linked to bone health that may even be age of 50; in fact every three minutes someone has a more important than calcium. For example, when the bone density fracture due to osteoporosis (17). However, of 80 young women was monitored over a 10-year period, it osteoporosis has been diagnosed in people as young as 20. showed that exercise was more important than calcium intake (30). The dairy industry has responded to this health scare by In older people, a 15-year investigation into whether low calcium promoting the consumption of milk, cheese and yogurt directly to intake was a risk factor for hip fractures concluded that cutting teenage girls. back on dairy did not increase the risk and that physical activity
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  provided better protection(31). The discovery of 18th-century • From a health perspective, dairy foods should be avoided in human bones under a London church revealed that today’s women the diet. lose far more calcium than our ancestors (32). This may be • Cow’s milk is not a natural food for humans to consume. attributed to a lower degree of physical activity. This research • Most people in the world cannot digest the sugar in milk - supports an increasing amount of evidence that physical activity is lactose, and are known as lactose intolerant. Therefore, the a key factor in reducing osteoporosis risk. vast majority of people obtain calcium from plant-based sources. To promote bone health and reduce the risk of osteoporosis it is • Many children are affected by cow’s milk allergies. important to get enough vitamin D, reduce caffeine and alcohol • Looking solely at calcium intake and not at calcium losses tells intake and not smoke. Many studies suggest exercise is the most only half the story, while a vegan’s intake might be less than a important determining factor. The best type of activity for bone meat eater’s, their losses are likely to be much lower. A plant- health is weight bearing exercise; this includes walking, stair based diet free of animal products - a vegan diet – does not climbing and dancing. produce these losses. • There are no scientific reports of calcium deficiency in adult S u m m ary vegans. • Children and young adults do not need dairy foods for good • Vitamin D, magnesium, potassium, vitamin C and vitamin K bone health; they do need exercise and a healthy plant-based are all required for good bone health. diet to ensure strong bones. • Plant-based sources of calcium are many and varied and offer • Diets loaded with dairy products are associated with an many other health benefits as well as providing a natural and increased risk of many diseases including osteoporosis, cancer, safe source of calcium. heart disease, obesity and diabetes. R efere n c e s 1. National Diet and Nutrition Survey- Adults aged 19-64 years, Food Standards 19. Walker A.R.P Richardson B. and Walker F. 1972. The influence of numerous ., Agency, Volume 5, 2004. pregnancies and lactations on bone dimensions in South African Bantu and 2. Reviewed in Optimal calcium intake. NIH Consensus Statement. 1994 Jun 6- Caucasian mothers. Clinical Science. 42: 189-196. 8; 12 (4) 1-31. 20. Feskanich D. Willett W Stampfer M.J. and Colditz G.A. 1997. Milk, .C. 3. Lanou A.J., Berkow S.E., and Barnard N.D. 2005. Calcium, Dairy Products, dietary calcium, and bone fractures in women: a 12-year prospective study. The and Bone Health in Children and Young Adults: A Re-evaluation of the Evidence. American Journal of Public Health. 87 (6) 992-7. Pediatrics. 115 (3) 736-743. 21. Marsh A.G., Sanchez T.V Michelsen O., Chaffee F.L. and Fagal S.M. 1988. ., 4. FSA, 2002. McCance & Widdowson's The Composition of Foods, 6th Vegetarian lifestyle and bone mineral density. The American Journal of Clinical summary edition. Cambridge, England, Royal Society of Chemistry. Nutrition. 48 (3 Supplement) 837-41. 5. McKeith, G., 2004. You are what you eat, the plan that will change your life. 22. Sellmeyer D.E., Stone K.L, Sebastian A. and Cummings S.R. 2001. A high London: Penguin Books Limited. ratio of dietary animal to vegetable protein increases the rate of bone loss and the 6. Robbins J. 2001. The Food Revolution, how your diet can help save your life risk of fracture in postmenopausal women. The American Journal of Clinical and the world. Berkeley, California, USA. Conari Press. Nutrition. 73 (1) 118-22. 7. Paronen J., Knip M., Savilahti E., Virtanen S.M., Ilonen J., Akerblom H.K. 23. Frassetto L.A., Todd K.M., Morris R.C. Jr and Sebastian A. 2000. Worldwide and Vaarala O. 2000. Effect of cow's milk exposure and maternal type 1 diabetes incidence of hip fracture in elderly women: relation to consumption of animal on cellular and humoral immunization to dietary insulin in infants at genetic risk and vegetable foods. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences for type 1 diabetes. Finnish Trial to Reduce IDDM in the Genetically at Risk and medical sciences. 55 (10) M585-92. Study Group. Diabetes. 49 (10) 1657-65. 24. Abelow B.J., Holford T.R. and Insogna K.L. 1992. Cross-cultural association 8. Cavallo M.G., Fava D., Monetini L., Barone F. and Pozzilli P 1996. Cell- . between dietary animal protein and hip fracture: a hypothesis. Calcified Tissue mediated immune response to beta casein in recent-onset insulin-dependent International. 50 (1) 14-8. diabetes: implications for disease pathogenesis. The Lancet. 348 (9032) 926-8. 25. Campbell T. C. and Campbell T. M. II. 2004. The China Study: The Most 9. Gerstein H.C. 1994. Cow's milk exposure and type I diabetes mellitus. A Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling critical overview of the clinical literature. Diabetes Care. 17 (1) 13-9. Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-Term Health. Dallas, Texas, USA. 10. Heaney R.P and Weaver C.M. 1990. Calcium absorption from kale. The . BenBella Books. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 51 (4) 656-7. 26. Breslau N.A., Brinkley L., Hill K.D. and Pak C.Y. 1988. Relationship of 11. Heaney R.P Weaver C.M. and Recker R.R. 1988. Calcium absorbability ., animal protein-rich diet to kidney stone formation and calcium metabolism. The from spinach. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 47 (4) 707-9. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 66 (1) 140-6. 12. Hurrell R.F. 2003. Influence of vegetable protein sources on trace element 27. Mazess R.B. and Mather W 1974. Bone mineral content of North Alaskan .E. and mineral bioavailability. The Journal of Nutrition. 133 (9) 2973S-7S. Eskimos. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 27 (9) 916-25. 13. Barger-Lux M.J. and Heaney R.P Caffeine and the calcium economy . 28. Mazess R.B. and Mather W 1975. Bone mineral content in Canadian .E. revisited. Osteoporosis International, 1995. 5 97-102. Eskimos. Human Biology. 47 (1) 44-63. 14. The Government and Cancer Research UK's SunSmart Campaign’s website: 29. Pratt W and Holloway J.M. 2001. Incidence of hip fracture in Alaska Inuit .B. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/sunsmart/forprofessionals/vitamind/?version=1 people: 1979-89 and 1996-99. Alaska Medicine. 43 (1) 2-5. [Accessed 20 September 2005]. 30. Lloyd T., Petit M.A., Lin H.M. and Beck T.J. 2004. Lifestyle factors and the 15. Shaw N.J. and Pal B.R. 2002. Vitamin D deficiency in UK Asian families: development of bone mass and bone strength in young women. The Journal of activating a new concern. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 86 147-149. Pediatrics. 144 (6) 776-782. 16. Nieves J.W Osteoporosis: the role of micronutrients. 2005. The American . 31. Wickham C.A., Walsh K., Cooper C., Barker D.J., Margetts B.M., Morris J. Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 81 (5) 1232S-1239S. and Bruce S.A. 1989. Dietary calcium, physical activity, and risk of hip fracture: a 17. National Osteoporosis Society Online: http://www.nos.org.uk/osteo.asp [Accessed prospective study. British Medical Journal. 299 (6704) 889-92. 20 September 2005]. National Osteoporosis Society, Camerton, Bath, BA2 0PJ. 32. B. Lees, T. Molleson, T.R. Arnett and J.C. Stevenson. 1993. Differences in 18. Frassetto L.A., Todd K.M., Morris R.C. Jr and Sebastian A. 2000. Worldwide proximal femur bone density over two centuries. The Lancet. 13, 341 (8846) 673-5. incidence of hip fracture in elderly women: relation to consumption of animal and vegetable foods. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences. 55 (10) M585-92. VVF - Feeding you the Facts T his is o n e in a s erie s of VV F fa ctsh e ets. For d etails c o nta ct: VV F, To p S uite , 8 York C o urt, Wild er Stre et, Bristol B S2 8 Q H . Tel: 0117 970 5190. E m ail: info @ ve g etaria n.org.uk We b : www.ve g etaria n.org .uk