Livestock and Climate Change

Livestock
Thematic Papers
Tools for project design

Livestock and climate change
Evidence from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) is now
overwhelmingly convincing that climate change is real, that it will become worse, and that
the poorest and most vulnerable people will be the worst affected.
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) acknowledges climate change
as one of the factors affecting rural poverty and as one of the challenges it needs to address.1
While climate change is a global phenomenon, its negative impacts are more severely felt
by poor people in developing countries who rely heavily on the natural resource base for
their livelihoods. Rural poor communities rely greatly for their survival on agriculture and
livestock keeping that are amongst the most climate-sensitive economic sectors.
The IPCC predicts that by 2100 the increase in global average surface temperature may be
between 1.8° C and 4.0° C. With increases of 1.5° C to 2.5° C, approximately 20 to 30 per
cent of plant and animal species are expected to be at risk of extinction (FAO, 2007b) with
severe consequences for food security in developing countries.
Responses to climate change include (i) adaptation,2 to reduce the vulnerability of
people and ecosystems to climatic changes, and (ii) mitigation,3 to reduce the magnitude of
climate change impact in the long term. However, neither adaptation nor mitigation alone
can offset all climate change impacts. To respond to this threat it will be necessary to focus
both on mitigation, to reduce the level of emission of gases contributing to global warming,
and on adaptation, to support local communities in dealing with the impacts.

1 The IFAD Strategic Framework 2007-2010 is available on line at www.ifad.org/sf/. For further details
consult: “IFAD/GEF partnership on climate change: Fighting a global challenge at the local level” available at
www.ifad.org/climate/
2 Adaptation includes all activities that help people and ecosystems reduce their vulnerability to the
adverse impacts of climate change and minimize the costs of natural disasters. There is no one-size-fits-all
solution for adaptation; measures need to be tailored to specific contexts, such as ecological and socio-
economic patterns, and to geographical location and traditional practices. (IFAD: a key player in adaptation
to climate change, available at www.ifad.org/operations/gef/climate/ifad_adaption.pdf)
3 Mitigation activities are designed to reduce the sources and enhance the sinks of greenhouses gases in
order to limit the negative effects of climate change. (IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Working Group III.)

At present, very few development strategies The effects of climate change
promoting sustainable agriculture and on livestock and fisheries
livestock related practices have explicitly The possible effects of climate change on food
included measures to support local production are not limited to crops and
communities in adapting to or mitigating the agricultural production. Climate change will
effects of climate change. Activities aimed at have far-reaching consequences for dairy, meat
increasing the resilience of rural communities and wool production, mainly arising from its
will be needed to raise their capacity to adapt impact on grassland and rangeland
and to respond to new hazards. productivity. Heat distress suffered by animals
At the same time, while small scale will reduce the rate of animal feed intake and
agricultural producers and livestock keepers, result in poor growth performance (Rowlinson,
especially poor farmers, are relatively small 2008). Lack of water and increased frequency
contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG)4 of drought in certain countries will lead to a
emissions, they have a key role to play in loss of resources. Consequently, as exemplified
promoting and sustaining a low-carbon rural by many African countries, existing food
path through proper agricultural technology insecurity and conflict over scarce resources will
and management systems. be exacerbated.6 The following sections provide
This thematic paper analyses some of the an overview of the effects of climate change on
key issues linking climate change and both livestock and fisheries.
development practices in livestock and
farming systems.5 It draws on knowledge The effects of climate change on livestock
gained from IFAD-supported projects and In pastoral and agropastoral systems, livestock
programmes, and documents some of the is a key asset for poor people, fulfilling multiple
experiences and the lessons learned in economic, social and risk management
addressing livestock and climate change. The functions. The impact of climate change is
paper also briefly examines the following: expected to heighten the vulnerability of
• The effects of climate change on livestock livestock systems and reinforce existing factors
and fisheries. that are affecting livestock production systems,
• Adaptation and mitigation strategies in the such as rapid population and economic growth,
livestock sector. rising demand for food (including livestock)
• Livestock and soil carbon sequestration. and products,7 conflict over scarce resources
• Gender issues in relation to livestock and (land tenure, water, biofuels, etc). For rural
climate change. communities, losing livestock assets could
trigger a collapse into chronic poverty and have
The paper builds on these concepts and a lasting effect on livelihoods.
strategies to provide recommendations for The direct effects of climate change will
project design, together with possible include, for example, higher temperatures and
solutions promoting both adaptation and changing rainfall patterns, which could
mitigation activities in development projects. translate into the increased spread of existing
vector-borne diseases and macroparasites,
accompanied by the emergence and
circulation of new diseases. In some areas,
climate change could also generate new
transmission models.

4 The main greenhouse gases are: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N20). Less prevalent
but very powerful greenhouse gases are hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6). Further details available online at www.ifad.org/climate/
5 Annex 1 briefly describes how climate change could alter the output potential of agriculture worldwide.
6 See Annex II for more information about the impact of climate change on livestock management in Africa.
7 Globally, livestock products contribute approximately 30 per cent of the protein in human diets (Gill and Smith,
2008), and this contribution is only expected to increase (FAO Stats).

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Table 1

Factor Impacts

Water: Water scarcity is increasing at an accelerated pace and affects between 1 and 2 billion
people. Climate change will have a substantial effect on global water availability in the
future. Not only will this affect livestock drinking water sources, but it will also have a
bearing on livestock feed production systems and pasture yield.

Feeds: Land use and systems changes
As climate changes and becomes more variable, niches for different species alter. This may
modify animal diets and compromise the ability of smallholders to manage feed deficits.8

Changes in the primary productivity of crops, forage and rangeland
Effects will depend significantly on location, system and species. In C49 species, a rise in
temperature to 30-35° C may increase the productivity of crops, fodder and pastures. In
C310 plants, rising temperature has a similar effect, but increases in CO2 levels will have a
positive impact on the productivity of these crops. For food-feed crops, harvest indexes
will change, as will the availability of energy that can be metabolized for dry season
feeding. In semi-arid rangelands where the growing season is likely to contract,
productivity is expected to decrease.

Changes in species composition
As temperature and CO2 levels change, optimal growth ranges for different species also
change; species alter their competition dynamics, and the composition of mixed grasslands
changes. For example, higher CO2 levels will affect the proportion of browse species. They
are expected to expand as a result of increased growth and competition between each
other. Legume species will also benefit from CO2 increases and in tropical grasslands the mix
between legumes and grasses could be altered.

Quality of plant material
Rising temperatures increase lignifications of plant tissues and thus reduce the digestibility and
the rates of degradation of plant species. The resultant reduction in livestock production may
have an effect on the food security and incomes of smallholders. Interactions between primary
productivity and quality of grasslands will require modifications in the management of grazing
systems to attain production objectives.

Biodiversity In some places there will be an acceleration in the loss of the genetic and cultural
(genetics and breeding): diversity already occurring in agriculture as a result of globalization. This loss will also be
evident in crops and domestic animals. A 2.5° C rise in global temperature would
determine major losses: between 20 and 30 per cent of all plant and animal species
assessed could face a high risk of extinction. Ecosystems and species display a wide
range of vulnerabilities to climate change, depending on the imminence of exposure to
ecosystem-specific critical thresholds, but assessments of the effects of CO2 fertilization
and other processes are inconclusive.
Local and rare breeds could be lost as a result of the impact of climate change and
disease epidemics. Biodiversity loss has global health implications and many of the
anticipated health risks driven by climate change will be attributable to a loss of
genetic diversity.

Livestock (and human) Vector-borne diseases could be affected by: (i) the expansion of vector populations into
health: cooler areas (in higher altitude areas: malaria and livestock tick-borne diseases) or into
more temperate zones (such as bluetongue disease in northern Europe); and (ii) changes
in rainfall pattern during wetter years, which could also lead to expanding vector
populations and large-scale outbreaks of disease (e.g. Rift Valley fever virus in East Africa).
Temperature and humidity variations could have a significant effect on helminth infections.
Trypanotolerance, an adaptive trait which has developed over the course of millennia in
sub-humid zones of West Africa, could be lost, thus leading to a greater risk of disease in
the future.
Changes in crop and livestock practices could produce effects on the distribution and
impact of malaria in many systems, and schistosomiasis and lymphatic filariasis in irrigated
systems.
Heat-related mortality and morbidity could increase.

Adapted from Thornton et al., 2008.

8 For example, in parts of East Africa, maize is likely to be substituted with crops more suited to drier environments (sorghum, millet); in
marginal arid southern Africa, systems could convert from mixed-crop livestock to rangelands-based systems.
9 C4 plants possess biochemical and anatomical mechanisms to raise the intercellular carbon dioxide concentration at the site of
fixation; this reduces, and sometimes eliminates, carbon losses through photorespiration. C4 plants inhabit hot, dry environments and
have a very high rate of water-use efficiency, which means that there can be up to twice as much photosynthesis per gram of water as
there is in C3 plants. However, C4 metabolism is inefficient in shady or cool environments. Less than 1 per cent of the earth's plant
species can be classified as C4.
10 C3 plants, which account for more than 95 per cent of earth's plant species, use rubisco to make a three-carbon compound as the
first stable product of carbon fixation. C3 plants flourish in cool, wet and cloudy climates, where light levels may be low, because the
metabolic pathway is more energy efficient and, if water is plentiful, the stomata can stay open and let in more carbon dioxide. Carbon
losses through photorespiration are high in C3 plants.

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These effects will be evident in both exploitation of marine resources), together
developed and developing countries, but the with future climate change, will have a bearing
pressure will be greatest on developing on a very large number of fisheries in different
countries because of their lack of resources, socio-economic and geographical contexts.
knowledge, veterinary and extension services, Kibuka-Musoke (2007) identifies both
and research technology development.11 positive and negative impacts of climate
Some of the indirect effects will be brought change on fisheries:
about by, for example, changes in feed • Positive impacts. The projected climate
resources linked to the carrying capacity of change will generally be positive for
rangelands, the buffering abilities of aquaculture, which is often limited by
ecosystems, intensified desertification cold weather. Since many of the changes
processes, increased scarcity of water resources, will entail warmer nights and winters,
decreased grain production. Other indirect there should be longer periods of growth
effects will be linked to the expected shortage and growth should be enhanced. The cost
of feed arising from the increasingly of making structures ice-resistant and of
competitive demands of food, feed and fuel heating water to optimum temperatures
production, and land use systems. should also be lowered. By developing
In a recent paper, Thornton et al. (2008) appropriate technologies, farmers can use
examined some of the direct and indirect flooded and saline areas no longer
impacts of climate change on livestock and suitable for crops to cultivate fish.
livestock systems. These are summarized in Farmers can also recycle water used for
Table 1. fish culture to moderate swings between
drought and flood.
The effects of climate change • Negative impacts. Climate change will have
on fisheries a negative impact on fisheries both
Climate change represents a threat to the directly and indirectly. Fisheries will be
sustainability of capture fisheries and impacted by changing water levels and
aquaculture development. The consequences flooding events; temperature changes will
of gradual warming on a global scale and the cause a shift in the range of fish species
associated physical changes will become (in different geographical areas) and a
increasingly evident, as will the impact of disruption to the reproductive patterns of
more frequent extreme weather events. fish. Rising sea levels could also affect
Until recently, production trends in important fishery nursery areas. Warming
aquaculture and capture fisheries had can increase disease transmission and
remained similar to those already in place at have an influence on marine pathogens.
the start of the decade. The capture fisheries Because of their comparatively small or
sector was regularly producing between 90 and weak economies, a number of countries
95 million tons per year, and aquaculture that are heavily dependent on fish have
production was growing, albeit at a measured low capacity to adapt to change (World
pace. However, the substantial increases in Fish Center, 2007). These countries
energy and food prices, which were first seen include Angola, Mali, Mauritania, Niger,
in 2007 and continued into 2008, coupled Senegal and Sierra Leone. Other
with the threat of climate change, mean that vulnerable countries in Africa are Malawi,
the conditions for capture fisheries and Mozambique and Uganda. Beyond Africa,
aquaculture are changing.12 it is the countries in Asia with river-
The effects of increased pressure on dependent fisheries, including
fisheries (environmental pollution, Bangladesh, Cambodia and Pakistan, that
environmental degradation resulting from are most at risk.
unsustainable aquaculture practices, intensive

11 The effects of rising temperatures vary, depending on when and where they occur. A rise in temperature during
the winter months can reduce the cold stress experienced by livestock remaining outside. Warmer weather reduces
the amount of energy required to feed the animals and keep them in heated facilities (FAO, 2007b).
12 FAO, 2008a.

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A number of IFAD projects currently promote a assessments are carried out to inform the
more sustainable utilization of fisheries resources development of locally tailored strategies to
and value adding through diversification support fishing communities in adapting to a
activities. (See the example of the Republic of changed environment.
Mauritius summarized in case study 1.)
In particular, fishing communities in Africa
will be most vulnerable to climate change Meeting the challenge: adaptation
because of their elevated level of exposure to and mitigation livestock strategies
risk and low adaptive potential. The inland Livestock can play an important role in both
fisheries of Africa play a crucial role in mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation
supporting the livelihoods and food security measures could include technical and
of millions of people across the world: management options in order to reduce GHG
approximately 30 to 45 million people emissions from livestock, accompanied by the
depend on fish for their livelihoods (the integration of livestock into broader
World Fish Center, 2007). Fisheries also environmental services. As described in the
provide a safety net offering protection against section below, livestock has the potential to
the effects of the unpredictability of support the adaptation efforts of the poor. In
agricultural product prices. In this sense, general, livestock is more resistant to climate
fisheries could, depending on local change than crops because of its mobility and
circumstances, support the adaptation of some access to feed. However, it is important to
coastal communities. remember that the capacity of local
Region-specific ecosystem-based communities to adapt to climate change and
approaches are needed to address the impact mitigate its impacts will also depend on their
of climate change on fisheries and fishing socio-economic and environmental conditions,
communities. While it is important to have an and on the resources they have available.
understanding of both the regional and the The sections below provide a brief overview
global impact that climate change will have on of adaptation and mitigation activities that
fishing communities in developing countries, could be used in the livestock sector.
it is essential that context-specific vulnerability

Case study 1:
Promoting the sustainable use of fisheries resources
The Rural Diversification Programme in the Republic of Mauritius – IFAD

Over-fishing in lagoons has a destructive effect on the coral reef and the marine life it supports. To
increase the incomes of small-scale fishers and relieve pressure on depleting marine resources, the
Rural Diversification Programme in the Republic of Mauritius helps provide incentives for fishermen to
abandon lagoon fishing. It encourages fishing beyond the lagoon, with small-scale fishers using fish
aggregating devices (FADs) to attract fish in deeper seas.
To back up the introduction of FADs, the programme includes training in fishing techniques, boat
handling and other safety measures, to assist fishermen in making the transition from net fishing in the
lagoon to fishing in the open sea under very different conditions. Women involved in octopus fishing
on Rodrigues Island have been trained to fish without damaging the reef, and received assistance in
finding alternative income-generating activities. The programme supports the Government in the
sustainable management of marine resources and builds the capacity of the Fisheries Training and
Protection Services to monitor FAD fisheries and other fishing activities. It also helps build institutional
capacity to support poor people’s rural enterprises through training, improving access to financial
services and strengthening grassroots organizations.
A follow-up programme, the Marine and Agricultural Resources Support Programme (MARS), will
continue promoting non-fishing activities to reduce the unsustainable (for the national budget)
payment of bad weather allowances to fishermen when they are unable to fish because of weather
conditions. This programme is also expected to reduce the strain on fisheries resources, and improve
agricultural productivity and food security.

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Livestock adaptation strategies Institutional and policy changes. Removing or
Livestock producers have traditionally adapted introducing subsidies, insurance systems,
to various environmental and climatic changes income diversification practices and
by building on their in-depth knowledge of establishing livestock early warning systems –
the environment in which they live. However, as in the case of IFAD-supported interventions
the expanding human population, in Ethiopia (see case study 2), and other
urbanization, environmental degradation and forecasting and crisis-preparedness systems –
increased consumption of animal source foods could benefit adaptation efforts.
have rendered some of those coping Science and technology development. Working
mechanisms ineffective (Sidahmed, 2008). In towards a better understanding of the impacts
addition, changes brought about by global of climate change on livestock, developing
warming are likely to happen at such a speed new breeds and genetic types, improving
that they will exceed the capacity of animal health and enhancing water and soil
spontaneous adaptation of both human management would support adaptation
communities and animal species. measures in the long term.
The following have been identified by Capacity building for livestock keepers. There is
several experts (FAO, 2008; Thornton, et al., a need to improve the capacity of livestock
2008; Sidahmed, 2008) as ways to increase producers and herders to understand and deal
adaptation in the livestock sector: with climate change increasing their awareness
Production adjustments. Changes in livestock of global changes. In addition, training in
practices could include: (i) diversification, agroecological technologies and practices for the
intensification and/or integration of pasture production and conservation of fodder improves
management, livestock and crop production; the supply of animal feed and reduces
(ii) changing land use and irrigation; (iii) malnutrition and mortality in herds.
altering the timing of operations; (iv) Livestock management systems. Efficient and
conservation of nature and ecosystems; (v) affordable adaptation practices need to be
modifying stock routings and distances; (vi) developed for the rural poor who are unable
introducing mixed livestock farming systems, to afford expensive adaptation technologies.
such as stall-fed systems and pasture grazing. These could include (i) provision of shade and
Breeding strategies. Many local breeds are water to reduce heat stress from increased
already adapted to harsh living conditions. temperature. Given current high energy prices,
However, developing countries are usually providing natural (low cost) shade instead of
characterized by a lack of technology in high cost air conditioning is more suitable for
livestock breeding and agricultural rural poor producers; (ii) reduction of
programmes that might otherwise help to livestock numbers – a lower number of more
speed adaptation. Adaptation strategies productive animals leads to more efficient
address not only the tolerance of livestock to production and lower GHG emissions from
heat, but also their ability to survive, grow and livestock production (Batima, 2006); (iii)
reproduce in conditions of poor nutrition, changes in livestock/herd composition
parasites and diseases (Hoffmann, 2008). (selection of large animals rather than small);
Such measures could include: (i) identifying (iv) improved management of water resources
and strengthening local breeds that have through the introduction of simple techniques
adapted to local climatic stress and feed for localized irrigation (e.g. drip and sprinkler
sources and (ii) improving local genetics irrigation), accompanied by infrastructure to
through cross-breeding with heat and disease- harvest and store rainwater, such as tanks
tolerant breeds. If climate change is faster than connected to the roofs of houses and small
natural selection, the risk to the survival and surface and underground dams.13
adaptation of the new breed is greater (Ibid.).
Market responses. The agriculture market could
be enhanced by, for example, the promotion
of interregional trade and credit schemes.

13 IFAD, 2009.

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Case study 2:
Early warning systems
The Pastoral Community Development Project in Ethiopia – IFAD

The project aims to improve the prospects of achieving sustainable livelihoods among herders living
in arid and semi-arid lowlands. It seeks to harmonize the development of Ethiopia’s lowlands and its
more fertile highlands, and reduce vulnerability to drought and the risk of local conflict.
The first phase of the project (2004-2009) was a response to drought and to the need to create
sustainable livelihoods for herders. In partnership with the World Bank, the project established early
warning systems and disaster preparedness plans, through a participatory approach to programming,
implementation and monitoring. The objective was to strengthen the resilience of the rural poor and
increase their ability to cope with external shocks, while making them less vulnerable to drought and
other natural disasters, thus indirectly promoting climate change adaptation. Initial activities included
strengthening the institutional capacity of indigenous social organizations.
The disaster-preparedness and contingency fund (DPCF) will be created in the second phase, with
separate 'windows' for early response and disaster-preparedness investment financing. Through the
disaster-preparedness strategy and investment programme (DPSIP) subcomponent, the project will
identify local needs for long-term regional disaster-preparedness and mitigation. Under the DPCF,
each region will receive DPSIP grants to finance disaster-preparedness investments.

Mitigation of livestock GHG emissions (field use) (Dourmad et al., 2008). Indirect
Unmitigated climate change will, in the long sources of GHGs from livestock systems are
term, exceed the capacity of natural and mainly attributable to changes in land use and
human systems to adapt. Given the magnitude deforestation to create pasture land. For
of the challenge to reduce GHG example, in the Amazon rainforest, 70 per cent
concentrations in the atmosphere, it is of deforestation has taken place to create
imperative to receive the contribution of all grazing land for livestock. In general,
sectors with significant mitigation potential. smallholder livestock systems have a smaller
Agriculture is recognized as a sector with such ecological footprint16 than large-scale
potential, and farmers, herders, ranchers and industrialized livestock operations.
other land users could and should be part of Mitigation of GHG emissions in the
the solution. Therefore, it is important to livestock sector can be achieved through
identify mitigation measures that are easy to various activities, including:
implement and cost effective in order to • Different animal feeding management.
strengthen the capacity of local actors to adapt • Manure management (collection, storage,
to climate change.14 The livestock production spreading).
system contributes to global climate change • Management of feed crop production.
directly through the production of GHG
emissions,15 and indirectly through the The contribution the livestock sector can make
destruction of biodiversity, the degradation of to the reduction of emissions varies. Possible
land, and water and air pollution. There are mitigation options include (FAO, 2008b)
three main sources of GHG emissions in the Selection of faster growing breeds.
livestock production system: the enteric Improvements could be made to livestock
fermentation of animals, manure (waste efficiency in converting energy from feed into
products) and production of feed and forage production and losses through waste

14 See case study 4 on IFAD activities in Mongolia.
15 According to “Livestock’s Long Shadow” (FAO, 2007a). livestock is responsible for 18 per cent of global
warming. Livestock contributes 9 per cent of all GHG emissions measured in CO2 equivalents, 65 per cent of
human-induced nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2), and 20 per cent of
methane (which has 23 times the global warming potential of CO2).
16 The ecological footprint is a means of evaluating human demand on the earth's overall ecosystem. Ecological
footprints measure human demand (for energy and air) against the planet’s capacity to regenerate resources and
provide services. The measurement is based on the area of biologically productive land and sea needed to
regenerate the resources consumed by the human population and to absorb and render harmless the
corresponding waste.

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products can be reduced. Increasing feed the volume of waste product. The higher the
efficiency and improving the digestibility of proportion of concentrate in the diet, the
feed intake are potential ways to reduce GHG lower the emissions of CH4 .
emissions and maximize production and Better waste management. Improving the
gross efficiency, as is lowering the number of management of animal waste products
heads. All livestock practices – such as through different mechanisms, such as the use
genetics, nutrition, reproduction, health and of covered storage facilities, is also important.
dietary supplements and proper feeding The level of GHG emissions from manure
(including grazing) management - that could (CH4, N2O, and CH4 from liquid manure)
result in improved feed efficiency need to be depends on the temperature and duration of
taken into account. storage. Long-term storage at high
Improved feeding management. The temperatures results in higher GHG emissions.
composition of feed has some bearing on In the case of ruminants, pasture grazing is an
enteric fermentation and the emission of CH4 efficient way to reduce CH4 emission from
from the rumen or hindgut (Dourmad, et al., manure because no storage is necessary. It is
2008). The volume of feed intake is related to possible not only to mitigate GHG emissions

Case study 3:
Biogas: an environmentally-friendly alternative energy source – IFAD
The West Guangxi Poverty-Alleviation Project in the People’s Republic of China
and the Gash Barka Livestock and Agricultural Development Programme in Eritrea

(i) The IFAD-supported West Guangxi Poverty-Alleviation Project (2000-2007) was designed to improve
and sustain the livelihoods of poor rural people while rebuilding and conserving natural resources.
The project promoted the use of biogas as a source of household energy within remote communities
in West Guangxi where fuelwood is in short supply and rural electricity unavailable. Biogas units can
be used to convert human and animal waste into a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide that can
be used for lighting and cooking.
Each household received training to build its own plant to channel waste from the domestic toilet and
nearby shelters for animals, usually pigs, into a sealed tank. The waste ferments and converts
naturally into gas and compost, resulting in improved sanitary conditions at home. The poorest
households, with only one pig, built small units that could produce enough gas for lighting in the
evening. Households with two or more pigs built larger units capable of producing gas for both
cooking and lighting.
The Guangxi project has become a catalyst for other initiatives in the region. To date, 2.73 million
biogas tanks have been built in villages, benefiting about 34.2 per cent of the rural households in
Guangxi. It is estimated that 7.65 million tons of standard coal and 13.4 million tons of firewood are
saved each year in Guangxi through the use of biogas.
The double bonus of energy and compost motivated poor people to adopt this technology in
significant numbers. The project provided more than 22,600 biogas tanks serving almost 30,000
households in more than 3,100 villages. As a result, 56,600 tons of firewood can be saved in the
project area every year, equivalent to the recovery of 7,470 hectares of forest.
(ii) The IFAD-supported Gash Barka Livestock and Agricultural Development Programme is piloting a
household-level biogas plant.
The pilot initiative included the design, construction and installation of the biogas plant, which is now
operational. The selected family has several cows kept semi-intensively. The household uses methane
gas for cooking and lighting, and digested residues as organic fertilizers in their fields. Current practice
dictates that farmers collect animal dung, dry it and burn it as fuel. IFAD and the Government are
considering expanding this initiative (once the pilot has been evaluated) to about 150,000 households,
provided additional resources are available.
In addition to securing access to cleaner fuel and fertilizers for poor households, IFAD and the
Government are looking into the possibility of claiming carbon credits through this project, under the
“Clean Development Mechanism” set up by UNFCCC. Participation in the voluntary market for
emission reductions is also under consideration.

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but also to create an opportunity for Lowering livestock production and
renewable energy. (See IFAD-supported consumption. Lowering the consumption of
activities in China and Eritrea described in meat and milk in areas with a high standard
case study 3.)17 of living is a short-term response to GHG
Grazing management. One of the major mitigation.
GHG emission contributions from livestock
production is from forage or feed crop
production and related land use. Proper Livestock grazing and soil carbon
pasture management through rotational sequestration
grazing would be the most cost-effective way Experts19 have estimated that the soil contains
to mitigate GHG emissions from feed crop carbon more than twice the quantity in the
production. Animal grazing on pasture also atmosphere and demonstrated that enhancing
helps reduce emissions attributable to animal carbon sequestration by soils could make a
manure storage. Introducing grass species and potentially useful contribution to climate
legumes into grazing lands can enhance change mitigation. The Royal Society (2001)
carbon storage in soils. suggested that terrestrial vegetation and soils

Case study 4:
Strengthening pastoralists’ resilience and capacity to adapt to climate
variability and extremes – IFAD activities in Mongolia18

The livestock and natural resource management component of the Rural Poverty Reduction
Programme (RPRP) implemented by IFAD in Mongolia was designed to increase livestock productivity,
improve rangeland management and strengthen herder resilience to natural calamities. In a country
where climate hazards have substantial effects upon animal husbandry and crop production – effects
that are clearly increasing in frequency and magnitude as a consequence of global warming – IFAD is
building the adaptive capacity of pastoralists through a series of interventions.
The organization of herder groups and Rangeland Management and Monitoring Committees
(RMMCs), designated to formulate the local natural resource management maps and associated
development plans, has a significant positive impact on pasture and livestock management through
the joint decision-making and collaborative management it allows. RMMCs play a key role in
representing the interests of herders in the planning and regulation of local land use at the government
level. Herder groups and RMMCs are considered of pivotal importance by project beneficiaries and
local government in preparing for and responding to natural calamities such as drought and dzud.
Additionally, IFAD assistance in winter fodder production improves preparedness for harsh climatic
conditions, thus substantially raising survival rates and livestock performance. The establishment of a
dzud emergency fund contributes to enhancing the resilience of herder households and their ability to
respond to unusual weather phenomena, thereby mitigating the worst effects on the poorest. Remote
unused and underused pasture is now accessible thanks to the rehabilitation and construction of new
wells. This strategy allows the use of rangeland that would otherwise be inaccessible in winter and
spring, and results in better climate risk management.
The RPRP laid the foundations for increasing the resilience of the ecosystem and herders’ livelihood
systems to current climate variability and extreme events. However, these measures might not be
sufficient to reduce the risks associated with more pronounced climate change.
IFAD is currently developing an intervention funded by the Global Environment Facility and based on
the achievements and the lessons from the RPRP by adopting a two pronged approach that focuses
on: (i) building the capacity of RMMCs to address climate change and (ii) supporting activities that will
allow herders to manage their natural resources and build the resilience of their livestock system in a
context of greater vulnerability to climate variability. These activities include: improving natural
resource management to take into account climate change impacts; climate-proofing the pasture
water supply; and introducing a tailored index-based insurance to better respond to climate change
risk in the livestock sector.

17 Concerning the generation of carbon credits through soil conservation initiatives, there is no approved
methodology yet by the UNFCCC to calculate the amount of carbon sequestration when sustainably improving the
different livestock husbandry systems.
18 IFAD, 2009 (draft).
19 FAO, 2009.

9

absorb approximately 40 per cent of global the ‘Return Grazed Land to Grass’ Program in
CO2 emissions from human activities.20 the People’s Republic of China are large-scale
Considering the importance of rangeland in interventions that support the closing off of
land use (accounting for about 40 per cent of degraded grasslands from livestock grazing for
the total land surface area), herders and given periods of time.
pastoralists could play a crucial role in soil Grazing intensity should be properly
carbon sequestration. Across the world there are regulated to enhance carbon sequestration. It
between 100 million and 200 million pastoralist is important to note that methane emissions,
households occupying 5,000 million hectares of grazing intensity and increase in woodland
rangelands, in which 30 per cent of the world’s cover are all interrelated issues. Therefore
carbon stocks are stored (Tennigkeit and Wilkes, GHG emissions should be considered in
2008). Therefore the carbon sequestration conjunction with carbon sequestration when
potential offered by environmentally sound analysing the impacts of livestock on GHG
rangeland practices is significant. emissions and climate change. It has been
Global studies have found that grazing can suggested (FAO, 2009b) that a sustainable
have either a positive or negative impact on livestock distribution could be operated,
rangeland vegetation and soils, depending on including a rotational grazing system
the climatic characteristics of rangeland combined with a seasonal use of land. The
ecosystems, grazing history and effectiveness of proposal is based on the hypothesis that a
management (Milchunas and Lauenroth, reduced grazing intensity would result in
1989). Common grazing management increased soil carbon stocks.
practices that could increase carbon However, Gifford (FAO, 2009a,b)
sequestration include: (i) stocking rate demonstrates that the situation is more
management, (ii) rotational, planned or complex and the interaction among these
adaptive grazing, and (iii) enclosure of elements is not entirely linear for the following
grassland from livestock grazing. four reasons:
Stocking rate management. Conventional • The woody component has high above-
rangeland science suggests that sustainable ground carbon stocks and high deep-soil
management of grassland can be achieved by carbon stocks.
grazing livestock at stocking rates that do not • Wildfires contribute to the loss of carbon
exceed the grassland carrying capacity. stocks.
Rotational, planned or adaptive grazing. • The reduction in grazing land for native
Many grasslands increase biomass production herbivores can be partially offset by the
in response to frequent grazing, which, when expanding population of unmanaged
managed appropriately, could increase the herbivores (e.g. kangaroos in Australia).
input of organic matter to grassland soils. • Floods and desert storms contribute to the
However, there have been few studies of the shifting of vast quantities of topsoil
effects of rotational grazing on soil carbon characterized by high carbon stocks.
stocks. Two published reports indicate that
rotational grazing would have limited impacts Given the complexity of the interaction
on soil carbon stocks, despite the benefits for between grazing and soil carbon sequestration
livestock production and vegetation. Site- and the associated environmental, social and
specific planned and adaptive grazing is likely economic issues, therefore, reducing grazing
to be more effective in managing soil carbon, intensity does not necessarily imply an increase
but no published reports have been identified in soil carbon stocks.
(Tennigkeit and Wilkes, 2008). When analysing the effect of grazing on
Enclosure of grassland from livestock grazing. rangeland carbon stocks, the following three
The effects of closing off land from livestock factors should be taken into account:
grazing vary in relation to the type of land. The • Overgrazing does not mean soil
Conservation Reserve Program run by the degradation; the two terms should not be
United States Department of Agriculture and confused or considered as synonyms.

20 The same study estimated that the global stocks of carbon in above ground vegetation amount to about 550
petagrams (pg), 1,750 pg in the soil (including peat) and about 800 pg in the atmosphere. Further details are
available at www.royalsoc.ac.uk

10

• Overgrazing can contribute both to an political power and presence in lobbies, and vi)
increase in ecosystem carbon stocks (e.g. lack of opportunity for their voice to be heard.
from wood thickening) and to a decrease Climate change is likely to intensify existing
in soil carbon stocks (i.e. soil degradation). inequalities and have different effects on the
• There is a weak basis for estimating carbon capacity of women and of men to cope with
sequestration potential from grazing: few additional stresses. In view of their role as the
data exist on the impact of changed most significant suppliers of family labour and
grazing intensity on soil carbon stocks. efficient managers of household food security
(IFAD, 2009), more emphasis needs to be
Finally, Conant (2002) demonstrates that placed on ensuring that any adaptation and
grazing management drives change in soil mitigation strategies developed take into
carbon stocks by influencing the balance account these differences and the increased
between what goes into the soil (inputs) and needs of women. Supporting the
what comes out of it (outputs): effective empowerment of women is a means of
livestock management systems that adopt building community resilience to climate
better feeding practices and use specific agents change (IFAD, 2009).
and dietary additives have a positive effect on
food security (enhancing productivity and
meat quality) and soil carbon stocks.21 Key issues for project design
The previous sections explored some of the key
issues linking livestock and climate change. The
Gender issues considered in relation following have been identified as key elements
to livestock and climate change that should be taken into account to support
While it is not within the scope of this paper to the design of development interventions:
address gender issues in detail, it is important • Collaborative management of natural
to note that climate change will create different resources. Participatory approaches to
opportunities and challenges for men and for sustainable management of land, forest
women. In many countries the role of women and natural resources are essential to the
in livestock production systems is significant. development of long term sustainable
In general, women are often responsible for strategies. Decision making processes
most livestock nurturing activities and play an should be designed in such a way that they
active role in on-farm livestock duties such as include all concerned stakeholders
feeding, watering, fodder collecting, stable (farmers, pastoralists, herders).
cleaning, milking and milk processing, caring • Community involvement in adaptation
for small and sick animals, poultry raising, strategies. Successful adaptation strategies
wool work and traditional animal health care. cannot be developed in isolation.
Men are generally responsible for marketing, Community involvement in the
shearing, animal feed purchasing, procuring identification of new solutions is key to
veterinary services, and herding. While men’s ensuring the long-term sustainability of
tasks are seasonal, most women’s tasks are interventions. At the same time,
daily (Nassif, 2008). adaptation strategies need to take into
Women are already affected by several issues account cross-cutting issues (e.g.
that make them more vulnerable to food environment, health, social factors such as
insecurity and environmental change, and have increased migration, conflict).
a bearing on their capacity to reduce poverty. • Incentives and tailored responses. Financial
FAO (2007c) recognized that the following key incentives and regulations for improving
issues have an impact on women: i) denial of natural resource management and
land rights and land tenure security, ii) biased livestock production systems through
government attitude towards women, iii) lack proper pasture and land management, in
of access to information and new knowledge, addition to feeding management, can be
iv) lack of credibility and access to market and used to encourage GHG mitigation and
financial services, v) very limited share of adaptation. The introduction of tailored

21 Conant and Paustian, 2002.

11

index-based insurance schemes and rural • Innovation, research and technology
finance initiatives is important in helping development. Promoting the development
livestock keepers cope better with climate of and improved access to technologies,
change risks. and sharing knowledge of sustainable and
• Subsidies. When subsidies or other such climate friendly farming practices is vital.
incentives are incorporated into Country-specific research is needed to
development activities, their possible effects inform the development of adaptive
need to be carefully considered. While in strategies. To increase the resilience of
some instances (for example, promoting developing countries, there needs to be a
the introduction of heat-resistant breeds sharper focus on ‘the development of
and subsidizing vaccinations to reduce improved crop varieties and animal breeds,
vulnerability to new diseases) they could as well as more sustainable and integrated
support adaptation strategies, in others management of crops, animals and the
incentives could negatively affect natural resource base that sustain their
adaptation and mitigation strategies. production, while providing other vital
• Risk management mechanisms. Proper risk services for people and the environment’
management mechanisms and (IFAD, 2009).
preparedness measures need to be put in • Gender dimension. Adaptation and
place to cope with the impacts of more mitigation strategies should consider the
frequent and extreme climatic events. different roles of women and men and
Preparedness measures, early warning how they will be affected by climate
systems and other risk mitigation activities change. Climate change clearly offers an
(such as strengthening infrastructures, opportunity to rethink gender inequality
insurance systems and forecasting) are and to involve both women and men in
needed to reduce the impact of severe finding innovative solutions to common
weather events and prevent loss of environmental challenges.
livestock. • Indigenous knowledge. Local communities
• Awareness and education. Information about and indigenous peoples have an in-depth
climate change is a crucial component of understanding of their environment and a
adaptation. It is important to ensure that vast experience in adapting to climate
knowledge is shared with local variability. This knowledge is key to the
communities. An understanding of the development of effective adaptation and
patterns of variability of current and mitigation strategies.
projected climate and seasonal forecasts is
essential in anticipating shocks and losses,
and in enabling external agencies to
provide targeted assistance to herders.
• Mitigation. Efforts to support measures to
mitigate GHG emissions should focus on
reforestation, improved grazing
management, restoration of degraded
lands, livestock manure management,
better feeding management, improved
energy and feed efficiency, selection of
more productive animal breeds, and
transhumance practices.

12

Annex I
Climate change and agriculture

Over a billion people worldwide live in products). Globally, livestock products
extreme poverty, and three quarters of them contribute approximately 30 per cent of the
are in rural areas. Agricultural production protein in human diets (Gill and Smith, 2008),
based on natural resources is the main source and this contribution is only expected to
of livelihood for more than 800 million increase (FAO Stats). How livestock keepers can
malnourished and food-insecure people. take advantage of the increasing demand for
Agriculture is therefore the main instrument their products and how the livestock assets of
to be used in lifting the rural poor out of the poor can be protected in the face of
poverty in developing countries. In many globalization and climate change is uncertain.
rural communities, livestock is often the only Climate change impacts on agriculture are
asset the poor have, but it is also highly expected to be predominantly negative. Also,
vulnerable to climate variability and extremes. the impacts of climate change on agricultural
There is significant evidence of increased production and livestock are difficult to
global average air (by 0.7o C) and ocean measure and distinguish from other changes
temperatures, widespread melting of snow and occurring in the natural and human
ice, and rising global average sea level (by 25 environment. There are many non-climatic
cm). Human activities result in the emissions drivers that are interconnected with climate
of four long-lived greenhouse gases: carbon change impacts, such as migration,
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide overgrazing of pasture, change in livestock
(N2O) and halocarbons. The global increase in management, and change in human and
carbon dioxide concentrations is primarily due livestock population.
to the use of fossil fuels (IPCC, 2007). The following are the main characteristics of
While climate change is a global climate change impacts on rural livelihood and
phenomenon, its negative impacts are more agriculture systems:
severely felt by poor people in developing • Distribution of impacts and vulnerabilities.
countries. Although agricultural producers, Impacts differ across regions and
especially small-scale poor farmers, are continents. Those in the weakest economic
relatively small contributors of GHG position are often the most vulnerable to
emissions, proper agricultural technology and climate change. There is increasing
management systems are crucial to promote evidence of greater vulnerability among the
and sustain a low-carbon rural path. Livestock poor and the elderly in developing
production will not be excluded from the countries. According to the Department
impact of climate change. Approximately 20-30 for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
per cent of plant and animal species are (DEFRA) of the United Kingdom, climate
expected to be at risk of extinction if increases change threatens about 850 million poor
in global average temperature exceed 1.5-2.5° C people as a result of the increasing
(FAO, 2007). As a result of climate change, the limitation of natural resources for food
potential for food production is projected to production and the extinction of animals
decrease because of high mortality, less through climate disasters and disease.
productivity and more competition for natural • Aggregate impacts. Collectively, the effects of
resources. Globally, this would then increase climate change produce a greater impact.
the risk of hunger, especially for those in poor For example, warmer temperatures will
rural communities. bring about the extinction of animal
In addition to the changing climate, there species through heat stress, which in turn
are many other factors simultaneously affecting will lead to reduced food diversity and a
livestock production systems, such as rapid shortage of food production. Increased
population and economic growth, and malnutrition and other adverse health
increased demand for food (including livestock impacts will then follow.

14

Figure 1
Change in agricultural output potential due to climate change: 2000-2080

Africa

Latin America

Middle East and
North Africa

Asia

Developing countries

World

Industrial Countries

-20% -15% -10% -5% 0% 5% 10%

Change in output potential (2080 as % of 2000 potential)

Source: World Resources Institute (2007)

• Risk of extreme weather events. The According to FAO, by 2030 it is estimated
increased frequency of events such as that rice production will have increased by
hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts and only 4.5. per cent (IPCC, 2007); methane
flooding is likely to result in higher emissions from this sector are not expected to
vulnerability in both developing and represent a major threat in the coming years.
developed countries. However, the impact In Latin America and the Caribbean
on fragile states will be greater. emissions of CO2 and N2O, in particular, are
expected to increase because of possibly
Contribution of agriculture to climate change extended land use, changes in land use
Although the contribution to climate change of activities, the growing size of cattle populations
gas emissions from agricultural sources appears and greater user of fertilizers in cropland areas.
to be proportionally lower than emissions from Estimated contributions from agricultural
fossil fuel use, according to the IPCC Fourth sources are listed below (FAO, 2006).
Assessment Report, by 2020 sub-Saharan Africa, • CO2: 25 per cent from natural resource
the Middle East and North Africa are expected sources (20 per cent – deforestation;
to experience emission growth. For the most 5 per cent - biomass burning).
part, this will be the result of agriculture being • CH4: 70 per cent from anthropogenic
intensified and extended to marginal lands to sources (20 per cent - domestic ruminants;
satisfy a higher food demand. 20 per cent - biomass burning; 20 per cent
In East and South Asia, rapid population - rice production/wetlands; 10 per cent -
and economic growth will entail lifestyle other waste products).
changes and a shift in diet, particularly • N2O: 75 per cent from crop production
towards more meat consumption, which in sources (44 per cent - tillage; 22 per cent -
turn will require more livestock. Therefore, fertilizer; 9 per cent - biomass burning).
according to the IPCC, animal sources (enteric
fermentation and manure management) are It follows that sustainable agricultural systems
expected to be one of the major causes of non- can be used to encourage both adaptation and
CO2 emissions in the region. mitigation of climate change.

15

Annex II
The impact of climate change on livestock management in Africa
(Seo and Mendelsohn, 2006)

The African continent is subject to drought other health issues. In contrast, smallholder
and food insecurity. Even before climate farmers who are able to switch to sheep and
change issues became evident, serious goats may not be as vulnerable to higher
concerns had been raised about agriculture in temperatures as large-scale farmers who
Africa, which has the slowest rate of cannot make this switch. In these
productivity increase in the world. circumstances, smallholder farmers in Africa
Nevertheless, agriculture remains the are better able to adapt to climate change
backbone of most African economies than their larger, more modern counterparts.
(Hussein, Calvosa and Roy, (2008). The sector Precipitation also plays an important role
is the largest domestic producer across the in climate change. Scenarios with less
continent and employs between 70 and precipitation are predicted to be less harmful.
90 per cent of the total labour force. In Although pasture and ecosystems are more
addition, agriculture supplies up to 50 per cent productive with more precipitation, lower
of household food requirements and up to precipitation may help reduce animal diseases
50 per cent of household incomes. Most of that are quite significant for livestock in
the income is generated by beef cattle, dairy Africa. As long as there is sufficient moisture
cattle, goats, sheep and chickens. Altogether to support grasslands, a reduction in
these five animals generate 92 per cent of the precipitation from high to moderate levels
total revenue from livestock. appears to be beneficial for livestock.
A model has been developed to study the Increasing precipitation results in a lower
sensitivity of African animal husbandry probability of beef cattle, dairy cattle and
decisions to climate (Seo, S. and Mendelsohn, sheep being selected and a higher probability
R., 2006). A survey of over 5,000 livestock of goats and chickens being chosen.
farmers in ten countries reveals that the Farm size can shape the way farmers
selection of species, the net income per animal, respond to climate change. Smallholder
and the number of animals on a farm are all farmers are diversified, relying on dairy cattle,
highly dependent on climate. As climate warms, goats, sheep and chickens, while large scale
net income across all animals will fall, but farmers specialize in dairy and especially beef
especially across beef cattle. The fall in relative cattle. As a result of climate change, large-scale
revenues also causes a shift away from beef farmers are likely to shift away from beef
cattle towards sheep and goats. cattle and chickens in favour of dairy cattle,
In general, all species will be adversely sheep and goats. Owners of commercial
affected by warming and there will be fewer livestock farms are more able to adapt to
animals per farm as a result. Beef cattle are warming or precipitation increases by
especially vulnerable. Climate change is switching to heat-tolerant animals and crops.
expected to determine a decrease in beef cattle Livestock keeping will be a safety valve for
and an increase in sheep and goats. smallholder farmers if warming or drought
Consequently, it is anticipated that farmers causes their crops to fail.
will switch from beef cattle as temperature
rises. The net profitability of livestock will be
reduced and farmers will reduce their
investments in livestock accordingly. Many
climate change predictions suggest that
African livestock will be damaged as early as
2020. Even small changes in temperature will
be sufficient to have a relatively substantial
effect on beef cattle operations, which
potentially could lead to protein deficiency or

16

Acknowledgments
This paper has benefited from inputs and materials provided by: S.Mwanundu (IFAD), I.Firmian (IFAD), S.Donato
(IFAD/GECC), A.Benhammouche (IFAD) and E.Oehninger (IFAD).
Responsibility for its content rests entirely with the authors and does not necessarily reflect the position of the
International Fund for Agricultural Development.

17

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19

Contact
Antonio Rota
Senior Technical Adviser on
Livestock and Farming Systems
Technical Advisory Division
Tel: +39 06 5459 2680
a.rota@ifad.org

Authors
Chiara Calvosa
Consultant,
c.calvosa@ifad.org

Delgermaa Chuluunbaatar
Associate Technical Adviser
d.chuluunbaatar@ifad.org

Katiuscia Fara
Project Coordinator,
Environment and NRM
k.fara@ifad.org

International Fund for
Agricultural Development
Via Paolo di Dono, 44
00142 Rome, Italy
Telephone: +39 06 54591
November 2009

Facsimile: +39 06 5043463
E-mail: ifad@ifad.org
www.ifad.org These materials can be found on IFAD’s
www.ruralpovertyportal.org website at www.ifad.org/lrkm/index.htm

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