Capitulo 9 Exploration Network

Ethernet Network Fundamentals – Chapter 9

Objectives Identify the basic characteristics of network media used in Ethernet. Describe the physical and data link features of Ethernet. Describe the function and characteristics of the media access control method used by Ethernet protocol. Explain the importance of Layer 2 addressing used for data transmission and determine how the different types of addressing impacts network operation and performance. Compare and contrast the application and benefits of using Ethernet switches in a LAN as apposed to using hubs. Explain the ARP process.

Ethernet - Standars and Implementation The first LAN in the world was the original version of Ethernet Was published in 1980 by a consortium of Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel, and Xerox (DIX). In 1985 the IEEE committee for Local and Metropolitan Networks published standards for LANs. The standard for Ethernet is 802.3. The IEEE wanted to make sure that its standards were compatible with those of the International Standards Organization (ISO) and OSI model. Ethernet operates in the lower two layers of the OSI model: the of the Data Link layer and the Physical layer.

Ethernet – Layer 1 and Layer 2 Ethernet operates across two layers of the OSI model Ethernet is implemented in the lower half of the Data Link layer (Media Access Control) and the Physical layer only. Ethernet at Layer 1 involves signals, bit streams that travel on the media, physical components that put signals on media, and various topologies. Ethernet at Layer 2 addresses, in the MAC sublayer is concerned with the physical components that will be used to communicate the information and prepares the data for transmission over the media.. The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer remains relatively independent of the physical equipment that will be used for the communication process.

Logical Link Control – Connecting to the Upper Layers LLC handles the communication between the upper layers and the networking software and the lower layers typically the hardware; the LLC sublayer takes the network protocol data, which is typically an IPv4 packet, and adds control information to help deliver the packet to the destination node. Layer 2 communicates with the upper layers through LLC. LLC is implemented in software, and its implementation is independent of the physical equipment. In a computer, the LLC can be considered the driver software for the Network Interface Card (NIC). The NIC driver is a program that interacts directly with the hardware on the NIC to pass the data between the media and the Media Access Control sublayer.

MAC – Getting Data to the Media MAC is the lower Ethernet sublayer of the Data Link layer, is implemented by hardware (NIC), has two primary responsibilities: Data Encapsulation: provides three primary functions: Frame delimiting Addressing Error detection Media Access Control: controls the placement of frames on the media and the removal of frames from the media, includes the initiation of frame transmission and recovery from transmission failure due to collisions. Logical topology of Ethernet is a multi-access bus, means that all the nodes in that network segment share the medium. All the nodes receive all the frames, each node needs to determine if a frame is to be accepted and processed by that node. This requires examining the addressing in the frame provided by the MAC address. The media access control method for classic Ethernet is Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Physical Implementations of Ethernet Ethernet can that transported data at 3 Mbps can carry data at 10 Gbps. The success of Ethernet is due to the following factors: Simplicity and ease of maintenance Ability to incorporate new technologies Reliability Low cost of installation and upgrade Ethernet specifies and implements encoding and decoding schemes that enable frame bits to be carried as signals across the media. Ethernet uses UTP copper cables and optical fiber to interconnect network devices via intermediary devices such as hubs and switches.

History Ethernet Ethernet technology was first established in 1970 (Alohanet) It was a digital radio network designed to transmit information over a shared radio frequency between the Hawaiian Islands. Alohanet required all stations to follow a protocol in which an unacknowledged transmission required re-transmitting after a short period of waiting. The techniques for using a shared medium in this way were later applied to wired technology in the form of Ethernet. Ethernet was designed to accommodate multiple computers that were Interconnected on a shared bus topology. The first version of Ethernet incorporated a media access method known as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

Early Ethernet Media The 1 st versions of Ethernet used coaxial cable to connect computers in a bus topology; Thicknet, coaxial (10BASE5) and Thinnet (10BASE2). Ethernet were deployed in a low-bandwidth LAN environment where access to the shared media was managed by CSMA, and later CSMA/CD. Being a logical bus topology and physical bus topology, this became problematic The original thick coaxial were replaced by early categories of UTP cables (easier to work with, lightweight, and less expensive). The physical topology was also changed to a star topology using hubs, they take a group of nodes and allow the network to see them as a single unit. When a frame arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all the segments on the LAN receive the frame. Using the hub in this bus topology increased network reliability by allowing any single cable to fail without disrupting the entire network. However, repeating the frame to all other ports did not solve the issue of collisions.

Ethernet collisions Managing 10BASE-T networks, central point of the network segment was a hub, created a shared media only one station could successfully transmit at a time (half-duplex). As more devices were added to an Ethernet network, the amount of frame collisions increased. Current Ethernet A development that enhanced LAN performance was the introduction of switches to replace hubs in Ethernet-based networks. 100BASE-TX Ethernet, switches can control the flow of data by isolating each port and sending a frame only to its proper destination (if the destination is known) . The switch reduces the number of devices receiving each frame, which in turn reduces or minimizes the possibility of collisions. Full-duplex communications has enabled the development of 1Gbps Ethernet and beyond.

Moving to 1 Gbps The increasing use of VoIP and multimedia services requires connections that are faster than 100 Mbps Ethernet. Gigabit Ethernet provide bandwidth of 1000 Mbps or greater, full-duplex, UTP and fiber-optic media technologies of earlier Ethernet. 1 Gbps Ethernet does not mean that the existing network infrastructure of cables and switches has to be completely replaced. Some of the equipment and cabling in modern, well-designed and installed networks may be capable of working at the higher speeds with only minimal upgrading (has the benefit of reducing the total cost of ownership of the network). The increased cabling distances enabled by the use of fiber-optic cable in Ethernet-based networks has resulted in a blurring of the distinction between LANs and WANs. Ethernet was initially limited to LAN cable systems within single buildings, and then extended to between buildings. It can now be applied across a city in what is known as a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).

The Ethernet MAC Address Ethernet was implemented as part of a bus topology, in small networks, this was an acceptable deployment. The main problem to solve was how to identify each device. The signal could be sent to every device, but how would each device identify if it were the intended receiver of the message? A unique identifier called a Media Access Control (MAC) address was created to assist in determining the source and destination address within an Ethernet network. MAC addressing is added as part of a Layer 2 PDU, is a 48-bit binary value expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits.

The Ethernet MAC Address IEEE require, assigns the vendor a 3-byte code (Organizationally Unique Identifier - OUI); requires a vendor to follow two simple rules: All MAC addresses assigned to a NIC or other Ethernet device must use that vendor's assigned OUI as the first 3 bytes. All MAC addresses with the same OUI must be assigned a unique value (vendor code or serial number) in the last 3 bytes. The MAC address - burned-in address (BIA) because it is burned into ROM on the NIC, means that the address is encoded into the ROM chip permanently - it cannot be changed by software. When the computer starts up, the NIC copies the address into RAM, Network Devices: source device is forwarding the message to an Ethernet network, the header information within the destination MAC address is attached, source device sends the data through the network. Each NIC in the network views the information to see if the MAC address matches its physical address. If there is no match, the device discards the frame.

Hexadecimal Numbering and Addressing Hexadecimal Numbering: is a way to represent binary values, is base sixteen system. Uses the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A to F Hexadecimal is usually represented in text by the value preceded by 0x (0x73) or a subscript 16, may be followed by an H (73H). It is used to represent Ethernet MAC addresses and IP Version 6 addresses. Hexadecimal Conversions Number conversions between decimal and hexadecimal values are straightforward, but quickly dividing or multiplying by 16 is not always convenient. If such conversions are required, it is usually easier to convert the decimal or hexadecimal value to binary, and then to convert the binary value to either decimal or hexadecimal as appropriate.

Another Layer of Addressing Data Link Layer (MAC Address) It is used to transport the frame across the local media, providing unique host addresses, physical addresses are non-hierarchical. They are associated with a particular device. Layer 2 addresses have no meaning outside the local network media, a packet may have to traverse a number of different Data Link technologies in local and wide area networks before it reaches its destination. Network Layer IPv4 addresses, provide the ubiquitous, logical addressing that is understood at both source and destination. To arrive at its eventual destination, a packet carries the destination Layer 3 address from its source. In short: The Network layer address enables the packet to be forwarded toward its destination. The Data Link layer address enables the packet to be carried by the local media across each segment.

Ethernet Unicast A unicast MAC address is the unique address used when a frame is sent from a single transmitting device to single destination device. The IP address and MAC address combine to deliver data to one specific destination host.

Broadcast The packet contains a destination IP address that has all ones (1s) in the host portion. This numbering in the address means that all hosts on that local network (broadcast domain) will receive and process the packet. Network protocols (DHCP- ARP), use broadcasts. On Ethernet networks, the broadcast MAC address is 48 ones displayed as Hexadecimal FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF.

Multicast Multicast addresses allow a source device to send a packet to a group of devices, devices that belong to a multicast group are assigned a multicast group IP address. The range of multicast addresses is from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Multicast addresses would be used are in remote gaming, where many players are connected remotely but playing the same game, and distance learning through video conferencing, where many students are connected to the same class. The multicast IP address requires a corresponding multicast MAC address to actually deliver frames on a local network. The multicast MAC address is a special value that begins with 01-00-5E in hexadecimal..

Media Access Control in Ethernet Shared media environment, all devices have guaranteed access to the medium, but they have no prioritized claim on it. If more than one device transmits simultaneously, the physical signals collide and the network must recover in order for communication to continue. Collisions are the cost that Ethernet pays to get the low overhead associated with each transmission. Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to detect and handle collisions and manage the resumption of communications.

CSMA/CD – The Process Carrier Sense: all network devices that have messages to send must listen before transmitting, if a device detects a signal from another device, it will wait for a specified amount of time before attempting to transmit. When there is no traffic detected, a device will transmit its message. Multi-access: i f the distance between devices is such that the latency of one device's signals means that signals are not detected by a second device, the second device may start to transmit, too. The media now has two devices transmitting their signals at the same time. Their messages will propagate across the media until they encounter each other. At that point, the signals mix and the message is destroyed. Collision Detection: w hen a device is in listening mode, it can detect when a collision occurs on the shared media. The detection of a collision is made possible because all devices can detect an increase in the amplitude of the signal above the normal level. The other devices in listening mode will detect the increase in the signal amplitude, Jam Signal and Random Backoff: Once the collision is detected by the transmitting devices, they send out a jamming signal. This jamming signal is used to notify the other devices of a collision, so that they will invoke a backoff algorithm. This backoff algorithm causes all devices to stop transmitting for a random amount of time, which allows the collision signals to subside.

Hubs and Collision Domains Recall that hubs were created as intermediary network devices that enable more nodes to connect to the shared media. (multi-port repeaters), hubs retransmit received data signals to all connected devices, except the one from which it received the signals. Hubs and repeaters are intermediary devices that extend the distance that Ethernet cables can reach. Using hubs to provide network access to more users reduces the performance for each user because the fixed capacity of the media has to be shared between more and more devices. The connected devices that access a common media via a hub or series of directly connected hubs (collision domain or network segment) An increased number of collisions reduces the network's efficiency CSMA/CD is a frame collision management system, it was designed to manage collisions for only limited numbers of devices and on networks with light network usage. We will see that using switches in place of hubs can begin to alleviate this problem.

Ethernet Timing Latency Each device that wants to transmit must first "listen" to the media to check for traffic. If no traffic exists, the station will begin to transmit immediately. The electrical signal that is transmitted takes a certain amount of time (latency) to propagate (travel) down the cable. Each hub or repeater in the signal's path adds latency as it forwards the bits from one port to the next. Timing and Synchronization Half-duplex mode, if a collision has not occurred, the sending device will transmit 64 bits of timing synchronization information (Preamble) The sending device will then transmit the complete frame. Ethernet with throughput speeds of 10 Mbps and slower are asynchronous, means that each receiving device will use the 8 bytes of timing information to synchronize the receive circuit to the incoming data and then discard the 8 bytes. Ethernet with throughput of 100 Mbps and higher are synchronous. Synchronous communication means that the timing information is not required, for compatibility reasons, the Preamble and Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) fields are still present.

Bit Time Each different media speed, a period of time is required for a bit to be placed and sensed on the media (bit time). 10-Mbps 100 nanoseconds (nS) to transmit. 100 Mbps, that same bit requires 10 nS to transmit. 1000 Mbps 1 nS to transmit a bit. Slot Time Slot time for 10- and 100-Mbps Ethernet is 512 bit times, or 64 octets. Slot time for 1000-Mbps Ethernet is 4096 bit times, or 512 octets. The slot time ensures that if a collision is going to occur, it will be detected within the first 512 bits (4096 for Gigabit Ethernet) of the frame transmission. This simplifies the handling of frame retransmissions following a collision. Slot time is an important parameter for the following reasons: The 512-bit slot time establishes the minimum size of an Ethernet frame as 64 bytes. Any frame less than 64 bytes in length is considered a "collision fragment" or "runt frame" and is automatically discarded by receiving stations.

The slot time establishes a limit on the maximum size of a network's segments. If the network grows too big, late collisions can occur. Late collisions are considered a failure in the network because the collision is detected too late by a device during the frame transmission to be automatically handled by CSMA/CD. Slot time is calculated assuming maximum cable lengths on the largest legal network architecture. The actual calculated slot time is just longer than the theoretical amount of time required to travel between the furthest points of the collision domain, collide with another transmission at the last possible instant, and then have the collision fragments return to the sending station and be detected.

Interframe Spacing The Ethernet standards require a minimum spacing between two non-colliding frames, this gives the media time to stabilize after the transmission of the previous frame and time for the devices to process the frame. This time is measured from the last bit of the FCS field of one frame to the first bit of the Preamble of the next frame. After a frame has been sent, all devices on a 10 Mbps Ethernet network are required to wait a minimum of 96 bit times (9.6 microseconds) before any device can transmit its next frame.

Jam Signal Ethernet allows all devices to compete for transmitting time. In the event that two devices transmit simultaneously, the network CSMA/CD attempts to resolve the issue. But remember, when a larger number of devices are added to the network, it is possible for the collisions to become increasingly difficult to resolve. As soon as a collision is detected, the sending devices transmit a 32-bit "jam" signal that will enforce the collision. This ensures all devices in the LAN to detect the collision. It is important that the jam signal not be detected as a valid frame; otherwise the collision would not be identified. The most commonly observed data pattern for a jam signal is simply a repeating 1, 0, 1, 0 pattern, the same as the Preamble.

Backoff Timing After a collision occurs and all devices allow the cable to become idle (each waits the full interframe spacing), the devices whose transmissions collided must wait an additional period of time before attempting to retransmit the collided frame. The waiting period is intentionally designed to be random so that two stations do not delay for the same amount of time before retransmitting, which would result in more collisions.

Overview of Ethernet Physical Layer Ethernet is covered by the IEEE 802.3 standards. Four data rates are currently defined for operation over optical fiber and twisted-pair cables: 10 Mbps - 10Base-T Ethernet 100 Mbps - Fast Ethernet 1000 Mbps - Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gbps - 10 Gigabit Ethernet

Mbps Ethernet 10BASE5 (Thicknet coaxial cable), 10BASE2 (Thinnet coaxial). 10 Mbps Ethernet - 10BASE-T, uses Manchester-encoding over two unshielded twisted-pair cables, Cat3 cabling, Cat5. Uses a physical star topology, 100 meters before requiring a hub or repeater, uses two pairs of a four-pair cable and is terminated at each end with an 8-pin RJ-45 connector. The pair connected to pins 1 and 2 are used for transmitting and the pair connected to pins 3 and 6 are used for receiving. The 10BASE-T links connected to a switch can support either half-duplex or full-duplex operation.

100 Mbps – Fast Ethernet: can be implemented using twisted-pair copper wire or fiber media. 100BASE-TX : designed to support transmission over either two pairs of Category 5 UTP copper wire or two strands of optical fiber, uses the same two pairs and pinouts of UTP 10BASE-T, requires Category 5 or later UTP, 4B/5B encoding, 100BASE-TX use a switch at the center of the star instead of a hub. 100BASE-FX: uses the same signaling procedure as 100BASE-TX, but over optical fiber media rather than UTP copper, the signal transmission is different - electrical pulses in copper and light pulses in optical fiber, uses Low Cost Fiber Interface Connectors (duplex SC connector).

1000 Mbps - Gigabit Ethernet : resulted in specifications for UTP copper, single-mode fiber, and multimode fiber, performance is based on how fast the network adapter or interface can change voltage levels, 1000BASE-T Ethernet: provides full-duplex transmission using all four pairs in Category 5, uses 4D-PAM5 line encoding to obtain 1 Gbps data throughput, allows the transmission and reception of data in both directions, 1000BASE-T uses many voltage levels.

1000BASE-SX and 1000BASE-LX Ethernet Using Fiber-Optics The fiber versions of Gigabit Ethernet - 1000BASE-SX and 1000BASE-LX - offer the following advantages over UTP: noise immunity, small physical size, and increased unrepeated distances and bandwidth. All 1000BASE-SX and 1000BASE-LX versions support full-duplex binary transmission at 1250 Mbps over two strands of optical fiber. The principal differences among the 1000BASE-SX and 1000BASE-LX fiber versions are the link media, connectors, and wavelength of the optical signal.

Legacy Ethernet – Using Hubs Classic Ethernet uses hubs to interconnect nodes on the LAN segment, results in high levels of collisions, Scalability: there is a limit to the amount of bandwidth that devices can share, the average bandwidth available to each device decreases. Latency: amount of time it takes a signal to reach all destinations on the media, Network Failure: b ecause classic Ethernet shares the media, any device in the network could potentially cause problems for other devices. If any device connected to the hub generates detrimental traffic, the communication for all devices on the media could be impeded. Collisions: a node should not send a packet unless the network is clear of traffic. If two nodes send packets at the same time, a collision occurs and the packets are lost. A network with a larger number of nodes on the same segment has a larger collision domain and typically has more traffic. As the amount of traffic in the network increases, the likelihood of collisions increases.

Ethernet Using HUbs Switches have quickly become a fundamental part of most networks, allow the segmentation of the LAN into separate collision domains, each port of the switch represents a separate collision domain and provides the full media bandwidth to the node or nodes connected on that port.

Nodes are Connected Directly: in a LAN where all nodes are connected directly to the switch, the throughput of the network increases dramatically. Dedicated Bandwidth: each node has the full media bandwidth available in the connection between the node and the switch. Collision-Free Environment : a dedicated point-to-point connection to a switch also removes any media contention between devices, allowing a node to operate with few or no collisions. Full-Duplex Operation: switching also allows a network to operate as a full-duplex Ethernet environment. Using Switches Instead of Hubs Most modern Ethernet use switches to the end devices and operate full duplex. Because switches provide so much greater throughput than hubs and increase performance so dramatically, it is fair to ask: why not use switches in every Ethernet LAN? There are three reasons why hubs are still being used: Availability, Economics, Requirements

Switches selective Forward Ethernet switches selectively forward individual frames from a receiving port to the port where the destination node is connected. Any node operating in full-duplex mode can transmit anytime it has a frame, without regard to the availability of the receiving node. This is because a LAN switch will buffer an incoming frame and then forward it to the proper port (store and forward). With store and forward switching, the switch receives the entire frame, checks the FSC for errors, and forwards the frame to the appropriate port for the destination node. Forwarding is Based on the Destination MAC: switch maintains a table (MAC table or switch table), that matches a destination MAC address with the port used to connect to a node. For each incoming frame, the destination MAC address in the frame header is compared to the list of addresses in the MAC table. If a match is found, the port number in the table that is paired with the MAC address is used as the exit port for the frame. A bridge is a device used more commonly in the early days of LAN to connect two physical network segments, switches can be used to perform this operation.

Switch Operation: LAN switches use five basic operations: Learning: the MAC table must be populated with MAC addresses and their corresponding ports. The Learning process allows these mappings to be dynamically acquired during normal operation. Aging: the entries in the MAC table acquired by the Learning process are time stamped, this timestamp is used for removing old entries in the MAC table. Flooding: If the switch does not know to which port to send a frame because the destination MAC address is not in the MAC table, the switch sends the frame to all ports except the port on which the frame arrived. Selective Forwarding: is the process of examining a frame's destination MAC address and forwarding it out the appropriate port. This is the central function of the switch. Filtering: in some cases, a frame is not forwarded, a switch does not forward a frame to the same port on which it arrived, drop a corrupt frame, security. 9.6.3

The ARP Process The ARP protocol provides two basic functions: Resolving IPv4 Addresses to MAC Addresses: f or a frame to be placed on the LAN media, it must have a destination MAC address. When a packet is sent to the Data Link layer to be encapsulated into a frame, the node refers to a table in its memory to find the Data Link layer address that is mapped to the destination IPv4 address. This table is called the ARP table or the ARP cache. the ARP table is stored in the RAM of the device. Each entry, or row, of the ARP table has a pair of values: an IP Address and a MAC address (map), to begin the process, a transmitting node attempts to locate in the ARP table the MAC address mapped to an IPv4 destination. If this map is cached in the table, the node uses the MAC address as the destination MAC in the frame that encapsulates the IPv4 packet. The frame is then encoded onto the networking media. Maintaining the ARP Table: is maintained dynamically. There are two ways that a device can gather MAC addresses. One way is to monitor the traffic that occurs on the local network segment. As a node receives frames from the media, it can record the source IP and MAC address as a mapping in the ARP table.

Another way a device can get an address pair is to broadcast an ARP request, the frame contains an ARP request packet with the IP address of the destination host. The node receiving the frame that identifies the IP address as its own responds by sending an ARP reply packet back to the sender as a unicast frame. 9.7.1

The ARP Process – Destination outside the Local Network All frames must be delivered to a node on the local network segment. If the destination IPv4 host is on the local network, the frame will use the MAC address of this device as the destination MAC address. If the destination IPv4 host is not on the local network, the source node needs to deliver the frame to the router interface that is the gateway or next hop used to reach that destination. The source node will use the MAC address of the gateway as the destination address for frames containing an IPv4 packet addressed to hosts on other networks. 9.7.2

Proxy ARP There are circumstances under which a host might send an ARP request seeking to map an IPv4 address outside of the range of the local network. The device sends ARP requests for IPv4 addresses not on the local network instead of requesting the MAC address associated with the IPv4 address of the gateway. To provide a MAC address for these hosts, a router interface may use a proxy ARP to respond on behalf of these remote hosts. Using proxy ARP, a router interface acts as if it is the host with the IPv4 address requested by the ARP request. By "faking" its identity, the router accepts responsibility for routing packets to the "real" destination. ARP always sends ARP requests for the destination IPv4 address. If proxy ARP is disabled on the router interface, these hosts cannot communicate out of the local network.

Removing Address to Mapping For each device, an ARP cache timer removes ARP entries that have not been used for a specified period of time. The times differ depending on the device and its operating system. For example, some Windows operating systems store ARP cache entries for 2 minutes. If the entry is used again during that time, the ARP timer for that entry is extended to 10 minutes. Commands may also be used to manually remove all or some of the entries in the ARP table. After an entry has been removed, the process for sending an ARP request and receiving an ARP reply must occur again to enter the map in the ARP table.

ARP Broadcasts - Issues Overhead on the Media: ARP request is received and processed by every device on the local network, if a large number of devices were to be powered up and all start accessing network services at the same time, there could be some reduction in performance for a short period of time. However, after the devices send out the initial ARP broadcasts and have learned the necessary MAC addresses, any impact on the network will be minimized. Security: i n some cases, the use of ARP can lead to a potential security risk, ARP spoofing or ARP poisoning, is a technique used by an attacker to inject the wrong MAC address association into a network by issuing ARP requests. An attacker forges the MAC address of a device and then frames can be sent to the wrong destination. Manually configuring static ARP associations is one way to prevent ARP spoofing. Authorized MAC addresses can be configured on some network devices to restrict network access to only those devices listed.

Capitulo 9 Exploration Network

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