Chapter 1 - Overview Gang Growth and Migration Studies v A

Chapter 1 - Overview
Gang Growth and Migration Studies
v A
Now we will examine the problems and issues of not having a
nationally accepted definition for a street gang. We will also
examine mechanisms that influence gang migration and growth.
After reading this section you will also understand that there are
sub-populations within the general gang population.
Two of the most frequently asked questions about the gang sub-
culture are: Why do gangs grow? Why do gangs migrate? Some
law enforcement officials, politicians, educators and parents
might suggest and believe that youth in their city are only
“imitating” tougher L.A. street gangs or that the gang problem
in their jurisdiction is result of migrating gang members from
Los Angeles or Chicago. You will hear the terms “wanna be” or
“street comer groups” or “misguided youth” used to describe the
groups and you can be given a number of reasons why the
groups in these areas are not gangs. You might also hear
comments suggesting that gang imitation and migration are the
reasons why street gangs have now been reported in all 50
states.
Gang Definition
There is another issue here that has to be addressed before the
questions can be asked. It is accepting a standard to measure
gang growth and migration. That standard is the definition of a
street gang. Developing and then using a nationally accepted
definition for a street gang becomes the fundamental basis to
build examination of growth and migration. Having a standard
definition becomes the fundamental building block to answer
the two questions.
Studying gang growth is a little more complicated than just
surveying cities for data. Without a standard gang definition to

identify a gang, any official findings could be biased and
misleading. Any responding jurisdiction could potentially use a
different definition to identify the gangs in their area. Often,
law enforcers, the public, educators and politicians use a penal
code gang based definitions of a criminal street gang as a
general working definition for a street gang. If the gang does fit
within this legal definition used for penalty enhancement only,
then the group is not reported as a gang according to this
philosophy. The jurisdiction has no gangs. You can clearly see
the issue here.
This will certainly lead to under reporting the number and types
of street gangs present. Using a legal based definition of a street
gang is appropriate from a prosecutor’s point of view.
Unfortunately, too many communities, politicians, educators,
parents and law enforcement officials use this philosophy. This
way of thinking will only reinforce denial and delay the
identification and treatment of the gang-community issue.
Many states now have gang enhancement laws similar to
California Penal Code Section 186.22. In California this law is
commonly known as the STEP Act. It outlines a legal definition
for a violent criminal street gang. That definition is used to
qualify a defendant(s) for sentencing
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enhancement, after being convicted for any number of specific
crimes listed in the legal text. The crimes that qualify are felony
grade and are commonly committed by street gang members.
The California code defines a criminal street gang as:
Any on-going organization, association or group of three or
more persons, whether formal or informal, having as one of its
primary activities, the commission ofone or more ofthe criminal
acts enumerated...
The enumerated section refers to a long list of serious crimes
ranging from murder and carjacking to money laundering and

extortion. If a gang member is convicted of an alleged crime,
and the crime is proven to benefit the gang, the enhancement
will be applied when sentenced by the court. In 2006, the
California legislature added ID theft and a few other fraud type
crimes to the list. Enhancements like PC 186.22 are used as a
deterrent to gang violence. If you get convicted of a gang
related crime that fits the legal definition you can be sentenced
to a longer term in jail.
All gangs have the willingness, readiness and capability to use
violence. But, much of the street gang life entails delinquent-
type behavior and misdemeanor law violations. Often, the
community over looks this behavior and they will become
alarmed until a serious violent crime occurs. Many people,
including law enforcement officials, politicians and parents
believe that a group has to be involved in a drive-by shooting or
murder for the group to be called a gang. And when this
happens, the behavior is referred to as an “isolated incident” or
a “spike in activity.” This way it is easier to say, “We do not
have a gang problem.”
Not all gang activity qualifies for prosecution under STEP Act
type laws. Therefore, a Step Act type or legal definition of a
street gang should not be used to define a gang or its activity. In
fact, many street gangs do not fit this very special legal
definition. As I suggested earlier, we need to use a simple more
direct approach. A good working definition for a street gang is:
1. Three or more individuals
2. in association
3. with a common identifier (like a name, graffiti, hand sign)
4. committing crime (infractions, misdemeanors, felony)
All gang members have the potential to commit violent acts.
Some of the more violent gangs commit and tend to have a
history of continual involvement in felony conduct. In fact,
many gang members commit delinquent acts and misdemeanor
crimes to benefit themselves and/or their gang. What I am
suggesting is that a gang is a gang, not a street comer group or
misguided youth. In other words, a group does not have to meet

a legal enhancement standard based on a penal code law to
qualify as a gang.
Still, there is no nationally accepted definition of a gang, even
between law enforcement agencies. Some other definitions
claim turf is an essential component. Others have self-admission
as a critical factor and another one requires that the group must
commit major felony level crimes before it should be considered
as a gang. State by state, there are literally dozens of
definitions. The academic professionals and social scientists
tend to use an academic based definition. Many schools use an
administrative based definition. Even the U.S. military has
developed their definition of what a street gang is. Sometimes,
the definition of a gang can literally change city-by-city and
county-by-county.
With so many definitions, it becomes virtually impossible to
accurately determine how many gang members and street gangs
exist in America. They are not measured in the same way.
Without accurate data, there is also no way to monitor the
growth and activity of street gangs. More importantly without
accurate data, it becomes difficult to use and place valuable
resources.
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To complicate this issue a little more. Consider that it is
possible for a gang’s criminal activity to be dormant for a
while. It will appear as if the gang has gone away or it is no
longer involved in crime. Then, there is a sudden spurt of
reported criminal activity. As conflicts arise and develop gang
members will take part in retaliatory actions until the problem
is settled. Gangs that were dormant can become active again.
The cause of the sudden activity can be just about anything
from bad drug deals, insults to a stolen girl friend. Just because
there has not been a law enforcement response to the
neighborhood does not mean the gang has disbanded, it has just

been inactive.
Commonly, gangs tend to retaliate as the opportunity presents
itself. The majority of gang crime appears to be opportunistic in
nature. Most violent acts between gangs also appear to the
result of a chance encounter. Today, since so many gang
members are armed, especially when traveling outside their
home base, violent confrontation should be anticipated. But
there have been cases where a gang will wait for a year or more
before retaliating and where they have planned an attack.
No wonder it is so difficult to get an accurate picture of what is
going on. This is why a standard definition needs to be used. It
will provide a vehicle for us to get an accurate pulse on the
number of gang members and street gangs in the country. It will
also become the basis to track this data. And it will help to
distribute the appropriate resources to minimize the impact of
gangs in our communities.
Growth
The information that helps explain the national situation is
limited. Let’s take a look at some data collected by the U.S.
Department of Justice. A 1997, Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) report was based on
information collected in a 1995 survey of police and sheriff
departments. When the data was analyzed, some surprising
findings were reported on the number and size of U.S. street
gangs.
According to the National Youth Gang Center gangs are not
reported in all 50 states. Trend wise, there was a large increase
in the number of identified and reported gangs in the mid to late
1990s. The number of gangs being reported actually decreased
staring 1999 and remained that way until 2004. Beginning in
2005 the number of gang being reported in the country again
started to increase. The same trend could be seen with the actual
number ofgang members being reported. This is all based on
law enforcement data (IIR, 2009)
What causes findings like this to be reported? During the 1995
survey, the country as a whole was becoming aware of the street

gang phenomenon. One factor was the reported growth in the
number of street gangs in the country. Malcolm Klein, a well -
known University of Southern California sociologist, confirmed
the growth of street gangs, by studying the number of cities
across the country that reported the presence of street gangs.
Amazingly, Klein’s studies revealed only 58 cities across the
country reporting street gang activity in 1960. That number
grew to 101 cities in 1970. In 1980, 179 cities across the
country reported gang activity. Not surprising, most of the
reported gangs were on the west coast in California. By 1992,
769 cities reported the presence of street gangs (Klein, 1995).
By late 1998, street gangs were reported in all 50 states, with
over 1200 cities reporting the presence of street gangs. There is
abundant evidence of the growth of street gangs.
One Percent Rule
V
As the number of street gangs increased, the nation also
experienced a growth in the number of gang members.
Basically, the gang population exploded during this time. In
early 1980 there was thought to be only about 300,000 gang
members in the United States. At that time, California alone
reported almost 150,000 gang members in the state. Because of
denial, inaccurate reporting and non-reporting, there is no
accurate estimate for the country’s gang population. Many of
my peers and I suspect there were more gang members than
reported.
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Other reports from government agencies estimate the national
gang population between
650.000 and 850,000 members (National Drug Intelligence
Center and U.S. Department of Justice). The number of different
gangs also varies depending on what study is used. The
estimates vary between 25,000 and 35,000 gangs. In April, 2008

the U.S. department of Justice submitted a report that suggested
there were 1 million gang members in the country (US DOJ,
2008). It is logical to see how the findings are dependent on the
survey responses. The responses become the critical variable in
determining an accurate picture. With a tendency to under
report or not report gang activity, it is easy to see how official
findings may be inaccurate.
The findings of informal studies I conducted in several cities in
California, Washington, Nevada, Arizona and Georgia suggest a
different outcome. I used the definition of a street gang
mentioned in this text and spoke with gang investigators. I
believe a more accurate estimation of the U.S. gang population
comes from what I call the “one percent rule.” This theory
states that gang populations will run about one percent or less
ofthe general population. The ad hoc studies conducted suggest
this, whether a single city or an entire county is examined. The
findings suggest that the total gang population accounts for less
than one percent of the general population. They tend to be
between .6 and .7 percent.
There were a few exceptions. In locations where gangs
originally developed, a slightly higher percentage was
calculated. In these cities the data suggested that gang
populations on average ran between .7 and .9 percent, but not
greater than 1.1 percent based on 2004 data. The data from ICE
deportations also suggests that illegal immigrant gang
populations run about 1 percent of the total deported population
(Valdez, 2009). The U.S. military also suggests that active duty
military personnel who are involved in gangs runs around 1
percent or less of the entire active duty population (Smith,
2008).
For example, in 2005 the general Los Angeles County
population was estimated at 9.935 million people (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2006). Los Angeles is also considered to be the
birthplace of Flispanic gangs. In March 2006, the Cal -Gang
intelligence system reported an estimated
89.000 street gang members in the county. The one percent

theory predicts that .89 percent of the L.A. population were
gang members. The same analysis in Orange and San Diego
counties (California) suggested a .85 percent gang population.
In other cities that I have been able to get statistical data on
gang populations, gang populations are well under one percent.
Reported gang populations change for many reasons. Anecdotal
law enforcement evidence from 1993-2006 tends to support that
theory. The latest data from Los Angeles County suggests that
the gang population is less than 1 percent of the general
population that is a change from 1998. This is a great example
of the value of using a standard definition for a gang member
and street gang. You can track, compare and develop a history
of the number of gang members, types of street gangs and gang
related activity accurately.
Based on these ad hoc studies and using this theory let’s
examine the U.S. population. The last census (2000) estimated
the national population close to 285 million people. The one
percent theory suggests that the U.S. gang population should be
closer to 2 million. This is more than double the highest
Department of Justice estimate. If this is true the gang problem
is more severe than we want to believe or previously thought.
Under estimation ofgang populations and activity can hinder or
prevent the implementation of suppression, intervention and
prevention programs. The inaccurate data can cause a false
sense of security to develop.
If you also take into account the fact that the U.S. population
reached a benchmark size in October, 2006 the gang populations
could be higher. By October, 2006 there were over 300 million
people living in the country. This would predict that the gang
population should be closer to 2.5 million, triple the highest
academic based estimate.
Age and Activity
In California the number of street gang members was estimated
at 300,000 (California Department of Justice, 2003. If that
estimate is accurate, in that state, gang members outnumber
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the police three to one. Nationally, the majority of street gang
members are adults. Juvenile gang members only comprise 20-
25 % ofthe total street gang population. What gang population
is the most criminally active? Media reports help suggest that
the juvenile population is the most active. Other surveys
suggest the adult gang population is the most active. In reality,
it is neither population. It is both.
We should look at the 14-24 year-old age group. The crime rates
within this age group have been very dynamic and continue to
rise. In fact, the homicide rate in this age group was estimated
to be five times higher than just the adult or juvenile age group.
This suggests that this combination age group might become a
key in developing models about street gangs.
Ad hoc studies suggest that the 14-24 year-old age group
becomes a critical factor when studying street gangs. By
examining this age group, I have found that it contains
approximately 65-70% of the total street gang population. Like
the one percent theory, there are a few exceptions. In a few
areas of the country the percentage may be a bit lower.
Knowing that the majority of street gang members fall into this
combination age group, examining this age group will help give
a clearer picture of street gang activity. One issue becomes to
try to establish the size ofthis group. Again, not using a
standard definition will lead to a biases finding. This issue
becomes a little more complicated because of the non-and under
reporting of gang activity, number of gangs and number of gang
members. However, the U.S. Department of Justice predicted
that by 2006 the overall 14-24 age population will reach 30
million. It did by November of that year. That is the largest this
population has ever been.
In those areas of the country where street gangs originated, the
14-24 year -old age group represents about 50-55 percent of the
population. This may occur in these areas because the gang

population is a lot older and more established verses locations
where the gangs were recently established. You should
recognize that gang membership spans a complete age spectrum.
For example, using December 1998 Cal-Gang data for Orange
County, California, the youngest gang member reported was an
8-year-old Hispanic male and the oldest was a 59 year old
Hispanic female. Shockingly, across the country children as
young as 7 years old have been reported to be gang members.
In rural parts of America, the 14-24 year-old-age group may
comprise the entire gang population. This may be true
especially if the gang is newly established. This tends to occur
in smaller towns and rural America because of the
demographics of the youth population. In these adolescent
gangs, there are no old timers, age wise around. The gang itself
has not been around long enough to have older gang members.
The gang members who refer to themselves as OG’s or
veteranos (veterans) may be in their early teens. Today, gang
membership covers a complete age spectrum and shows no
gender or racial boundaries.
However, for the greatest potential impact of any strategy this is
the age group that should be targeted for suppression,
intervention and prevention programs. This is the age group
were the greatest dollar return can be realized. This issue may
also be true for street gangs that develop outside America,
especially in under developed countries where poverty and
unemployment is high.
Migration
It has been suggested that California based gangs migrated to
other parts of the country and then started new gangs or sets of
their own gang. This may have been concluded partly because
gangs in other parts of the country displayed many
characteristics and behaviors that were consistently encountered
with L.A. based street gangs. The challenge becomes to identify
what mechanisms and/or societal factors really accounted for
this national gang growth; and to determine whether or not a
gang brand name was adopted.

Klein’s population studies in the early 1990s also suggested that
most gangs were home grown. Believe it or not, most street
gangs are a function of local geography and demographics.
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During the late 1980s and early 1990s law enforcement did not
report many Los Angeles or Chicago based gangs in new areas.
There were a few cases, but nothing indicative of a developing
national trend. Prior to and during the period when Klein
conducted his studies, there was little if any documented street
gang movement between states.
But don t forget, it is during this time period the gangster rap
music industry was developing, movies started to have gang
themes, the media was making the public aware of increasing
gang violence, there were numerous newspaper and magazine
articles about street gangs and the use of the Internet was
increasing. Society was changing and still continues to. What
these communication medias did was help export the gang
culture to other states and worldwide. By the mid to late 1990s
it was apparent that the gang culture had literally saturated the
country and was entering mainstream society.
Consistent with Klein’s studies, many law enforcement
officials, including myself also concluded that migrating gang
members had a minimal influence on the formation of street
gangs outside California between the early 1990s. But one thing
was noted by law enforcement. When the occasional move did
happen, transplanted gang member(s) had a profound effect on
the local community where they resettled. Law enforcement
observed that when the move happened, other street gangs had a
tendency to form.
However, this may not be the case now. Since the mid 1990s
west coast and Chicago based gangs have been reported in many
states. Currently, it appears that gang migration is on the rise
and having a greater impact than before. Some of the newly

arrived gangs tend to be a bit more organized than their parent
groups.
Something also happens after the arrival of a west coast or
Chicago based gang member. That transplanted gang member
assumes an immediate degree of street stature simply because
he or she is from California or Chicago. In the gang culture,
there is an automatic street status given to any gang member
who claims to hail from California, especially southern
California or Chicago.
Gang migration can also be intra and interstate. Gangs can move
from city to city within a state and from state to state for a
variety of reasons. The intrastate migration of gang members
can account for the presence ofnew sets or cliques of a
particular gang in new areas of the state. For example, a gang
that is known to be active in one particular state may now be
active in another state. A question still exists, what mechanisms
account for these migrations?
Immigration
In addition, the constant influx of new immigrants adds to the
gang equation. Some gangs specifically recruit from these
populations or form new gangs themselves. 18th Street and
Mara Salvatrucha are good examples ofthis. When a new Latino
based gang forms, it will often use a west coast gang name.
There may even be a southern California based street gang with
the same name. Many times there is no direct or formal
connection to the California based street gang. But, there is an
assumption made by mid-west and east coast based gangs. If
you claim membership to a gang that appears to be a southern
California gang, all of the members have to be from California.
This gives members of the gang instant recognition.
This also occurs when a transplanted Los Angeles based gang
member gets relocated he receives instant street respect from
the local gang. Using the name of a southern California based
gang tends to enhance the new gang’s reputation. This
phenomenon has been well documented with Hispanic and
African-American types of gangs that have formed in the mid-

west and east coast. Even though this is not a true form of gang
migration, it tends to be a leading cause for the formation ofnew
cliques that claim a southern California affiliation in the mid-
west and east coast.
By the late 1990s Southern California based street gangs have
established themselves in the Mid-west and East Coast through
other mechanisms which tended to support the theory that
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there had been an increasing level ofgang migration. There can
be a number ofmechanisms that contribute to gang migration.
Individually they might impact the number of migrating gang
members. However, collectively then have a larger impact than
most people would like to believe.
We need a word of caution here. There is a tendency for the
public to define all or the majority of immigrant population
based on the actions of a very small number of immigrants.
Experience and anecdotal evidence suggest just the opposite. A
small percentage of immigrants get involved in street gangs;
remember around 1 percent. Sadly, this small percentage is able
to dictate how a large percentage of us live. You must also
consider two basic types of migration processes; transnational
and national immigration and migration. One focuses on
movement within a country and the other on movement between
countries.
Quality of Life
Family moving could be another factor that influences migration
and immigration. When a family moves to a new community to
get their children out of an unsafe environment many times
these families already have a child absorbed in the gang life.
All too often, this environmental issue is the only one
addressed. Many parents have told me, ‘7 thought moving
would get my child out of the gang” In essence, the gang
mentality and behaviors that were within a child were never

dealt with and they were taken to the new home.
Ifthere is an existing street gang in the new area, these youth
tend to migrate toward them. It is almost as if they are on
autopilot. Regardless of how the parents try to prevent this, the
same problems appear and again the family unit is
compromised.
Under the same circumstances if there are no gangs in these
areas, the transplanted families inadvertently can potentially
bring a gang seed with them. The child now becomes a big fish
in a little pond. These children sometimes start up new gangs or
factions of the gang they belonged to. In the mid- west and east
coast, these gangs tend to take on a distinct west coast style.
They may even use names like Sureno, Sureno-13, Crips,
Bloods, MS-13, or 18th Street.
I would like you to try and remember a concept we all learned
in high school biology. Osmosis is a simple concept; between a
cell membrane water seeks to be in equal concentrations. So
water will cross the membrane until it is in equal
concentrations. I want you to consider our southern border as an
economic membrane. There is migration across the membrane
by people in search of work and opportunity. Criminals take
advantage of this behavior and blend in with those coming
across the border. Based on the actions of those few criminals
entire populations are labeled. This is known as stereotyping.
Employment
There are many minimum wage paying jobs in the mid-west and
east coast. These types of jobs are an ideal form of employment
for immigrant and migrant working families. The search for
employment has driven west coast and newly arrived families to
move to where the work is. When the family makes the
transition they bring along their children. Some youth are
members or associates of southern California based street
gangs, others can be become part of a new victim or recruitment
pool.
Once relocated, these youth have instant notoriety with the local
youth because they are gang members from southern California.

In turn some form a clique of their L.A. based gang, recruiting
from the local youth pool and establish a southern California
based street gang in the mid-west or east coast. The local youth
pool can also include immigrant youth.
There are a number of seasonal agriculture working families
that make a living by traveling to where the work is. As the
agricultural seasons change, the families move to the next area
in search of employment. Sometimes the children attend local
schools. The new children become
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the target of local gangs. They may form a gang initially for
protection and the cycle starts again. 1 hese types of relocations
can be frequent or semi-permanent.
Klein, Maxson and Miller (2001) suggest that families searching
for employment are one mechanism that aids in gang migration.
Families will relocate to get a better paying job or to increase
job opportunities. In an attempt to increase the family’s quality
of life the move often also transplants gang members from one
are to another. They are correct the economic membrane is
crossed everyday for this very reason.
Probation / Parole
Another mechanism for intrastate migration is the parole and
probation system. When a gangster is released from prison or
local jail, he or she may be paroled or place on a probation
grant in a different county or a different part of the state. The
relocated parolee or probationer will have to stay within the
jurisdictional area and could establish a new set or clique of his
gang. When this happens, the newly formed gang tends to be the
rival of any existing gang, especially if the gang is turf
oriented.
Forced Moves
Sometimes moves may be forced. Factors that have forced the
move have included when a family member is relocated through

a victim/witness program. Or a family member is injured and
the family relocates near the treatment center. Sometimes a
family is evicted from a rented residence. In some cases, the
family moves near the prison where a husband, son, daughter is
incarcerated. Regardless of the reason, younger siblings who are
involved in gangs are brought with the family. The gang again
can be transplanted.
Siblings who have a dysfunctional family life may be forced to
move. They may relocate to a relative or friend’s home. Often
here are only temporary accommodations. Sometimes these
youth will live on the street because they have no money to
afford rent.
Gang Alliances
Another mechanism that helps inter and intra state gang
migration is the establishing of gang alliances for national
criminal activities. Gangs from the west coast can establish
working relationships with gangs from the mid-west or east
coast. These relationships can assist to establish national drug
routes or money laundering operations.
Recent law enforcement observations have confirmed some
unusual alliances between west coast gangs and gangs from the
mid-west. Normally these gangs are rivals with each other. A
few business relationships have been documented and it is
theorized that the reason for the cooperation between the gangs
is for making money through the drug trade.
Because ofthe advent oftrans-national gangs cliques ofthe same
gang may have contacts in other countries. These alliances may
be difficult to track and monitor. In addition, trans-national
contacts can facilitate gang related criminal activities and
present prosecution issues.
Crime
Some gangs operate as mobile criminal enterprises as commonly
seen with some of the Asian gangs, especially with some Indo-
Chinese gangs. When traveling from city to city, county to
county and from state to state occasionally a gang member or
two will remain behind. It may be because of a disagreement

between gang members or simply because they like the area.
When this happens only a short period passes before these gang
members start recruiting members to form a new gang or they
join an existing street gang.
Indo-Chinese gangs are not the only street gangs to do this.
Some Hispanic, African-American, White and Skinhead gangs
have traveled within different parts of a state to commit crime
for profit. The Indo-Chinese gangs are not the only street gang
to travel to commit
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crime. As a group, they attempt that type of crime more often
than other street gangs. Traveling to commit criminal activity
becomes another type of migration mechanism.
Based on the findings of current research drug trafficking
appears to be a major factor in gangs migrating between states,
within states and out ofthe country (National Alliance of Gang
investigators, 2005).
Military
Another migration mechanism involves an unwilling participant,
our U.S. military. The armed forces need to keep our military in
a ready state. This necessitates transfers and re-assignments.
This movement becomes a built-in mechanism that has been
used by enlisted gang members. These gang members use the
military as a resource. Transfers and re-assignments can also
facilitate the gang recruitment process. It is easy to understand
why all types of gangs are represented in our national military
installations, overseas and aboard Navy surface vessels.
The longer an unnoticed enlisted gang member can stay in the
military, the more transfers and relocations he can get. An
active gang recruiter can recruit and spread his gang all over the
world. The key is to be a good soldier, marine, airman or
seaman. The enlisted person that brings the least attention to
himself is never noticed. In the military, this can be easily

accomplished by doing your job.
As enlisted/officer transfers occur, family moves are inevitable.
If a dependant belongs to a local street gang off base before the
move, when the family relocates to new base, so does the gang
member and gang. Just as in the civilian population, the
dependant gang member(s) can become a big fish on a base with
little or no gang problem. This can be particularly perplexing
for any military police or investigative service. To compound
the issue the military is generally not allowed to keep gang
intelligence files. As a result the military police and
investigative service units assigned to one base often do not
pass on information to sibling units at other bases. Intra and
inter communications between other branches of the service id
non-existent when it comes to sharing intelligence on gang
activity.
Divorce
A divorce or separation is not thought of as a gang migration
mechanism. But a family break up can be just that.
Unfortunately, the United States has seen a decline in the
traditional two-parent family. One early 1990s estimate
indicated that 18 million American children (27 percent of the
nation’s children) are growing up in single parent homes. As
divorce and separation rates continue to climb we see the un-
anticipated impact on gang migration.
Youth are more likely to have problems when parents divorce or
separate. This makes them prime targets for the gang
association and membership. If a child is already part of gang to
escape an emotional or physically abusive home, the subsequent
court ordered custody to one parent and subsequent move
become the mechanism that allows that gang member to move.
This can happen whether the re-location and parent assignment
is voluntary or court ordered.
These divorces and custody battles can be very emotional and
ultimately the children bear the blunt. No matter what is done or
said many times the children feel they are responsible for the
divorce. As the children are tugged between households, they

yearn for a consistent family life. The gang family can offer
that. As one 16 year-old gangster told me, “My homies,
myfamily is always therefor me.” The sad fact is the
replacement or gang family demancls unquestioned loyalty and
with that loyalty comes a commitment and willingness to
employ violence.
Schools
Sometimes, gang migrations may be caused by a school
expulsion. If a child is expelled from school, often the student
gang member relocates to a relative or friends home in a new
54
school district. This type of student then registers in the new
school district; enters the student population and brings his
gang mentality with him. All too often, the new school
experiences the presence ot the gang member transplant very
quickly. Teachers have commented they first notice the new
gang member’s presence through written schoolwork or through
classroom behavior.
Some students do make an attempt to turn their lives around.
However, as new students sometimes the existing students
immediately single them out. If the new school already has an
existing gang influence, the new student’s entry can be difficult.
This is especially true if the new student has gang tattoos,
because the tattoos would advertise his gang membership to a
foreign gang.
Do not forget that some gang members go to college. When they
enroll they also can enroll their gang life style. This can be seen
in college dorm life. Although somewhat more subtle than
living in the neighborhood, the gang presence is almost always
noticed.
Drug/Human Trafficking
The previously mention factors in themselves may not be
considered as migration influences by other professionals.

Individually, they may not impact gang migration much.
Collectively they do. Of all the migration factors the next one is
probably the most influential. Probably because money is
involved and gang members tend to make illegal activities the
primary way to develop income.
The trafficking of illegal drugs and human beings has become a
common enterprise that some street gangs have engaged in.
Research also suggests that younger street gang members are
selling drugs. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention reported in the executive summary for the 1998
National Gang survey that one third of the youth gangs were
drug selling gangs (OJJDP, 1998).
Not at the organized level associated with major drug cartels or
prison gangs. But at the street level and the dealers tend to be
younger local street gang members (National Drug Intelligence
Center, 1998). And why not? The country as a whole contains
about 1/21st of the world’s population. As a nation we consume
over 50 percent of the world’s illegal drugs (DEA, 1999).
Evidence to support this theory may have some anecdotal
origin, but it is strong. For example, in 2006 a 2400 foot long
tunnel was found leading from a home in Mexico to another
home across the border in the San Diego area. DEA officials
were able to show that the tunnel complete with lighting and
ventilation was used to transport drugs into the United States. A
drug dealer can make enormous amounts of unreported income
selling drugs. A sales territory can become very important,
especially to those who use and are addicted to drugs.
This candid observation becomes important when discussing
gang migration. Drug dealers need product to sell. The drugs
that are sold locally come from drug suppliers who often
operate out of the country. Sometimes the suppliers are often
trusted members of the gang, extended family members or
trusted dealers. If you relocate to another part of the country
there is a tendency to maintain your relationships with your
drug connections back home.
This implies that if you are a west coast transplant your drug

supply comes from the west coast. This in turn facilitates the
interstate transport of illegal drugs. And in turn, spawns a new
tentacle within the gang sub-culture to develop a specialty
crime; drug trafficking. Gang members and associates are used
for the interstate transport of drugs for their street gangs. This
includes using public transportation like buses and trains,
personal cars and commercial airlines.
An academic study (Goldstein and Huff, 1993) tends to support
three mechanisms that influence this type of gang migration.
Moving into smaller cities means that competition between drug
dealers and suppliers tends to be less intense because there are
fewer gang
55
members. This makes it easier for migration gang members to
establish narcotic trafficking. The first street gang into a
specific location is able to designate its own boundaries. This
can allow a gang to develop a monopoly. This type of scenario
can also allow members of this gang to claim they own the
entire town. Of course the gang will have to defend this drug
sales turf from other gangs.
Secondly, illegal drugs are often more scarce in smaller cities
and rural towns. This will provide a mechanism to make a
greater profit. Remember the law of supply and demand. A low
supply of product will result in higher prices. All we have to do
is remember what happened during the gas shortages. This
factor will continue to be important because the majority of
drug supply lines bypass rural towns and small cities.
Last, in rural towns and small cities the local law enforcement
may be less experienced at dealing with gang members, and or
gang members who traffic illegal drugs (Jensen and Yerington,
1997). It should be no surprise to note the executive summary
of the 1998 National Youth Gang survey also suggested that
rural America was seeing the largest increase of gang that sell

drugs (OJJDP, 2000).
Gang Studies
The street gang phenomenon had relatively little scientific
inquiry until the 1970s. Prior to that time, only a few academic
studies on the dynamics, profiles, types or the customs and
practices of street gangs where conducted. It has been generally
accepted that a study completed by Thrasher (1927) was the
first gang research project in the country. However, the majority
of research on street and prison gangs is less than 50 years old
and much of that, less than 15 years old. Even though gang
behaviors can be traced back to colonial America only a few
studies done in 1960 sparked the interest in street gang
research.
There were a couple of societal influences that sparked a 1970s
academic interest in street gangs. One was certainly media
coverage. The entertainment and music industry took advantage
of the gang sub-culture. Movies gave fictional accounts of what
street gang life should be while glorifying street gang violence.
Hardcore rap music today still continues to express a great
anger with the system. Hard core rap song lyrics promote the
idea of a conspiracy by White America to systematically
eradicate the Black man. The use violence against women and
the police was and still is a popular theme. These themes are
also carried in Hispanic gang and White Supremacist rap music.
The advent of watching live police shootings and pursuits on
national television also aided in the spread ofwhat I call
vicarious violence. People watched TV, saw the movie or
listened to the rap music, then walked away, as if nothing has
happened. There was no consequence, because what was
experienced was entertainment. Without realizing it, many
young people experienced violence and nothing physically
happened to them, or so it was thought. Many criminal justice
professionals have known about this phenomenon that mental
health professionals have observed and commented about.
Two things can happen. First, the viewer or listener has a
tendency to become desensitized. Secondly, for some people,

the movie characters are not fictional, but real life people. The
rap music lyrics are not only representative and just verbal
frustrations of a small segment of the African-American
population. For some gang members they actually represent
their real struggles against the police and the establishment.
Some gang members identify with the rap music artist or movie
character.
The result, of course, is that for some young people, fiction
becomes reality. Some street gangsters began, have and
continue to aspire to be like the character they saw in the
movie. In fact, for some gang members there is a direct
connection between the movies and their own lives. In 1999
Jokey, a female gang member from the Drifters street gang, in
Los Angeles said, “... people spend seven dollars to go to a
movie and see what I live everyday for free” An
56
astonishing remark for a pregnant female gang member who was
smoking marijuana laced with crack. She also chose to be
homeless and was only 18 years old.
Ironically, only a few major news networks produce specials
about life in the gang sub-culture. When they are aired, some
criminal justice experts claim these specials only glorify the
gang life. Investigative reporters have told me they believe the
public has a right to know about street life. Chris Blatchford,
investigative reporter, FOX News, Channel 11, Los Angeles
told me in an interview, “that some reporters might have a
tendency to push because of the intense competition between
news agencies. ” Blatchford was also quick to point out that
reporters have a job to do and that job is to get the news out.
Formal academic studies tend to show that the street gang life
for the majority of street gang members is nothing like what is
portrayed in the news specials. This is true. The reality is that
street gang life is mixture of both perspectives. The academic

studies may show what the majority of street gang members do.
The news specials document what the violent minority does.
From a criminal justice perspective, we deal with the violent
minority most of our time. Research suggests that the violent
minority gang membership is thought to be somewhere between
8-10 percent of the total gang population and appears to be
responsible for about 52 percent of the violent gang crime
(Smith and Kent, 1995).
Another factor that prompted formal studies was the growth
ofviolent gang crime in the late 70s and early 80s. These
changes in crime trends also caused academic professionals,
social scientists and criminal justice professionals to look at
specific age groups. As foretold, the mid 1990s became the
crime peak that many professionals predicted in the late 1970s
and early 1980s. But something odd happened, instead of a
rising through the mid to late 1990s, the crime rates took a
slight downward trend and then leveled off, during 1997 and
1998.
The violent crime rates still continued to drop slightly into the
year 2000. Some crime categories stayed static during 2003 and
2004 and a few tended to rise. Although violent gang homicides
seem to be stable, violent assaults that do not include murder
are on the increase. Drug trafficking by gang members was also
on the rise during 2003 and 2004.
A national attitude soon developed. We are safer now because
the crime rate has dropped. The media was the tool used to
spread the good news by citing U.S. Department of Justice
reports based on crime rate data for juveniles and adults. This
has helped promote an attitude that there is no longer a
problem. Well, I don’t completely agree with this interpretation
of the crime rate data. Yes, ifwe look at just adult and juvenile
crime rates separately, there has been a decrease and
stabilization of the crime rates.
However, the level at which crime rates have stabilized it is still
3 to 5 times higher than they were in the 1960s. Just because the
crime rates have decreased and leveled off, are we really safe r?

Besides, the crime rate indexes show that violent juvenile crime
committed with a gun is still rising and offers no explanation of
why juvenile homicide rates increased 150 percent before
stabilizing. Nor does this change offer any explanation why
juvenile crime has out-paced adult crime between 1990 and
2000 and why it appears to continue to do so.
10-10-80 Theory
There is really no accurate way to determine the number of gang
members in the country because of the definition issue. Only
gross estimates can be made based on available data from
surveys on street gangs and gang populations. The gang
population has a minority membership that is involved in the
majority of violent crime. It is estimated to be somewhere
between 8 and 10 percent. The majority of the time gang life
involves around, legal, delinquent and misdemeanor behavior.
All gangs have a willingness and potential to use violence.
Some street gangs violence randomly, as they feel it is needed
and some use violence consistently. Trend-wise, it appears that
more gang members are getting involved in drug sales. If this
increases, drug sales could fuel gang migration within and
without of a state.
57
I want to present the 10-10-80 theory here. I am suggesting that
many formal academic studies work with about 80 percent of
the gang population. Most academic research does not target the
most active gang members in the country. The behavior models
that are developed and suggested may be accurate for 80 percent
of the gang population.
Research completed by the Westminster Police Department
suggests that the majority of violent gang crime (over 50
percent) is committed by 8 to 10 percent of the gang members
(Smith and Kent, 1995). This implies that there may a sub-group
of gang members within the general gang population. I concur

because anecdotal law enforcement evidence suggests that this 8
to 10 percent group accounts for a disproportional amount of
gang crime. Therefore, behavior models for this group may not
fit published academic models because they describe two
different groups of gang members. Basically we are comparing
lemons and oranges, both are citrus fruits but distinctly
different, yet both share many of the same characteristics.
In my theory I am also suggesting that the criminal justice
profession never contacts a small percentage of the gang
population. These gang members successfully conceal their
gang membership and activities much like many drug
traffickers. The actual percentages may be smaller a
comprehensive research project would ultimately be able to
determine that.
However, what my theory suggests is that the majority of gang
members do not commit the majority of the violent gang crime.
I suggest that a ratio exists between three sub-groups within the
general gang population and the relationships within these
groups affect suppression, intervention and prevention program
design and implementation. Criminal justice professionals and
the media often deal with the 10 percent group that commits the
majority of crime. Academic professionals deal with a majority
of the gang population. A small percentage, roughly 10 percent
are not contacted at all, hence the 10-10-80 name. These three
sub groups comprise the entire gang population (Valdez, 2000).
Summary
Even though a number of gang migration mechanisms have been
identified in this text there are probably more. In the early
1990s migrating gang members accounted for a limited number
ofnew gangs that formed across the country. When a migrating
gang member forms a new gang the impact may be felt
immediately. The exported gang culture and local societal
factors have had the greatest influence on the formation of
street gangs across the country. Most gangs form within the
geographical boundaries of their city or town and draw their

membership from the local population. However, migrating
gang members are having an increasing effect on this
phenomenon. A small percentage of gang members account for a
disproportionate amount of the violent gang related crime.
58

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Chapter 1 - Overview Gang Growth and Migration Studies v A