CHAPTER 12- LAND-USE PLANNING. Environmental Science

LAND- USE
PLANNING
Presented by:
Emmylou L. Galero
BSEd- Science III

OBJECTIVES
 Describe the forces that
result in farmland adjacent to
cities being converted to
urban uses.
 Describe methods of enforcing
compliance with land-use plans.
 List the steps in the development
and implementation of a land-use
plan.
 Explain why floodplains and
wetlands are often
mismanaged.
 Describe the economic and
social values involved in
planning for outdoor recreation
opportunities.
 Describe the advantages and
disadvantages of both local and
regional land-use planning.
 Describe the concept of smart growth.
 Explain why most major
cities are located on
rivers, lakes, or the ocean.

THE NEED FOR PLANNING
A large proportion of the land
surface of the world (about one-
third to one-half) has been changed
by human activity. Most of this
change occurred as people
converted the land to agriculture
and grazing, but, in our modern
world, significant amounts have
been covered with buildings,
streets, highways, and other
products of society. In many cases,
cities grew without evaluating and
determining the most logical use
for the land. Los Angeles and
Mexico City have severe air
pollution problems because of their
geographic location, Venice and
New Orleans are threatened by high
sea levels, and San Francisco and
Tokyo are subject to earthquakes.
Currently, most land-use decisions are
still based primarily on economic
considerations or the short-term needs of
a growing population rather than on
careful analysis of the capabilities and
unique values of the land and landscape.
Each piece of land has specific qualities
based on its location and physical
makeup. Some is valued for the unique
species that inhabit it, some is valued for
its scenic beauty, and some has
outstanding potential for agriculture or
urban uses. Since land and the resources,
it supports (soil, vegetation, elevation,
nearness to water, watersheds) are not
being created today (except by such
phenomena as volcanoes and river
deltas), land should be considered a
nonrenewable resource.
Once land has been converted from
natural ecosystems or agriculture
to intensive human use, it is
generally unavailable for other
purposes. As the population of the
world grows, competition for the
use of the land will increase, and
systematic land-use planning will
become more important.
Furthermore, as the population of
the world becomes more urbanized
and cities grow, urban planning
becomes critical.

Today, most of the North American continent has been significantly modified by human activity. In the United
States, about 47 percent of the land is used for crops and livestock, about 45 percent is forests and natural areas
(primarily west of the Mississippi River), and nearly 5 percent is used intensively by people in urban centers and as
transportation corridors. Canada is 54 percent forested and wooded and uses only 8 percent of its land for crops
and livestock. Less than 1 percent of the land is in urban centers and transportation corridors. A large percentage
of its remaining land is wilderness in the north.
HISTORICALFORCESTHAT SHAPEDLAND USE
THE RURAL-TO-URBAN SHIFT
North America remained essentially
rural until industrial growth began in
the last third of the 1800s and the
population began a trend toward
greater urbanization. Several forces
led to this rural-to-urban
transformation. First, the Industrial
Revolution led to improvements in
agriculture that required less farm
labor at the same time industrial jobs
became available in the city. Thus,
people migrated from the farm to the
city.

Today, most of the North American continent has been significantly modified by human activity. In the United
States, about 47 percent of the land is used for crops and livestock, about 45 percent is forests and natural areas
(primarily west of the Mississippi River), and nearly 5 percent is used intensively by people in urban centers and
as transportation corridors. Canada is 54 percent forested and wooded and uses only 8 percent of its land for
crops and livestock. Less than 1 percent of the land is in urban centers and transportation corridors. A large
percentage of its remaining land is wilderness in the north.
HISTORICAL FORCESTHATSHAPEDLANDUSE
URBANIZATION IN THE DEVELOPING
WORLD
Traditionally, most of the population of the
developing world has been rural. However, in
recent years, the number of people migrating
to the cities has grown rapidly. By 2025, about
5 billion people are expected to be living in
urban centers. Most of the increase in urban
areas will be in the developing world. Many
migrate to the cities because they feel they will
have greater access to social services and
other cultural benefits than are available in
rural areas.

MIGRATION FROM THE CENTRAL CITY TO THE SUBURBS
During the early stages of industrial development, there was little control of industry activities, so the
waterfront typically became a polluted, unhealthy, undesirable place to live. As roads and rail transport
became available, anyone who could afford to do so moved away from the original, industrial city
center. The more affluent moved to the outskirts of the city, and the development of suburban
metropolitan regions began. Thus, the agricultural land surrounding the towns was converted to
housing. Most cities originally had good farmland near them, since the floodplain near rivers typically
has a deep, rich soil and agricultural land adjacent to the city was one of the factors that determined
whether the city grew or not.
As the population of the city grew, demand for
land increased. As the price of land in the city
rose, people and businesses began to look for
cheaper land farther away from the city.
Developers and real estate agents were quick to
respond and to help people acquire and convert
agricultural land to residential or commercial
uses. Land was viewed as a commodity to be
bought and sold for a profit, rather than as a
nonrenewable resource to be managed. As long
as money could be made by converting
agricultural land to other purposes, it was
impossible to prevent such conversion. There
were no counteracting forces strong enough to

WHAT ARE WATERWAYS?
Waterways were the primary method of
transportation, which allowed exploration and
the development of commerce in the early
European settlement of North America. Thus,
early towns were usually built near rivers, lakes,
and oceans. Typically, cities developed as far
inland as rivers were navigable. Where abrupt
changes in elevation caused waterfalls or
rapids, goods being transported by boat or
barge needed to be offloaded, transported
around the obstruction, and loaded onto other
boats. Cities often developed at these points.

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Urban sprawl is a pattern of unplanned, low-density housing and
commercial development outside of cities that usually takes place on
previously undeveloped land. In addition, blocks of housing are
separated from commercial development, and the streets typically form
branching patterns and often include cul-de-sacs. These large housing
tracts surrounded cities, which made it difficult for people to find open
space. A city dweller could no longer take a bus to the city limits and
enjoy the open space of the countryside.
Urban sprawl has been defined as auto-dependent development outside
of the compact urban and village center, along highways, and in the rural
countryside. Sprawl is typically characterized by the following:
• Excessive land consumption
• Low densities in comparison with older centers
• Lack of choice in ways to travel
• Fragmented open space, wide gaps between development, and a
scattered appearance
• Lack of choice in housing types and prices
• Separation of uses into distinct areas
• Repetitive one-story development
• Commercial buildings surrounded by large areas for parking
• Lack of public spaces and community centers

Megalopoli
s refers to the linear
expansion of urban
development along
transportation corridors
such as highways or rail
lines.

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO SPRAWL
LIFESTYLE FACTORS
One of the factors that
has supported urban
sprawl is the relative
wealth of the population.
This wealth is reflected in
material possessions, two
of which are automobiles
and homes. Based on
2007 census data, in the
United States, there are
80 motor vehicles for
every 100 people.
ECONOMIC FACTORS
Several economic forces
operate to encourage
sprawl development. First
of all, it is less expensive
to build on agricultural and
other nonurban land than it
is to build within
established cities.
PLANNING AND POLICY
FACTORS
Many planning and policy
issues have contributed to
sprawl development. First of
all, until recently, little
coordinated effort has been
given to planning how
development should occur
in metropolitan areas.

As the population increased and metropolitan
areas grew, several kinds of problems were
recognized.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
UNPLANNED
URBAN GROWTH

TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS
Most cities experience continual problems
with transportation. This is primarily because,
as cities grew, little thought was given to how
people were going to move around and
through the city. Furthermore, when housing
patterns and commercial sectors changed,
transportation mechanisms had to be
changed to meet the shifting needs of the
public. This often involved the abandonment
of old transportation corridors and the
establishment of new ones.
DEATH OF THE CENTRAL CITY
When people leave the city and move to the
suburbs, they take their purchasing power and
tax payments with them. Therefore, the city
has less income to support the services
needed by the public. When the quality of
services in urban centers drops, the quality of
life declines, the flight from the city increases,
and a downward spiral of decay begins.
LOSS OF SENSE OF COMMUNITY
Although it is difficult to measure, general agreement
exists that in dispersed suburban developments, there
is a loss of a sense of community. In many places,
people stay within their homes and yards and do not
routinely walk through the neighborhood. When they
leave the confines of their home, they get in a car and
go somewhere. This pattern of behavior reduces
human interaction, isolates people from their
neighbors, and greatly reduces the sense of
community.
HIGHER INFRASTRUCTURE COSTS
Infrastructure includes all the physical, social, and
economic elements needed to support the population.
Whenever a new housing or commercial development
occurs on the outskirts of the city, municipal services
must be extended to the area. Sewer and water
services, natural gas and electric services, schools and
police stations, roads and airports—all are needed to
support this new population.

LOSS OF OPEN SPACE
One of the important features of a pleasing urban
landscape is the presence of open space. Open
fields, parks, boulevards, and similar land uses
allow people to visually escape from the
congestion of the city. Unplanned urban growth
does not take this important factor into account.
Consequently, the buildings must be torn down,
and disused spaces must be renovated into parks
and other open space at great expense to provide
green space in the urban landscape.
WATER POLLUTION PROBLEMS
A large impervious surface area results in high
runoff and flash flood potential. A typical
shopping mall has a paved parking lot that is
four times larger than the space taken up by
the building. The runoff from paved parking lots
carries pollutants (oil, coolant, pieces of rubber)
into local streams and ponds.
LOSS OF FARMLAND
Most of the land that has recently been urbanized
was previously used for high-value crops. Land that
is flat, well drained, accessible to transportation, and
close to cities is ideal farmland. However, it is also
prime development land. Areas that once supported
crops now support housing developments, shopping
centers, and parking lots.
FLOODPLAIN PROBLEMS
Because most cities were established along water,
many cities are located in areas called floodplains.
Floodplains are the low areas near rivers and, thus,
are subject to periodic flooding. Some floodplains may
flood annually, while others flood less regularly. They
are generally flat and so are inviting areas for
residential development even though they suffer
periodic flooding. A better use of these areas is for
open space or recreation, yet developers continue to
build houses and light industry in them. Many
communities have enacted floodplain zoning
ordinances to restrict future building in floodplains.

WETLANDS MISUSE
Since access to water was and continues to be
important to industrial development, many cities
are located in areas with extensive wetlands.
Wetlands are areas that periodically are
covered with water. They include swamps, tidal
marshes, coastal areas, and estuaries. Some
wetlands, such as estuaries and marshes, are
permanently wet, while others, such as many
swamps, have standing water during only part of
the year.
AIR POLLUTION
Reliance on the automobile as the primary method of transportation has
resulted in significant air pollution problems in many cities. Most of the large
industrial sources of air pollution have been contained. However, the individual
car with its single occupant going to work, to shop, or to eat a meal is a constant
source of air pollution. A simple solution to this problem is a centralized, efficient
public transportation system. However, this is difficult to achieve with a highly
dispersed population.
LOW ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Energy efficiency is low for several reasons. First of
all, automobiles are the least energy-efficient
means of transporting people from one place to
another. Second, the separation of blocks of homes
from places of business and shopping requires that
additional distances be driven. Third, congested
traffic routes result in hours being spent in stop-
and-go traffic, which wastes much fuel.

LAND-USE PLANNING AND
AESTHETIC POLLUTION
Unpleasant odors, disagreeable tastes,
annoying sounds, and offensive sights can
be aggravating. Yet it is difficult to get
complete agreement on what is acceptable
and when some aesthetic boundary has
been crossed that is unacceptable.
Furthermore, many useful activities
generate stimuli that are offensive while the
activity itself may be essential or at least
very useful. Many of these do not harm us
physically but may be harmful from an
aesthetic point of view.
OTHER LAND-USE
CONSIDERATIONS
 Building cities on the sides of
volcanoes or on major earthquake-
prone faults has led to much loss of
life and property.
 Building homes and villages on
unstable hillsides or in areas subject to
periodic fires is also unwise.
 Another problem in some locations is
lack of water.
 Water-starved cities often cause land-
use dilemmas far from the city
boundaries.

LAND-USE PLANNINGPRINCIPLES
Land-use planning is a process of
evaluating the needs and wants of the
population, the characteristics and
values of the land, and various
alternative solutions to the use of a
particular land surface before changes
are made. Planning land use brings with
it the need to examine the desires of
many competing interests. A basic rule
should be to make as few changes as
possible, but when changes are
suggested or required, several things
should be considered.

Land-Use Planning 1. Evaluate and record any unique geologic, geographic, or
biologic features of the land.
2. Preserve unique cultural or historic features.
3. Conserve open space and environmental features.
4. Recognize and calculate the cost of additional changes
that will be required to accommodate altered land use.
5. Plan for mixed housing and commercial uses of land in
proximity to one another.
6. Plan for a variety of transportation options. Plan for
transportation options other than the automobile.
7. Set limits and require managed growth with compact
development patterns.
8. Encourage development within areas that already have a
supportive infrastructure so that duplication of resources is
not needed

MECHANISMS FOR IMPLEMENTING LAND-USE PLANS
Land-use planning is the construction of an orderly list of priorities for the use of
available land. Developing a plan involves gathering data on current use and
geological, biological, and sociological information. From these data, projections
are made about what human needs will be. All of the data collected are
integrated with the projections, and each parcel of land is evaluated and
assigned a best use under the circumstances.
Land-use planning for sustainability requires consideration of a wide spectrum of
factors, including transportation, development density, energy efficiency, natural
corridors and open space, and growth management. The following strategies
are critical components of comprehensive planning to address the complex
land-use issues facing our communities.

MECHANISMS FOR IMPLEMENTINGLAND-USE PLANS
Transit-Oriented Design - Planning and design strategies for the development of mixed-use, walkable communities
sited adjacent to transit access.
Mixed-Use Strategies- Development that promotes the coexistence of many community locales and services within
close proximity, to reduce automobile dependency.
Urban Growth Boundaries - A regulatory strategy for limiting urban sprawl by creating a geographical boundary for
new development over a period of time.
Infill Development - A strategy to promote greater development density and efficiency within existing urban
boundaries.
Greenways - A strategy to preserve open spaces and natural systems, and provide recreation opportunities, by
connecting cities, suburbs, and rural areas through linear corridors such as parks and trails.
Brownfield Redevelopment- A strategy for returning idle and often contaminated urban lands referred to as
“brownfields” into productive use.

MECHANISMS FOR IMPLEMENTING LAND-USE PLANS
Transfer of Development Rights- A method of exchanging development rights among property developers to
increase development density and protect open space and existing land uses.
Open Space Protection- Ways to protect a community’s urban open space, farmland, wetlands, riparian lands,
rangeland, forests and woodlands, and coastal lands.
Urban Forestry- Planting and maintenance of trees within a city or community as a strategy for reducing both
carbon emissions and energy expenditures for heating and cooling.
Land Trusts - Local, regional, or statewide nonprofit organizations directly involved in protecting important land
resources over the long term.
Agricultural Land Protection - Strategies for preserving the land that feeds and clothes us, provides open space,
food, and habitat for diverse wildlife, and maintains a link to our nation’s agricultural heritage.
Solar Access Protection- Regulatory measures to provide legal protection to property owners investing in solar
energy systems through solar access ordinances.

ESTABLISHING STATE OR REGIONAL PLANNING
AGENCIES
National and regional planning
is often more effective than
local land-use planning
because political boundaries
seldom reflect the geological
and biological databse used in
planning. Larger units contain
more diverse collections of
landscape resources and can
afford to hire professional
planners.

Table 12.3
Examples of State Land-Use Planning
Legislation
Table 12.4
Examples of Local Growth Management
Actions

PURCHASING LAND OR USE RIGHTS
Probably the simplest way to protect
desirable lands is to purchase them. When
privately owned land is desired for the
rights to use it must be purchased. Many
environmental organizations purchase
lands of special historic, scenic, or
environmental value.
In many cases, the owners may not be
willing to sell the land but are willing to limit
the uses to which the land can be put in the
future. Therefore, landowners may sell the
right to develop the land or may agree to
place restrictions on the uses any future
owners might consider.

REGULATING USE
● Zoning is a common type of land-use
regulation that restricts the kinds of
uses to which land in a specific
region can be put. When land is
zoned, it is designated for specific
potential uses. Common designations
are agricultural, commercial,
residential, recreational, and
industrial.

SPECIAL URBANPLANNING ISSUES
Urban areas present a large number of planning issues. Transportation, open space, and improving the quality
of life in the inner city are significant problems.
URBAN TRANSPORTATION
PLANNING - is to develop a plan
for an efficient, balanced
transportation system for an urban
area—one which will promote a
desirable pattern of human
activities.

URBAN RECREATION
PLANNING
– a city used for
recreational purposes
during leisure time
and. appropriately
developed for
recreational purposes.

REDEVELOPMENT OF
INNER-CITY AREAS
- a holistic approach to
revitalize under-used areas of
the city. It's commonly
associated, however, with the
related challenges of
gentrification, rising property
values, and displacement of
low-income groups.
Brownfields development - Involves the revitalization of
contaminated or abandoned industrial sites for new uses.

SMART GROWTH - is development
that is environmentally sensitive,
economically viable, community-
oriented, and sustainable. It is an
approach to land use planning that
promotes compact, transit-oriented
urban communities that are attractive
and livable.

Smart growth principles:
1. Mix land uses.
2. Take advantage of compact
building design.
3. Create a range of housing
opportunities and choices.
4.Createwalkable neighborhoods.
5. Foster distinctive, attractive
communities with a strong sense of
place
6. Preserve open space, farmland, natural
beauty, and critical environmental areas.
7. Strengthen and direct development
toward existing communities.
8. Provide a variety of transportation
choices.
9. Make development decisions
predictable, fair, and cost-effective.
10. Encourage community and
stakeholder collaboration in development
decisions.

Characteristics of a Smart or Sustainable Community
A sustainable community seeks to protect and enhance the environment by
• using energy, water, and other natural resources efficiently and with care;
• minimizing waste, then reusing or recovering it through recycling, composting, or energy production, and
finally, sustainably disposing of what is left;
• limiting pollution to levels that do not damage natural systems; and
• valuing and protecting the diversity of nature. Such a community meets social needs by
• creating or enhancing places, spaces, and buildings that work well, wear well, and look well;
• making settlements “human” in scale or form;
• valuing and protecting diversity and local distinctiveness and strengthening local community and cultural
identity;
• protecting human health and amenity through safe, clean, pleasant environments;
• emphasizing health service prevention action as well as cure;
• ensuring access to good food, water, housing, and fuel at reasonable cost;
• meeting local needs locally wherever possible;
• maximizing everyone’s access to the skills and knowledge needed to play a full part in society; and
• empowering everyone in the community to participate in decision making and to consider the social and
community impacts of decisions

SUMMARY
Historically, waterways served as transportation corridors that allowed for the exploration of new land and for
the transport of goods. Therefore, most large urban centers began as small towns located near water. Water
served the needs of the towns in many ways, especially as transportation. Several factors resulted in the shift
of the population from rural to urban. These included the Industrial Revolution, which provided jobs in cities,
and the addition of foreign immigrants to the cities. As towns became larger, the farmland surrounding them
became suburbs surrounding industrial centers. Unregulated industrial development in cities resulted in the
degradation of the water front and stimulated the development of suburbs around the city as people sought
better places to live and had the money to purchase new homes. The rise in automobile ownership further
stimulated the movement of people from the cities to the suburbs.
Many problems have resulted from unplanned growth. Current taxation policies encourage the residential
development of farmland, which results in a loss of valuable agricultural land. Floodplains and wetlands are
often mismanaged. Loss of property and life results when people build on floodplains. Wetlands protect our
shorelines and provide a natural habitat for fish and wildlife. Transportation problems and lack of open space
are also typical in many large metropolitan areas.
C

SUMMARY
Land-use planning involves gathering data, projecting needs, and developing mechanisms for implementing
the plan. Good land use planning should include assessment of the unique geologic, geographic, biological,
and historic and cultural features of the land; the costs of providing additional infrastructure; preservation of
open space; provision for a variety of transportation options; a mixture of housing and service establishments;
redevelopment of disused urban land; and establishment of urban growth limits. Establishing regional
planning agencies, purchasing land or its development rights , and enacting zoning ordinances are ways to
implement land-use planning. The scale of local planning is often not large enough to be effective because
problems may not be confined to political boundaries. Regional planning units can afford professional
planners and are better able to withstand political and economic pressures. A growing concern of urban
governments is to develop comprehensive urban transportation plans that seek to conserve energy and land
resources, provide efficient and inexpensive transportation and commuting, and help to reduce urban
pollution. Urban areas must also provide recreational opportunities for their residents and seek ways to rebuild
decaying inner cities.
Federal governments own and manage large amounts of land; therefore, national policy must be developed.
This usually involves designating land for particular purposes, such as timber production, grazing land, parks,
or wilderness. The recreational use of public land often requires the establishment of rules that prevent conflict
between potential users who have different ideas about what appropriate uses should be. Often federal policy
is a compromise between competing uses and land is managed for multiple uses.

THANK YOU 
Presented by:
Emmylou L. Galero
BSEd- Science III

CHAPTER 12- LAND-USE PLANNING. Environmental Science

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