Chapter 005 and 006 Pathology

Chapter 5
Inflammation and Healing

Review of Body Defenses
 First line of defense
 Nonspecific
 Mechanical barrier
 Unbroken skin and mucous membranes
 Secretions such as tears and gastric juices
 Second line of defense
 Nonspecific
 Phagocytosis
 Inflammation
•Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier, Inc. •2

Review of Body Defenses
(Cont.)
 Third line of defense
 Specific defense
 Production of specific antibodies or cell-mediated
immunity

Defense Mechanisms in the Body

Normal Capillary Exchange
 Generally not all capillaries in a particular
capillary bed are open.
 Depend on the metabolic needs of the cells or
need of removal of wastes
 Movement of fluid, electrolytes, oxygen, and
nutrients on arterial end based on net
hydrostatic pressure
 Venous end—osmotic pressure will facilitate
movement of fluid, carbon dioxide, and other
wastes.

Normal Capillary Exchange Versus
Inflammatory Response

Physiology of Inflammation
 A protective mechanism and important basic
concept in pathophysiology
 Disorders are named using the ending –it is.
 Inflammation is a normal defense mechanism
 Signs and symptoms serve as warning for a
problem:
 Problem may be hidden within the body.
 It is not the same as infection.
 Infection, however, is one cause of inflammation.

Causes of Inflammation
 Direct physical damage
 Examples: cut, sprain
 Caustic chemicals
 Examples: acid, drain cleaner
 Ischemia or infarction
 Allergic reactions
 Extremes of heat or cold
 Foreign bodies
 Examples: splinter, glass
 Infection

Steps of Inflammation
 Injury to capillaries and tissue cells
 Release of bradykinin from injured cells
 Bradykinin stimulates pain receptors.
 Pain causes release of histamine.
 Bradykinin and histamine cause capillary
dilation.
 Break in skin allows bacteria to enter tissue
 Neutrophils phagocytize bacteria.
 Macrophages (mature monocytes) leave the
bloodstream and phagocytose microbes.

Acute Inflammation
 Process of inflammation is the same,
regardless of cause.
 Timing varies with specific cause
 Chemical mediators affect blood vessels and
nerves in the damaged area:
 Vasodilation
 Hyperemia
 Increase in capillary permeability
 Chemotaxis to attract cells of the immune system

Chemical Mediators in the
Inflammatory Response

Local Effects of Inflammation
 Redness and warmth
 Caused by increased blood flow to damaged area
 Swelling (edema)
 Shift of protein and fluid into the interstitial space
 Pain
 Increased pressure of fluid on nerves; release of
chemical mediators (e.g., bradykinins)
 Loss of function
 May develop if cells lack nutrients; edema may
interfere with movement.

Exudate
 Serous
 Watery, consists primarily of fluid, some proteins,
and white blood cells
 Fibrinous
 Thick, sticky, high cell and fibrin content
 Purulent
 Thick, yellow-green, contains more leukocytes,
cell debris, and microorganisms

Systemic Effects of Inflammation
 Mild fever (pyrexia)
 Common if inflammation is extensive
 Release of pyrogens
 Malaise
 Feeling unwell
 Fatigue
 Headache
 Anorexia

The Course of Fever

Changes in the Blood
with Inflammation

Course of Inflammation
and Healing

Potential Complications of
Inflammation
 Infection
 Microorganisms can more easily penetrate
edematous tissues.
 Some microbes resist phagocytosis.
 The inflammatory exudate also provides an
excellent medium for microorganisms.
 Skeletal muscle spasm
 May be initiated by inflammation
 Protective response to pain

Chronic Inflammation
 Follows acute episode of inflammation
 Less swelling and exudate
 Presence of more lymphocytes,
macrophages, and fibroblasts
 Continued tissue destruction
 More fibrous scar tissue
 Granuloma may develop around foreign
object

Potential Complications
 Deep ulcers may result from severe or
prolonged inflammation
 Caused by cell necrosis and lack of cell
regeneration that causes erosion of the tissue
• Can lead to complications such as perforation of viscera
• Extensive scar tissue formation

Treatment of Inflammation
 Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA)
 Aspirin
 Acetaminophen
 Tylenol
 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs)
 Ibuprofen
 Glucocorticoids
 Corticosteroids

Drugs Used to Treat Inflammation

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of
Glucocorticoids
 Decreased capillary permeability
 Enhanced effectiveness of epinephrine and
norepinephrine
 Reduced number of leukocytes and mast
cells
 Reduces immune response

Adverse Effects of
Glucocorticoids
 Atrophy of lymphoid tissue; reduced
hemopoiesis
 Increased risk of infection
 Catabolic effects
 Increased tissue breakdown; decreased protein
synthesis
 Delayed healing
 Delayed growth in children
 Retention of sodium and water because of
aldosterone-like affect in the kidney

“RICE” Therapy for Injuries
 Rest
 Ice
 Compression
 Elevation

Types of Healing
 Resolution
 Minimal tissue damage
 Regeneration
 Damaged tissue replaced with cells that are
functional
 Replacement
 Functional tissue replaced by scar tissue
 Loss of function

The Healing Process
 Healing of incised wound by first intention

The Healing Process (Cont.)
 Healing by second intention

Scar Formation
 Loss of function
 Result of loss of normal cells and specialized
structures
• Hair follicles
• Nerves
• Receptors
 Contractures and obstructions
 Scar tissue is nonelastic.
 Can restrict range of movement
 Adhesions
 Bands of scar tissue joining two surfaces that are
normally separated

Scar Formation (Cont.)
 Hypertrophic scar tissue
 Overgrowth of fibrous tissue
• Leads to hard ridges of scar tissue or keloid
formation
 Ulceration
 Blood supply may be impaired around scar
• Results in further tissue breakdown and
ulceration at future time

Complications of Scar Tissue

Complications of Scar Tissue
(Cont.)

Burns
 Thermal—caused by flames or hot fluids
 Chemical
 Radiation
 Electricity
 Light
 Friction

Classification of Burns
 Superficial partial-thickness (first-degree)
burns
 Involve epidermis and part of dermis
 Little, if any, blister formation
 Deep partial-thickness (second-degree) burns
 Epidermis and part of dermis
 Blister formation
 Full-thickness (third- and fourth-degree) burns
 Destruction of all skin layers and often underlying
tissues

Classification of Burn Injury
by Depth

Examples of Burns
 Partial-thickness burn

Examples of Burns (Cont.)
 Deep partial-thickness burn

Examples of Burns (Cont.)
 Full-thickness burn

Effects of Burn Injury
 Both local and systemic
 Dehydration and edema
 Shock
 Respiratory problems
 Pain
 Infection
 Increased metabolic needs for healing period

Assessment of Burn Area Using
the Rule of Nines

Healing of Burns
 Hypermetabolism occurs during healing
period.
 Immediate covering of a clean wound is
needed to prevent infection.
 Healing is a prolonged process.
 Scar tissue develops, even with skin grafting.
 Physiotherapy and occupational therapy may
be necessary.
 Surgery may be necessary to release
restrictive scar tissue.

Microorganisms
 Small living forms
 Include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses
 Many can grow in artificial culture medium
 Nonpathogenic
 Usually do not cause disease unless conditions
change
 Part of normal flora
 Often beneficial
 Pathogens
 Disease-causing microbes

Types of Microorganisms

Bacteria
 Classified as prokaryotes
 No nuclear membrane—no nucleus
 Function metabolically and reproduce
 Divide by binary fission
 Complex cell wall structure
 Do not require living tissues to survive
 Vary in size and shape

Reproduction by Binary Fission

Major Groups of Bacteria
 Bacilli
 Rod-shaped organisms
 Spirochetes
 Include spiral forms and Vibrio spp.
 Cocci
 Spherical forms
• Diplococci
• Streptococci
• Staphylococci

Basic Structure of Bacteria
 Rigid cell wall
 Protects and provides a specific shape
 Two types that differ in chemical composition:
• Gram-positive
• Gram-negative
 Useful in selecting appropriate antimicrobial
therapy
 Cell membrane located inside the bacterial
cell wall
 Selectively permeable

Structure of a Bacterium and Mode
of Action of Antimicrobial Drugs

(Cont.)
 External capsule or slime layer
 Found in some
 Outside the cell wall
 Offers additional protection
 Flagellae
 One or more attached to cell wall
 Provide motility for some species
 Pili or fimbriae
 Tiny hairlike structures—found in some bacteria
 Assist in attachment to tissue
 Transfer of DNA to another bacterium

(Cont.)
 Cell membrane
 Inside the bacterial cell wall
 Selectively permeable
 Cytoplasm contains:
 Chromosome
• One long strand of DNA
 Ribosomes and RNA
 Plasmids
• DNA fragments; nonchromosomal; exchange DNA
during conjugation

(Cont.)
 Toxins
 Exotoxins
• Usually produced by gram-positive bacteria
 Endotoxins
• Present in the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria
• Released on death of bacterium
• Vasoactive compounds that can cause septic shock
 Enzymes
• Damage tissues and promote spread of infection

Spore Formation
 Spores
 Formed by several species
 Dormant-latent form of bacterium
 Can survive long periods of time in spore state
 Highly resistant to heat and disinfectants

Viruses
 Small obligate intercellular parasites
 Protein coat or capsid
 Protein coat comes in various shapes and
sizes
 Can change (mutate) quickly
 Nucleic acid
 DNA or RNA
 Classification dependent on nucleic acid present
 Some RNA-containing viruses contain reverse
transcriptase enzyme to convert RNA to DNA.

Different Shapes of Viruses

Active Viral Infection
 Virus attaches to host cell.
 Viral genetic material enters the cell.
 Viral DNA or RNA takes control of cell.
 Uses host’s cell to synthesize viral proteins
and nucleic acids
 New viruses are assembled in cytoplasm of
cell.
 Viruses released by lysis of host cell or by
budding from host cell membrane

Viral Replication

Latent Viral Infection
 Virus enters cell as with active infection.
 Viral proteins are produced and Inserted into
membrane of the host cell. This may
stimulate an immune response and
destruction of host cell.
 Virus may reproduce actively if immune
system is depressed (e.g., herpesviruses)

Chlamydia, Rickettsiae,
Mycoplasmas
 Obligate intercellular parasites.
 Do not grow on artificial media
 Some similarities with both bacteria and
viruses
 Lack some basic components
 Classified as bacteria
 Replicate by binary fission within host cell

Chlamydia, Rickettsiae,
Mycoplasmas (Cont.)
 Chlamydia
 Common cause of sexually transmitted disease
 Can result in infertility
 Rickettsiae
 Gram-negative
 Transmitted by insect vectors (lice, ticks)
 Mycoplasmas
 Lack cell wall
 Cause of atypical type pneumonia

Fungi
 Eukaryotic organisms (contain nucleus)
 Found throughout environment
 On animals, plants, humans, food
 Fungal or mycotic infection
 From single-celled yeast or multicellular molds
 Only a few are pathogenic.
 Cause primary infection on skin or mucous
membranes but may spread systemically
particularly in immunosuppressed individual

Examples of Fungal Diseases
 Histoplasma can cause neurologic disease
and can be transmitted to embryo or fetus if
mother is infected
 Tinea pedis (athlete’s foot)
 Candida: usually harmless, but opportunistic
 Causative agent of thrush and vaginitis
 Pneumocystis jirovecii
 Opportunistic organism causing pneumonia
 Has some characteristics of fungi and some of
protozoa

Protozoa
 Eukaryotic forms
 Unicellular, lack cell wall
 Many live independently, others are obligate
parasites
 Pathogens are usually parasites.
 Examples of protozoal diseases:
 Trichomoniasis
 Malaria
 Amebic dysentery

Other Agents of Disease
 Helminths (flatworms or roundworms)
 Are not microorganisms
 Parasites
 May be small or up to 1 m in length
 Life cycle with at least three stages
• Ovum, larva, adult
 Enter body through skin or by ingestion,
depending on species
 Infections more commonly found in young children
 Infection can be life-threatening in an
immunosuppressed client.

Helminth Diseases
 Pinworms: ova inhaled in dust in fecally contaminated
areas; common in children worldwide
 Hookworms: larvae enter skin from fecally
contaminated soil in tropical areas
 Tapeworms: most common form transmitted by
larvae in undercooked pork
 Ascaris—giant roundworm: ingested with food that
has been grown in feces-contaminated soil or
prepared with hands that have been in feces-contaminated
soil

Other Agents of Disease (Cont.)
 Prions
 Protein-like agents that change the shape of
proteins within host cells
 Transmitted by contaminated tissues
• Ingestion of meat
• Infected blood or donor organs
 Cause degenerative disease of the nervous
system
 Human prion diseases
• Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease and variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob
disease
• Both rapidly progressive and fatal

Resident Flora
 Many areas of the body have a resident
population of mixed microorganisms termed
normal flora.
 Skin
 Nasal cavity
 Mouth
 Gut
 Vagina
 Urethra

Principles of Infection
 Infection—organism is able to reproduce in or
on body’s tissues
 Sporadic
 In a single individual
 Endemic
 Continuous transmission within a population
 Epidemic
 Higher than normal transmission or spread to new
geographical area
 Pandemic
 Transmission has occurred on most continents.

Transmission of Infectious
Agents
 Transmission from person to person
 Reservoir
 Source of infection
 Person with active infection
 Person who is asymptomatic
 Carrier
 A person may never develop the disease but still
is a carrier.
 A person with subclinical signs of the disease

Transmission of Infectious Agents:
Links in the Infection Chain
 Agent: the microbe causing the infection
 Reservoir:
 Environmental source such as contaminated soil
 Infected person or animal
• Person may carry the agent and show no signs of
disease
• Person or animal may show signs and symptoms of
disease

Links in the Infection Chain (Cont.)
 Portal of exit: means whereby the agent
leaves the reservoir
 Mode of transmission: method whereby the
agent reaches a new susceptible host
 Air
 Water
 Direct contact
 Food

Links in the Infection Chain (Cont.)
 Portal of entry: access to new host
 Susceptible host: susceptibility will depend
on:
 Health status
 Immunity
 Age
 Nutrition

Transmission of Infectious
Agents

Modes of Transmission
 Direct contact
 No intermediary
 Touching infectious lesion, sexual activity
 Contact with infected blood or bodily secretions
 Indirect contact
 Involves intermediary object or organism
 Contaminated hand or food
 Fomite—inanimate object

Modes of Transmission (Cont.)
 Droplet transmission
 Respiratory or salivary secretions are expelled
from infected individual
 Aerosol transmission
 Involve small particles from the respiratory tract
 Suspended in air and can travel farther than
droplets
 Vector-borne
 Insect or animal is an intermediate host

Nosocomial Infections
 Occur in health care facilities
 Hospitals, nursing homes, physician’s offices,
dental offices
 10% to 15% of patients acquire an infection in
the hospital because of:
 Many microbes present
 Patients with undiagnosed infectious disease
 Shared environment
 Treatment that may cause weakened immune
system
 Many health care workers and fomites act as
reservoirs.

Host Resistance and Microbial
Virulence

Factors That Decrease Host
Resistance
 Age (infants and older adults)
 Pregnancy
 Genetic susceptibility
 Immunodeficiency
 Malnutrition
 Chronic disease
 Severe physical or emotional stress
 Inflammation or trauma
 Impaired inflammatory responses

Virulence and Pathogenicity
 Pathogenicity
 Capability of a microbe to cause disease
 Virulence
 Degree of pathogenicity
• Invasive qualities (e.g., motility or enzymes)
• Toxins
• Adherence to tissue by pili, fimbriae, specific receptor
sites
• Ability to avoid host defenses

New Issues Affecting Infection
and Transmission
 Newly emerging diseases
 Antigenetically different forms of common
infections such as influenza
 Spread beyond normal endemic areas
 Superinfections
 Multidrug-resistant forms of existing diseases
• TB
• Staphylococcus aureus

Control of Transmission and
Infection
 Infection control requires two approaches:
 Standard Precautions used in all settings with all
clients when body fluids may be exchanged.
 Specific Precautions in clients diagnosed with a
particular infection—these are used in addition to
standard precautions.

Infection Cycle and Breaking
the Chain

Break the Cycle: Provide an
Example of Each of the Actions
 Locate and remove or isolate the reservoir of
infection.
 Identify and restrict access to contaminated
food or water.
 Reduce contact between infected persons
and the remainder of the population.
 Block portals of exit and entry.
 Remove or block modes of transmission.
 Reduce host susceptibility by immunizations,
adequate nutrition, and access to health care.

Additional Techniques to Reduce
Transmission
 Adequate cleaning of surroundings and
clothing
 Sterilization
 Disinfectants
 Antiseptics

Physiology of Infection
 Incubation period
 Time between entry of organism into the body and
appearance of clinical signs of disease
 Vary considerable with different organisms
 Prodromal period
 Fatigue, loss of appetite, headache
 Nonspecific—“coming down with something”
 More evident in some infections than others
 Acute period
 Infectious disease develops fully

Means of Disinfection
 Sterilization of equipment by:
 Chemicals
 Heat in an autoclave
 NOTE: Equipment must be cleaned prior to
sterilization or it will remain contaminated!
 Use of chemicals:
 Antiseptics are used on the skin and tissues.
 Disinfectants are used on surfaces or objects.

Patterns of Infection
 Local infections
 Focal infections
 Systemic infections
 Septicemia
 Bacteremia
 Toxemia
 Viremia
 Mixed infections
 Primary infections
 Secondary infections, subclinical infections

Causes and Development

Signs and Symptoms of Infection
 Local signs of inflammation
 Pain, swelling, redness, warmth
• If bacterial—purulent exudate
• If viral—serous, clear exudate
 Systemic signs of inflammation
 Fever may be present.
 Fatigue and weakness
 Headache
 Nausea

Methods of Diagnosis
 Culture and staining techniques
 Using specific clinical specimens
 Drug sensitivity tests
 Blood tests
 Variations in numbers of leukocytes
• Leukocytosis—bacterial infection
• Leukopenia—viral infection
 Differential count
 C-reactive protein
 Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

Diagnostic Tests (Cont.)
 Immunological testing of body fluids
 Antigen identification
 Antibody titer

Guidelines for Drug Therapy
 Drugs should be administered and taken as directed.
 Antimicrobial drugs should be taken until prescribed
medication is completely used or until new drug is
prescribed.
 If symptoms continue without reduction, contact the
pharmacist or physician.
 Do not use drugs prescribed for other clients or other
infections.
 If drug resistance is known to occur with infection,
use multidrug therapy.

Classification of Antimicrobials
 Antibiotic
 Drugs derived from organisms
 Antimicrobial
 Antibacterial
 Antiviral
 Antifungal
 Bactericidal
 Drugs destroy organism
 Bacteriostatic
 Decrease rate of reproduction

Classification of Antimicrobials
(Cont.)
 Broad spectrum
 Effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative
organisms
 Narrow spectrum
 Effective against either gram-positive or gram-negative
organisms
 First- and second-generation drugs
 First generation—original drug class
 Second generation—later version, which may be
more effective, more tolerable, or more easily
administered

Mode of Action of Antibiotics
 Interfere with bacterial cell wall synthesis
 Example: penicillin
 Increase permeability of bacterial cell
membrane
 Example: polymyxin
 Interfere with protein synthesis
 Example: tetracycline
 Interfere with synthesis of essential
metabolites
 Example: sulfonamides

Mode of Action of Antivirals
 Drugs may act by:
 Blocking entry into host cell
 Inhibiting gene expression
 Inhibiting assembly of the virus

Antifungal Agents
 May interfere with mitosis in fungi
 May increase fungal membrane permeability
 Most antifungal agents administered topically
to skin or mucous membranes
 Fungi are eukaryotic cells and are therefore
often toxic to animal and human cells.
 Treatment requires strict medical supervision.

Antiprotozoal agents
 Similar characteristics to antifungal agents
 Protozoans are eukaryotic cells.
 Many pathogenic protozoa have several
stages in their life cycles.
 Require treatment with different agents at different
stages of the cycles

Chapter 005 and 006 Pathology

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Chapter 005 and 006 Pathology