Classroom Management.pdf

Classroom Management
B. Ed (Hons)/
Associate Degree in Education
Credit Hours: 03
Course Code: 6403 Units: 1–9
Department of Secondary Teacher Education
Faculty of Education
Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad
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Year of Printing......................... 2015
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Publisher................................... Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad
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COURSE TEAM
Chairperson: Prof. Dr. Rehana Masrur
Course Development Coordinator: Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal
Writers: Prof. Dr. Rehana Masrur
Dr. Naveed Sultana
Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal
Dr. Muhammad Saeed
Dr. Nasir Mehmood
Ms Shaheen Ashraf Tahirkheli
Muhammad Idrees
Reviewers: Prof. Dr. Rehana Masrur
Dr. Naveed Sultana
Ms Munnaza Ambreen
Editor: Fazal Karim
Course Coordinator: Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal
iii

FORWARD
Learning is one of the important factors of human life. According to psychologists,
learning is related to mental functions of human and animals’ cognitive systems. It
depends upon different types of knowledge supported by accurate and perceived
information. Learning helps human being to improve their skills, values, understanding
and preferences. Goal of learning is to increase the experience individually and in group
also. Learning process involve the improvement of human brain that depends upon
mental capacity of learning subject, the type of knowledge which he/she want to acquire.
Along with this, the surroundings, circumstances and socio-cognitive processes may play
their role.
Learning is natural to the human beings, but in order to catalyze the process of learning,
the conducive classroom learning environment is mandatory. All the efforts of the
teachers bring desirable results if he/she has maintained the classroom environment in
which the learner feels at ease. The questions worth addressing are: what kind of this
environment should be? and how the conducive learning environment can be provided?
These questions are vital to answer and answers need rigorous approach on the part of
teachers’ professional development and maintenance of the class discipline. In order to
ensure and enhance the effectiveness of teaching-learning process, teachers need to know
about the students’ background. Based upon this knowledge, teachers make critical
decisions that lead to provide conducive learning environment.
The classroom management is an indispensible part of the teaching leaning process. It
provides environment where students are recognized by their behaviour they exhibit and
respond to the others behaviour that consequently becomes a medium for learning.
Therefore, for a teacher it is highly significant to understand the concepts of classroom
management and its role in instruction. For the optimization of the students learning, it is
mandatory for teachers to maintain and create a balance in classroom environment.
The development of this course aims at the professional development of the prospective
teachers in classroom management. The knowledge and skills gained during the course
may help them while practicing in the classroom.
In the end, I am happy to extend my gratitude to the course team Chairperson, Prof. Dr.
Rehana Masrur, Course Development Coordinator, Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal, Unit
Writers and Reviewers for the development of this course book in spite of time
constraint. I am also thankful to Editing Cell for the timely editing of the course. Any
suggestions for the improvement of this course will be warmly welcomed.
Vice Chancellor
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PREFACE
The aim of classroom management is to encourage and established students’ self-control
through promotion of positive behaviour and academic achievement. Effective classroom
management is an indicator of students’ success. The primary purpose of the classroom
management is to get control on the students’ behavior. Classroom management refers to
those methods and strategies used by the educators to maintain a helping classroom
learning environment. Although there are various techniques involved in classroom
management but the most important strategies are those which realize the students that
they are in the environment which allow them to learn and achieve. Classroom
management focuses on three major components: content management, conduct
management, and covenant management. Every teacher has to focus on these components
if he/she wants to become a successful teacher in his/her career. The ability of teachers to
organize classrooms and manage the behaviour of their students is critical to achieve
positive educational outcomes. Although sound behaviour management does not
guarantee effective instruction, it establishes the environmental context that makes good
instruction possible. Effective teachers prepare their students at the start of every lesson
to be in the right frame of mind and ready to learn. They do this by helping students to
'warm up' in the same way that athletes do, except in lessons the warm ups are mental
rather than physical - these starter activities also help to settle students and give a clear
signal the lesson has started. In this preparation phase, effective teachers also explain the
purpose of the learning, and help to get students ready to learn by explaining the
significance of the lesson. In normal circumstances and busy classrooms teachers may
have to react to several events, each in a quite different tone, within a very short span of
time. The fact that the teacher has, for example, reacted in an authoritarian way to
someone who has misbehaved, does not mean that every subsequent event should evoke a
similar response.
The competency of the teachers to provide promising learning environment may help to
improve the students’ scores and their skills. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance the
knowledge and skills of the prospective teachers towards the effective classroom
management. This particular course comprised of nine units. The concept of classroom
management, importance and the role are discussed in the first unit of this course. The
components of classroom management and different types of learning environments are
discussed in the second and third units. Maintaining classroom discipline is an important
skill for a teacher, it helps to deliver instructions effectively, so the classroom rules and
routines and putting theory into practice are placed in fourth and fifth units of this course.
The sixth and seventh units are about models of behaviour management and effective
strategies to manage the difficult behaviour; these are placed with the desire that the
prospective teachers will manage the students’ behaviour appropriately. Towards the end
of the course, the classroom management tracking and the problems in classroom
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management are discussed in detail in unit eight and nine in order to broaden the
knowledge and develop positive attitude of the prospective teachers about classroom
management.
In the end, I am thankful to the Course Team, Editor and especially the Course
Development Coordinator for this wonderful effort.
Prof. Dr. Rehana Masrur
Chairperson, STED
Chairperson, Course Team
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INTRODUCTION
The course is designed to assist teachers and administrators in public and private schools
to develop skills to help them effectively manage the behaviour problems that today’s
students bring to school, classroom management can be one of the most frustrating parts
of teaching.
Maintaining good order in classrooms is one of the most difficult tasks that young
inexperienced teachers are facing. The task has become more difficult over the past few
decades as young people’s attitudes to people in authority have change dramatically.
Some of the changes have led to greater self confidence in students. Others such as the
acceptance of violence to achieve ends, attitudes to substance abuse and an increasing
lack of respect for authority have made classroom management and life in school
generally more difficult, and more demanding, on those who are charged with
maintaining a positive learning.
Much disruptive behaviour in the classroom can be alleviated before it becomes serious
discipline problems. Such behaviours can be reduced by the teacher’s ability to employ
effective organizational practice. Such practices are at the heart of the teaching process
and are essential in establishing and maintaining classroom control. Based upon these
problems and issues the course is designed to achieve the following objectives.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this course, the prospective teachers will be able to:
1. understand the concepts and application of classroom assessment.
2. integrate objectives with evaluation and measurement.
3. acquire skills of assessing the learning outcomes.
4. interpret test scores.
5. know about the trends and techniques of classroom assessment.
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CONTENTS
Page No.
Foreword ................................................................................................................ iv
Preface.................................................................................................................... v
Objectives............................................................................................................... vii
Unit–1 Introduction to Classroom Management...................................................... 1
Unit–2 Components of Classroom Management..................................................... 23
Unit–3 Classroom Learning Environment............................................................... 61
Unit–4 Developing Classroom Rules and Routines................................................. 85
Unit–5 Effective Teaching Theory and Practice...................................................... 101
Unit–6 Models of Behavioural Management .......................................................... 123
Unit–7 Classroom Strategies for Responding to Difficult Behaviour....................... 137
Unit–8 Classroom Management Tracking............................................................... 149
Unit–9 Problems in Classroom Management.......................................................... 181
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UNIT–1
INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT
Written by:
Professor Dr. Rehana Masrur
Reviewed by:
Dr. Naveed Sultana
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CONTENTS
S. No. Description Page No.
Introduction................................................................................................... 3
Objectives ..................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Definition of Classroom Management............................................................ 4
1.2 Importance of Classroom Management.......................................................... 4
1.3 Importance of Goals by Teacher for Classroom Management......................... 6
1.4 Design/Styles of Classroom Management...................................................... 7
1.5 Physical Arrangement of Room ..................................................................... 14
1.6 Components of Classroom Management........................................................ 15
1.7 Need and Role of Classroom Management..................................................... 18
1.8 Summary....................................................................................................... 20
1.9 Self Assessment Questions ............................................................................ 21
1.10 References/Suggested Readings..................................................................... 22
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INTRODUCTION
Successful classroom management refers to the maximum learning outcomes of the
students in academics with the less efforts of the teacher. Teachers usually used
classroom management as a process of smoothly running classroom lessons besides the
disturbing behaviour of the students. Every classroom has its own reality. If the group of
the same students moves from one class to another, they will experience entirely a
different reality. They face different level of motivation and expectations in different
classrooms and consequently they react accordingly to these situations.
The aim of classroom management is to encourage and established student’s self-control
through promotion of positive behaviour and academic achievement. Classroom
management includes many things that starts from the tone of the voice of the teacher, the
design in which the classroom furniture is organized, the physical environment of the
classroom, The importance of classroom management for teacher and students,
components of the classroom management, the syllabus and expectations from students,
the strategies adopted by the teacher for the maintenance of discipline to the procedures
followed by the teacher for daily planning. These features will be discussed in detail in
this unit.
OBJECTIVES
After studying the material, it is expected that you will be able to:
1. define and explain the concept of classroom management.
2. describe the importance of classroom management.
3. explain the need and role of classroom management.
4. identify the components of classroom management.
5. compare various designs of classroom management.
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1.1 Definitions of Classroom Management
Effective classroom management is an indicator of student’s success. The primary
purpose of the classroom management is to get control on the students. Classroom
management consists of practice and processes that a teacher uses to uphold an
environment in which instruction and learning can occur smoothly. (Wong, H. K., 2004).
Classroom management refers to those methods and strategies used by the educators to
maintain a helping classroom learning environment. Although there are various
techniques involves in classroom management but the most important strategies are those
which realize the students that they are in the environment which allow them to learn and
achieve.
1. The term classroom management does not have just a single definition. Most
commonly it refers to the procedures in which the teacher sets up the classroom in
such a way that the students learn more effectively.
2. “Classroom management is a multifaceted process which depends upon an
engaging curriculum, student’s responsibility, appropriate teaching modeling,
effective instruction, and management skills to work towards conflict resolution
with individuals and the whole class.” (Mallory, M.2008)
1. “The concept of the classroom management is broader than the notion of student
discipline .it includes all the things teachers must do to foster student involvement
and cooperation in classroom activities and to establish a productive working
environment”
2. “Classroom management can and should do more than elicit predictable obedience;
indeed, it can and should be one vehicle for the enhancement of student self-
understanding, self-evaluation, and the internalization of self-control.”
3. “Classroom management describes the processes you use to keep a classroom
organized, lessons running smoothly, and students engaged in the lesson. Although
maintaining discipline is a component of classroom management, establishing
procedures and rapport are just as important in keeping a classroom running
efficiently.”
Activity-1.1
Visit the websites included in references for searching out more definitions and for
more clarity of the concept.
1.2 Importance of Classroom Management
Good teachers manage their classroom through proper procedures and routine while
ineffective teachers lack this aspect of classroom management .When the class is
organized and disciplined, the teacher can allocate much time to teaching rather than
spending more time on disciplining the students .There are some important features of
classroom management which are discussed below.
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1.2.1 Consistent Routine
The term procedure refers to something which the teacher wants to do while routine is
something which the students do automatically. For example, if the teacher starts each
class with the procedure by writing an activity on board daily, the students follow and
complete that task as they know what the teacher expects from them. Therefore, they take
the start of the class silently and on-task. Procedure and routine are the ways through
which the classroom runs; they are not the laws which will come with consequences if
they are broken.
1.2.2 Effective Time Management
Effective time management leads the classroom to maximum learning output. Once the
students understand the procedure and routine of the classroom, they do work efficiently
without extra instructions. Instead of making they sit passively and waiting for their
teacher’s announcement, they actively participate in learning according to the minutes set
down by the teacher. When the students get involve in their daily activities, meanwhile
the teacher gains enough time for managing other routine activities such as attendance,
arrangement of resources for activities in the class etc. In this way the daily agenda of the
classroom does not effect.
1.2.3 Positive Atmosphere
A well managed classroom has a positive atmosphere. The students know that their
teacher is the leader and instructor of the classroom. A properly manage class runs
through a systematic procedure by the teacher. Every student feels comfortable because
they know that teacher is facilitating them in learning and is always ready and
approachable for the answers of their questions. A friendly atmosphere provides
opportunity to the learner to interact with teacher and peer groups, while on the other
hand a stressful, negative and fearful atmosphere do not allow purposeful learning.
1.2.4 High Test Scores
The rationale of the test is not to bring forth the students mistakes but to guide them for
good performance in the class. Those teachers, who effectively managed their
classrooms, inform the students on a very first day that what they will learn from the
particular unit because it makes the students ready for learning. Expert teacher Julie
Johnson says that she demonstrates what she wants them to do. They practice the skill
together and then I test them the same way we practice in my class, test is not a bad
word”. When students develop their confidence, it reflects from their test scores. (Harry
K. Wong & Rosemary, 2009)
1.2.5 Student Impact
Effective classroom management is important because it has a great impact on the overall
performance of the students such as their behaviour, organization skills, attitude,
discipline and achievement etc. If the teacher has good skills of management and who
can communicate with students effectively, their student’s intellectual growth will be
higher. A well managed classroom provides a favorable environment for the intellectual
growth of the students.
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1.2.6 Engage Students
Classroom management is important for effective teaching because it engages the
students in creative activities and makes them learn the material rather than memorizing
them for classroom tests. A well managed classroom teaching involves the students in
question answer, discussions and other motivating activities. When the teacher moves
around the class while delivering the lecture, gives answer to the questions of the students
and responds to students through verbal and non verbal methods ensure that students are
paying attention to learning. It enhances the confidence of the students and makes the
learning more effective.
1.2.7 Preparation
Classroom management becomes more effective when the teacher is prepared before
coming to the class. When the teacher comes without preparation in the class it gives a
time to the students for creating disturbance in the class, and it causes problems for the
teacher in formulating daily plan. To avoid such disturbed situations, the teacher should
have handy lesson plans which she /he can use in time of emergency. This is one of the
most important tools of classroom management.
1.3 Importance of Goals by the Teacher for Classroom Management
Goals and objectives set by the teacher for the classroom management is very important.
A teacher sets goals and objectives for mental and physical development of the students
and to help them to achieve educational goals ultimately. Students are given objectives
and they strive for its achievement. It realizes them to feel more organized and
responsible in their educational career. Goals and objectives are important for the
classroom management for the following reasons.
1.3.1 Better Teaching
The teachers who set goals and objectives for their teaching, they force to make a good
lesson plan and always try to accomplish their objectives. When a teacher has specific
goals in mind, he must carefully plan how to achieve those goals and objectives. For this
purpose the teacher needs to have depth understanding of curriculum that how to proceed
the planning to cover it with in proper time. Many subjects such as mathematics are
cumulative subjects and need students to have master skills as they go on, because those
skills are continuously require to the entire course. Students who have no command on
those skills usually left behind, so by setting goals teachers carefully plan that how to
teach the course while keeping all the students on the same pace.
1.3.2 Student Focus
Students, who are aware about the goals expected from them by the teacher, give a clear
picture to them that where they have to focus their attention. The planned goals provide a
chance to the students to learn more to reach to the already established criteria by a teacher
for lesson. This achievement of goals gives a sense of accomplishment to the students.
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1.3.3 Teacher Goal-Setting
Setting of goals by the teacher opens new gates of learning for the students. Students also
learn how to set the goals and derive the objectives from them in the real life situation. It
makes them goal oriented intellectuals. The teacher makes goals for lesson and tries to
achieve them in classroom, and the students learn that what steps should be taken to reach
to success in some activities.
1.3.4 Motivation
Motivation is one important principle of learning. The students cannot learn if they are
not motivated. Motivation also plays an important role in the management of classroom,
for example if the students are highly motivated to learning, they will carry on the daily
activities with high zeal and the class will be automatically disciplined. Therefore, setting
of goals in the classroom motivates the students towards highly academic achievement.
This motivation of the students can be done by the teacher through material or verbal
incentives. For further detail check the following website.
Activity-1.2
Arrange a meeting with teachers of a school in your surrounding and discuss the
importance of classroom management with them.
1.4 Designs/Styles of Classroom Management
The arrangement of desks in the classroom makes certain the safe learning and boost up
students participation. To a great extent the physical layout of the class is very important
in developing a productive classroom environment. The best teachers have a good
understanding of seating arrangement in the class. They always arrange the seats
according to the needs of the students and the subjects. Some teachers change the seating
arrangement throughout the years. Following are some of the arrangements styles of
classroom seating.
1.4.1 Rows
Traditionally, the desks are arranged in rows, this allows the whole class to see the
blackboard. It is also easy both for teacher and students to walk around the desks in the
class. It provides an opportunity to the teacher to timely assists the students individually
in an easy manner. This type of desks arrangement lessens the possibility of cheating but
increases the ability of students to pass notes to each other. Therefore it is necessary that
the teacher table should be kept in the middle that he or she can see all the students sitting
in the class. It is harder to arrange group activities in this type of class arrangement.
Advantages
• Students can see the blackboard easily.
• It makes easy the movement of teacher and students in the class.
• The teacher can provide immediate help to each student.
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• Chances of cheating reduce.
• It makes the teacher vigilant to keep check on students.
Disadvantages
• Group activities become difficult in such kind of seating arrangement.
• The students can pass on the notes to each other easily.
• Sometime the students feel bore as they are under check of teacher.
1.4.2 Circle
Desks in a circle shape are designed in order to give more focus on the class as a group. This
kind of arrangement is seen mostly in high schools and colleges. This arrangement
encourages all students to get involved in the class activities. This kind of class design allows
the students to have maximum interaction with their peers. Although there is an opportunity
of maximum interaction of students and teachers with each other but there is a negative point
in this class arrangement that some students cannot see the blackboard as some of the students
will be at the front of the blackboard while other will be on the sides on the board.
Advantages
• It ensures the maximum participation of students in class discussion.
• Enhances the interaction of classmates with each other.
• The teacher easily focuses on the whole class as a group.
• Best suitable for high classes.
Disadvantages
• Some of the students who are sitting on the sides cannot see the blackboard.
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• Maximum interaction of students with each other can create discipline problems in
the class.
1.4.3 U-Style
U-style or horseshoe is the combination of both circle and row design. The horseshoe
design is useful for group assignments, group discussions and lectures. All students
sitting in u-style can see the blackboard easily as they look forward. The teacher desk is
usually in the center of horseshoe design. This type of class arrangement is very
advantageous as the classroom become more spacious and both teachers and students can
move easily in the class. Besides that it is also useful for the arrangement of activities in
the class as the area around the seats become spacious.
Advantages
• It is very useful for group activities and group discussions.
• All students can see the blackboard easily.
• The students focus their attention always on teacher’s lecture.
• Teacher remains the focal point during lessons for students.
• It creates more space in the class for movement of students and teacher.
Disadvantages
• As the students are sitting close to each other so it might become difficult for
students to move while leaving their seats.
• Provide a chance of disturbance for problematic students.
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1.4.4 Clusters
While designing the classroom seating arrangement, it is important to keep in mind that
how a design will affect the teaching learning process of the classroom. Most common
styles of cluster design are seen in elementary schools in which clusters or groups of four
or five desks are arranged. For example 20 desks are arranged in four groups of five or
five groups of four. This kind of seating arrangement allows the students to do work in
small groups and it can be easily changed if the teacher thinks it necessary. The
blackboard can be easily seen by the students but they can also see other students which
might diverge their attention from learning. Usually clusters arrangement is made around
the teachers table that she or he can easily see the students.
Advantages
• It is suitable for the primary level students’ classroom.
• Very useful for those activities which needs division of students in small groups.
• It is easy to shuffle the naughty students within small groups.
• Students can easily see the blackboard.
Disadvantages
• There is a chance of gathering of problematic students in one small group.
• As the students can easily see all groups so there is the possibility that they focus
attention on each other rather than learning.
• Frequent changes of groups might waste the time of the teacher.
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1.4.5 Pair Seating
In this type of classroom seating two students sit together around one table and there is a
distance between the two tables having separate tables /desks for each student. The seats
are arranged in such a way that allows the teacher to move freely around the class and
access to each student easily. It is up to the teacher that which students can be paired
together in order to avoid the misbehaviour and lose of academics achievements. Usually
the teacher follows the philosophy of mix abilities for students. Pair allows the students
to do work independently and also together.
The students can see the board and all other instructional aides easily in this arrangement.
The teacher can judge the students and they can do the activities with mutual cooperation.
The drawback of this type of classroom management is that those students who are sitting
in the corner of the classroom will be suffered. As the students do not face each other so
during class discussion the students might not hear each other properly. Pair seating is
mostly found in grade 3rd
, 4th
and 5th
where the students are more accountable for their
behaviour and actions in the class.
Advantages
• It is useful for individual activities.
• It is suitable for assessment activities in which the teacher wants to judge the
abilities of the students.
• Lessen the chances of cheating.
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• Teacher can give individual attention to the weak students.
• It makes the students independents learners.
• The teacher can move freely in the class.
• It is best suitable for elementary classes.
Disadvantages
• The students might have loss academically as they are sitting almost isolate.
• Lessen the chances of learning of students from each other.
• Those students who are sitting in the corners cannot see the board properly.
• Those students who cannot do work independently will suffer in this type of
arrangement.
1.4.6 Semi-Circle
Semi-circle seating arrangement is when all the desks touch each other facing the front of
the room in a semi-circle shape. Besides students and teacher interaction the students can
see instructional aides also. Many methods of teaching can be implemented in this type of
classroom such as direct instructions, discussions, group activities etc as the students and
teachers are in face to face communication. The teacher has full control on the class and
discipline issues minimized. He or she can easily move around the class and monitor
everybody in an efficient way. The students also get an opportunity to work together in
projects and other activities. Sometime it become hard for the teacher to give one to one
attention to students because seats are arranged very closed and there is no space in the
middle of two seats which make it difficult for a teacher to access to each student
individually. This type of classroom seating arrangement creates problems especially on
the primary level where the students need individually attention of their teachers.
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Advantages
• Maximum face to face interaction of teacher and students.
• Teacher can apply different methods of teaching in this type of seating design.
• Teacher can easily monitor the work of the students.
• It is suitable for those projects which needs grouping of students.
• Instructional aides are easily visible to the students.
Disadvantages
• Not suitable for primary classes.
• Those students who are weak might suffer as the teacher cannot approach them if
they are sitting in the middle.
• Chances of individual attention of teacher for students reduced.
Activity-1.3
Visit three primary/elementary and secondary schools of your areas, if feasible include
both genders, and observe seating arrangements and student’s behaviour.
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1.5 Physical Arrangement of the Room
The physical arrangement of the classroom can either support or delay the teacher's
instructional effort and the quality of learning that takes place. Different arrangements of
the classroom are suitable for different instructional styles and learning activities. A
classroom that is not well arranged and organized to be functional can encourage student
off-task behaviour.
Carolyn Everson emphasizes that “examining the physical arrangement of the classroom
to minimize distractions and maximize access (student access to instructor, materials, and
demonstrations as well as teacher access to each student), matching the arrangement to
the objectives of the lesson.”
Arrangement of the classroom influences student behaviour and the competency with
which procedures and routines can be carried out daily. Some classrooms might have
seats or tables which cannot be moved, such as in science or computer lab, students in
classes seated at individual desks with unattached chairs, at chair desks (chairs with a
writing surface attached), or they share space with other students at a table. In the latter
situations the furniture can be rearranged to the most appropriate pattern. Young children
may also need an open area for activities and space for lining up, or they may need to
move within the classroom to approach to various learning centers.
The following are the important considerations for classroom arrangement which the
teacher should keep in mind while starting lesson in class. Regardless of the instructional
method used in the classroom, teachers must consider each of the following before
selecting instructional resources:
1. Eye Contact: Many educationists agree that it is essential for all students to be
able to see the teacher as well as for the teacher to see all students during teaching
learning process in the classroom. (Students should not have their backs to the
teacher when instruction is being provided.) A good way to check this out is for the
teacher to occupy each seat when the students are not in the room.
2. Room Dividers: Bookshelves or other classroom dividers should be short enough,
the teacher can observe students sitting in any area of the classroom.
3. Instructional Aids: If the teacher is teaching through instructional aids such as
board or an overhead projector, it should be placed in such a way that all students
can see the board or screen.
4. Unhindered Passage ways for Teachers: the arrangement in the classroom should
be spacious enough that the teacher should be able to move freely about the room,
between students or groups of student, to supervise their work and provide them
help. This can be checked out by moving around the room when the students are
not present in the classroom. Frequent movement by the teacher within the
classroom supports on-task behaviour.
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5. Student Traffic: High traffic areas, such as around the teacher's table, the trashcan,
the pencil sharpener, doors, and windows should be provided easy student access
and movement.
6. Student Space: For independent seatwork, it is necessary that there should be
sufficient separation between individuals.
7. Student Access to Materials: Materials used by the students should be in such
location which is accessible to all students and movement to and from this area
should be clear and unhindered. The teacher can design an area or corner where
materials for the day's class or subject are placed prior to class the students are to
pick up the materials themselves.
8. Restricted Access: Materials which are not for students use should be stored in a
location not easily reachable to students.
9. Interruption: Unnecessary objects and materials should be removed from the
room or kept in storage of classroom to reduce disruption. The location of doors,
windows, other students, reading groups, animals in the classroom, etc. can also
serve as distractions and their locations should be considered when planning the
arrangement of the classroom.
1.6 Components of Classroom Management
1. Classroom Design
Although it is often overlooked, but the most important element of classroom
management is planned design made by the teacher. Proper arrangement of the
positioning of teachers table, desks, chairs, displays, storage and other essential
apparatus to create a warm and welcoming room. These arrangements can be done
during summer vacation prior to the arrival of students. The teacher should make it
sure that all unnecessary and distracting items have removed from your classroom.
This is also a good time to check your room for safety hazards.
2. Rules of the Classroom
Develop rules that promote respect, care and unity amongst the students of your
classroom is the basic components of classroom management. Because it gives
clear direction to the students that what they have to do and what they have not to
do. Teacher should make her expectations for the behaviour of the students clear at
the beginning of the year. The rules should be reinforced throughout the course
continuously, and should be posted in a visible location of the classroom. These
rules should be signed from the students which will realize them that they have
read the rules with their parents and understand how to behave properly.
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3. Discipline
Classroom rules must have tangible consequences. Students observe the limitations
of each teacher from the very first day of school. So the teacher needs to be firm,
fair and consistent. The class should be started with the warmth welcome to the
student and confirm their knowledge about the classroom rules. If the teacher has
some disruption by issuing demerits, detention, or other official warnings he or she
should never, hit, harass, embarrass or shout at students-this is very unprofessional
and often illegal action.
4. Scheduling of Classroom
Keep your class in order by staying on time and on task. The class work must be
done during class time, and plenty of time should be left for in-class assignments.
Cramming work and instruction if too close to other activities can create disruptive
behaviour and poor understanding of concepts in the class. There should be space
before and after every room change, lunch, and recess for students to settle down.
Having a regular daily schedule helps you and your students to prepare for upcoming
tasks. Be firm but fair with your students. Always leave room for unseen events.
5. Organization of Classroom
Organization is the most important component of classroom management. It refers
to the organization of teacher both outside and inside of the classroom. Keeping
student files, assignments, lesson plans and administrative paperwork in order all
comes under organization. It sets a good example for your students and keeps
teacher from wasting instructional time looking for materials. Share the skills of
organizing the things with your students. Take their help in posting the classroom
calendar, homework schedule and assignments on the board. Allow your students
to see and learn how you make notes for them. It will help them to discriminate
irrelevant information from important details. The skill of organization makes the
students independent learners. They can perform the tasks with the less help of
their teacher, and in this way the discipline problems reduced in the classroom.
6. Instructional Technique
Teachers are able to communicate information with their students as they see fit.
The basic component by which teacher can make their students discipline and
organized in the classroom is his or her skills of instructional techniques. The
expertise of the teacher in the instructional techniques reflects the best management
of her classroom. For this purpose it is important that the teacher should tailor
his/her instructional technique to the grade level of the students and subject area. A
practical on demonstration of electricity will keep 8th graders occupied, but may
prove disordered in a 3rd grade classroom. So it should be according to the style
and intensity of lessons and class. Follow-up lecture method sessions will
comfortable the group activities. For better management consult your colleagues
for ideas about new lessons and to earn about each of your student's learning style.
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7. Communication of Teacher
If the communication in the class is weak than it will adversely effects the
management of the class. Communication is the most important component of
classroom management. It is essential that a teacher should have clear and constant
lines of communication with their students, administration, colleagues, and parents.
Without it teacher will lose the respect of colleagues, attention of her students, and
cooperation of parents. For better communication it is necessary that teacher should
be responsive to the concerns of others and be flexible and willing to accommodate
rational requests.
8. Learning Goals
Establishing learning goals is vital and important component of classroom
management which leads to the success of teaching learning process and efficient
management of classroom. For good management of lessons in the class the teacher
should communicate and explain the learning goals at the beginning of each unit or
at the beginning of each class period. It will be helpful both for teacher and
students, if you provide them with a learning goal for activities or for each unit,
they will be clear about the extent of knowledge which they should be able to learn
and display. The learning goals need to be check after each lesson to provide a
positive feedback to the students. It is also necessary for the teacher to bring
innovative changes in her lesson planning.
9. Routines of Classroom
Structuring the routine of classroom is very important in school settings. In
elementary schools the teachers set the routine of classrooms for the beginning and
end of each day. For example, playing time of students, warmth welcome to the
students as they enter in the classroom in the morning and taking the last minutes
of class time to summarize the lessons taught that day. Daily schedules is an
important component as it also effective tool in aiding student learning. A teacher
should post the schedule outlining of the basic topics he/she will be teaching each
day, along with a brief explanation of each topic. It will help the students better
prepare themselves.
10. Classroom Rules and Social Expectations
Establishing clear classroom rules and ensuring that students know the
consequences of their actions can go a long way towards minimizing disruptive
behaviour. Post a list of classroom rules somewhere visible to students at any given
time, or give each student a handout containing the rules. Some general classroom
rules may include raising a hand to ask a question and remaining seated while the
teacher is speaking. Social expectations should also be somewhat emphasized, such
as sharing supplies when necessary and being respectful towards fellow students.
11. Correction and Discipline
If the class is disciplined and students are conveyed in a positive way about their
misbehaviour, the problems of mismanagement in the class not arise. Students
17

should be informed of the consequences of their behaviour if they disobey the
classroom rules and regulations. The actions in response to disruptive behaviour
and disobedience must be very carefully taken. Disciplinary actions should start
from gentle, such as a verbal warning, to harsher such as a trip to the principal's
office, and should reflect the type of mistake done by the students in order to
realize their mistake. Students should not be sent to the principal for minor
violations such as talking to a neighbor student during a class lecture, nor should
they be given a verbal warning for engaging in a dangerous behaviour because it
can harm the other students.
12. Encouragement and Praise
Encouragement and praise both are very important components of classroom.
Because it motivate the students towards learning. Although disciplinary actions
are necessary often to correct students' misbehaviour but the emphasis in any
classroom should be on rewarding positive behaviour. If the behaviour of the
students is under control ultimately the classroom will be managed. A student who
wants attention from his/her teacher but he only receives that attention when he
misbehaves, will continue to misbehave on student’s part. A teacher can avoid this
occurrence by rewarding students, either verbally or with incentives (candy, a short
break from lecture, etc), for being on-task and attentive praise and encouragement
to each student is an effective method of minimizing disrupting behaviour and
promoting good behaviour and engaged the students in learning.
13. Consistency
The next component of classroom management is consistency. Everything a
teacher does in the class should be consistent and constant, from setting learning
goals for each class period to provide a disciplinary action to misbehaviour of each
student. Lack of consistency on part of teacher promotes a sense of hesitation
among students and often leads to a higher frequency of disruptive behaviour.
Activity-1.4
Visit to the nearby school of your area and observe the important components of
classroom management implemented by the teacher.
1.7 Need and Role of Classroom Management
Classroom management is essential for smooth running of teaching learning process. The
managed and disciplined class leads to the maximum learning output. The need of the
classroom management arises on the basis of following reasons.
1. Productive environment inside of classroom is very necessary for the students
learning. This atmosphere of class can only be attained when the classroom is well
managed. If the atmosphere of the classroom is positive the students will be sitting
in the class without any fear and will be able to concentrate on the learning.
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2. The management of classroom enables the students to remain cooperative,
respectful, and on task with each other and with teacher. Students are more
receptive as learners when guidance is more focused, and they behave better by
virtue of respect for teachers instead of because of fear of consequences.
3. Organization of the classroom is the fundamental element for positive learning
environment of the class. It minimizes the wastage of time as well as of other
resources because every activity of the class goes according to the pre set organized
way. The more organized a teacher is, the more effective he/she can be. Students,
especially at higher levels of education, are likely to respond positively to
structured and organized environments.
4. Planning and management both play an important role in effective teaching
learning process. When the classroom is well managed, the planning made by the
teacher for all activities of the classroom will be implemented successfully.
5. In an organized and manage class, the teacher attention remain focused and works
with a sense of purpose in the classroom.
6. It becomes very easy for the teacher to engaging all the students in purposeful
activities during school hours, therefore the management of classroom play very
essential part in engaging the students in creative activities.
7. Encouragement boost up the energies of students for effective learning, and it is
only possible when the teacher gives attention to the students according to their
level. A managed and control classroom makes this job very easy for the teacher.
8. The basic role of classroom management is to provide an opportunity to the teacher
to motivate her/his students to meet the challenges and exceed expectations.
9. Collaboration stimulates the students for teamwork in all learning activities
whether that held inside or outside of the classroom. Students help each other to
learn while participating in constructivist learning activities.
10. Classroom management has important role in fixing the rules and procedures of the
classroom. Without rules and procedures the learning environment cannot be
fruitful.
11. Classroom management has a great contribution in the achievement of learning
goals of a lesson deliver by the teacher. Because the students can learn far better in
the discipline classroom environment.
12. It is very essential for the teacher to arrange the classroom seating according to the
nature and requirements of the subject. Each subject demands different
arrangement of seating in the classroom. So the skills of management of the teacher
19

make it easy to arrange the seats of students according to the activities of the
subjects.
13. The teachers and administrator need to have real estimate of resources need for a
school and classroom activities, the management enables both teacher and
administration to make the actual estimate of required resources for all activities.
14. The classroom management enables the teacher to remain consistent in his or her
behaviour with students during classroom lesson. Through effective and consistent
feedback to the students, teachers establish a positive relationship with individual
students to realize them that they are valued.
1.8 Summary
Classroom management is the term, teachers and instructors use to explain the act of
managing their classroom and students to guarantee that stressful and non-educational
circumstances are avoided, and students learn topics and subjects effectively. Classroom
management is a broader term and involves more than the management and discipline of
the students. It also involves the availability of additional information on topics and all
activities related to teaching learning processes in the class. Effective classroom
management makes the classroom atmosphere less stressful for teachers and ensures that
students are provided with the correct information and knowledge with in a calm
environment in which they can learn easily and effectively. Maintaining good
management in the classrooms is one of the most difficult tasks facing by inexperienced
and new teachers. Many disrupting behaviours in the classroom should be improved
before they become serious discipline problems. Such behaviours can be minimized by
the teacher's ability to utilize effective organizational practices. Such practices are the
spirit of the teaching learning process and are crucial to establish and maintain classroom
control.
Classroom management will differ from one teacher to another. Because it depends on
the teacher’s personality, teaching styles, attentiveness, awareness and number of
students in their classroom at any given time. Effective classroom management involves
teachers being prepared for teaching of lessons, organized for activities ,motivating
students, providing and maintain proper and effective discipline, making students feel
comfortable, facilititate students ,building student self-esteem and designing productive
and interesting lesson plans. Besides that the designing of classroom environment and the
seating arrangement is very essential. Classroom management is a skill that is not only
learned but learns by daily practiced.
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1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1. Define the concept of classroom management?
2. How classroom management is important for effective teaching? Discuss in detail.
3. Critically explain the different designs of classroom management with example.
4. Describe the major components of classroom management.
5. Write a detail note on the need of classroom management.
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1.10 References/Suggested Reading
Wong, Harry & Wong, Rosemary. (2009). The first days of school: how to be an
effective teacher. Singapore: Harry K. Wong Publications, Inc.
Wong, H.K., (2004) The First Days of School California: Harry K. Wong Publishing, Inc.
Nayak, A. Rao, V. (2002).Classroom teaching: methods and practices.APH Publishing
Corporation. New Delhi.
The ED 310 Task Force. (1998).Organizing and Managing Classroom Environments. Simon
& Schuster custom Publishing. Gould Street.
Good, T, Brophy, J. (1997). Looking in Classroom. Longman (6th
ed.) .New York.
L. Robert, L. Smith, C. and (1984). Effective Classroom Management, Nichlos
Publishing Company, New York.
McCreary, R. Classroom management definitions. Retrieved March25, 2011,
from.http://www.ehow.com/about_5438989_classroom-management-definition.html.
Fiore, C. Retrieved on March26th, 2011 from
http://www.ehow.com/facts_5410362_define-classroom-management.html.
Curington, L. Retrieved on March26th 2011 from
http://www.ehow.com/about_5421809_importance-classroom-management.html.
Giselle, D. Retrieved on March26th 2011 from
http://www.ehow.com/about_5378723_classroom-management-important.html.
Jennifer,V.(2011).Retrieved on March 26th
2011from
http://www.ehow.com/info_7796946_important-teachers-goals-classroom.html.
Ramsden, A. (1999).Seating arrangements. Retrieved on March 30th
2011from
http://www.uwsp.edu/education/pshaw/Seating%20Arrangements.htm.
Stacey, W. (2011).Retrieved on March 30th
2011 from
http://www.ehow.com/info_7960263_classroom-arrangement-styles.html.
Ashley, B. (2011). Washington State University.
http://www.ehow.co.uk/info_7889557_six-components-classroom-management.html.
22

UNIT-2
COMPONENTS OF CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT
Written By:
Dr. Naveed Sultana
Reviewed By:
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CONTENTS
Introduction................................................................................................... 25
Objectives ..................................................................................................... 26
2.1 Different Components of Classroom Management......................................... 27
2.2 Use of Teachers’ Qualities, Techniques and Skills......................................... 28
2.3 Individual Differences................................................................................... 33
2.4 Personality Development............................................................................... 35
2.5 Cognitive Styles and Abilities........................................................................ 41
2.6 Temperament ................................................................................................ 45
2.7 Self Assessment Questions–I......................................................................... 47
2.8 Cultural Background...................................................................................... 47
2.9 Asperger’s Syndrome .................................................................................... 48
2.10 Teaching Students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.................. 51
2.11 Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) ........................................................... 54
2.12 Conduct Disorder (CD).................................................................................. 56
2.13 Self Assessment Questions–II........................................................................ 59
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INTRODUCTION
Classroom management is a term used by teachers to describe the process of ensuring
that classroom lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behaviour by students. The term
also implies the prevention of disruptive behaviour. It is possibly the most difficult aspect
of teaching for many teachers. Classroom management is closely linked to issues of
motivation, discipline and respect. A large part of traditional classroom management
involves behaviour modification, although many teachers see using behavioural
approaches alone as overly simplistic. Many teachers establish rules and procedures at
the beginning of the school year. According to specialists in the field of education, school
and classroom management aims at encouraging and establishing student self-control
through a process of promoting positive student achievement and behaviour. Thus
academic achievement, teacher efficacy, and teacher and student behaviour are directly
linked with the concept of school and classroom management.
Classroom management focuses on three major components: content management,
conduct management, and covenant management. Every teacher has to focus on these
components if he/she wants to become a successful teacher in his/her career.
In addition to promoting order in the classroom and guaranteeing the physical and
psychological safety of all who are present. One desired outcome is to teach and establish
behaviours that will serve one well in life: politeness, respect for others and their ways,
responsibility for one’s own behaviour, and giving one’s best effort, among others.
Teachers are responsible to promote values among their students that values will lead to a
moral and satisfying life such as empathy, kindness, helpfulness, and tolerance.
Pupils seem to respect teachers who are firm and decisive while being concerned, patient,
and tolerant. Punishment alone DOES NOT teach them a lesson (or else it teaches the
wrong one). Punishing a behaviour does not guarantee that a more appropriate one will
take its place. Controlling simply by intimidation generates the "four R’s" of reaction to
nasty discipline: retreat, resentment, rebellion, and revenge.
We don’t win when we subdue our students. We win when our students learn new and
better behaviours. Handle behavioural situations in such a way that everyone leaves the
event feeling as if they have been respected and treated fairly.
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OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able:
1. To describe different components of classroom management necessary for managing
the classroom for teaching learning process.
2. To learn and apply teaching techniques and skills to make the teaching learning
effective, interactive, attractive and communicative.
3. To describe the nature and importance of individual differences as main component
of classroom management.
4. To explore the effect of cultural background on the learning of students.
5. To evaluate the role of child development and its different kinds for making the
teachers well conversant about the different requirements of students at elementary
level.
6. To enlist the different characteristics of temperament which differentiate the students
with each other.
7. To analyze the different cognitive styles and abilities and their contribution for
effective learning.
8. To understand and describe the nature and effect of Asperger’s syndrome on
students’ personality.
9. To differentiate the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), and Conduct Disorder (CD).
10. To describe the effects of Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and Conduct disorder (CD) on students’
learning.
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2.1 Different Components of Classroom Management
Classroom management is fundamental to achieving positive educational outcomes.
Organization and behaviour management in the classroom provide students with structure,
which promotes learning. This is especially important in elementary school classrooms, but
the same principles can be applied to middle school and high school students as well. There
are six basic components of classroom management that can help turn a rowdy classroom
into a place for learning.
(a) Learning Goals
Establishing learning goals is vital to successful classroom management.
Communicate learning goals at the beginning of each unit of material or at the
beginning of each class period. It may be helpful to you and your students if you
provide them with a learning rubric for activities or for each unit that explains the
extent of knowledge which they should be able to demonstrate. Be sure to provide
feedback on whether each student is meeting the learning goals you establish.
(b) Routines
In elementary school classrooms, teachers may set routines for the beginning and
end of each day. Daily schedules can also be effective tools in aiding student
learning. Post a schedule outlining the basic topics, you will be teaching each day,
along with a brief description of each topic, to help students better prepare
themselves.
(c) Classroom Rules and Social Expectations
Establishing clear classroom rules and ensuring that students know the
consequences of their actions can minimize disruptive behaviour. Post a list of
classroom rules somewhere visible to students at any given time, or give each
student a handout containing the rules. Some general classroom rules may include
raising a hand to ask a question and remaining seated while the teacher is speaking.
Social expectations should also be somewhat emphasized, such as sharing supplies
when necessary and being respectful toward fellow students.
(d) Correction and Discipline
Students should be informed of the consequences of their actions if they should
disobey classroom rules and expectations. Be very clear about what actions you
will take in response to disruptive behaviour and disobedience. Disciplinary actions
should progress from mild, such as a verbal warning, to more severe, such as a trip
to the principal’s office, and should reflect the type of infraction. Students should
not be sent to the principal for small infractions such as talking to a nearby student
during a lecture, nor should they be given a verbal warning for engaging in a
dangerous behaviour that could harm another student.
27

(e) Encouragement and Praise
Though disciplinary actions are often necessary to correct students’ misbehaviour,
the emphasis in any classroom should be on rewarding positive behaviour. A
student who wants attention from his teacher but only receives that attention when
he misbehaves will continue to misbehave. You can prevent this phenomenon by
rewarding students, either verbally or with treats (candy, a short break from lecture,
etc), for being on-task and attentive. Providing praise and encouragement to each
student is an effective method of minimizing disruptive behaviour and promoting
good behaviour and engaged learning.
(f) Consistency
The sixth component of classroom management is consistency. Everything a
teacher does should be consistent, from setting learning goals for each class period
to dispensing a disciplinary action for every student misbehaviour. Lack of
consistency on your part, promotes a sense of uncertainty among students and often
leads to a higher incidence of disruptive behaviour.
Activity-2.1
Discuss with your course mates about different components of classroom management
and enlist which components are addressed by your teacher during teaching.
2.2 Use of Teachers’ Qualities, Techniques and Skills
(i) Teachers’ Qualities
All students have had hundreds of teachers in their lifetimes. A very few of these
teachers they remember as being exceptionally good. What are the qualities that
combine to create an excellent, memorable teacher? Why do some teachers inspire
students to work three times harder than they normally would, while others inspire
students to skip class? Why do students learn more from some teachers than others?
If you are trying to become a better teacher, these are important questions. This
issue of "Emphasis on Teaching" focuses on the four essential qualities that
distinguish exceptional teachers: knowledge, communication skills, interest, and
respect for students.
(a) Knowledge
Students consistently and clearly target as the number one quality of a good teacher
exactly what you would expect: knowledge of the subject. You must be an expert
in your field if you are going to be a good teacher. This is a prerequisite.
(b) Communication
The second core quality that good teachers possess is the ability to communicate
their knowledge and expertise to their students. You may be the greatest expert
ever in your field, but what would happen if you lectured in Latin? How much
would your students learn?
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A good teacher can take a subject and help make it crystal clear to the students. A
bad teacher can take that some material and make it impenetrable. Or a bad teacher
can devote so little time and effort to preparation that the material presented is
intrinsically confusing and disorganized. A good teacher is willing to expend the
effort needed to find innovative and creative ways to make complicated ideas
understandable to their students, and to fit new ideas into the context available to
the student. A good teacher can explain complicated material in a way that students
can understand and use.
There is a saying, "Give me a fish and I eat for a day, teach me to fish and I eat for
a lifetime." This is the philosophy of a good teacher. Give your students an answer
and they can solve one problem, but show students the techniques needed to find
the answer for themselves and they can become self-sufficient in the field. Students
need to be shown how to apply the new techniques you teach to problem solving.
(c) Interest
A good teacher starts with a firm knowledge of the subject, and builds on that with
a clarity and understanding designed to help students master the material. The best
teachers then go one step further. Because good teachers are interested in the
material being taught, they make the class interesting and relevant to the students.
Knowledge is worthless unless it is delivered to the students in a form they can
understand. But the effort expended making the material understandable is wasted
if the students are asleep when it is delivered, or if the students can see no point in
learning the material.
Good teachers recognize this, and work hard to make their material relevant. They
show students how the material will apply to their lives and their careers. Bad
teachers make material "relevant" by threatening students with failure on a test.
Good teachers go far beyond this: they make students want to learn the material by
making it interesting.
(d) Respect
Good teachers always possess these three core qualities: knowledge, the ability to
convey to students an understanding of that knowledge, and the ability to make the
material interesting and relevant to students. Complementing these three is a fourth
quality: good teachers have a deep-seated concern and respect for the students in
the classroom. Why else would a teacher put in the time and effort needed to create
a high quality class?
The creation of a good class requires an immense amount of work. You don’t
simply come up with clear explanations and examples and experiments for class off
the top of your head. You don’t create fair, consistent, high quality tests and
homework assignments (read "learning experiences") five minutes before you hand
them out. You don’t figure out ways to integrate new materials and research into a
class in an understandable way on the drive in one morning. You work at this sort
of quality all the time. You spend time with your students so you can learn about
29

holes in their understanding. You read and write and create to build an exciting and
interesting class every day. The only thing that would drive you to do that is a
concern and respect for the adults in your classroom.
Conclusion
When you strive and work to become a good teacher and to create a good class, the
four core qualities are essential: knowledge, the skills to convey that knowledge,
the ability to make the material you are teaching interesting and relevant, and a
deep-seated respect for the student. Without these four qualities, good teaching will
not exist.
(ii) Teachers’ Techniques
For effective teaching to take place, an appropriate teaching method must be
employed. A teacher may develop lesson plans or use lesson plans that have been
developed by other teachers. When deciding the teaching methods to use, a teacher
considers the students’ background knowledge, environment, and learning goals.
Students have different ways of absorbing information and of demonstrating their
knowledge. Teachers often use techniques which cater to multiple learning styles to
help students retain information and strengthen understanding. A variety of
strategies and methods are used to ensure that all students have equal opportunities
to learn. A lesson plan may be carried out in several ways: Questioning, explaining,
modeling, collaborating, and demonstrating.
(i) Setting the Scene
The importance of starting off on the right foot cannot be overestimated. The
students are most likely to learn in a relaxed and friendly environment.
(ii) Being Student Centered
Being student centered means focusing on what the students want to know and
involving them in the learning as much as possible. Essentially it is about moving
away from an authoritarian form of teaching where you, as the teacher, knows
exactly what the students need to know and are going to teach it whether they like
it or not.
(iii) Assessing Prior Knowledge
Finding out what students know already is very important. Remember that even if
they know it already, time spent rehearsing the information is not wasted – by
calling it up, they will be preparing themselves for learning.
(iv) Getting Students to Participate
Students are most likely to learn when they are actively involved with the learning.
This keeps students interested. Thus you could have a discussion, some practical
work, get the students to think through a case and look at a model all in one
session. Useful techniques include questioning, brainstorming, interaction with
students and role-play.
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(v) Asking Questions and Dealing with Answers
Questions are the simplest way of getting students to interact with a teacher.
However, asking questions is not as simple as it appears. Questions can also probe
at different levels of knowledge. The most common questions asked by teachers
look at recall of facts. However, it may be more useful to see whether the student
can use those facts, and whether they can solve new problems with those facts. The
most common problem we see with asking questions is that teachers don’t allow
students long enough to think of an answer. Remember that complex questions
need more thinking time. Rather than answering the question yourself when the
student can’t, ask yourself why. There are several possibilities:
• the student doesn’t understand - try putting the question another way
• the question had more than one part and the student cannot remember the
first point – try to keep it simple
• the question was too difficult – reframe the question at an easier level (this
may make several smaller questions) as working through the answer to the
question with you in small stages will help students understand the
underlying concept.
(vi) Checking Understanding
During a session it is worth monitoring the progress of the students. Check that
they understand the points you have just covered and make sure they have no
questions before you move onto the next topic. By checking you will be able to
manage the pace of the session (this means the speed at which information is
delivered) and make sure that the information is delivered at the right level or pitch.
(vii) Using Visual Aids
This is another way of keeping students interested. The aphorism “a picture tells a
thousand words” is true. Students can interact with diagrammatic information
easily. Common tools are diagrams (from books, CD ROMs etc), flip charts and
overhead projectors. It is important to think about why you are using a visual aid
and take some time over selecting the correct one.
(viii) Setting Homework
This is often referred to as lifelong learning through which students can understand
the content as doing by self at home. Students often refer to this as ‘setting
homework’, and are familiar with the process as they have been exposed to
problem-based-learning.
(ix) Summarising and Closing a Session
Summarising at the end of a session is important. We could reduce a lot of teaching
theory to the statement “tell them what you going to do, do it, tell them what you
just did”. This perfectly demonstrates the three part nature of a well planned lesson,
and also reveals a critical fact about the summary – no new facts. The summary is
just that – a summary of the content of the lesson at the end of the lesson. Its aim is
31

to reinforce the most important points of the lesson. It can be done in several ways.
The most common are teacher led; where the teacher summarises the most
important points for the students, or student led; where the students are invited to
summarise for the group. The last part of a session involves preparing students for
what is to come next week – this enables them to read up, activate the knowledge
they already have and make the most of the lesson.
(iii) Teachers Skills
In this section we have to look at the basic teaching skills you will need to start
teaching. You will now be able to plan a simple lesson, and use your time with the
students effectively. The key points to remember are:
When am I teaching? – make sure you are prepared
What am I teaching? –make sure you understand the aims and objectives of the session
Overall teachers have to concentrate on following teaching skills:
a. Effective classroom teaching to varied audiences in terms of subject matter
b. Effective classroom teaching in terms of pedagogy
c. Ability to convey the competence in subject matter and confidence in one’s
ability to teach
d. Ability to develop course curriculum and individual lessons
e. Effective use of common instructional aids, including audiovisual techniques
f. Ability to help students understand the general principles and concepts
underlying a particular lesson
g. Ability to explain both basic and difficult concepts clearly
h. Ability to put a specific lesson into larger context (clinical relevance, prior
material)
i. Ability to ask good questions (testing, study, case histories)
j. Ability to provide feedback to students
k. Awareness of the strengths and limitations of various means for evaluating
teaching performance
l. Ability to adjust lesson plan based on information garnered from student
questions
m. Ability to foster an effective learning environment including showing respect
for the student, encouraging their intellectual growth and providing a role
model for scholarship and intellectual vigor.
Activity-2.2
Keeping in view the qualities, techniques and skills of teacher, enlist the characteristics
of your teacher and share it with your class fellows.
2.3 Individual Differences
Students are all different. That is what makes students unique and interesting human
beings. Obvious differences include hair color, height, size, and eye color. Other
differences may not be so obvious, but definitely affect learning and behaviour in the
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classrooms. Although classroom management plans are written for most classroom
settings, classroom management is also affected by student characteristics. Individual
goals, interests, culture, home background, age, academic ability levels, mental health
issues, behaviour problems, eating disorders, inappropriate or unhealthy sexual practices,
use of drugs, and addiction problems influence the classroom management plan.
Classrooms are also affected by life circumstances of the children and adolescents.
Students come from a wide range of experiences and situations that determine how they
react to classroom activities and classroom management procedures. Although schools
should be places of safety and security, they often provide opportunities for student-on-
student bullying and inappropriate interactions between students (Marzano, Gaddy,
Foseid, Foseid, & Marzano, 2005). Just as teachers modify instruction for student
differences, teachers make adjustments to classroom management to meet the needs of
different students (Evertson & Emmer, 2009).
To identify individual differences, teachers may look at many different sources for
information. Sources might include classroom observations, work samples, school
records, standardized testing, and reports from other teachers (Evertson & Emmer, 2009).
Individual differences is a cornerstone subject area in modern psychology. Diversity in
the classroom takes multiple forms. We often think of diversity in demographic or group
terms, such as age, class, culture, disabilities, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation. But
the most common involves individual difference: in background, levels of preparation,
learning styles, interests, and abilities.
You aren’t simply teaching one students with twenty different faces; you are teaching
twenty different students, each with distinctive needs and talents, and different levels of
motivation, attention, knowledge, time to devote to your class, and maturity.
Many instructors fear that the very diversity of our classes means that talented students
aren’t sufficiently challenged and that the weakest students determine the class’ pace.
How can you provide an optimal learning environment for every student? Instead of
asking whether you should teach to the top or to the middle, consider ways to meet the
needs and build on the strengths of all your students.
Here are some practical suggestions.
1. Get to know your students
Nothing undermines stereotypes or misconceptions quicker than simple knowing
your students. Learn something about their strengths, talents, and interests and
draw upon those in your interactions with them. And remember, students who feel
connected to your work harder.
2. Make sure your students know why the material is worth learning.
Students who are engaged and motivated will put more effort into your course.
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3. Create a classroom where student input about content and pedagogy is welcome.
No doubt you will feel uncomfortable when students criticize an aspect of your
class or your teaching style. But if you are to reach them effectively, you need to
encourage them to reflect critically on their own learning.
4. Vary your presentation style.
Because students have diverse learning styles, consider using a variety of
instructional approaches: lectures, discussion, PowerPoint presentations, audio
(including music), video, charts and graphs, simulations, and images.
5. Highlight critical concepts and skills.
Make sure that all students master key concepts and skills.
6. Approach the material interactively.
Inquiry-based instruction, hands-on experiments, project and problem-based learning.
7. Integrate small group learning into your teaching.
Collaborative and team-based learning, including pairs and small group activities,
allow students to learn from their peers.
8. Don’t get locked into “lock-step” teaching.
All students don’t need to be doing exactly the same thing at the same time. You
might adopt “differentiated instruction,” where one group pursues one activity
while you work closely with another group on particular skills or concepts.
9. Create a support system.
Some students need additional help if they are to succeed. You can refer them to
student support services, but also holding special sessions or creating online
tutorials to address struggling students’ special needs.
Need of Individual Differences
The aim of education is to enable each student to attain all-round development according
to his/her own attributes. To achieve this, students should be provided with suitable
assistance and guidance in accordance with their abilities and learning needs, so that they
can develop their potential to the full.
Each student is a unique individual, different in cognitive and affective development,
social maturity, ability, motivation, aspiration, learning styles, needs, interests and
potential. Apart from this, there are other factors underlying student differences. These
include innate differences in intelligence, differences in social and economic background,
variations in past learning experiences, and perhaps variations in the level of congruence
between the learner and the curriculum. In view of these factors, catering for individual
differences is intended neither to narrow the gap between individuals nor to even out their
abilities and performance. It should aim for understanding why students are able or
unable to learn well and finding appropriate ways to help them learn better.
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We have the conviction that all students can learn. To address the needs of students,
teachers should provide them with a variety of learning opportunities for effective
learning, such as using diversified resources rather than focusing only on textbooks, and
making use of a spectrum of intelligences and multi-sensory experiences to tap the
different potential of students. Schools can adopt different modes of assessment to find
out the strengths and weaknesses of students before deciding on the appropriate
curriculum, and learning and teaching strategies for them.
Activity-2.3
Share with your course mates about their individual differences and prepare the list of
different individual differences prevail in your class.
2.4 Personality Development
Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by
a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviours in
various situations. The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which
means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask
was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a
convention employed to represent or typify that character. Personality may also refer to
the patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviours consistently exhibited by an individual
over time that strongly influence our expectations, self-perceptions, values and attitudes,
and predicts our reactions to people, problems and stress. In a phrase, personality is not
just who we are, it is also how we are.
Philosophical Assumptions
The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of
art, science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. The following five categories
are some of the most fundamental philosophical assumptions which may lead to
personality aspects:
1. Freedom versus Determinism
This is the debate over whether we have control over our own behaviour and
understand the motives behind it (Freedom), or if our behaviour is causally
determined by forces beyond our control (Determinism). Determinism has been
considered unconscious, environmental, or biological by various theories.
2. Heredity versus Environment
Personality is thought to be determined largely by genetics and biology, by
environment and experiences, or by some combination of both. There is evidence
for all possibilities that most personality traits are based on the joint influence of
genetics and environment.
3. Uniqueness versus Universality
The argument over whether we are all unique individuals (Uniqueness) or if
humans are basically similar in their nature (Universality). Gordon Allport,
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Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers were all advocates of the uniqueness of
individuals. Behaviourists and cognitive theorists, in contrast, emphasized the
importance of universal principles such as reinforcement and self-efficacy.
4. Active versus Reactive
Do we primarily act through our own initiative (Active), or react to outside stimuli
(Reactive)? Behavioural theorists typically believe that humans are passively
shaped by their environments, whereas humanistic and cognitive theorists believe
that humans are more active.
5. Optimistic versus Pessimistic
According to optimistic view personality theories differ on whether people can
change their personalities (Optimism), while pessimism believes if people are
doomed to remain the same throughout their lives (Pessimism). Theories that place
a great deal of emphasis on learning are often, but not always, more optimistic than
theories that do not emphasize learning
(a) Physical Development
Physical development refers to physical changes in the body and involves changes
in bone thickness, size, weight, gross motor, fine motor, vision, hearing, and
perceptual development. Growth is rapid during the first two years of life. The
child’s size, shape, senses, and organs undergo change. As each physical change
occurs, the child gains new abilities. During the first year, physical development
mainly involves the infant coordinating motor skills. The infant repeats motor
actions which serve to build physical strength and motor coordination. Here gross
motor skills and fine motor skills need to be discussed separately for
comprehending the physical development.
(i) Physical Development: Gross Motor Skills
The term "gross motor" development refers to physical skills that use large body
movements, normally involving the entire body. In the sense used here, gross
means "large" rather than "disgusting."
Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop "toddling," or using the awkward,
wide-legged robot-like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop
a smoother gait, they also develop the ability to run, jump, and hop. Children of
this age can participate in throwing and catching games with larger balls. They can
also push themselves around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.
Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing
both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast,
adults place one foot on each step in sequence). However, young children may still
need some "back-up" assistance to prevent falls in case they become unsteady in
this new skill. Children of this age will also be stumped when it’s time to go back
down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the stairs backwards. 3 to
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4 year olds can jump and hope higher as their leg muscles grow stronger. Many can
even hop on one foot for short periods of time.
Also at this age (3 to 4 years), children develop better upper body mobility. As a
result, their catching and throwing abilities improve in speed and accuracy. In
addition, they can typically hit a stationary ball from a tee with a bat. As whole
body coordination improves, children of this age can now peddle and steer a
tricycle. They can also kick a larger ball placed directly in front of their bodies.
By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e.,
taking one step at a time). Their running continues to smooth out and increase in
speed. Children of this age can also skip and add spin to their throws. They also have
more control when riding their tricycles (or bicycles), and can drive them faster.
During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine earlier skills. They’re running
even faster and can start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In
addition, they can step sideways. Children of this age begin mastering new forms
of physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and
swing on their own. They often start jumping rope, skating, hitting balls with bats,
and so on. Many children of this age enjoy learning to play organized sports such
as soccer, basketball, t-ball or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6 year olds often like to
participate in physical extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or
dance. Children continue to refine and improve their gross motor skills through age
7 and beyond.
(ii) Physical Development: Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills are necessary to engage in smaller, more precise movements,
normally using the hands and fingers. Fine motor skills are different than gross
motor skills which require less precision to perform.
By ages 2 to 3 years, children can create things with their hands. They can build
towers out of blocks, mold clay into rough shapes, and scribble with a crayon or
pen. Children of this age can also insert objects into matching spaces, such as
placing round pegs into round holes. 2 to 3 year-olds often begin showing a
preference for using one hand more often than the other, which is the beginning of
becoming left or right-handed.
Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like
zippers and snaps, and continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing
themselves. Before they enter school, most children will gain the ability to
completely dress and undress themselves (even though they may take a long time
to finish the task). At this age, children can also begin using scissors to cut paper.
Caregivers should be sure to give children blunt, round-edged "kid" scissors for
safety reasons!
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3 to 4 year- olds continue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks
and spoons. Young children at this age can also use larger writing instruments, like
fat crayons, in a writing hold rather than just grasping them with their fist. They
can also use a twisting motion with their hands, useful for opening door knobs or
twisting lids off containers. Because children can now open containers with lids,
caregivers should make certain that harmful substances such as cleaners and
medications are stored out of reach in a locked area to prevent accidental
poisonings.
During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine fine motor skills and build
upon earlier skills. For instance, they can now button and unbutton their clothes by
themselves. Their artistic skills improve, and they can draw simple stick figures
and copy shapes such as circles, squares, and large letters. Drawing more complex
shapes, however, may take longer.
5-7 year-olds begin to show the skills necessary for starting or succeeding in
school, such as printing letters and numbers and creating shapes such as triangles.
They are able to use paints, pencils and crayons with better control. Children can
also complete other self-care tasks beyond dressing and undressing, such as
brushing their teeth and combing their hair. Children of this age can also
independently feed themselves without an adult’s immediate supervision or help.
(b) Cognitive Development
Cognitive development refers to the ways children reason (think), develop
language, solve problems, and gain knowledge. Identifying colors, completing a
maze, knowing the difference between one and many, and knowing how things are
similar are all examples of cognitive tasks. Children learn through their senses and
through their interactions with people and things in the world. They interact with
the world through the senses (see, touch, hear, smell, taste), and construct meaning
and understanding of the world. As children gain understanding and meaning of the
world, their cognitive development can be observed in the ways they play, use
language, interact with others, and construct objects and materials. As children
grow and interact with their world, they go through various stages of development.
Although the stages are not precisely tied to a particular age, there are
characteristics that describe children at different ages.
(i) The Importance of Early Childhood Cognitive Development
Early childhood generally refers to the period from birth through age 5. A child’s
cognitive development during early childhood, which includes building skills such
as pre-reading, language, vocabulary, and numeracy, begins from the moment a
child is born. Developmental scientists have found that the brain acquires a
tremendous amount of information about language in the first year of life even
before infants can speak. By the time babies utter or understand their first words,
they know which particular sounds their language uses, what sounds can be
combined to create words, and the tempo and rhythm of words and phrases.
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There is a strong connection between the development a child undergoes early in
life and the level of success that the child will experience later in life. For example,
infants who are better at distinguishing the building blocks of speech at 6 months
are better at other more complex language skills at 2 and 3 years of age and better
at acquiring the skills for learning to read at 4 and 5 years of age. Not surprisingly,
a child’s knowledge of the alphabet in kindergarten is one of the most significant
predictors of what that child’s tenth grade reading ability will be.
When young children are provided an environment rich in language and literacy
interactions and full of opportunities to listen to and use language constantly, they
can begin to acquire the essential building blocks for learning how to read. A child
who enters school without these skills runs a significant risk of starting behind and
staying behind.
(ii) Stages of Early Childhood Cognitive Development
During the first few years of life, children undergo a rapid period of cognitive
development, taking them from an extremely primitive state of function to one in
which they begin to understand complex concepts. The developmental psychologist
Jean Piaget classified this development into two major stages: sensorimotor and
preoperational, the latter of which comprised four substages. The Piagetan model is
one way caregivers can evaluate a child’s development and identify any delays or
challenges.
(a) Sensorimotor Stage
The earliest stage of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage. Children
develop and utilize motor skills, but their intellectual development is restricted
almost entirely to sensory input. In this stage, children understand little that is not
occurring directly to them, and anything that passes from their direct, immediate
experience loses its importance. A ball that rolls out of sight ceases to exist.
Children usually grow out of this stage by two years of age.
(b) Symbols
The first part of the preoperational stage involves the development of symbolic
thinking. Here, children can retain symbolic knowledge of an item or person even
when it is not in their line of sight. A child can remember extended family
members, or realize that a favorite toy is missing and look for it. This stage usually
occurs between two and four years of age.
(c) Language
Another stage in the preoperational phase of cognitive development is the growth
and use of language. Young children begin to understand language, but early on
can only grasp literal meanings. Older children learn to interpret the spoken word
and can understand the intent behind what they hear. A child late in this stage could
interpret the phrase, "I’d like to give you some cereal, but I don’t see your bowl,"
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as a request to get their bowl, where a younger child would have to be told directly.
Children between three and six years old experience this stage of development.
(d) Intuition
The intuitive stage of development marks the beginning of non-magical thinking in
children. Young children, when asked how something happened, often come up
with completely nonsensical answers. As children begin to develop cognitively, the
ability to reason comes into play, as does their understanding of the steps involved
in a process. A young child might believe that food just appears in the kitchen
cabinets and refrigerator, while an older child would understand that parents must
go to the store and purchase groceries. This stage encompasses children between
four and seven years of age.
(c) Social and Emotional Development
The expression of feelings about self, others, and things describe emotional
development. Learning to relate to others is social development. Emotional and social
development are often described and grouped together because they are closely
interrelated growth patterns. Feelings of trust, fear, confidence, pride, friendship, and
humor are all part of social-emotional development. Other emotional traits are self
concept and self esteem. Learning to trust and show affection to others is a part of
social-emotional development. The child’s relationship to a trusting and caring adult is
a foundation of emotional development and personality development. Furthermore,
when a child has been neglected, rejected, and does not feel secure, he has difficulty in
developing skills to socialize with others.
Overall social and emotional development refers the development of social skills and
emotional maturity that are needed to forge relationships and relate to others. Often
developing empathy and understanding the needs of others is also included in the area of
social development.
In order to develop socially, children need to interact with their peers and adults in a
socially acceptable way. Developing good social skills is necessary for them to be able to
eventually form healthy relationships and fit into various social scenarios comfortably.
Parental interactions are the building blocks for healthy social and emotional
development in children. By giving lots of love and attention to the baby, parents form a
close bond with the child, allowing him or her to grow in a comfortable, secure and
socially healthy atmosphere.
As a child grows and matures, his language skills improve, making social emotional
development and social interactions with peers an important part of his life, as he
becomes more involved with other children and adults around him. When the child
reaches preschool, friendships become increasingly important. At this stage of social
development, children often prefer to play with same-sex friends, and often start
forming” best friend” relationship with selected peers.
Friendships, attention and approval of his or her peers and significant adults become
increasingly important to a preschool child. At this age, children become focused on
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seeking approval from their parents and friends. They often prefer playing with their
friends or alone, apart from their parents. They begin to show a strong desire for
independence and often insist on making their own choices and preferences in clothing,
food, activities and so on. Most preschoolers at this stage of social development,
however, still often need an adult assistance and supervision in order to help them settle
arguments or get necessary supplies. Many social development skills are acquired at this
age as children learn to compromise, share and take turns.
The early years of a child’s life present a unique opportunity for healthy development,
and research has shown the great importance of the first five years of life. During these
formative years, both positive and negative experiences help shape the children’s
cognitive, social, behavioural and emotional development.
Social and emotional development milestones are often harder to specify than those of
physical development. This area includes various skills that involve self-awareness and
self control. Social and emotional development is reflected in the ability of the child to
pay attention, make smooth transitions from one activity to another, empathies and
cooperate with others and other skills. Research shows that social development in
children skills are very important in school readiness for children and play a big role in
the child’s social integration in school.
Activity-2.4
Prepare the chart of characteristics of physical, cognitive and emotional development of
child.
2.5 Cognitive Styles and Abilities
(a) Cognitive Styles
Cognitive style or "thinking style" is a term used in cognitive psychology to
describe the way individuals think, perceive and remember information. Cognitive
style differs from cognitive ability (or level), the latter being measured by aptitude
tests or so-called intelligence tests. Controversy exists over the exact meaning of
the term cognitive style and also as to whether it is a single or multiple dimension
of human personality. However, it remains a key concept in the areas of education
and management. If a pupil has a cognitive style that is similar to that of his/her
teacher, the chances that the pupil will have a more positive learning experience are
improved. Likewise, team members with similar cognitive styles likely feel more
positive about their participation with the team. While matching cognitive styles
may make participants feel more comfortable when working with one another, this
alone cannot guarantee the success of the outcome.
Cognitive styles refer to the preferred way individual processes information. Unlike
individual differences in abilities (e.g., Gardner, Guilford, Sternberg) which
describe peak performance, styles describe a person’s typical mode of thinking,
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remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be
bipolar dimensions whereas abilities are unipolar (ranging from zero to a maximum
value). Having more of ability is usually considered beneficial while having a
particular cognitive style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner.
Cognitive style is a usually described as a personality dimension which influences
attitudes, values, and social interaction.
A number of cognitive styles have been identified and studied over the years. Field
independence versus field dependence is probably the most well known style. It
refers to a tendency to approach the environment in an analytical, as opposed to
global, fashion. At a perceptual level, field independent personalities are able to
distinguish figures as discrete from their backgrounds compared to field dependent
individuals who experience events in an undifferentiated way. In addition, field
dependent individuals have a greater social orientation relative to field independent
personalities. Studies have identified number connections between this cognitive
style and learning (see Messick, 1978). For example, field independent individuals
are likely to learn more effectively under conditions of intrinsic motivation (e.g.,
self-study) and are influenced less by social reinforcement.
Other cognitive styles that have been identified include:
• scanning-differences in the extent and intensity of attention resulting in
variations in the vividness of experience and the span of awareness
• leveling versus sharpening-individual variations in remembering that pertain
to the distinctiveness of memories and the tendency to merge similar events
• reflection versus impulsivity-individual consistencies in the speed and
adequacy with which alternative hypotheses are formed and responses made
• conceptual differentiation-differences in the tendency to categorize perceived
similarities among stimuli in terms of separate concepts or dimensions
Theoretically, cognitive styles could be used to predict what kind of instructional
strategies or methods would be most effective for a given individual and learning task.
(b) Cognitive Abilities
You have probably heard about cognitive abilities or cognition. What is cognition?
Cognition has to do with how a person understands and acts in the world. It is a set
of abilities, skills or processes that are part of nearly every human action.
Cognitive abilities are the brain-based skills we need to carry out any task from the
simplest to the most complex. They have more to do with the mechanisms of how
we learn, remember, problem-solve, and pay attention rather than with any actual
knowledge. Any task can be broken down into the different cognitive skills or
functions needed to complete that task successfully. For instance, answering the
telephone involves at least: perception (hearing the ring tone), decision taking
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(answering or not), motor skill (lifting the receiver), language skills (talking and
understanding language), and social skills (interpreting tone of voice and interact-
ing properly with another human being).
The fields of neuropsychology, cognitive psychology, and thus cognitive training
are based on the framework that cognition consists of different mental functions or
cognitive abilities which are based on specific constellations of brain structures.
For instance memory skills rely mainly on parts of the temporal lobes (next to the
temples) and parts of the frontal lobes (behind the forehead).
In the table below, you can browse through the main brain functions involved in
cognition. You will also find brain teasers that will help you challenge all the cog-
nitive abilities described below: Learn and have fun!
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COGNITIVE ABILITIES ARE MENTAL SKILLS
Cognitive Ability/
Brain Function
Skills Involved
Perception Recognition and interpretation of sensory stimuli (smell, touch,
hearing, etc.)
Attention
Abilitytosustainconcentrationona particular object,action, or thought.
Ability to manage competing demands in our environment.
Memory
Short-term/working memory (limited storage).
Long-term memory (unlimited storage).
Motor
Ability to mobilize our muscles and bodies.
Ability to manipulate objects.
Language
Skills allowing us to translate sounds into words and generate
verbal output.
Visual and Spatial
Processing
Ability to process incoming visual stimuli.
Ability to understand spatial relationship between objects.
Ability to visualize images and scenarios.
Executive Functions
Abilities that enable goal-oriented behaviour, such as the
ability to plan, and execute a goal. These include:
Flexibility: the capacity for quickly switching to the appropriate
mental mode.
Theory of mind: insight into other people’s inner world, their
plans, their likes and dislikes.
Anticipation: prediction based on pattern recognition.
Problem-solving: defining the problem in the right way to
then generate solutions and pick the right one.
Decision making: the ability to make decisions based on
problem-solving, on incomplete information and on emotions
(ours and others’).
Working memory: the capacityto hold and manipulate information
“on-line” inrealtime.
Emotional self-regulation: the ability to identify and manage
one’s own emotions for good performance.
Sequencing: the ability to break down complex actions into
manageable units and prioritize them in the right order.
Inhibition: the ability to withstand distraction, and internal urges.
Activity-2.5
Keeping in view the nature of cognitive styles and abilities, enlist different styles and
abilities of yourself and your class fellows, and compare it with content of this topic.
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2.6 Temperament
Children, from birth, differ in the ways they react to their environment. Temperament
refers to the quality and degree or intensity of emotional reactions. Passivity, irritability,
and activity are three factors that affect a child’s temperament. Passivity refers to how
actively involved a child is with his or her environment or surroundings. A passive infant
withdraws from or is otherwise not engaged with a new person or event. An active infant
does something in response to a new person or event. There is also difference in the level
of irritability (tendency to feel distressed) of infants. Some infants may cry easily and be
difficult to comfort and soothe even if you hold them. Other infants may rarely cry and
are not bothered as much by change. Caring for these infants is usually viewed as easier
for adults. Activity levels or levels of movement also vary in infants. Some infants make
few movements, are quiet, and when asleep, may hardly move. Other infants constantly
move their limbs (arms and legs) and may be restless in sleep.
As caregivers, we need to nurture and give loving attention to all infants regardless of
their temperament. We also need to adjust to the temperament of different children. Even
very irritable infants can grow to be emotionally happy and well adjusted if caregivers are
patient, responsive, and loving in their caregiving ways.
(a) Temperament Characteristics
(i) Activity
Activity refers to the child’s physical energy. Is the child constantly moving, or
does the child have a relaxing approach? A high-energy child may have difficulty
sitting still in class, whereas a child with low energy can tolerate a very structured
environment. The former may use gross motor skills like running and jumping
more frequently. Conversely, a child with a lower activity level may rely more on
fine motor skills, such as drawing and putting puzzles together. This trait can also
refer to mental activity, such as deep thinking or reading—activities which become
more significant as the person matures.
(ii) Regularity
Regularity refers to the level of predictability in a child’s biological functions, such as
waking, becoming tired, hunger, and bowel movements. Does the child have a routine
in eating and sleeping habits, or are these events more random? For example, a child
with a high regularity rating may want to eat at 2 p.m. everyday, whereas a child lower
on the regularity scale may eat at sporadic times throughout the day.
(iii) Initial reaction
Initial reaction is also known as Approach or Withdrawal. This refers to how the
child responds (whether positively or negatively) to new people or environments.
Does the child approach people or things in the environment without hesitation, or
does the child shy away? A bold child tends to approach things quickly, as if
without thinking, whereas a cautious child typically prefers to watch for a while
before engaging in new experiences.
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(iv) Adaptability
Adaptability refers to how long it takes the child to adjust to change over time (as
opposed to an initial reaction). Does the child adjust to the changes in their
environment easily, or is the child resistant? A child who adjusts easily may be
quick to settle into a new routine, whereas a resistant child may take a long time to
adjust to the situation.
(v) Intensity
Intensity refers to the energy level of a positive or negative response. Does the
child react intensely to a situation, or does the child respond in a calm and quiet
manner? A more intense child may jump up and down screaming with excitement,
whereas a mild-mannered child may smile or show no emotion.
(vi) Mood
Mood refers to the child’s general tendency towards a happy or unhappy demeanor. All
children have a variety of emotions and reactions, such as cheerful and stormy, happy
and unhappy. Yet each child biologically tends to have a generally positive or negative
outlook. A baby who frequently smiles and coos could be considered a cheerful baby,
whereas a baby who frequently cries or fusses might be considered a stormy baby.
(vii) Distractibility
Distractibility refers to the child’s tendency to be sidetracked by other things going on
around them. Does the child get easily distracted by what is happening in the
environment, or can the child concentrate despite the interruptions? An easily distracted
child is engaged by external events and has difficulty returning to the task at hand,
whereas a rarely distracted child stays focused and completes the task at hand.
(viii) Persistence and Attention Span
Persistence and attention span refer to the child’s length of time on a task and
ability to stay with the task through frustrations—whether the child stays with an
activity for a long period of time or loses interest quickly.
(ix) Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to how easily a child is disturbed by changes in the environment.
This is also called sensory threshold or threshold of responsiveness. Is the child
bothered by external stimuli like noises, textures, or lights, or does the child seem
to ignore them? A sensitive child may lose focus when a door slams, whereas a
child less sensitive to external noises will be able to maintain focus.
Activity-2.6
Observe your class fellows and enlist the characteristics of their temperament and
discuss with them.
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2.7 Self- Assessment Questions–I
1. Discuss the concept and components of classroom management. Also highlight the
role of teacher for managing the class effectively.
2. Discuss the role of individual difference in managing the classroom activities.
3. Explain the different aspects of personality development.
4. How does temperament affect the classroom environment? Discuss.
2.8 Cultural Background
Students are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and all these
dimensions interact to impact learning and performance. To plan an effective course, it is
important to consider who our students are, taking into account their;
• Prior knowledge
• Intellectual development
• Cultural background
• Generational experiences and expectations
All these aspects are important but knowledge of cultural background plays a vital role in
the context of classroom management. During the teaching, teacher may concentrate on
these questions: What is the cultural background of the students? How might cultural
differences among your students (or between you and your students) affect the course
you are planning?
While all cultures value learning, the kinds of learning valued in particular cultures, the
manner in which learning is believed to best occur, and the ways in which the roles of
students and teachers are conceptualized may differ profoundly from culture to culture.
When students from different cultures share a classroom – or if you, as the instructor,
come from a different culture than your students – it is important to consider how cultural
background can affect classroom dynamics and learning.
(a) Tips for Teaching in a Diverse Classroom
Here are six types of knowledge you can develop to help your students succeed in
your classroom.
1. Learn About Your Own Culture
Become aware of how the influence of your own culture, language, social interests,
goals, cognitions, and values could prevent you from learning how you could best
teach your students of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Also,
understanding and respecting your own cultural roots can help you respect your
students’ cultural roots.
2. Learn About Your Students’ Culture
Understand how your students’ cultures affect their perceptions, self-esteem,
values, classroom behaviour, and learning. Use that understanding to help your
students feel welcomed, affirmed, respected, and valued.
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3. Understand Your Students’ Linguistic Traits
Learn how students’ patterns of communication and various dialects affect their
classroom learning and how second-language learning affects their acquisition of
literacy.
4. Use this Knowledge to Inform Your Teaching
Let your knowledge of your students’ diverse cultures inform your teaching. This, along
with a sincerely caring attitude, increases student participation and engagement.
5. Use Multicultural Books and Materials to Foster Cross-Cultural Understanding
Sensitively use multicultural literature, especially children’s literature, to honor students’
culture and foster cross-cultural understanding. Be open to a variety of instructional
strategies as students’ cultures may make certain strategies (such as competitive games or
getting students to volunteer information) uncomfortable for them.
6. Know About Your Students’ Home and School Relationships
Collaborate with parents and caregivers on children’s literacy development and don’t rely
on preconceived notions of the importance of literacy within your students’ families.
Acquiring this rich store of knowledge may seem overwhelming, but whatever
investment you can make will be well worth the time and effort. Make it a career-long
goal to build your knowledge bases a little piece at a time. At the very least, notice how
your students with diverse backgrounds react differently to various language and literacy
teaching strategies and be willing to modify your approach to find mutual success.
Activity-2.7
Conduct an interview with your class fellows to examine their cultural background and
its impact on their learning.
2.9 Asperger’s Syndrome
Asperger’s syndrome, also called Asperger’s disorder, is a type of pervasive development
disorder (PDD). PDDs are a group of conditions that involve delays in the development
of many basic skills, most notably the ability to socialize with others, to communicate,
and to use imagination.
Although Asperger’s syndrome is similar in some ways to autism -- another, more severe
type of pervasive development disorder PDD -- there are some important differences.
Children with Asperger’s syndrome typically function better than do those with autism.
In addition, children with Asperger’s syndrome generally have normal intelligence and
near-normal language development, although they may develop problems communicating
as they get older.
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Asperger’s syndrome was named for the Austrian doctor, Hans Asperger, who first
described the disorder in 1944. However, Asperger’s syndrome was not recognized as a
unique disorder until much later.
(a) What Are the Symptoms of Asperger’s Syndrome?
The symptoms of Asperger’s syndrome vary and can range from mild to severe.
Common symptoms include:
• Problems with social skills: Children with Asperger’s syndrome generally
have difficulty interacting with others and often are awkward in social
situations. They generally do not make friends easily.
• Eccentric or repetitive behaviours: Children with this condition may
develop odd, repetitive movements, such as hand wringing or finger twisting.
• Unusual preoccupations or rituals: A child with Asperger’s syndrome may
develop rituals that he or she refuses to alter, such as getting dressed in a
specific order.
• Communication difficulties: People with Asperger’s syndrome may not
make eye contact when speaking with someone. They may have trouble
using facial expressions and gestures, and understanding body language.
They also tend to have problems understanding language in context.
• Limited range of interests: A child with Asperger’s syndrome may develop
an intense, almost obsessive, interest in a few areas, such as sports schedules,
weather, or maps.
• Coordination problems: The movements of children with Asperger’s
syndrome may seem clumsy or awkward.
• Skilled or talented: Many children with Asperger’s syndrome are
exceptionally talented or skilled in a particular area, such as music or math.
(b) What Causes Asperger’s Syndrome?
The exact cause of Asperger’s syndrome is not known. However, the fact that it
tends to run in families suggests that a tendency to develop the disorder may be
inherited (passed on from parent to child).
(c) How Common Is Asperger’s Syndrome?
Asperger’s syndrome has only recently been recognized as a unique disorder. For
that reason, the exact number of people with the disorder is unknown, although it is
more common than autism. Estimates suggest Asperger’s syndrome affects from
0.024% to 0.36% of children. It is more common in males than in females, and
usually is first diagnosed in children between the ages of 2 and 6 years.
(d) How Is Asperger’s Syndrome Diagnosed?
If symptoms are present, the doctor will begin an evaluation by performing a
complete medical history and physical exam. Although there are no tests for
Asperger’s syndrome, the doctor may use various tests -- such as X-rays and blood
tests – to determine if there is a physical disorder causing the symptoms.
49

If no physical disorder is found, the child may be referred to a specialist in
childhood development disorders, such as a child and adolescent psychiatrist or
psychologist, pediatric neurologist, developmental pediatrician, or another health
professional who is specially trained to diagnose and treat Asperger’s syndrome.
The doctor bases his or her diagnosis on the child’s level of development, and the
doctor’s observation of the child’s speech and behaviour, including his or her play
and ability to socialize with others. The doctor often seeks input from the child’s
parents, teachers, and other adults who are familiar with the child’s symptoms.
(e) Managing the Asperger Syndrome
Asperger syndrome treatment attempts to manage distressing symptoms and to
teach age-appropriate social, communication and vocational skills that are not
naturally acquired during development, with intervention tailored to the needs of
the individual based on multidisciplinary assessment. Although progress has been
made, data supporting the efficacy of particular interventions are limited.
(i) Therapies
The ideal treatment for AS coordinates therapies that address core symptoms
of the disorder, including poor communication skills and obsessive or
repetitive routines. While most professionals agree that the earlier the
intervention, the better, there is no single best treatment package. AS
treatment resembles that of other high-functioning ASDs, except that it takes
into account the linguistic capabilities, verbal strengths, and nonverbal
vulnerabilities of individuals with AS. A typical program generally includes:
• The training of social skills for more effective interpersonal interactions.
• Cognitive behavioural therapy to improve stress management relating
to anxiety or explosive emotions and to cut back on obsessive interests
and repetitive routines,
• Medication, for coexisting conditions such as major depressive disorder
and anxiety disorder
• Occupational or physical therapy to assist with poor sensory integration
and motor coordination
• Social communication intervention, which is specialized speech therapy to
help with the pragmatics of the give and take of normal conversation.
• The training and support of parents, particularly in behavioural
techniques to use in the home.
(ii) Medications
Medication can be effective in combination with behavioural interventions
and environmental accommodations in treating co- morbid symptoms such as
anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, inattention and aggression.
Activity-2.8
Identify the child who is suffering with Asperger syndrome and apply the therapies to
overcome on this disorder.
50

2.10 Teaching Students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder. It is
characterized primarily by "the co-existence of attentional problems and hyperactivity,
with each behaviour occurring infrequently alone" and symptoms starting before seven
years of age. ADHD is the most commonly studied and diagnosed psychiatric disorder in
children, affecting about 3 to 5 percent of children globally and diagnosed in about 2 to
16 percent of school-aged children. It is a chronic disorder with 30 to 50 percent of those
individuals diagnosed in childhood continuing to have symptoms into adulthood.
Adolescents and adults with ADHD tend to develop coping mechanisms to compensate
for some or all of their impairments.
ADHD is diagnosed two to four times more frequently in boys than in girls. ADHD
management usually involves some combination of medications, behaviour
modifications, lifestyle changes, and counseling.
(a) Signs and Symptoms
The symptom categories of ADHD in children yield three potential classifications
of ADHD. In 1994, it was renamed ADHD and broken down into three subtypes,
each with its own pattern of behaviours:
1. an inattentive type, with signs that include:
inability to pay attention to details or a tendency to make careless errors in
schoolwork or other activities
difficulty with sustained attention in tasks or play activities
apparent listening problems
difficulty in following instructions
problems with organization
avoidance or dislike of tasks that require mental effort
tendency to lose things like toys, notebooks, or homework
distractibility
forgetfulness in daily activities
2. a hyperactive-impulsive type, with signs that include:
fidgeting or squirming
difficulty remaining seated
excessive running or climbing
difficulty playing quietly
always seeming to be "on the go"
excessive talking
blurting out answers before hearing the full question
difficulty in waiting for a turn or in line
problems with interrupting or intruding
3. a combined type, which involves a combination of the other two types and
is the most common
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Although it can be challenging to raise kids with ADHD, it’s important to
remember they aren’t "bad," "acting out," or being difficult on purpose. And
they have difficulty controlling their behaviour without medication or
behavioural therapy.
(b) Causes of ADHD
ADHD is not caused by poor parenting, too much sugar, or vaccines.
ADHD has biological origins that aren’t yet clearly understood. No single cause
has been identified, but researchers are exploring a number of possible genetic and
environmental links. Studies have shown that many kids with ADHD have a close
relative who also has the disorder.
Although experts are unsure whether this is a cause of the disorder, they have
found that certain areas of the brain are about 5% to 10% smaller in size and
activity in kids with ADHD. Chemical changes in the brain also have been found.
Research also links smoking during pregnancy to later ADHD in a child. Other risk
factors may include premature delivery, very low birth weight, and injuries to the
brain at birth.
Some studies have even suggested a link between excessive early television
watching and future attention problems. American Academy of Pediatrics’ (AAP)
suggests the parents that children under 2 years old should not have any "screen
time" (TV, DVDs or videotapes, computers, or video games) and that kids 2 years
and older should be limited to 1 to 2 hours per day, or less, of quality television
programming
(c) ADHD in the Classroom
As your child’s most important advocate, you should become familiar with your
child’s medical, legal, and educational rights.
Kids with ADHD are eligible for special services or accommodations at school
under the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA) and an anti-
discrimination law known as Section 504. Keep in touch with teachers and school
officials to monitor your child’s progress.
In addition to using routines and a clear system of rewards, here are some other tips
to share with teachers for classroom success:
• Reduce seating distractions. Lessening distractions might be as simple as
seating your child near the teacher instead of near the window.
• Use a homework folder for parent-teacher communications. The teacher
can include assignments and progress notes, and you can check to make sure
all work is completed on time.
• Break down assignments. Keep instructions clear and brief, breaking down
larger tasks into smaller, more manageable pieces.
52

• Give positive reinforcement. Always be on the lookout for positive behaviours.
Ask the teacher to offer praise when your child stays seated, doesn’t call out, or
waits his or her turn instead of criticizing when he or she doesn’t.
• Teach good study skills. Underlining, note taking, and reading out loud can
help your child stay focused and retain information.
• Supervise. Check that your child goes and comes from school with the
correct books and materials. Sometimes kids are paired with a buddy can
help them stay on track.
• Be sensitive to self-esteem issues. Ask the teacher to provide feedback to
your child in private, and avoid asking your child to perform a task in public
that might be too difficult.
• Involve the school counselor or psychologist. He or she can help design
behavioural programs to address specific problems in the classroom.
(d) Three Components of Successful Programs for Children with ADHD
The three main components for successfully teaching ADHD children are academic
instruction, behavioural interventions, and classroom accommodations. This guide
outlines a series of strategies proven successful in, not only educating children with
ADHD but also all children. By incorporating techniques from these three areas into
their everyday instructional and classroom management practices, teachers will
improve the academic performance and the behaviour of their students with ADHD.
(i) Academic Instruction:
The first major component of the most effective instruction for children with
ADHD is effective school instruction. Teachers can help prepare their students
with ADHD to achieve by applying the principles of effective teaching when
they introduce, conduct, and conclude each lesson during the school day. The
discussion and techniques that follow pertain to the instructional process in
general (across subject areas); strategies for specific subject areas appear in the
subsequent subsection “Individualizing Instructional Practices.”
(ii) Behavioural Interventions:
The second major component of effective ADHD school instruction involves the
use of behavioural interventions. The purpose of behavioural interventions in the
school setting is to assist ADHD students in displaying the behaviours that are
most conducive to their own learning and that of classmates. Well-managed
classrooms prevent many disciplinary problems and provide an environment that
is most favorable for learning. When a teacher’s time must be spent interacting
with students whose behaviours are not focused on the lesson being presented,
less time is available for assisting other students. Behavioural interventions
should be viewed as an opportunity for teaching in the most effective and
efficient manner, rather than as an opportunity for punishment.
53

(iii) Classroom Accommodations:
The third component of a strategy for effectively educating children with
ADHD involves physical ADHD classroom accommodations. Children with
ADHD often have difficulty adjusting to the structured environment of a
classroom, determining what is important, and focusing on their assigned
work. They are easily distracted by other children or by nearby activities in
the school classroom. As a result, many children with ADHD benefit from
ADHD teaching accommodations that reduce distractions in the classroom
environment and help them to stay on task and learn. Certain
accommodations within the physical and learning environments of the
classroom can benefit children with ADHD.
Activity-2.9
Enlist the problems faced by students with ADHD during their teaching learning
process in our schools.
2.11 Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
(a) What is it?
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is a psychiatric disorder that is characterized
by two different sets of problems. These are aggressiveness and a tendency to
purposefully bother and irritate others. It is often the reason that people seek
treatment. When ODD is present with ADHD, depression, anxiety disorders, or
other neuropsychiatric disorders, it makes life with that child far more difficult. For
Example, ADHD plus ODD is much worse than ADHD alone, often enough to
make people seek treatment. ODD is a condition in which a child displays an
ongoing pattern of uncooperative, defiant, hostile, and annoying behaviour toward
people in authority. The child’s behaviour often disrupts the child’s normal daily
activities, including activities within the family and at school.
Many children and teens with ODD also have other behavioural problems, such as
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, learning disabilities, mood disorders (such
as depression), and anxiety disorders. Some children with ODD go on to develop a
more serious behaviour disorder called conduct disorder. The criteria for ODD are:
1. Often loses temper
2. Often argues with adults
3. Often actively defies or refuses to comply with adults’ requests or rules
4. Often deliberately annoys people
5. Often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehaviour.
6. Is often touchy or easily annoyed by others.
7. Is often angry and resentful.
8. Is often spiteful and vindictive.
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(i) How often is "often"?
All of the criteria above include the word "often". But what exactly does that
mean? Recent studies have shown that these behaviours occur to a varying degree
in all children. These researchers have found that the "often" is best solved by the
following criteria.
(ii) Occurs at least twice a week
• Is touchy or easily annoyed by others
• Loses temper
• Argues with adults
• Actively defies or refuses to comply with adults’ requests or rules
(iii) Occurs at least four times per week
• Is angry and resentful
• Deliberately annoys people
(b) What causes it?
No one knows for certain. The usual pattern is for problems to begin between ages
1-3. If you think about it, a lot of these behaviours are normal at age 2, but in this
disorder they never go away. It does run in families. If a parent is alcoholic and has
been in trouble with the law, their children are almost three times as likely to have
ODD. That is, 18% of children will have ODD if the parents are alcoholic and the
father has been in trouble with the law.
(c) How can you tell if a child has it?
ODD is diagnosed in the same way as many other psychiatric disorders in children.
You need to examine the child, talk with the child, talk to the parents, and review
the medical history. Sometimes other medical tests are necessary to make sure it is
not something else. You always need to check children out for other psychiatric
disorders, as it is common the children with ODD will have other problems, too.
There are a number of sleep disorders which can look like ODD or make it worse.
Who gets it?
A lot of children! This is the most common psychiatric problem in children. Over
5% of children have this. In younger children it is more common in boys than girls,
but as they grow older, the rate is the same in males and females.
(d) What Are the Symptoms of Oppositional Defiant Disorder?
Symptoms of ODD may include:
• Throwing repeated temper tantrums
• Excessively arguing with adults
• Actively refusing to comply with requests and rules
• Deliberately trying to annoy or upset others, or being easily annoyed by others
• Blaming others for your mistakes
• Having frequent outbursts of anger and resentment
• Being spiteful and seeking revenge
• Swearing or using obscene language
• Saying mean and hateful things when upset
55

In addition, many children with ODD are moody, easily frustrated, and have a low
self-esteem. They also may abuse drugs and alcohol.
(e) What Causes Oppositional Defiant Disorder?
The exact cause of ODD is not known, but it is believed that a combination of
biological, genetic, and environmental factors may contribute to the condition.
• Biological: Some studies suggest that defects in or injuries to certain areas of
the brain can lead to serious behavioural problems in children. In addition,
ODD has been linked to abnormal amounts of special chemicals in the brain
called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters help nerve cells in the brain
communicate with each other. If these chemicals are out of balance or not
working properly, messages may not make it through the brain correctly,
leading to symptoms of ODD, and other mental illnesses. Further, many
children and teens with ODD also have other mental illnesses, such as
ADHD, learning disorders, depression, or an anxiety disorder, which may
contribute to their behaviour problems.
• Genetics: Many children and teens with ODD have close family members with
mental illnesses, including mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and personality
disorders. This suggests that a vulnerability to develop ODD may be inherited.
• Environmental: Factors such as a dysfunctional family life, a family history
of mental illnesses and/or substance abuse, and inconsistent discipline by
parents may contribute to the development of behaviour disorders.
Activity-2.10
Conduct an interview with a student who is suffering with Oppositional Defiant
Disorder (ODD) about his/ her difficulties in normal class room environment.
2.12 Conduct Disorder (CD)
In some ways, conduct disorder is just a worse version of ODD. However recent research
suggests that there are some differences. Children with ODD seem to have worse social
skills than those with CD. Children with ODD seem to do better in school. (1). Conduct
disorder is the most serious childhood psychiatric disorder. Approximately 6-10% of
boys and 2-9% of girls have this disorder.
Here is the Definition.
A repetitive and persistent pattern of behaviour in which the basic rights of others or
major society rules are violated. At least three of the following criteria must be present in
the last 12 months, and at least one criterion must have been present in the last 6 months.
(a) Causes of CD
Aggression to people and animals
Often bullies, threatens, or intimidates others
Often initiates physical fights
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Has used a weapon that can cause serious physical harm to others (a bat, brick,
broken bottle, knife, gun)
Physically cruel to animals
Physically cruel to people
Has stolen while confronting a victim (mugging, purse snatching, extortion, armed
robbery)
Destruction of property
Has deliberately engaged in fire setting with the intention of causing serious damage
Has deliberately destroyed other’s property other than by fire setting
Deceitfulness or theft
Has broken into someone else’s house, building or car
Often lies to obtain goods or favors or to avoid work
Has stolen items of nontrivial value without confronting a victim (shoplifting, forgery)
Serious violations of rules
Often stays out at night despite parental prohibitions, beginning before 13 years of age
Has run away from home overnight at least twice without returning home for a
lengthy period
Often skips school before age 13.
The above problem causes significant impairment in social, academic, and
occupational functioning.
(b) How are ODD and CD Related?
Currently, the research shows that in many respects, CD is a more severe form of
ODD. Severe ODD can lead to CD. Milder ODD usually does not. The common
thread that separates CD and ODD is safety. If a child has CD there are safety
concerns. Sometimes it is the personal safety of others in the school, family, or
community. Sometimes it is the safety of the possessions of other people in the
school, family or community. Often the safety of the child with CD is a great
concern. Children with ODD are an annoyance, but not especially dangerous. If
you have a child with CD disorder in your home, most likely you do not feel
entirely safe. Or, you do not feel that your things are entirely safe. It is the hardest
pediatric neuropsychiatric disorder to live with as a sibling, parent, or foster parent.
Nothing else even comes close. It is worse than any medical disorder in pediatrics.
Some parents have told me that at times it is worse than having your child die.
(c) Conduct Disorder and Co- morbidity
It has been common in the past for people to think that conduct disorder is just the
beginning of being a criminal. Up until the last few years, children with conduct
disorder were often "written off". It is now clear that this is true only with a
minority of cases. It is very easy to focus on the management of the CD child and
forget to check the child out for other neuropsychiatric disorders. A careful
examination of children with CD almost always reveals other neuropsychiatric
disorders. Some of the most exciting developments in this area of medicine involve
57

understanding these phenomena. It is called co-morbidity that is the tendency for
disorders to occur together.
It is very common to see children with CD plus another one or two neuropsychiatric
diagnoses. By far the most common combination is CD plus ADHD. Between 30-50% of
children with CD will also have ADHD. Another common combination is CD plus
depression or anxiety. One quarter to one half of children with CD have either an anxiety
disorder or depression. CD disorder plus substance abuse is also very common. Also
common are associations with Learning Disorders, bipolar disorder and Tourettes
Syndrome. It is exceptionally rare for a child to present for evaluation by a pediatric
psychiatrist to have pure CD. Here are some examples of the co-morbid presentations.
Looking for co-morbid disorders in every child with conduct disorder is absolutely
essential. Many of the treatments of these children depend on what co-morbid disorder is
also present.
Activity-2.11
Compare the symptoms of Conduct Disorder (CD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder
(ODD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Also enlist the teaching
learning problems of these students.
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2.13 Self-Assessment Questions–II
1. Discuss the importance of cultural background in teaching learning process.
2. Explain the different aspects of Asperger’s Syndrome.
3. What do you mean by Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder? Also highlight
teaching strategies for teaching the ADHD students.
4. Differentiate the Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder (CD)
and explore their causes and remedies for minimizing their negative effects on
students learning.
59

2.14 References/Suggested Readings
Angela Waguespack, Terrence Vaccaro & Lauren Continere (2006). Functional
Behavioural Assessment and Intervention with Emotional/Behaviourally Disordered
Students: In Pursuit of State of the Art. International Journal of Behavioural
Consultation and Therapy, 2 (4), 463–474.
Asperger H; tr. and Annot. Frith U (1991) [1944]. "‘Autistic Psychopathy’ in Childhood".
In Frith U. Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–92.
ISBN 0-521-38608-X.
Baskin JH, Sperber M, Price BH (2006). "Asperger Syndrome Revisited". Rev Neurol
Dis 3 (1): 1–7. PMID 16596080
Cancio, E. & Johnson, J.W. (2007). Level Systems Revisited: An Impact Tool For
Educating Students with Emotional and Behavioural Disorders. International Journal of
Behavioural Consultation and Therapy, 3 (4), 512–527
Froyen, L. A., & Iverson, A. M. (1999). School wide and Classroom Management: The
Reflective Educator-Leader (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Good, T. & Brophy, J. (2002). Looking in Classrooms, 9th Edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Hinshaw, S. P., & Lee, S. S. (2003). Conduct and Oppositional Defiant Disorders. In E. J. Mash
& R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child Psychopathology (pp. 144-198). NewYork: Guilford Press.
Hu Z, Chan RC, McAlonan GM (2010). "Maturation of social attribution skills in
typically developing children: an investigation using the social attribution task". Behav
Brain Funct 6: 10.
Jones, V. & Jones, L. (2006). Comprehensive Classroom Management: Creating
Communities of Support and Solving Problems, 6th Edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Mooney, Carol Garhart (2000). Theories of Childhood: an Introduction to Dewey,
Montessori, Erikson, Piaget & Vygotsky. Redleaf Press. ISBN 1-884834-85-X.
Pardini, D.A., Frick, P.J., & Moffitt, T.E. (2010) Building an Evidence Base for DSM-5
Conceptualizations of Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder: Introduction
to the Special Section. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 119(4) 683-688.
Rader R, McCauley L, Callen EC (April 2009). "Current Strategies in the Diagnosis and
Treatment of Childhood Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". Am Fam Physician
79 (8): 657–65.
60

UNIT–3
CLASSROOM LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT
Written by:
Reviewed by:
Dr. Naveed Sultana
61

CONTENTS
Introduction................................................................................................... 63
Objectives ..................................................................................................... 64
3.1 Classroom Activities for Effective Learning Environment.............................. 65
3.2 Individual Differences and their Impact on Classroom Learning Environment...... 70
3.3 The Physical Setting...................................................................................... 71
3.4 The Emotional Climate.................................................................................. 74
3.5 Strategies for Creating Positive Emotional Climate........................................ 76
3.6 Classroom Activities to Build Self-esteem and Feeling of Belonging ............. 78
3.7 Summary....................................................................................................... 81
62

INTRODUCTION
Learning is one of the important factors of human life, according to psychologists learning
related to mental functions of human and animals’ cognitive systems. It depends upon
different types of knowledge supported by accurate and perceived information learning
help the human being to improve their skills, values understanding and preferences. Goal of
learning is to increase the experience individually and in group also. In learning process
involved the improvement of human brain that depend upon mental capacity of learning
subject, the type of knowledge which he/she want to acquire. Along with this the
surroundings circumstances and socio-cognitive processes may play their role.
In the beginning, learning is very simple, but with the passage of time, as the human
brain grows up, the learning process becomes complex. When a human being born he/she
learn on its own mean without intention, but gradually the cognitive capacity grows better
and the learning capacity also increases. In general, we can say that learning can be
conscious and unconscious. For example newly born babies learn unconsciously, such as
berating and sucking. Afterwards when the nervous system develops sufficiently the
conscious learning begins to develop.
The conscious learning is based on the information processing model mean acquiring,
processing, saving in memory and then retrieving it for the use. This entire process is
based upon the learning environment and the individuals remember the information after
linking it with the environment. It plays a significant role for the individual to remember
the information.
Normally teachers argue the information that creates the learning environment in the
individuals mind and he/she relate the previous knowledge with the current situation and
develop the new knowledge or, retain the previous one by rejecting the new one. The
teachers arguments depends upon the suppositions for example if some student could not
get the good marks, then what will be the plan for the future or what are the possible
causes, these kind of questions by the teacher may involve the students in different kind
of learning. And consequently, it will provide different environment to the students to
react or handle the situation in the real world.
The above discussion reveals the importance of the learning environment in the process
of learning, therefore this particular unit is focused on the use of activities that help the
teachers to create effective learning environment, use of individual differences for
creating conducive learning environment, change of the physical setting of the classroom,
creation of the emotional climate of the classroom and creating the feeling of the
belongingness in the students. The examples, activities and the explanations are added to
deepen the understanding of the prospective students. The objectives of the unit are as
written below.
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OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, the prospective teachers will be able to:
• identify different activities to create effective learning environment.
• use different activities to create effective learning environment.
• handle the individual differences between the students for establishing effective
learning environment.
• apply different physical setting for creating effective learning environment.
• identify different strategies for the development of emotional climate of the
classroom.
• apply classroom activities to build self esteem and feeling of belongingness
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3.1 Classroom Activities for Effective Learning Environment
3.1.1 Learning Environment
The term “learning environment” is one of the most often used in the field of education.
Due to its extensive use, it carries wide meaning and scope therefore it is difficult to
define. One of the most general definition of learning environment is “a space where the
resources, time, and reasons are available to a group of people to nurture, support, and
value their learning of a limited set of information and ideas”. This definition includes
resources that changes from school to school and classroom to classroom, same is the
case with the group of students and their intentions towards learning, this all create
problems in defining the term learning environment.
Learning environments are social places even when only one person can be found there.
The center of a learning environment is sharp, clear, and focused, but as discussed above
varies from situation to situation. There are limits to each learning environment, both in
what can be learned there and whose learning will be supported most. It is most common
to describe a learning environment by the types of resources to be found there, but while
the resources are crucial to a learning environment’s effectiveness, resources are only as
good as the conditions under which one has access to them. The variations are striking
because the respective environments support and nurture a definite style of life of the
people of that particular area where the learning environment is intended to be created.
The diversity of resources and how individuals gain access to those resources is a delicate
balance. Interventions, such as new electronic devices, instructional technologies and
development in resources such as books, lesson plans etc, shift the balance and the
equity. Therefore the learning environments; places where diverse people have different
access to limited resources and variations in these resources are different for each of the
individual under consideration for the purpose of learning as great cause. The overall aim
of the teachers and the educational administration is to provide a suitable climate for
learning. But we know this is very difficult to provide all the needed resources it require a
continuous efforts both by the teachers and the administration. The difficulty is due to
the changing nature of the human and development over the period of time. A student of
2009 may be satisfied with the learning environment but not of 2015 with the same type
of physical and cognitive settings. So it is the complexity of human learning makes even
the identification of which resources are appropriate for which kind of individuals is very
difficult. One of the most precious resources for learning (time) is usually in short supply.
Time spent to comply with the expectation to “cover the curriculum” seems misplaced to
most of teachers. It has come to value less scope and more depth when it comes to
learning. A curriculum is a marvelous aid to learning and teaching, yet it all too often
becomes a ball and chain for even the most able and well-intentioned teachers that are
responsible for the learning environments to be created that are conducive to learning.
Many scholars and educationist had tried to define the term learning environment some
of the selected definitions are as under.
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3.1.2 Different Definitions of Learning Environment
• Galbraith (1989, 1990) has suggested that the educational climate consists of both
the physical environment and the psychological or emotional climate (for example,
what takes place during the first session to establish a supportive, challenging,
friendly, informal, and open atmosphere).
• Pappas (1990) has laid out four key elements of what he calls the psychological
environment, including spatial behaviour, physical characteristics (light,
temperature, noise, decor, and furniture arrangements), the role of tradition, and the
affective experience (how a person anticipates and responds to a learning setting).
• White (1972) has developed several criteria for assessing physical environments,
and Vosko (1984) has looked at several micro components of physical spaces, such
as seating arrangements and distance zones.
• Tagiuri (1968) has presented a taxonomy of environmental climate components,
composed of ecology (building on classroom characteristics), milieu (individuals'
characteristics), social system (interpersonal or group-patterned relationships), and
culture (beliefs, values, and expectations).
• Belsheim (1986, 1988) has described organizational environments within
continuing education settings in terms of culture, politics, economics, technological
know-how, and geographical areas served.
• David (1979) has called for alternative ways of conceptualizing the physical
environment, defining a functional approach to the environment in which physical
features and social and curricular concerns are soon to intersect.
Learning environments take many different forms. To create a learning environment, it is
perhaps less important to focus on developing extensive materials, and more important to
provide the students with appropriate tools and resources to conduct their own inquiries.
However, instructors are not required to provide all resources to students, unless serious
time constraints are present. Engaging students in research and finding relevant resources
on their own is a valuable learning task in many learning environments.
In modern literature the term learning environment is being used within the context of
educational software, which is beyond the scope of this level and is not discussed here.
Activity-1
Define the term learning environment keeping in mind the context of the learning of
your area and then compare this definition with the above mentioned definitions and
identify the which one is more closer to your own definition.
3.1.3 Classroom Activities for Effective Learning Environment
Classrooms are meant to implement the curriculum developed as per requirement of the
educational policies and plans of the government. The effective implementation of the
curriculum is assessed on the basis of the objectives that have been achieved by that
implementation. The classrooms activities are aligned with the objectives set in the
curriculum and are based upon the learning environment created by the teachers.
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Effective learning environment of the classroom is a relative term we cannot say that a
particular teacher has involved the students in the activities so he/she has created the
effective learning environment, because it depend upon the objective under consideration.
So the activities should be aligned with the curriculum activities. The creative curriculum
demands classroom activities that creates effective learning environment.
Curriculum framework is the learning environment which includes the use and
organization of the space in the classroom, the daily schedule and routines, and the social
and emotional atmosphere. In the curriculum, the learning environment meets students’
developmental needs. It makes all students, including those with special needs, feel safe
and comfortable. As a result, they are helped to become independent and confident
learners. For these reasons, the effective learning environment is the starting point for
actually implementing curriculum. Learning environment can be examined from three
perspectives and include a number of classroom activities.
I-Setting up and Maintaining the Classroom
The physical space of the effective learning environment for the classrooms that is
organized into number of interest areas involving different activities such as Blocks,
Dramatic Play, Toys and Games, Art, Library, Discovery, Sand and Water, Music and
Movement, Cooking, Computers and Outdoors visits. Interest areas offer multiple
opportunities for students to explore, discover, and grow. In each, the arrangement of
furniture and the materials involves students not only in learning but also in caring for the
classroom and what is in it. This also creates the feeling of belongingness in them.
II- Establishing a Structure for Each Day
The managed routines and schedule create a sense of order in effective classrooms.
Students being well aware of their responsibilities and obligations respond well to the
teachers’ instructional delivery techniques. They also know what to expect, and they
understand what is expected of them. With the assurance that their environment is
predictable and familiar, they can settle into learning and function as part of a group. The
order around them creates a sense of order inside them. Therefore the orderly classroom
activities help them to inculcate order and organization their life also.
III-Creating a Classroom Community
The classroom community is only established when the teacher has an ability to involve
the students in the effectives activities. Therefore, it is based on the social/emotional
environment of the classroom. Here teachers relates to students in positive ways and
helps them do the same with one another. The positive social climate helps children feel
good about school and learn to the best of their ability.
The physical environment in your classroom has a profound effect on individual, the
group as a whole. The physical environment includes the size of the room, the colors of
the walls, the type of flooring, the amount of light, and the number of windows. While
teacher may have limited control over many of these features, he/she may have options
about how to organize furniture, what materials to put out, and what he/she can bring
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outdoors to make the total space available to you more interesting. A physical setting that
is safe, attractive, comfortable, and well designed helps students engage in the classroom
activities creating effective learning environment for better learning. Such an
environment can support the goals of learning.
One such type of physical environment is shown below where teacher can arrange
number of effective classroom activities for achieving the learning outcomes.
Activity-2
State the learning outcomes for the class and subject of your choice and then suggest
the physical environment and the classroom activities to achieve these learning
outcomes.
3.1.4 Types of Learning Environments
Traditional schooling is based on an educational setup that has been around from many
decades. Here the purpose of education was to prepare people for jobs for specific areas.
And so the organized classroom evolved, where students sat and received their training
from a skilled teacher. Now with the evolution of technology the world is changing more
rapidly. This demands different types of learning environments from the educational
leaders and managers. Some of the types of learning environments have been discussed
below.
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I. Passive Learning Environment
Such traditional education is rooted in the stimulus-response method of behavioural
psychology. The leader, or teacher, presents the stimulus and then assesses the
students to see if they have learned the appropriate information.
The example of passive learning environment:
• Teacher presenting stimulus: “Whales have blow holes.”
• Teacher providing guidance: “They get their oxygen through these blow holes.”
• Teacher soliciting response: “Do whales breathe through their nose?”
• If a student replies yes, the teacher presents the stimulus again: “No, they do not.
Instead of having noses, they have blow holes to take in oxygen.”
• If a student replies no, the teacher moves on: “Yes that is correct, instead of having
a nose, they breathe in through their blow hole. Now let’s explore.”
In this scenario, the student is a passive participant in the process the information learned
is impersonal. Clearly, the teacher is in control of the learning process; his or her interests
dictate what and how fast the students learn. The teacher keeps the classroom well
organized so it can accommodate large amounts of learner, and all the students receive
identical training.
II. Active Learning Environment
The new paradigm for active education puts the learner in control of the learning
process. Students can pursue topics that interest them. The process of learning
becomes as important as the result. The goal of active learning is to give students
the ability to explore on their own, not to simply spoon-feed them specific facts.
Here the students are now in charge of their learning. They can each explore the topic
that most interests them, customizing their educational experience. They can actively
pursue information and learn independent thinking skills. The teacher no longer needs to
be a subject expert, an impossible task in this age of so much information. Instead, the
teacher now oversees the learning process.
Many techniques can be used to make the learning environment passive or active some
examples with their elaboration are as under, we can use these techniques as per learning
outcomes and needs. Selection or planning is merely depending upon the teacher.
Examples: lecture or demonstration of scientific experiment, art technique, dramatic
method, Discussion/Problem-solving, Information Presentation/Demonstration etc.
Activity-3
Take a science textbook of sixth class, select at least two learning outcomes for the
lesson plan and discuss the possible learning outcome with any of your classmate to
decide the type of learning environment for that lesson.
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3.2 Individual Differences and Their Impact on Classroom Learning
Environment
The people differ from each other is obvious. How and why they differ is less clear and is
the subject of the study of Individual Differences (IDs). Research in IDs ranges from
analyses of genetic codes to the study of sexual, social, ethnic, and cultural differences
and includes research on cognitive abilities, interpersonal styles, and emotional reactivity.
Researchers of Individual Differences addressed three broad areas:
1) Developing an adequate descriptive taxonomy of how people differ;
2) Applying differences in one situation to predict differences in other situations; and
3) Testing theoretical explanations of the structure and dynamics of individual
differences.
Here our focus is to gain the answer to the questions “how individual differences affect
the classroom learning environment? And to what extent teacher can use individual
differences of the students to maintain effective learning environment”.
Normally the classes are formulated on the basis of homogeneity of the students. Like
minded and having same achievement level students are placed in one section. If the
situation is this, it becomes easier for the teacher to develop the classroom routines and
rules and also help teachers to create effective learning environment. On the other hand,
if the grouping is based on the heterogeneity of the students’ achievement and likeness
then the range of individual difference will be higher and will create the difficulties to
maintain the effective classroom environment. Many teachers and educational managers
in our country believe on the heterogeneous grouping therefore it is necessary for the
teachers to be well equipped with the strategies to overcome the difficulties created due
the individual differences of the students. There are many techniques to overcome this
problem some of them are listed below.
I-Classroom Behavioural Strategies and Interventions
The classroom teacher needs to ensure acceptance for all students in the classroom.
Teachers’ actions that can promote acceptance include:
• choosing learning materials to represent all groups of students
• ensuring that all students can participate in extra activities
• valuing, respecting, and talking about differences
• celebrating cultural and ethnic differences
• ensuring that learning activities are designed for a variety of abilities
• ensuring that all students are protected from name-calling or other forms of abusive
language
• modeling acceptance
II-Developing Classroom Rules
Well-defined rules in the classroom can prevent many difficulties. When students are
involved in the development of the rules, they are more likely to adhere to them and
understand why they have been put into place. Classroom rules should be limited in
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number (usually five or less) and stated in positive terms. Once the rules have been
developed and taught, they should be applied consistently. Most students will perform
better in classrooms that are structured, predictable, and consistent.
III-Positive Classroom Discipline
Teachers need to build a classroom environment where positive interactions are the norm
and disciplinary consequences are minimized. Research indicates that disciplinary
environments actually promote anti social behaviour. It is important that teachers provide
immediate, frequent, and positive feedback.
Activity-4
Interview three teachers of a nearby school for investigating the classroom rules and
routines developed by them to overcome the individual differences.
3.3 The Physical Setting
It is very important to assess how and to what extent teachers actively utilize and
manipulate the physical classroom environment as part of their instructional design. It is
difficult, if not impossible, to separate instructional activity from the environmental
setting within which it occurs.
The classroom temperature, lighting and air quality would appear to have some effect on
the learning environment. In addition, the cleanliness, orderliness and character that a
facility displays influence children’s behaviour. Further, the arrangement of furniture and
the allocation of spaces within the classroom can greatly affect what can be accomplished
within a given instructional setting. Physical setting can have both positive and negative
effects on the ability to teach and student’s ability to focus on learning tasks. Therefore
teacher attempt to create learning environments that foster healthy social interaction
provide places for student privacy, as well as facilitate and maintain an appropriate level
of sensory stimulation. There are different components of physical setting; teacher can
manipulate these components during the teaching learning process for achieving the
better results and enhancing the students learning.
3.3.1 Classroom Arrangement
Classroom furnishings arrangement appears to be the most salient dimension for
supporting curricular objectives. A classroom may contain elements of both territorial
and functional styles depending on the instructional design, although typically one
arrangement will dominate over the other. The further explanation of these facts is as
given below.
3.3.1.1 Territorial Arrangement:
In territorial arrangements, physical space is partitioned into small portions of student-owned
space. That is, each student is assigned a desk in which to store personal belongings. This
type of spatial arrangement is often thought to be appropriate for lecture instruction to a
whole class and is used most often in classrooms with older students. Research on seating
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position in row-and-column arrangements suggests that front-center seat facilitates
achievement, positive student attitudes towards school and self and class participation. The
territorial arrangement is not always synonymous with row-and-column arrangements.
Territorial desks can be clustered into small groups to facilitate a more cooperative learning,
instructional teaching strategy. However, when working in small groups, the territorial
arrangement can be either a hindrance or a facilitator to instructional effectiveness.
3.3.1.2 Functional Arrangement:
In functional arrangements, the physical space is divided into common interest areas or
learning centers available to all students. This type of spatial arrangement is typically
used for small groups of students working on a variety of different activities. Early
childhood and open classrooms are examples of this type of functional arrangement.
Research on functional arrangements suggests that spatial arrangement can have an
influence on a young learner’s location, play activities, and social interaction. Well-
defined activity areas can have a positive influence on social interaction and on on-task
behaviours. Teachers using this style of spatial arrangement must take several variables
into consideration for behavioural contingency management due to the increased
responsibility placed on the student for self-discipline.
3.3.2 Arrangement of the Physical Environment to Support Teaching Learning
Process
The prime responsibility of the teachers is to create and shape the specific learning
environment. Arranging the physical environment of the classroom is one way to
improve the learning environment and to prevent problem behaviours before they occur.
Research on the classroom environment has shown that the physical arrangement can
affect the behaviour of both students and teachers and that a well-structured classroom
tends to improve student academic and behavioural outcomes. In addition, the classroom
environment acts as a symbol to students and others regarding what teachers’ value in
behaviour and learning. If a classroom is not properly organized to support the type of
schedule and activities a teacher has planned, it can obstruct the functioning of the day as
well as limit what and how students learn. However, a well-arranged classroom
environment is one way to more effectively manage instruction because it triggers fewer
behaviour problems and establishes a climate conducive to learning.
The spatial structure of the classroom refers to how students are seated, where the
students and teacher are in relation to one another, how classroom members move around
the room, and the overall sense of atmosphere and order. Spatial lay-out is most
appropriate to fulfill these functions:
• Ways to maximize the teacher’s ability to see and be seen by all his or her students;
• Facilitate ease of movement throughout the classroom;
• Minimize distractions so that students are best able to actively engage in
academics;
• Provide each student and the teacher with his/her own personal space; and
• Ensuring that each student can see presentations and materials posted in the
classroom.
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The physical arrangement of the classroom can serve as a powerful setting event for
providing students effective instruction and facilitate (or inhibit) positive
teaching/learning communications. As with other aspects of instruction, the physical
arrangement of the classroom should be reflective of the diverse cultural and linguistic
characteristics of the students and be consistent with specific learner need.
3.3.2.1 Arranging Space
The physical layout reflects your teaching style. If teachers want students to collaborate
in small groups, for example, organize them around tables or clusters of desks. For
frequent whole-group discussions, try a circle or U-shaped desk configuration. If he/she
plans on an individualized, self-paced curriculum, he/she might set-up learning stations.
Easily accessible materials and supplies can eliminate delays, disruptions, and confusion
as students prepare for activities. In poorly arranged classrooms, students spend a lot of
time waiting, waiting in line, waiting for help, waiting to begin. To eliminate some
waiting, store frequently used items such as scissors and paste in several different areas.
3.3.2.2 Desk Placement
In many classrooms, the largest amount of space is devoted to the arrangement of
individual student desks. Arrange the room so that you can make eye contact with every
student and reach each student with ease. Set your room up, and at the end of each unit or
each month, evaluate and make changes. This will help you as teacher to motivate the
students will gradually become the effective strategy to create conducive learning
environment.
3.3.2.3 Environmental Preferences
Other important environmental features include temperature, lighting, and noise level.
These factors affect students in different ways and are directly related to individual
learning styles. Studies suggest that when teachers adjust the environment to students'
preferences, the students perform better academically and are better behaved. Classroom
setup can dramatically affect students' attitudes toward and habits of learning. Students
need an environment that is organized, stimulating, and comfortable in order to learn
effectively. Teachers who are aware of the power of the environment arrange their space
purposefully to convey the messages they want children to receive.
Activity-5
Observe any classroom while the teacher is delivering instruction and try to find the
answers to the following questions:
1. Are the students making choices and selecting activities on their own?
2. Are the students using materials appropriately and creatively once they enter an
interest area?
3. Whether the students stayed involved with an activity for a sustained period of
time?
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3.4 The Emotional Climate
The basic idea of emotional climate is relatively easy to grasp. Bring in mind an objective
group phenomenon that can be sensed as when one enters a party or a city and feels an
atmosphere of depression, openness or fear-only, as the term "climate" implies, while
emotional climate is an appealing idea, it is an idea that is relatively difficult to make into
a precise concept that can be objectively measured. For example, how does one
distinguish between temporary moods and pervasive climates? Is an emotional climate
objective or subjective? How does a national mood differ from an individual's emotion?
How can climates be described? And how can one measure an emotional climate when
people in different neighborhoods, regions or social classes may feel quite differently?
How does emotional climate function, and how does it relate to underlying social-
political structures? The answers to all these questions are not simple, because here the
measurement and levels of certain characteristic for its existence or non existence has to
establish. Therefore it is necessary to define the terms in some detail.
3.4.1 Emotional Atmosphere, Climate, and Culture
An emotional atmosphere or collective mood, as opposed to an emotional' climate,
pertains to the collective behaviour that a group or society may manifest when it is
focused on a common event, rather than to the emotional relationships between members
of the society.
Speaking of the development of a mood, the attention of every individual is focused on
some exciting object or incident and then, "the excitement of every individual is
intensified by the response each unconsciously makes to the manifest interest of every
other individual. The crowd assumes under these circumstances the character of a closed
circuit, each individual responding to his own excitement as he sees it reflected via the
attitudes and emotions of his neighbour until the crowd are a collective unit." In an
analogous way, a society may become mobilized. In fact, every society, "faces in the
direction from which the news comes," and alters its attitude to conform to what is
reported in the press.
Emotional atmospheres are important in their own right and may blend into some of the
climates. Furthermore, a shift in emotional atmosphere may indicate a change in climate.
An emotional climate is more lasting than a local emotional atmosphere and does not
simply refer to collective feeling and behaviour but to how the people of a society
emotionally relate to one another for example, whether they care for one another or are
afraid of each other. Thus, an atmosphere of joy, or one of fear, might exist if the people
of a nation focused on a common victory, or on an impending invasion, whereas a
climate of joy, or one of fear, might exist if the persons of a nation met each other’s
needs.
While an emotional climate may often be labeled by using names for emotions, such as
joy and fear, we may also use labels that directly refer to the emotional relationships that
are involved, such as hostility or solidarity. Such labels might also be used to refer to
qualities of a society's emotional culture.
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However, an emotional culture is dynamically stable. It is usually held in place by a
network of socialization practices and ordinarily only changes when a culture is
transformed over generations of people. Climates, on the other hand, are more dependent
on political, religious, economic and educational factors and may change within the
course of a single generation.
Now we are in position to discuss the term school climate and how the educational
leaders can create and use emotional climate for the enhancement of learning.
3.4.2 School climate
Perry was the first educational leader to explicitly write about how school climate affects
students’ and the process of learning. Although there is not one commonly accepted
definition for school climate, the vast majority of researchers and scholars suggest that
school climate, essentially, reflects subjective experience in school. Over the last two
decades, educators and researchers have recognized that there are complex sets of
elements that make up school climate. There is not one commonly accepted list of the
essential dimension for school climate. The following ten dimensions contribute more
towards school climate.
1. Environmental
2. Structural
3. Safety
4. Teaching and Learning
5. Relationships
6. Sense of School Community
7. Morale
8. Peer Norms
9. School-Home-Community Partnerships (mutual support and ongoing communication)
10. Learning Community
School climate, not surprisingly and by definition, has a profound impact on individual
experience. Two aspects of school climate (commitment to school and positive feedback
from teachers) have been shown to affect students’ self-esteem. Student self-concept and
student absenteeism are also affected by school climate.
Positive school climate is a critical dimension linked to effective risk prevention and
health promotion efforts as well as teaching and learning correlated with safe, caring,
participatory and responsive school climate.
Safe, caring, participatory and responsive school climate tends to foster great attachment
to school as well as providing the optional foundation for social, emotional and academic
learning. One of the fundamentally important dimensions of school climate is relational
and how “connected” people feel to one another in school. Connectedness is a powerful
predictor of adolescent relation and academic outcomes and violence prevention and as a
protective factor in risky, violence, and drug use behaviours.
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Emotional school climate promotes or complicates meaningful student learning. For
example, activities like community service and debates enhance the learning environment
by providing students opportunities to actively participate in the learning process and
construct their own knowledge of social and government systems. Moreover, when such
activities are presented in a supportive, collaborative environment, they encourage
students to build upon one another’s ideas on projects. Together, the experience
realistically represents the social situation that they may find themselves part of in the
greater civil society.
To the extent that students feel safe, cared for, appropriately supported and lovingly
“emotional” to learn, academic achievement increases. Positive school climate promotes
cooperative learning, group cohesion, respect and mutual trust or a climate for learning.
In addition, school climate is directly related to academic achievement.
School climate reflects students, school personnel and parents social, emotional and
ethical as well as academic experiences of school life. If teacher is able to create
emotional climate whether through competition for by providing safe and sound climate
the learning is more authentic.
Activity-6
Discuss the school emotional climate with at least three teachers in your vicinity in the
light of above mentioned ten dimensions.
3.5 Strategies for Creating Positive Emotional Climate
Creating cultures and climates of safety is essential to the delivery of instruction in the
classroom. What are the different strategies that help the teachers, administrators and
students to create a climate of safety? The answer to this question is not simple as the
concept of climate for learning varies from teacher to teacher and the school to school.
The literature revealed that there are number of components that are directly connected
with the school and classroom climate. These components and strategies to overcome the
problems in creating positive emotional climate are discussed in the following lines.
1. Assess the School's Emotional Climate
No doubt school climate is considered as safe and sound in every community, but
even then there is a need to assess the school emotional climate. It is essential that
school administrators, parents, and community leaders not assume that they know
school climates as do those individuals especially students who are most directly
affected by the educational experience on a daily basis. Without a thorough
assessment of climate process, school officials and leaders may never have the
opportunity to find out what they did not know.
2. Emphasize listening
Pupils must listen respectfully to adults and to their peers, and teachers,
administrators, and other adults must listen respectfully to their students and to
each other. Grownups often expect that students listen to adults in authority.
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However, adults forget that respectful listening is a two-way street. A school with a
culture of two-way listening will encourage and empower students to have the
courage to break the ingrained code of silence. Listening also must be expanded
beyond academic concerns. Communications between teachers and students also
should include listening to feelings, especially those of hurt and pain. In addition, it
is important to listen to behaviours. Many students, including some who consider
violence an appropriate way to solve problems, have a difficult time finding the
words to rational the hurt or fear that they may feel. Not knowing how to express
their problems and feelings may prompt these students to take action.
3. Action Against silence
Silence leaves hurt unexposed and unacknowledged. Silence may encourage a
young person to move along a path to violence.
4. Development of Confidence for Sharing
A school climate in which students connect to each other and to adults is one that
promotes a safe and secure educational environment. A student who finds the
'courage to tell a caring adult about a friend in pain may save a life.
5. Stop Bullying
Bullying is a continuum of abuse, ranging from verbal taunts to physical threats to
dangerous acts. Bullying is not playful behaviour. In bullying, one student assumes
power by word or deed over another in a mean-spirited and/or harmful manner. In a
school with a culture of safety and connection, both the bully and the student who
is the victim of the bullying are attended to in a respectful manner. Schools with
climates of safety and respect are establishing foundations for pro-social behaviour.
These climates teach conflict resolution, peer mediation, active listening and other
non-violent ways to solve problems. Teacher can stop violence by stopping bulling.
6. Involving Students in Planning, Creating and Maintaining Climate
Creating a safe school climate is a process that should involve all members of the
school community, including teachers, students, parents, counselors,
administrators, health staff, security professionals and support personnel. Climates
of safety should be collaborative ones. Helping students to engage in positive,
productive activities or work in their local community can diminish isolation and
enhance connection and safety.
8. Create Mechanisms Sustaining Safe School Climate
A mechanism for developing and sustaining safe school climates should serve as a
vehicle for planning and monitoring the climate and culture of the school. This
mechanism may involve administrators, teachers, counselors, students, school law
enforcement and security staff, and other personnel.
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9. Awareness about Physical Environments
Building structure, facility safety plans, lighting, space and architecture (among
other physical attributes of educational institutions) all can contribute to whether a
school environment feels, or is in fact, safe or unsafe. In large schools, school
administrators may wish to explore changes in the physical characteristics of the
school that would permit the assignment of teachers and students to smaller,
mutually intersecting and supportive groupings within the broader educational
community.
Schools that have succeeded in creating safe school climates have done so because of
their recognition that such climates of safety actually are based on sound educational
expectations, which, in turn, keep students engaged and learning at high levels. Such
schools achieve their aims by realizing that safe school climates are not created
overnight. Implementation of the safe school climates process requires planning and
dedicated work. Participants in this process need adequate feedback and evaluative
processes to maintain and continually improve educational environments.
Activity-7
List some other strategies that help to maintain positive school climate.
3.6 Classroom Activities to Build Self-Esteem and a Feeling of Belonging
Self-esteem is the disposition to experience oneself as being competent to cope with the
basic challenges of life and of being worthy of happiness. It is confidence in the efficacy
of our mind, in our ability to think. By extension, it is confidence in our ability to learn,
make appropriate choices and decisions, and respond effectively to change. It is also the
experience that success, achievement, fulfillment happiness are right and natural for us.
The survival-value of such confidence is obvious; so is the danger when it is missing.
3.6.1 Identifying Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is considered worthy of the achievement enhancement. Whenever the self
esteem is high the students produced better results. The researchers are more interested in
self-esteem and the danger is the idea may become trivialized. And yet, of all the
judgments we pass in life, none is more important than the judgment we pass on
ourselves. The issue of what self-esteem is, what it depends on, and what are some of the
most prevalent misconceptions about it is essential to be discussed.
Self-esteem is an experience. It is a particular way of experiencing the self. It is a good
deal more than a mere feeling. It involves emotional, evaluative, and cognitive
components. It also entails certain action dispositions: to move towards life rather than
away from it; to move towards consciousness rather than away from it; to treat facts with
respect rather than denial; to operate self-responsibly rather than the opposite.
The six practices that are found to be essential for the developing self-esteem: the
practice of living consciously, of self-acceptance, of self-responsibility, of self-
assertiveness, of purposefulness, and of integrity.
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1. The practice of living consciously: respect for facts; being present to what we are
doing while are doing it; seeking and being eagerly open to any information,
knowledge, or feedback that bears on our interests, values, goals, and projects;
seeking to understand not only the world external to self but also our inner world,
so that we do not out of self-blindness.
2. The practice of self-acceptance: the willingness to own, experience, and take
responsibility for our thoughts, feelings, and actions, without avoidance, denial, or
disowning and also without self-denial; giving oneself permission to think one’s
thoughts, experience one’s emotions, and look at one’s actions without necessarily
liking, endorsing, or condoning them; the virtue of realism applied to the self.
3. The practice of self-responsibility: realizing that we are the author of our choices
and actions; that each one of us is responsible for life and well-being and for the
attainment of our goals; that if we need the cooperation of other people to achieve
our goals, we must offer values in exchange.
4. The practice of self-assertiveness: being authentic in our dealings with others;
treating our values and persons with decent respect in social contexts; refusing to
fake the reality of who we are or what we esteem in order to avoid disapproval; the
willingness to stand up for ourselves and our ideas in appropriate ways in
appropriate contexts.
5. The practice of living purposefully: identifying our short-term and long-term
goals or purposes and the actions needed to attain them (formulating an action-
plan); organizing behaviour in the service of those goals; monitoring action to be
sure we stay on track; and paying attention to outcome so as to recognize if and
when we need to go back.
6. The practice of personal integrity: living with congruence between what we
know, what we profess, and what we do; telling the truth, honoring our
commitments, exemplifying in action the values we profess to admire.
In short we can say that individuals can be inspired, stimulated, or coached to live more
consciously, practice greater self-acceptance, operate more self-responsibly, function
more self-assertively, live more purposefully, and bring a higher level of personal
integrity into their life but the task of generating and sustaining these practices falls on
each of us alone. No one, not our parents, nor our friends, nor our psychotherapist, nor
our support group can give us self-esteem. If and when we fully grasp this, that is an act
of “waking up.”
In future world, children will be taught the basic dynamics of self-esteem and the power
of living consciously and self-responsibly. They will be taught what self-esteem is, why it
is important, and what it depends on. The purpose of school is to prepare young people
for the challenges of adult life. They will need this understanding to be adaptive to an
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information age in which self-esteem has acquired such urgency. In the language of
business, low self-esteem and underdeveloped mindfulness puts one at a competitive
disadvantage. However, neither teachers in general nor teachers of self-esteem in
particular can do their jobs properly or communicate the importance of their work until
they themselves understand the intimate linkage that exists between the six practices
described above, self-esteem, and appropriate adaptation to reality.
3.6.2 Strategies to Improve Self-Esteem in the Classroom
Self-esteem is an important aspect of a student's life and performance. It is about how a
student feels about himself or herself. It has been documented through research that self
esteem is positively correlated to a student's performance. There is an inherent need in
every child to be appreciated by those around them and also to feel proud of them in a
healthy way.
It is important for teachers to recognize this need and make sure that they implement
strategies and measures to inculcate a healthy level of self esteem in their students. Make
sure that every child gets ample attention and praise in order to feel motivated to perform
better.
Expectations are another crucial part of the classroom environment. Every child has
capabilities that are unique and it is important to understand this when evaluating them.
Make sure to give ample opportunities. Take care to include every child in the activities
planned and also provide opportunities to engage the child's attention. Every child will
have certain things they feel good about doing and if find that function is no easy, need to
work at drawing the child out.
Maintain a portfolio of student activities. Encourage the child to participate in simple
events and have little activities where everyone feels like a winner. Building a positive
self-image is crucial to building self-esteem in a child.
Have activities right from the beginning of the day, an interesting one would be to have
the student's state one good fact about themselves during roll call. This could be
something like saying great hair, good writer or always smiles instead of "present''.
When a child has done something wrong or has misbehaved make sure to address the
matter in private rather than publicly bringing it to the notice of the whole class. Handling
kids carefully is extremely important as it can leave serious scars on their self-esteem.
Activity-8
Enlist some more strategies to develop the self-esteem of the individuals in the
classroom.
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3.7 Summary
Learning is one of the important factors of human life, according to psychologists
learning related to mental functions of human and animals’ cognitive systems. It demands
conducive learning environment, as learning is a continuous process may occur in any
situation but researcher have highlighted that the conducive learning environment work
as a catalyst for the learning. It is teachers and the educational administrators that are
responsible for the provision of learning environment that best fits the students’ needs.
There are different types of learning environments, for example active and passive, now
teacher is responsible to create the desired kind of learning environment to achieve the
desired learning outcomes. The learning environment of the classroom directly linked
with the learning outcomes to be achieved. There are many components that contribute
towards the learning environment and have their own importance, physical environment
of the classroom and the emotional climate of the classroom may be considered more
important. Physical environment include setting the furniture, light and fresh air etc,
whereas emotional climate has its roots in the behaviour management strategies used by
the teachers. Schools that have succeeded in creating safe school climates have done so
because of their recognition that such climates of safety actually are based on sound
educational expectations, which, in turn, keep students engaged and learning at high
levels. Such schools achieve their aims by realizing that safe school climates are not
created overnight. On the other hand self-esteem is an experience. It is a particular way of
experiencing the self, and is directly related with the academic achievement. Therefore it
is teachers’ responsibility to create the learning environment of the classroom.
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1. Define learning environment? Analyze major components and tasks for creating a
safe and connected school climate.
2. Why is an appropriate learning environment necessary? How does learning
environment help in the advancement in learning? Give examples with your
answer.
3. Learning is affected by learning environment. Discuss with reference to the
functions and importance of classroom learning environment.
4. Learning environment should not be viewed only as physical environment; it
includes emotional climate, learning activities, and individual differences. Discuss
with reference to the effects of classroom learning environment on self-esteem of
the learners.
5. What do you understand by the term self-esteem? Would you consider self-esteem
can be built by providing effective learning environment in the classroom? How?
6. Why we need to create effective learning environment?
7. Critically examine the significance of the learning environment for learning?
8. Discuss the benefits of effective learning environment. Give examples to elaborate
your answer.
9. Discuss the active and passive learning environments. Describe the characteristics
of the effective learning environment.
10. Which elements need to be considered in learning environment with respect to
individual differences of the learners? How can we provide an effective learning
environment to the individuals in a classroom?
11. To what extent schools are responsible to build up the self-esteem of the young
learners? Is there any relationship of school environment with self-esteem? Discuss.
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Ahmad, M. (2010). Application of classroom management strategies in public and private
sector at school level in Pakistan. International Journal of Library and Information
Science, 2 (9), 177-183.
Allen, J. D. (1986). Classroom Management: Student’s Prespectives, Goals and
Strategies. American Education Research Journal, 23, 437-459.
Bellard, K. (2005). Classroom Discipline, in R. Stone (Ed). Best Classroom Practices for
Reaching all Learners (pp. 41-44), Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Brophy, J. E. (2006). History of research on Classroom Management. In C.M. Evertson
and C.S. Weinstein (Eds.) Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice and
Issues (pp. 17-44) Mahwah, NF Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Browers, A., & Tomic, W. (2000). A Longitudinal Study of Teacher Burnout and
Perceived Self-efficacy in Classroom Management, Teaching and Teacher Education, 16
(2), 239-253.
Emmer, E. T. & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom Management: A Critical Part of
Educational Psychology with Implications for Teacher Education. Educational
Psychologist, 36 (2), 103-112.
Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M. & Worshan, M. E. (2003). Classroom Management for
Secondary School Teachers (6th
Education), Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Eroyen, L. A., & Iverson, A. M. (1999). Schoolwide and Classroom Management: The
Reflective Educator-leader (3rd
ed.). Upper Saddle River: NJ: Prentice-Hall. (Also
Accessible at: http://www.intime.uni.edu/model/teacher/teac3summar.html)
Kratochwill, T. (2011). Classroom Management: Teachers Modules. USA: American
Psychological Association, Washington, DC. University of Wisconsin.
Stone, R. (2005). Best Classroom Management Practices for Reaching all Learners.
Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
University of Phoenix (2011). Classroom Management and Management of Student
Conduct: APRIMA 1997-2011, Education Information for New and Future Teachers.
(Accessible at: http://adprima.com/managing .htm)
Wragg E. C. (2001). Class Management in the Secondary School. London, Routledge and
Falmer Press.
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UNIT-4
DEVELOPING CLASSROOM RULES
AND ROUTINES
Written By:
Dr. Nasir Mahmood
Reviewed By:
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CONTENTS
Introduction................................................................................................... 87
Objectives ..................................................................................................... 88
4.1 Classroom Rules and Routines....................................................................... 89
4.2 General Principles for Developing Classroom Rules ...................................... 91
4.3 The Importance of Establishing Routines....................................................... 95
4.4 Strategies to Promote Student Use of Rules and Routines .............................. 95
4.5 Role of Casual Teachers ................................................................................ 96
4.6 The Importance of a Set of Rules or Code of Conduct.................................... 96
4.7 Some Ideas to Help you Organize Your Routines........................................... 97
4.8 Summary....................................................................................................... 98
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INTRODUCTION
Everyone says that there are too many rules and regulations, and people should have the
freedom to do what they want, but there are many reasons for rules and regulations to be
applied. It is believed that if people are not controlled and rules and regulations are not
there, then people will either by accident or on purpose will do things that are wrong so
that they and other people around them suffer. Rules and regulations are there to make
people behaviour in a respect and well controlled manner. Good classroom management
techniques aid the understanding of students to know exactly what is expected of them
and how they should conduct themselves during a class lesson task. Irrespective of their
level of studies, school children needs to know classroom rules and regulations that
moderate their conduct during class lessons. Such rules and procedures should be made
clear and explicit to them in order for the effort of teachers at building classroom
discipline to be effective and achieve the desired objectives.
The ability of teachers to organize classrooms and manage the behaviour of their students
is critical to achieve positive educational outcomes. Although sound behaviour
management does not guarantee effective instruction, it establishes the environmental
context that makes good instruction possible. Reciprocally, highly effective instruction
reduces, but does not eliminate, classroom behaviour problems (Emmer & Stough, 2001).
According to Oliver & Reschly (2007), effective classroom management requires a
comprehensive approach that includes the following;
• Structuring the school and classroom environment
• Actively supervising student engagement
• Implementing classroom rules and routines
• Enacting procedures that encourage appropriate behaviour
• Using behaviour reduction strategies
• Collecting and using data to monitor student behaviour, and modifying classroom
management procedures as needed.
Rules and procedures are fundamental in life. We follow rules and procedures in our
daily lives for things such as approaching a traffic light, starting a car and driving, and
making a letter. There are also rules and procedures in the classroom. These rules and
procedures ensure a positive atmosphere in the classroom. They contribute to control the
learning environment for everyone.
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OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
1. Differentiate between the concepts of rules and routines
2. Describe the general principles of developing classroom rules
3. Explain the purposes of establishing the rules and routines in the classroom
4. Implement rules and routines for maintaining the discipline of classroom
5. Apply the strategies to promote use of rules and routines in classroom
6. Create awareness among the students about the importance of set of rules or code
of conduct
7. Formulate the rules and routines for effective classroom behaviour
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4.1 Classroom Rules and Routines
4.1.1 Rules
Defined rules and routines are important components of educational programming for all
students (Swanson, 2005). Rules and routines are two different strategies for establishing
behavioural boundaries and expectations. Routines can help support the development of
functional skills.
When designing rules, it is important to determine what rules will be taught, ensure that
the rules are concrete and comprehensible, determine how the rules will be taught and
what structures and supports will facilitate understanding, and finally determine how the
rules will be enforced.
It is suggested that the list of guiding principles and behavioural descriptors should
follow a path either of induction or deduction using a process of brainstorming, with as
much student involvement as possible, depending on students’ age and maturity. With
younger children, whole-class brainstorming is appropriate (with considerable teacher
guidance and input), while secondary teacher can employ independent small-group
brainstorming (Arthur, Gordon & Butterfield, 2003).
Figure Example of Classroom Rules
4.1.2 Routines
Classroom routines are the key to maximizing instructional time, improving class
management and providing students with the consistency they crave. When designing
routines it is important to determine which activities or behaviours to target by teaching a
routine, perform a task analysis of the routine, determine how to teach the routine and
what structures and supports will support that instruction, and determine how inevitable
changes in routine will be addressed.
Our Classroom Rules
• Follow directions
• Keep hands, feet and objects to yourself
• Listen to others and don’t interrupt
• Speak appropriately
• Move safely
• Use equipment with care
• Honor time limits
• Be open to new ideas
• Participate fully, take risks
• Respect everyone and everything around you
• Be helpful and responsible
• Take care of classroom and school property
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Providing individualized visual supports, such as picture representations or written copies
of the rules, can enhance instruction as well as provide students with an accessible
reference courtesy of Mayer Johnson
Routines are especially useful in supporting the development of functional skills.
Activities related to independent living skills can easily be broken into individual steps
and taught as routines. For example, creating a routine with visual supports for the
toileting process helps minimize prompting and promotes independence.
Courtesy of Mayer Johnson
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4.1.3 Difference between Rules and Routines
Rules and routines are not the same. Each is a different strategy for establishing
behavioural boundaries and expectations. Rules are statements defining behaviour
permissible in given situations or environments, whereas routines detail the steps required
in carrying out certain actions. For example, a rule in the home environment may be that
an individual, Waqar, can answer the telephone when it rings. A routine establishes the
steps involved when Waqar answers the phone (pick up the phone from the base, press
the "talk button," say "hello," wait for a response, etc.).
Rules are for undesirable behaviours that have set consequences while procedures are
expected classroom behaviours with no set consequences for a violation. Anytime a
student violates a rule in your classroom, you must act and a consequence must occur.
Activity-4.1
Before you read further, spend a couple of minutes thinking about various rules and
routines being observed around in your daily life in home, classroom, and school.
Please put down some of them you think are rules and routines. Now read the rules
displayed in a primary classroom, and compare with the rules you have enlisted.
4.2 General Principles for Developing Classroom Rules
Although there is a heightened awareness in our society that there is something amiss
with how we are raising our children, the solutions about how our children learn values is
elusive at best.
As a teacher reflects on expectations for the classroom, four basic principles are offered
for consideration (Weinstein & Mignano, 2003).
Four Principles for Planning Classroom Rules
Principle of Rules Questions to Think About
1. Rules are reasonable
and necessary.
2. Rules are clear and
understandable.
3. Rules are consistent
with instructional goals
and what is known
about how people learn.
4. Classroom rules are
consistent with school
rules.
What rules are appropriate for this grade level?
Is there a good reason for this expectation?
Is the expectation too abstract for students to comprehend?
To what extent do I want my students to participate in the
decision-making process?
Will this expectation facilitate or hinder my students' learning?
What are the school rules?
Are particular behaviours required in the halls, during
assemblies, in the cafeteria, etc.?
Developing Rules and Routines: A Practical Approach for Secondary Schools
Pupils, teachers, support staff, managers and parent groups agree and establish expectations
regarding roles, rules, routines, rewards and relationships. In terms of each school’s
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Positive Behaviour Management Policy this would include the expectations that teachers
have of pupils and also what pupils expect of teachers in classrooms. This is seen as a good
grounding for the promotion of positive behaviour in relation to learning and teaching.
Rules, routines, rewards and consequences (for both +ve and -ve behaviour) should be
established at the start of a new session when an agreed procedure (i.e. pre-determined
lesson plan) should be repeated at the beginning of each lesson for one week. This process
should also be revisited and re-established monthly and termly thereafter. This will lead to
an understanding for each pupil that there is a consistency in approach across the school
and a heightened awareness for staff of agreed levels of behaviour for all involved. It is to
be expected that consultation would take place between teachers and pupils in order for the
pupils to have some sense of ownership within the process. Rules, Routines, Rewards and
Consequences posters should be displayed on walls in each classroom to remind pupils of
expectations. Teachers would be able to make reference to the posters in order to remind
pupils of agreements. Positive Behaviour posters should also be placed on the walls in each
classroom to help encourage the same. In this way routines for procedures and behaviour
should be normalized across all classes.
Rules and routines could be adapted to suit different working environments. Regarding
routines, staff would be expected to have procedures for entering and exiting pupils from
classrooms, taking registers, applying rules consistently, pupils raising hands for help/to
speak, distribution of resources, seating plans etc. The revisiting of routines and
procedures at the beginning of each month and also at the beginning of each term (after
holidays when pupils tend to have forgotten specific details) reminds and encourages
young people and teachers of Positive Behaviour systems. The ‘revisiting’ sessions
would take the form of a miniature version of the work done at the beginning of the
session in August.
How to Establish Classroom Rules With the Help of Students
We all know what our classroom would be like with no rules. Complete chaos. Utter
mayhem. An environment that is not conducive to learning. It is obvious that there should
be classroom rules; however, these should not be set forth entirely by the teacher. There’s
no better way to establish classroom rules than to do it with your students’ collaboration.
This way they will have to obey rules that they've come up with, and you've agreed to.
Still, establishing class rules requires a contract between teacher and students, and
reaching this agreement is a process all on its own. Let's take it step by step:
1. Review Their Goals
Ask students why they’ve enrolled in the course, or if they were enrolled by
parents, why they want to learn English. Adults will most likely tell you they need
English for better job opportunities. Lots of teens think about their future studies or
employment opportunities as well. And don't be surprised if you hear very young
learners say they want to learn English simply because they want to learn it.
Review their goals. Do they want to be able to read a book in English by the end of
the year? Understand native speakers better? Write job application letters? Chat
with friends in other countries? Whatever their reason is for wanting to learn
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English, and no matter what their goals are, tell them that it is essential that all of
you as a group establish a contract together, to create the best learning
environment, one that will help them reach their learning goals.
2. Brainstorm Possible Disruptive Behaviour
Ask your students to come up with things that might disrupt the class, anything that
will make the class stray from its goals. For example, if students want to improve
their listening comprehension or learn to think in English, it will be highly
disruptive to hear students speaking their native language. Little ones might say
that they don’t want any shouting, yelling, or hitting in class. Some students may
say that they shouldn’t interrupt someone when he or she’s speaking.
Here are some more classic examples of disruptive behaviour; if your students
forget any of these, you may want to mention them yourself:
• Name calling, insults or put downs
• Bullying
• No respect for other students and their personal belongings
• No respect for the teacher
• Reluctance to share
• Unwillingness to participate in an activity
• Not following directions
• Cheating
• Not completing tasks, assignments, homework
• Untidiness, littering
Never underestimate your students. They know well, that what types of behaviour are
disruptive in a classroom. As they come up with these ideas, make a list on the board.
3. How to Avoid Disruptive Behaviour
Tackle each of the point mentioned one at a time, and ask your students what the
rule should be so that this does not happen in class. For speaking their native
language, they'll say that it is forbidden in class; they should try to speak English at
all times. Your young learners will be quick to say that no shouting, yelling, or
hitting is allowed in class. And to avoid interruptions and make sure everyone has a
chance to speak, your students will suggest that they have to raise their hands.
Try to phrase each of the rules in an affirmative way, for example, in a way that tells
them what they should do and not what they shouldn’t do. Having your walls filled
with “No shouting”, “No eating in class”, in other words, no, no, no everywhere does
not contribute to create a very positive learning environment either.
Here are some more examples of other possible classroom rules:
• Treat your classmates with respect
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• Treat the teacher with respect
• Respect others’ personal belongings
• Participate actively
• Complete your assignments and tasks
• Follow the directions and rules for each game or activity
• Keep the classroom neat and tidy
4. The Consequences
Now, what happens when a student breaks one of the rules? They can also come up
with ideas, but they may need more guidance or suggestions from you. It is
recommended that you implement a system of rewards as well, not just consequences
of not following the rules. Some consequences may be logical: if a student throws
paper or garbage on the floor instead of in the garbage can, he or she will be
responsible for making sure the classroom is tidy before going home. You may choose
to give them a warning first: the first time someone insults or disrespects a classmate
their name goes on the board; the second time, they lose a privilege, like going outside
to play; the third time, a call is made to his or her parents.
However, rather than coming up with “punishment”, why not think of a positive
reinforcement of the rules? Like a star chart with stickers, prizes for collecting the
most good behaviour stickers, etc...
5. The Written Contract
Now you have to put it all in writing, after all, verbal contracts won't hold water in
a classroom. Young learners can make a poster illustrating the rules, and then put it
up some place where it's clearly visible. Older students may write it themselves as a
group activity, and you may also put it up on the wall, or make copies for each to
paste onto their notebooks.
Keep in mind that classroom rules are important for students of all ages, even
adults. Don’t think that adult learners don’t need rules. They may not resort to
name calling, yelling, or other forms of immature behaviour, but they may
unwittingly disrupt the class by interrupting, speaking in their native language,
answering their cell phones, etc.
You don’t have to treat them like children to teach them the importance of
following certain rules. So, to sum up, make sure each and every student is clear on
the rules, the consequences for breaking them, or the rewards for following them,
and that your contract is visible to all. Once you have accomplished this, everyone
will be ready to get to work.
Activity-4.2
Interview a head teacher of a nearby secondary school and enlist the difficulties in
implementation of the rules.
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4.3 The Importance of Establishing Routines
The use of rules is a powerful, preventive component of classroom organization and
management plans. Rules establish the behavioural context of the classroom by
specifying what behaviours are expected of students, what behavours will be reinforced,
and the consequences for inappropriate behaviour. If rules are stated or worded positively
to describe the expected behaviour, rather than what not to do, problem behaviour is more
easily prevented (Kerr & Nelson. 2002).
Educators have identified important guidelines for the construction of classroom rules:
• Rules should be kept to a minimum to allow students to remember them
• Rules should contain language that is simple and appropriate to developmental
level of the students and classroom
• Rules should be positively stated
• Rule should be developed for various situations or contexts as needed (e.g. physical
education class, field trips).
In addition to establishing rules, effective teachers also incorporate routines into their
efforts to organize the classroom. Routines for turning in homework or engaging in small
groups activities allow the classroom to run effectively with fewer disruptions from
students, thus enabling the teacher to attend to other aspects of instruction. Highly
effective teachers teach rules and routines systematically-not only at the beginning but
also throughout the school year. They emphasize these rules and routines on occasions
when increased violations are likely to occur (e.g. before school breaks) or if warranted
by inappropriate behaviour. This type of instructional approach to social behaviour
neutralizes the reactive or extreme approaches to behaviour management that ultimately
are ineffective (Colvin et al, 1993).
4.4 Strategies to Promote Student Use of Rules and Routines
After classroom rules and routines are established, strategies to acknowledge and
encourage students’ appropriate use of these rules and routines must be incorporated into
the classroom management plan. Arranging consequences in order to increase desired
behaviour is a critical component of effective classroom organization and management. A
large number of behavioural strategies are effective (Brophy, 2006), including specific,
contingent praise; a token economy system, in which students earn rewards for behaviour
(Higgins, Williams & Mc Laughlin, 2001); and behaviour contracts. Like all behavioural
reinforcements however, these strategies are effective only if they provide initial
reinforcement in close temporal proximity to occurrences of the desired behaviour, also,
they are more effective if they are linked to the classroom rule and expectations.
Highly effective teachers are able to implement such strategies appropriately to manage
class-wide behaviour, the behaviour of targeted groups of students, and the behaviour of
individual students as part of a comprehensive classroom-management plan. They also
understand that no single strategy will be effective for every student at all times and in all
contexts. Effective classroom management requires teachers to be adept at employing
multiple strategies and to be skilled at recognizing when current strategies are ineffective
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and modification is necessary. Practice with feedback from a supervisor or mentor is
useful in developing these skills.
4.5 Role of Casual Teachers
Ongoing professional development in classroom management is essential for all teachers
but especially important for new teachers. Effectively managing the classroom is much
more difficult for new teachers, who may not have received sufficient training and who
may be assigned to classes with a large percentage of at-risk students. Overwhelmed by
the need and often unexpectedly disruptive behaviours of their student, these new teacher
often are more reactive and more likely to respond to a student’s inappropriate behaviour
by removing the student from instruction.
One approach that addresses the issue of professional development of novice teachers,
which involves strong coordination between field experience and the teacher education
curriculum. In this model, novice teachers complete the theory with some experienced
teacher and then participate in classroom experience with experienced teacher. They have
the pragmatic opportunity to practice classroom management in actual classroom with
feedback and support. Such programs already have demonstrated their potential to
increase new teachers’ classroom and behaviour management skills (Emmer & Stough,
2001: Siebert, 2005)
4.6 The Importance of a Set of Rules or Code of Conduct
In schools the code of conduct is the standard of expected ethical behaivor for the
students’, teachers and the other related staff. It is about holding oneself to the highest
standards of ethical behaviour. Typically Codes talk about expectations to obey the law,
conflicts of interest, preserving confidential information, bribery, corporate opportunities,
competition and fair dealing/unbiased attitude among other things.
The school managers and teachers have the duty to create an environment conducive to
ethical behaivor. This is sometimes called "tone at the top". A Code of Conduct is the
cornerstone of setting the proper tone at the top for the school culture.
There is a major difference between breaking school rules and breaking the law. The
purpose of any Code of Conduct is to set forth the school rules, standards of behaviour,
rights and responsibilities of students, parents and staff, and appropriate consequences.
The Code of Conduct in itself is not the enemy, but an important ally. Be aware when a
Code of Conduct is misused or misapplied, or if due procedures are disregarded or
skipped by school administrators, this is where the "railroading" starts. Therefore, the
rules and the code of conduct is necessary to create the conducive learning environment,
it’s a prime duty of the school administration to help the students learning, so to eradicate
the things that distract the students from learning. If there is no code everyone may have
his/her own justification for the behaviour and lengthen the matter, consequently
consuming the time on non learning issues.
Activity-4.3
Every child has a right by law to a "free and public education" so discuss why this
tactic/code of conduct is necessary?
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4.7 Some Ideas to Help You Organize Your Routines
Different people organize their routines differently and the ways they organize their work
affect their learning. Some ideas related to better organization of the routines are
presented in the following lines.
Some people believe organizing routine will reduce creativity and spontaneity in the
home and school. On other hand, some believe that school organization that fits pupils’
personality, natural habits and family's lifestyle will:
reduce stress, create a more peaceful, joyful atmosphere, allow to accomplish more, and
give more time for fun.
Here's some information about establishing routines that may help to organize home or
school.
4.7.1 Establish Routines
Establish a daily routine that helps to accomplish the major objectives you need to
accomplish each day. Having a home or school schedule will allow you to accomplish
these tasks quickly and easily, so you can relax and have fun without guilt.
4.7.2 Establish a Curfew
Curfews can sometimes be thrown to the wind during the summer months. But should try
to reestablish curfew rules and enforce them a few weeks prior to the beginning of a new
school year. Keep in mind your sleeping needs when determining a curfew, but be sure to
make exceptions for special events or activities.
4.7.3 Write down the Schedule
Keeping organized means putting schedules in writing. Keep the calendar someplace
visible to all, where children will see it every day. Run through the school routine with
your child a few times before the start of the school year, explaining when he should get
up, have breakfast, have his teeth brushed, have his lunched packed, meet the bus, etc.
Review the calendar daily, making note of any last minute changes or daily appointments
or commitments. It's also a good idea to go over the after school schedule.
4.7.4 Set Clothes out the Night Before
Always remember to set clothes and shoes out and ready a night before. That will prevent
from running around the next morning looking for a certain shirt or socks etc that are clean.
4.7.5 Provide Homework Guidance
Homework can be a grisly obstacle during the early years, and many parents complain
that their children just have too much homework to complete. Conquer homework
challenges by helping the child to keep track of his homework assignments and by
providing an environment that helps them to finish his/her school work responsibilities.
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4.7.6 Buy a Day Planner
Advise the students to buy and use day planner. The planner should help him track
his/her homework assignments and projects, keep up-to-date on extra-curricular
activities, and remember family commitments and other responsibilities.
Activity-4.4
Conduct an interview of any teacher and highlight the best practices for organization of
routine and time management.
4.8 Summary
The establishment, teaching and consistent implementation of classroom rules and
procedures have been identified by research as fundamentally important in promotion of
positive behaviour. Consistency in classroom organization, including seating
arrangements and equipment storage, can with teaching style and procedural
arrangements also have marked impact on establishing productive classroom ecology.
While advance organization is a complex process that requires careful planning,
especially for the beginning teacher, research evidence would suggest that the outcomes
in terms of establishing classroom order are well worth the effort. Research also suggests
that the development and implementation of clear organizational procedures as early as
possible in the school year are critical to establish a productive climate. The formulation
and implementation of the class code and development of routines and procedures are
largely dependent on, and certainly reactive to, the quality of the relationship built
between teacher and students as group and individually. Regardless of the students’ age,
the rapport established will affect their willingness to cooperate. The establishment and
maintenance of effective rapport has its locus in the development of quality
communication skills.
Developing good rules and routines is only the first step. For rules and routines to be
effective, you must actively teach them and then review them on a regular basis. Time
spent on rules and routines in him first week of school will pay off in increased
instructional time throughout the year. However, make sure to balance the teaching of
rules and routines with learning activities that are meaningful and memorable.
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1. Describe a classroom environment or setting in which you can learn at your best.
2. Working together in small groups, develop a set of rules for your classroom. About
five rules should be sufficient. For each rule think of ways to make the rules more
meaningful.
3. Brainstorm with your class fellows determine the specific class rules and rewards.
Write the final, established rules and rewards here.
Rules Rewards
4. Summarize the importance of code of conduct for the management of classroom
and school separately.
5. Elaborate the principles for the establishment of rules and routines for classroom
management.
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Brophy, J. (2006). History of Research in Classroom Management. In C. Evertson &
Weinstein (Eds). Handbook of Classroom Management:Research Practice, and
Contemporary Issues (pp.17-43). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Colvin, G., Kame’enui, E. J., & Sugai, G. (1993). Reconceptualizing Behaviour
Management and School-wide Discipline in General Education. Education and
Treatment of Children, 16, 361-381.
Emmer, E.T. & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom Management: A Critical Part of
Educational Psychology, with Implications for Teacher Education. Educational
Psychologist, 36(2), 103-112.
Higgins, J., Williams, R., & McLaughlin, T. F. (2001). The Effects of a Token Economy
Employing Instructional Consequences for a Third-grade Student with Learning
Disabilities: A data-based case Study. Educational and Treatment of Children, 24, 99-106.
Kerr, M. M. & Nelson, C. M. (2002). Strategies for Addressing Behaviour Problems in
the Classroom (5th
Ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Oliver, R. M. & Reschly, D. J. (2007). Effective Classroom Management: Teacher
Preparation and Professional Development. Washington: National Comprehensive Center
for Teacher Quality.
Siebert, C. J. (2005). Promoting Preservice Teachers’ Success in Classroom Management
by Leveraging a Local Union’s Resources: A Professional Development School
Initiative. Education, 125, 385-392.
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UNIT-5
EFFECTIVE TEACHING THEORY
AND PRACTICE
Written By:
Reviewed By:
Mrs. Munnaza Ambreen
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CONTENTS
Introduction................................................................................................... 103
Objectives ..................................................................................................... 103
5.1 Managing Behaviour ..................................................................................... 104
5.1.1 Bad Behaviour or Undesired Behaviour............................................. 105
5.1.2 Behaviour Management .................................................................... 105
5.1.3 Techniques of Behaviour Management.............................................. 106
5.2 Principles of Effective Teaching.................................................................... 109
5.3 Teaching Theory into Practice ....................................................................... 113
5.3.1 Role of Rewards and Punishments in Putting Theory into Practice..... 116
5.4 William Glasser’s Choice Theory.................................................................. 117
5.6 Suggested Reading/References ...................................................................... 122
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INTRODUCTION
Effective teachers prepare their students at the start of every lesson to be in the right frame of
mind and ready to learn. They do this by helping students to ‘warm-up’ in the same way that
athletes do, except in lessons the warm-ups are mental rather than physical-these initial
activities also help settle students and give a clear signal the lesson has started. In this
preparation phase, effective teachers also explain the purpose of the learning, and help to get
students ready to learn by explaining the significance of the lesson. It is very important to let
students know how they can profit from what they’re about to learn. After that the teacher
needs to present the information to be learned. There are many effective teaching techniques
you can use to present information: successful teachers build up, over time, a wide repertoire
of presentation techniques that take account of students’ different learning styles, the nature of
the learning, and the need to motivate and engage all learners. These varying approaches
show some of the many individual differences between teachers. Every teacher has its own
beliefs that consciously or subconsciously influence his/her classroom behaviour. Teachers
could not occupy one single stereotyped form of management. There are sudden or violent
fluctuations or manners that effect the classroom management. In normal circumstances and
busy classrooms teachers may have to react to several events, each in a quite different tone,
within a very short span of time. The fact that the teacher has, for example, reacted in an
authoritarian way to someone who has misbehaved, does not mean that every subsequent
event should evoke a similar response. Various standpoints on class management have been
endorsed or rejected by different analysts and practitioners. As the effective teaching is based
on the experience of the teacher where he/she learn how to translate the teaching theory into
practice, so it demand an extensive involvement of the novice teachers into practicum or
practice teaching, supervised teaching and the concept of mentoring may help in this regard.
The prospective teachers learn the theory in their course work and almost all the teachers
training programs have the component of teaching practice that helps them to put the theory
into practice. As we have discussed that the teacher starts a lesson with the warm up session,
introduce the topic and involve the students into active learning etc, an experienced teacher
bridge these components in such a way that the students enjoy the learning. In this unit, you
will study the principles of effective teaching that may help to improve the classroom
situations and control, management of the undesired behaviour is also very important
component that has been discussed. How to put the teaching theory into practice will help the
unskilled or beginner teacher make teaching learning process effective and William Glasser’s
choice theory have also been discussed in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
• Apply the principles of effective teaching in the actual classroom setting.
• Manage the undesired behaviour of the students for creating conducive learning
environment.
• Practice the teaching theory to enhance the students’ achievement.
• Apply the William Glasser’s choice theory for creating positive learning environment.
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5.1 Managing Behaviour
Behaviour management plays a significant role in the teaching learning process. Most of
the time situation arises where teacher have to manage the behaviour that is distracting
the class from the actual objective or the behaviours that are undesired and wasting the
time. Many teachers tackle the situation on the basis of their experience and sometime a
teacher could not understand the situation and shows aggressiveness or remained too
passive that consequently affects the students learning. Therefore, it is necessary for the
teachers and the administrators to understand the behaviour identify and cope it at the
right time. This particular section will help us to cope up with the undesired behaviour
exhibited by the students during the class sessions.
Behaviour is the range of actions and mannerism made by organisms, systems, or
artificial entities in coincidence with their environment, which includes the other systems
or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the response to the system
or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or
subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.
The biologically behaviour is believed to be controlled primarily by the endocrine system
and nervous system. Biologists believed that complication in the behaviour of a human or
any other organism is correlated to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally,
organisms with more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new
responses and thus adjust their behaviour.
Behaviours can be either inborn or learned; however, recent developments in biological
sciences indicated the possibility that human behaviour may be influenced by the microbe
population within a human body.
Behaviour can be explained as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to
its environment. Behaviour provides outputs from the organism to the environment.
Different discipline defines behaviour in different perspective. Let us learn some
important definitions of the behaviour before coming towards the methods of behaviour
management.
According to psychologists human behaviour can be common, unusual, acceptable, or
unacceptable. Humans assess the acceptability of behaviour using social norms and adjust
behaviour by means of social control.
In sociology, behaviour is considered as having no meaning, being not directed at other
people and thus is the most basic human action, although it can play a part in diagnosis of
disorders such as the autism spectrum disorders. Animal behaviour is studied in
comparative psychology, ethnology, behavioural ecology and sociobiology.
According to moral values, human behaviour may also depend upon the common, usual,
unusual, acceptable or unacceptable behaviour of others.
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Behaviour became an important construct in early 20th century psychology with the
advent of the paradigm known consequently as "behaviourism." Behaviourism was a
reaction against "faculty" psychology which supposed to see into or understand the mind
without the benefit of scientific testing. Behaviourism insisted on working only with what
can be seen or manipulated and in the early views of John B. Watson, a founder of the
field; nothing was inferred as to the nature of the entity that produced the behaviour.
Subsequent modifications of Watson’s perspective and that of "classical conditioning”
led to the rise of operant conditioning or "radical behaviourism," a theory advocated by
B.F. Skinner, which took over the academic establishment up through the 1950s and was
synonymous with "behaviourism" for many.
5.1.1 Bad Behaviour or Undesired Behaviour
Bad behaviour is a relative term parents and teachers normally use it but most of the
times the psychologists use the term undesired behaviour. We define the term bad
behaviour in views of teachers, parents and pupils view point as:
In view of teacher a bad behaviour is “showing lack of respect, lack of manners, bad
language, disrespecting property as well as people without thinking of the impact on
others”. In view of parents it is generally having no consideration for those around you.
And students view the bad behaviour as not listening to the teachers or parents and not
following the rules.
Every individual has his own opinion of what constitutes bad behaviour. If you are
uncertain of what constitutes bad behaviour in your school, check the school behaviour
policy to confirm acceptable and not acceptable. The term undesired behaviour is closely
related with bad behaviour, teachers’ actions are to develop the behaviours aligned with
the environment and that not seems odd one. When an individual’s response is not in
accordance with to the instruction provided by the teacher or instructor then that type of
behaviour is termed as undesired behaviour. The best way of dealing with, or more
importantly preventing, poor behaviour is to understand why it is happening in the first
place. These key factors are thought to influence behaviour: diet, environment,
relationships and teaching. After identification of the causes, the teacher may apply the
strategy to cope up with the poor behaviour. Applying the appropriate strategy to tackle
the undesired behaviour in simple words is known as behaviour management.
5.1.2 Behaviour Management
Behaviour management is similar to behaviour amendment. It is near to behaviour
therapy. Behaviour modification focus on changing behaviour of the individual, while in
behaviour management the focus is on maintaining order or to normalize the response of
the individual. Behaviour management skills have immense importance for teachers in
the educational system. Behaviour management include all of the actions and conscious
inactions to enhance of the probability people, individually and in groups, choose
behaviours which are personally fulfilling, productive, and socially acceptable and are in
accordance with the environment.
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There is a great deal of research related to "behaviour change" and "behaviour
management". Skinner and Rogers have given two distinctly different approaches for
addressing behaviour. Skinner’s approach says that anyone can control behaviour by first
identifying what the individual finds rewarding. Once the rewards of an individual are
known, then those rewards can be selected that the manager is willing to give in exchange
for good behaviour. Skinner calls this "Positive Reinforcement Psychology". Rogers
proposes that in order to effectively address behaviour problems, individual must be
influenced to want to behave appropriately. This is done by teaching the individual the
difference between right and wrong including why he or she should do what is right.
Rogers believes that the individual must have an internal awareness of right and wrong.
We as a teacher cannot rely upon any single concept but can use appropriate method as
per situation.
5.1.3 Techniques of Behaviour Management
Many of the principles and techniques used are the same as behaviour modification yet
delivered in a less intensively and consistent fashion. Usually, behaviour management is
applied at the group level by a classroom teacher as a form of behavioural engineering to
produce high rates of student work completion and minimize classroom disturbance. In
addition, greater focus has been placed on building self control.
According to Brophy (1986) contemporary behaviour modification approaches involve
students more actively in planning and shaping their own behaviour through participation
in the negotiation of contracts with their teachers and through exposure to training
designed to help them to monitor and evaluate their behaviour more actively, to learn
techniques of self-control and problem solving, and to set goals and reinforce themselves
for meeting these goals. Involvement is an important tool to manage the behaviour of the
students.
In general, behaviour management strategies have been very effective in reducing
classroom disturbance. In addition, recent efforts have focused on incorporating
principles of functional assessment into the process.
Over the years, behavioural management principles such as reinforcement, modeling and
even the use of punishment have been explored in the building of prosocial behaviour.
This area is sometimes referred to as "Behavioural Development". Midlarsky (1973) used
a combination of modeling and reinforcement to build selfless behaviour. Two studies
exist in which modeling by itself did not increase prosocial behaviour; however,
modeling is much more effective than instruction giving (such as "preaching"). The role
of rewards has been implicated in the building of self-control and empathy. Cooperation
seems particularly susceptible to rewards. Sharing is another prosocial behaviour
influenced by reinforcement. Reinforcement is particularly effective at least early in the
learning series if context conditions are similar. Evidence exists to show some
generalization. Recent research indicates that behavioural “interventions” produce the
most valuable results when “applied” during early childhood and “early adolescence.”
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The role of punishment is controversial in forming prosocial behaviour. The socialization
process continues by peers with reinforcement and punishment playing major roles. Peers
are more likely to punish cross-gender play and reinforce play specific to gender.
There are a number of techniques teachers use to manage student behaviour, a productive
class is the result of the complex interaction of many factors. Here are some practical
strategies and resources to assist teachers with classroom behaviour.
• Provide adequate and relevant learning resources which offer students choice and
the motivation to participate
• Involve students in practical and interesting activities so that they may not get
involved in irrelevant activities
• Ensure activities are purposeful and interesting with clear goals that students
perceive to be worthwhile.
• Negotiate a shared understanding, expectation and acceptance of responsibilities
and rights within the classroom, e.g. collaboratively develop a code of conduct, and
provide choice and decision-making opportunities for students.
• Encourage student self-evaluation of progress and achievement on learning tasks.
• Ensure students understand the consequences of choices and of their behaviours.
There are some behaviour management tips given by educationists presented following:
1. Simple and Clear in Delivering Message
Teachers need to deliver the messages, needs to be simple, clear and non-
negotiable; in practice it is easy to get involved in a lengthy argument or
confrontation. Focus on moving in, and conveying rules as discreetly as possible
and then moving out quickly this may help to improve the classroom situation.
Avoid waiting around for the student to change their behaviour immediately; they
may need some time and space to make a better choice. Engage another student in a
positive conversation or move across the room to answer a question and only check
back whether the matter has resolved. No one likes receiving sanctions and the
longer the interaction the more chance of a defensive reaction. Get in, deliver the
message and get out with dignity; quickly, efficiently and without lingering.
2. Countdown
A good technique for getting the attention of the whole class is to use a
‘countdown’ from 5 or 10 to allow students the time to finish their conversations
(or work) and listen to the next instruction. Explain to the class that you are using
countdown to give them fair warning that they need to listen and that it is far more
polite than calling for immediate silence. For example we can devise the strategy as
given below.
Five, You should be finishing the sentence that you are writing
Four, All pens and pencils down now
Three, Check that all the papers are arranged
Two, Bind or staple the papers
One, Handover the answer sheet to the relevant person
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Some students may join in the countdown with you at first, some will not be quiet
by the time you get to zero at first but persevere, use praise and rewards to
reinforce its importance and it can become an extremely efficient tool for those
times when you need everyone’s attention. You may already have a technique for
getting everyone’s attention, e.g. hands up. The countdown technique is more
effective as it is time related and does not rely on students seeing you.
3. Presence of a Teacher
The presence of a teacher is the greatest contribution to managing behaviour
around the school site. The students will grow used to the interventions in social
areas and the teacher presence will slowly have an impact on students’ behaviour.
The relationships you develop will be strengthened, with opportunities for less
formal conversation presenting them daily.
4. Assigning Work to the Students
At primary level students’ mutual trust is encouraged through sharing and
delegating jobs in the classroom. Well organized teachers will have students
handing out resources, clearing and cleaning the room, preparing areas for different
activities, drawing blinds etc. The students learn how to share responsibility with
others and accept responsibility for themselves.
The tasks and responsibilities that you are able to share may seem mundane and
trivial but by doing this an ethos of shared responsibility can be given a secure
foundation.
5. Dealing with Secondary Behaviours
The behaviours that appear during the process of intervention are known as
secondary behaviours. When teacher has exhausted all of your positive
reinforcement, redirection techniques, warnings and sanctions and need to leave the
room, the secondary behaviours are the chair being thrown back, or door being
slammed, or the infuriating smile that slowly cracks across his face. He/she may
want to divert the conversation away from the original behaviour or encourage a
confrontation in the corridor. Resist the temptation to address the secondary
behaviours in the moment. Instead record them and deal with them later on.
The fact that the student has left the room means that he has followed your
instructions; the dramatic trail of disruption that he has left in his wake can be dealt
with when he is calm. Your calm and considered response will be closely observed
by the rest of the class and they will be impressed by your confidence even in those
emotionally fuelled moments. He/She may slowly begin to realize that his usual
pattern of behaviour will not work with you.
6. Classroom Arrangement
With the growth of the interactive whiteboard and use of computer screens for
teaching, many classrooms are reverting to students in rows with the teacher’s desk
at the front and in the corner. The classroom was arranged for students to see the
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blackboard, now technology has replaced chalk but the difficulties of inflexible
classroom configurations remain.
When designing the layout of your room you also need to consider the management of
behaviour. With students in rows and the teacher sitting behind their desk there are many
hiding places for students to escape to. If you cannot get to students quickly and easily
then the classroom becomes an arena where conversations about behaviour are broadcast
for everyone to hear. Confrontations become more frequent, delivery of praise less subtle
and as the teacher retreats behind the desk the physical divide can easily develop into a
psychological one.
As a reaction to the overuse of the blackboard much work was done to encourage
teachers to use more dynamic classroom configurations. Desks in rows with the teacher’s
desk at the front makes the management of behaviour harder, stifles gentle human
interaction and forces most conversations to be broadcast publicly. They may be able to
see the screen but are they engaging with it or with you?
Activity-1
Visit a school near you and conduct the interviews of the teachers for the management
of undesired behaviour. Write the report for best practices used by the teachers.
5.2 Principles of Effective Teaching
Effective teaching can be defined as teaching that successfully achieves the objectives of
teaching learning process. In other words the effective teacher is the one who enables the
students to reach to the desired learning outcomes. Dunkin 1992 as cited in Hunt, 2009
defined effective teachers in these words:
‘Teacher effectiveness is a matter of the degree to which a teacher achieves the desired
effects upon students. It is an extent to which the teacher possesses the requisite
knowledge and skills, and teacher performance as the way a teacher behaves in the
process of teaching. (P.1)’
In essence, there are two simple elements to effective teaching:
– The teacher must have a clear idea of what learning is to be fostered.
– A learning experience is set up and delivered that achieves this.
Kyriacou (2009) gave a dynamic perspective of effective teaching and said that over the
years, thinking about effective teaching has been approached in a number of different
ways. Until the 1960s, research on effective teaching was largely dominated by attempts
to identify attributes of teachers, such as personality traits, sex, age, knowledge and
training, which might have a bearing on their effectiveness. As long ago as 1931, for
example, Cattell asked 254 people, including directors of education, teacher trainers,
schoolteachers and pupils, to write down the most important qualities of the good teacher.
Overall, the five most frequently reported were personality and will; intelligence;
sympathy and tact; open-mindedness and a sense of humor.
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Kyriacou (2009) elaborated that in present effective teaching is commonly taken as a
complex phenomenon encompassing many types of interacting variables that are Context
Variables, Process Variables and Product Variables:
Context variables include all the characteristics related to the learning activity, which
may have some impact upon the success of the learning activity.
Process variables refer to what does actually go on in the classroom, these variables
include teacher’s enthusiasm; clarity of explanations; use of praise and criticism;
management strategies; organization of the lesson; suitability of learning tasks; feedback
pupils receive; students involvement in the lesson and so on.
Product variables refer to all those educational outcomes that are desired by teachers
including; increased knowledge and skills; increased interest in the subject or topic;
increased motivation; increased academic self-confidence and self-esteem; increased
autonomy and increased social development.
Effective teachers have some unique characteristics:
– Clarity of the teacher’s explanations and directions
– Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate
– Making use of a variety of learning activities
– Establishing and maintaining momentum and pace for the lesson
– Encouraging pupil participation and getting all pupils involved.
– Monitoring pupils’ progress and attending quickly to pupils’ needs.
– Delivering a well-structured and well-organized lesson.
– Providing pupils with positive and constructive feedback.
– Ensuring coverage of the educational objectives
– Making good use of questioning techniques
Bruphy has given major principles of effective teaching as described below:
• Establishing a Supportive Classroom Climate
Research findings advocate that student learn best within a cohesive, congenial and
caring learning environment. For effective teaching, it is necessary to provide a
supportive classroom climate. In order to mould the classroom into a cohesive and
supportive learning community, teachers require displaying personal attributes like:
a cheerful disposition, friendliness, emotional maturity, sincerity, and caring about
students as individuals as well as learners. The teacher should exhibit concern, care
and affection for students and display that he/she is attentive to their interests,
needs and emotions. In this type of classroom climate, students would have the
freedom to ask questions without any embarrassment, to contribute to lectures
without any fear of their ideas being ridiculed, and to collaborate with their
colleagues on many of their learning activities.
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• Maximizing Opportunities to Learn
There are much more things worth learning than the time available for teaching
them, therefore, it is essential that limited classroom time must be used efficiently.
Effective teachers are those who allocate most of the time to learning activities as
compared to non-academic pastimes tasks that serve little or no learning purpose.
Their students spend much more time to curriculum related activities than the
students of those teachers who are less focused on instructional goals. Thus
effective teacher conveys a sense of the purposefulness of activities and the
importance of getting the most out of the available time.
• Establishing Learning Orientations
Students learning can be made effective, if teachers provide an initial structure to
elucidate intended outcomes and signal desired learning strategies. Advance
organizers adjust students to what they will learn before the instruction begins. They
describe the general nature of the activity and give students a structure within which
to focus. Such knowledge of the nature of the activity and the structure of its content
helps students to focus on the main ideas and order their thoughts effectively.
Therefore, before beginning instruction, the effective teachers ensure that students
know what they will be learning and why it is important for them to learn it.
• Presenting Coherent Content
To facilitate meaningful learning, content needs to be explained clearly and
developed with emphasis on its structure and connections. Information is easier to
learn to the extent that it is coherent–the sequence of ideas or events makes sense
and the relationships among them are obvious. Content is most likely to be
organized coherently when it is selected in a principled way, guided by ideas about
what students should learn from studying the topic. When making presentations,
providing explanations or giving demonstrations, effective teachers project
enthusiasm for the content and organize the sequence it so as to maximize its
clarity and coherence.
• Providing Thoughtful Discourse:
Thoughtful discourse features sustained examination of a small number of related
topics, in which students are invited to develop explanations, make predictions,
debate alternative approaches to problems. The effective teacher emphasizes
students to justify their arguments, rather than accepting them indiscriminately. In
addition to provide feedback, the teacher encourages students to explain or
elaborate on their answers or to comment on peers’ answers. Frequently, discourse
that begins in a question-and-answer format evolves into an exchange of views in
which students respond to one another as well as to the teacher.
• Encouraging Practice and Application Activities:
Practice is one of the most important yet least appreciated aspects of learning in
classrooms. Little or no practice may be needed for simple behaviours such as
pronouncing words, but practice becomes more important as learning becomes
complex.
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Successful practice involves polishing skills that are already established at
rudimentary levels in order to make them smoother, more efficient and more
automatic, and not trying to establish such skills through trial and error.
• Scaffolding Students’ Task Engagement:
Research on learning tasks suggests that activities and assignments should be
sufficiently varied and interesting to motivate student engagement, sufficiently new
or challenging to constitute meaningful learning experiences rather than needless
repetition, and yet sufficiently easy to allow students to achieve high rates of
success if they invest reasonable time and effort.
Besides being well chosen, activities need to be effectively presented, monitored
and followed up if they are to have their full impact. This means preparing students
for an activity in advance, providing guidance and feedback during the activity, and
leading the class in post-activity reflection afterwards.
• Strategy Teaching:
The teacher models and instructs students in learning and self-regulation strategies.
Many students do not develop effective learning and problem solving strategies on
their own but can acquire them through modelling and explicit instruction from
their teachers. Poor readers, for example, can be taught reading comprehension
strategies such as keeping the purpose of an assignment in mind when reading;
activating relevant background knowledge; identifying major points in attending to
the outline and flow of content; monitoring understanding by generating and trying
to answer questions about the content; or drawing and testing inferences by making
interpretations, predictions and conclusions.
• Co-Operative Learning:
Research indicates that there is often much to be gained by arranging for students
to collaborate in pairs or small groups as they work on activities and assignments.
Co-operative learning promotes affective and social benefits such as increased
student interest in and valuing of subject matter, and increases in positive attitudes
and social interactions among students. Co-operative learning can be used with
activities ranging from drill and practice to learning facts and concepts, discussion
and problem solving. It is perhaps most valuable as a way of engaging students in
meaningful learning with authentic tasks in a social setting.
• Goal-Oriented Assessment:
Effective teachers use assessment for evaluating students’ progress in learning and
for planning curriculum improvements, not just for generating grades. Good
assessment includes data from many sources besides paper-and-pencil tests, and it
addresses the full range of goals or intended outcomes (not only knowledge but
also higher-order thinking skills and content-related values and dispositions).
Standardized, norm-referenced tests might comprise part of the assessment
programme (these tests are useful to the extent that they measure intended
outcomes of the curriculum and attention is paid to students’ performance on each
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individual item, not just total scores). However, standardized tests should ordinarily
be supplemented with publisher-supplied curriculum embedded tests (when these
appear useful) and with teacher made tests that focus on learning goals that are
emphasized in instruction.
• Achievement Expectations:
Teachers’ expectations concerning what their students are capable of accomplishing
(with teacher help) tend to shape both what teachers attempt to elicit from their students
and what the students come to expect from themselves. Thus, teachers should form and
project expectations that are as positive as they can be while still remaining realistic.
Such expectations should represent genuine beliefs about what can be achieved and
therefore should be taken seriously as goals towards which to work in instructing
students. It is helpful if teachers set goals for the class and for individuals in terms of
floors (minimally acceptable standards), not ceilings. Then they can let group progress
rates, rather than limits adopted arbitrarily in advance, determine how far the class can
go within the time available. They can keep their expectations for individual students
current by monitoring their progress closely.
Activity-2
Enlist at least five principles of effective teaching; discuss with any fellow student that
how these principles help to make the learning environment attractive for the students.
5.3 Teaching Theory into Practice
Teachers’ expectations about the students’ achievement and the teachers’ theoretical
knowledge along with the experience help to apply the appropriate instructional strategies
to optimize the students’ achievements. The selection of the instructional strategies varies
from teacher to teacher and it is the way teacher translate the theory into practice.
Instructional strategies are powerful tools that are directly related to teacher expectations
and student achievement. Many schools can increase both teacher expectations and
student achievement by putting theory into practice. There are many pedagogical tools
that help to translate the theory into practice.
• Enabling teachers to offer varied learning experiences by open up learning
opportunities.
• Providing environment to teachers to put research based best practices into a
meaningful context for learning.
• Helping teachers to understand and use assessment as a critical tool to drive instruction
• Adding new instructional strategies to teachers’ “toolboxes”—introducing or
reinforcing techniques to help teachers focus on essentials of curriculum.
• Meeting curriculum requirements in a meaningful way for achieving student success
• Presenting historical knowledge as both contested and contestable through the use
of multiple sources;
• Engaging learners in dialogue with both the text and among themselves,
• Calling on learners to infer and reinterpret the content in the light of their own
experiences,
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• Challenging learners to move beyond their own theories about the past, reconcile
their own and others’ histories, and think critically about the world around them,
• Creating a democratic atmosphere in the classroom,
For managing behaviour in the class we have to develop rules and implementation of
these rules is actually the concern for putting theory into practice. It is argued that it was
worthwhile for teachers to spend some time explaining, what rules they believed in, but
also asking children to suggest adjustments or new rules of their own. Subsequently,
other proponents have suggested that teachers should discuss rule-related problems to see
who ‘owns’ it, whether it was the teacher, the children, or a shared responsibility.
Teachers usually impose rules on children; the idea of negotiating rules with them is not
as widespread as one might believe. Yet in most of schools and indeed most of adult life,
we have to take responsibility for discipline ourselves in the light of society’s established
order without some higher authority telling us what to do every few minutes? Most
people agree that self-discipline is important and that children in school should master it
but this belief is not always translated into practices that would secure it.
There is a view proposed by Glasser (1969), in his book Schools without Failure, that
class management problems are made easier if children can understand, why certain rules
apply or are consulted about the sort of behaviour that is desirable in a classroom?
This raises the issue about what is open to negotiation bullying, theft, damage to property
and people, for example, the means of prevention, perhaps but surely not the issues
themselves. Ensuring children’s well being and law-abiding behaviour is a legal
requirement on teachers, for they must exercise the “Duty of care”, as it is called. While
implementing this, you might face different situations where care for one may hurt the
rights of the other students, then the teachers beliefs and self understanding compel
him/her to develop his/her own rules to maintain the classroom discipline. Occasionally it
may be worth creating the time for discussion of what is happening in the classroom,
especially at the beginning of the year, or if there appear to be problems. This ritual are
known as ‘Circle Time’ in Primary Schools, when children sit round and discuss the
process of teaching and learning with their teacher. From time to time, it may be a
valuable lubricant in a secondary class, though not if it becomes an over-indulgence or
begins to predominate.
Another teacher in the same school also began by saying that a laboratory could be a
dangerous place but he engaged the children’s interest by giving them a blank piece of
paper first, and saying, develop the rules that save you from any kind of accident in the
laboratory, like “No running or pushing”, “Handle equipment carefully”, “Be careful with
flames or acids” were anticipated by the class so that when he gave out copies of the
actual rules they were pleased at their success. Matters like “Wearing goggles”, which no
one had suggested were then discussed.
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One important fundamental question about negotiation is not merely, what is or what
should be negotiable but how children can understand the need for rules such as wearing
proper clothing on a field trip, staying away from dangerous places and not taking risks.
This does not negotiate away teacher’s legal responsibilities; it actually makes them more
meaningful. Adolescents need to face up to matters such as self-discipline and respect for
others because these are necessary in families and communities, as well as in schools.
Teachers in the end must take responsibility for rules even if they sometimes endorse
sensible proposals from children.
Rules can be put into practice in several ways. For example:
• General explanation “Respect others.”
• Specific prescription “Raise your hand when you want to say something.”
• Rule with explanation “I don’t want anyone pushing and shoving near that sink.”
Because someone’s going to spill water on the floor and slippery floors cause accidents.
• General question “How can we make sure everyone gets a fair chance to do well in
their exams next summer?”
• Negotiation “I have allowed you to talk to each other while you are doing your
projects but it is getting far too noisy so let’s just discuss for a minute what we can
do about it.”
• Self-monitoring “You will have to make a lot of decisions yourself when you are
older so let’s see how well you can manage your own work, without me having to
tell you what to do all the time.” Personal relationships between teacher and
children can be shaped in many locations and contexts. Consider just some
examples of these, both positive and negative in their effect.
• Academic Explaining patiently to a child who does not understand a new concept,
making a sarcastic remark to someone who does not understand a new concept.
• Social Chatting to Children as they enter classroom about what they did at the weekend.
• Expectation Looking for positive qualities and achievements in children. Having
low expectations or always focusing on the negative side of children work or
behaviour.
• Home/school/ Talking positively with parents and members of children’s
communities.
• Individual Taking a personal interest in children as individuals. Seeing class
entirely as a group without individual identities.
Teacher can use any of the combination of the strategies explained in the above examples
to manage the classroom learning environment that is conducive to learning.
Activity-3
Develop a set of Rules to manage the discipline in the classroom, write them on a chart
and display it in a classroom of a nearby school. After one month visit the school again
and discuss with teacher the implementation problems faced by him/her.
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5.3.1 Role of Rewards and Punishments in Putting Theory into Practice
Since teachers must act as a responsible parent does, society has to give them certain
powers to exercise control or discharge the “Duty of care” which the law requires. Forms
of punishment in particular in a school must be approved by the school administration.
Punishment may play an important role in establishment of the discipline but we as a
teacher must consider that the punishment is prohibited by rule.
This is to avoid, for example, children being kept in detention after school if this meant
that they would miss their bus home to a remote rural area or to a dangerous part of a
city. Punishments are in fact governed by the law, which decrees that they must be
“Reasonable” defined by one judge as:
• Moderate
• Not dictated by bad motives
• Such as is usual in the school
• Such as the parent of the child might expect it to receive if it had done wrong.
Corporal punishment is ban in Pakistan, it does not apply to forms of corporal
punishment, such as hitting with a ruler or stick, slipper or the hand but also to a “Clip
round the ear”, which in any case was a potentially dangerous punishment. Rewards are
one of two principal kinds:
• extrinsic getting a star, a badge, a trophy, a prize, a privilege, something external
often visible, bestowed on behalf of the school or by the teacher.
• intrinsic satisfying one’s curiosity, a glow of pride from a job well done, something
coming more from within the individual.
Positive and punishments are always negative yet a reward out of all proportion to
whatever deed earned it or minor punishment that was fair and timely and in retrospect
appreciated by the recipient as having had a positive effect can soon reverse these simple
labels. Similarly, it might be assumed that extrinsic rewards are crude bribes and that
intrinsic rewards are the only things worth striving for, but some people need external
recognition so that they can set their own standards for themselves. What is often much
more important is the effect of rewards and punishments on the children concerned
whether the punishment was unfair, something greatly resented by children or whether
they had earned the reward for their own efforts. Most rewards and punishments are
unspectacular, often short-lived and taken for granted. This does not mean that they are of
no importance. The two incidents below only occupied a few seconds but they
demonstrate that even a fleeting exchange can have a significant influence.
According to (Assor et al., 2005) motivational and behavioural problems occur for the
simple reason that classrooms have rules, requests, requirements and agendas that are
sometimes at odds with students preferences and natural inclinations. Under such
conditions, students understandably complain, resists and express negative effect. In turn,
teachers frequently respond with counter-directives and efforts to suppress these criticisms.
Reeve and Halusic (2009) described that teachers can put motivational principles from
self-determination theory into practice by considering the students perspective, displaying
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patience to allow time for learning, nurture inner motivational resources, providing
explanatory rationales, rely on non controlling language and acknowledge and accept
expressions of negative effect.
Activity-4
Enlist the other methods of managing behaviour that can replace the corporal
punishment.
5.4 William Glasser’s Choice Theory
Choice Theory, developed by William Glasser, gives an explanation of motivation that is
obviously different from what is commonly known. A central aspect of this is the belief
that we are internally, not externally motivated. While many other theories suggest that
external events cause or motivate one to behave in certain ways, Choice Theory argues
that outside or external events never motivate or make us to do anything. Rather what
drives the behaviour is internally developed notion of what is valuable or most important
and satisfying to us.
Another important concept in Choice Theory is the belief that we always have some
choice regarding how to behave. This does not mean at all that we have unlimited choices
or that external information is totally irrelevant or useless to choose how to behave. It
means that we have more control on our behaviour than most of the people might think
and that we ourselves are responsible for the choices we make regarding our behaviour.
Choice theory suggests that as humans we constantly compare our perception of the
world with how we would like it to be, our current Quality World picture. Consciously or
not, we always determine if our current behaviour is the best available choice to take us
to the desired direction.
Basic Needs as the Determinant of Behaviour
Choice Theory is based on the assumption that all behaviour represents the individual’s
constant attempt to satisfy one or more of five basic needs. In other words, no behaviour
is caused by any situation or person outside of the individual.
All individuals are driven by genetically transmitted needs that serve as instructions for
attempting to live their lives. The needs are equally important, and all must be reasonably
satisfied if individuals are to fulfill their biological destiny. These basic needs are:
• the need to survive,
• the need to belong,
• the need to gain power,
• the need to be free, and
• the need to have fun.
The individual has no choice but to feel pain when a need is frustrated and pleasure when
it is satisfied. When any need goes unsatisfied, there is a continual urge to behave. This
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urge is as much a part of human genetic instructions as is eye colour. Instructions related
to survival - such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire - are relatively distinct. Individuals
quickly learn that the particular discomfort is attached to this need, and it is plain what
they must do to satisfy the survival instructions. The non-survival, or psychological,
needs are challenging because it is often less clear what an individual must do to satisfy
them. Psychological needs, like biological needs, have their source in the genes, even
though they are much less tangible and the behaviours that fulfill them are more complex
than the physical behaviours used to fulfill the survival needs. Glasser (1984) holds that
we are essentially biological beings, and the fact that we follow some of our genetic
instructions psychologically rather than physically makes neither the instructions less
urgent nor the source less biological. The ways in which we fulfill psychological needs
can be summarized as follows:
1. We fulfill the need to belong by loving, sharing, and cooperating with others.
2. We fulfill the need for power by achieving, accomplishing, and being recognized
and respected.
3. We fulfill the need for freedom by making choices in our lives.
4. We fulfill the need for fun by laughing and playing.
Even though individuals may not be fully aware of their basic needs, they learn that there
are some general circumstances that strongly relate to the way they feel. For example,
people behave lovingly with their parents because it feels good; they realize that when
people pay attention to their words or actions they feel powerful; by making choices they
feel the importance of freedom; and through laughter they learn about fun.
Even though human needs are essentially the same for everyone, the behaviours through
which individuals choose to satisfy those needs may be quite different. Beginning at
birth, individuals have unique experiences that feel either pleasurable or painful. Through
these experiences, individuals learn how to satisfy their needs. Because individuals have
different experiences, the things they learn to do to satisfy their needs will be different as
well. Each individual has memories of need-fulfilling behaviours specific to his or her
unique life experiences. These pleasurable memories constitute the individual’s quality
world and become the most important part of the person’s life. For most people, this
quality world is composed of pictures (or, more accurately, perceptions) representing
what they have most enjoyed in life. These perceptions become the standard for
behavioural choices. Unlike the basic survival needs, which are the same for everyone,
the perceptions in each person’s quality world are very specific and completely
individual. Individuals choose to behave in different ways to fulfill their needs because
their quality worlds are different. To be in effective control of one’s life means
integrating this knowledge into the way one deals with others.
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To satisfy the basic needs, a person must behave. This means acting, thinking, feeling,
and involving the body, all of which are components of the total behaviour generated in
the effort to get what is wanted. Whenever there is a discrepancy between what one wants
and what one has, the internal behavioural system is activated. The motivation is always
to behave, not only for present needs but, after those are satisfied, for future needs.
People innately reject being controlled by others because they are capable of fulfilling
only their own needs. Loss of control to another is dysfunctional and runs counter to the
fulfillment of needs.
To satisfy needs, people must be able to sense what is going on both around them and
within them, and then be able to act on that information. When we sense a discrepancy
between what we have and what we want, we behave by acting upon the world and upon
ourselves as a part of the world. If we examine this behaviour, it may seem to be
composed of four different behaviours, but these are actually four components of what is
always a total behaviour. These four components, which always occur synchronously, are
as follows:
1. Doing (e.g., walking, talking)
2. Thinking (e.g., reasoning, fantasizing)
3. Feeling (e.g., angering, depressing)
4. Physiology (e.g., sweating, headaching)
The feeling component of behaviour is typically the most obvious. However, the more a
person can recognize that feelings are just one component of total behaviour, the more
the person will be in control of his or her life. Glasser (1984) explains that, as individuals
learn Choice Theory, they stop using nouns (like depression) that describe only the
feeling component of total behaviour and begin to use verbs that more accurately
describe total behaviour. Thus, verbs like depressing, anxietying, and headaching replace
nouns like depression, anxiety, and headache. The value in learning about total behaviour
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is that it enables people to choose behaviours to satisfy their needs more effectively.
Glasser (1984) illustrates total behaviour by relating how he might deal with a frustrating
situation-failure to pass an important examination:
In most situations, people are more tuned in to their feelings than their actions, thoughts, or
physiology. It is unlikely that an individual would mention all the components described in
this passage if asked how he or she was doing after failing an examination; most likely the
person would talk about the feeling component - being upset or depressed about the situation.
When people are asked to talk about a complex situation, they tend to describe the most
obvious or recognizable factor. Glasser (1984) says that most people are much more aware of
one component of behaviour than of others and, hence, tend to view it as a discrete behaviour,
not as part of a total behaviour. By recognizing that the feeling component is just one of four
that make up total behaviour, people can be more in control of their lives.
When people begin to think in terms of total behaviours, they can see that they choose
these behaviours and have the option to change them. The most direct way to change a
total behaviour is to change the behaviour’s doing and thinking components. We have
almost total control over the doing component of behaviour and some control over the
thinking component; we have less control over the feeling component and very little
control over physiological phenomena. Behaviour in its totality ultimately gives us
control over all components. When we change what we are doing, we will notice that our
thoughts, feelings, and physiological responses change as well. Returning to Glasser’s
(1984) narrative, we see that he deals with the disappointment of the failed exam by
changing the doing and thinking components of behaviour and, thus, the total behaviour:
Ten Axioms of Choice Theory
1) The only person whose behaviour we can control is our own.
2) All we can give another person is information.
3) All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems.
4) The problem relationship is always part of our present life.
5) What happened in the past has everything to do with what we are today, but we can
only satisfy our basic needs right now and plan to continue satisfying them in the
future.
6) We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our Quality World.
7) All we do is behaviour
8) All behaviour is total Behaviour and is made up of four components: acting,
thinking, feeling and physiology.
9) All Total Behaviour is chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and
thinking components. We can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly
through how we choose to act and think.
10) All Total Behaviour is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most
recognizable.
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1. Define the undesired behaviour, and enlist most commonly exhibited undesired
behaviour by the students in the class.
2. Discuss how teachers can overcome the undesired behaviour of the students.
3. Elaborate the problems faced by the less experienced teachers while putting theory
into practice.
4. Elaborate the principles of effective teaching.
5. Discuss the applicability of the William Glasser’s Choice Theory.
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5.6 Suggested Reading/References
Donna K. Crawford, Richard J. Bodine, Robert G. Hoglund. (1993). The School For
Quality Learning: Managing The School And Classroom The Deming Way. The
University of Michigan. Research Press
http://www.choicetheory.com/ct.htm
Good, T.; Brophy, J. (2000). Looking in Classrooms, 8th ed. New York, Longman.
Hunt, Barbara C. (2009). Teacher Effectiveness: A Review of the International Literature and
Its Relevance for Improving Education in Latin America. Washington, DC: PREAL.
Kyriacou, C. (2009). Effective Teaching in Schools: Theory and Practice (Third Edition).
United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes Ltd
Reeve, J. M. & Halusic, M. (2009). How K-12 Teachers can Put Self-determination Theory
Principles into Practice. Theory and Research in Education, vol. 7 (2) 145–154 ISSN 1477-
8785.
William Glasser, M.D. (1998) The Quality School: Managing Students Without
Coercion. New York: Harper Perennial Publishers.
Midlarsky, Elizabeth, Bryan, James H. and Brickman, Philip, (1973). Aversive Approval:
Interactive Effects of Modeling and Reinforcement on Altruistic Behaviour. Child
Development, 44(2), 321-328.
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UNIT–6
MODELS OF BEHAVIOURAL
MANAGEMENT
Written By:
Shaheen Ashraf Tahirkheli
Reviewed By:
Dr. Naveed Sultana
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CONTENTS
Introduction................................................................................................... 125
Objectives ..................................................................................................... 125
6.1 The Behaviourist Theory ............................................................................... 126
6.1.1 Theoretical Assumptions of Behaviourist Theory .............................. 126
6.1.2 Background of Theory ...................................................................... 126
6.1.3 Classical Conditioning...................................................................... 126
6.1.4 Reinforcement .................................................................................. 127
6.1.5 Punishment ....................................................................................... 128
6.1.6 Drawbacks........................................................................................ 128
6.2 Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology............................................................ 129
6.2.1 Striving for Success or Superiority.................................................... 130
6.2.2 Striving for Personal Superiority....................................................... 130
6.2.3 Subjective Perceptions ...................................................................... 131
6.2.4 Style of Life...................................................................................... 131
6.2.5 Creative Power.................................................................................. 132
6.3 Behavioural Group Management Theory ....................................................... 133
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INTRODUCTION
Behaviour management is a style of parent/child interactions that focuses on a positive
and pleasant approach. This approach will assist you in establishing interactions that will
promote desirable behaviour. The methods presented are not something to be used
occasionally. For these to be fully effective, you must apply consistently across all areas
of your child’s life – continually. Even though implementation can be difficult at first,
eventually these techniques will become second nature to you.
Even if you have tried some of the techniques in the past, it is important to try these
again; they may have been less consistent last time you tried. These may be taking
awhile to be effective, but keep in mind the longer the behaviour has been evident, the
longer it will take to change it. Behaviours can also change overtime. New ones appear
in the place of old. Those skills you learned in the past might be more applicable to what
you find concerning today.
It is your job to focus on the behaviour would like to increase or decrease, the more you
learn about behaviour management techniques, the more tools you’ll gather to help shape
and promote the behaviour you would like to see more often.
OBJECTIVES
After through the net, you will be in position to;
• understand the nature of behaviour
• recognize the various aspects of behaviour of different age level students
• observe diversity of behaviour
• judge different attributes of individual psychology
• know different aspects of group management
• understand the behaviour of students learning in group situation
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6.1 The Behaviourist Theory
The Behaviourist Theory stands among the major theoretical perspectives within the field
of first language acquisition. It began as a reaction against the introspective psychology
of the late 19th
and early 20th
century and dominated the study of learning throughout the
first half of the twentieth century. Although its dominance was vague by the emergence
of the Innate Theory in the mid 20th
century, still today much learning programmes firmly
stand on the foundation laid by the Behaviourist Theory.
6.1.1 Theoretical Assumptions of Behaviourist Theory
The theoretical assumptions underlying the Behaviourist Theory are as follows:
• Language learning is a habit formation resembling the formation of other habits. In
other words, Language is learned in the way in which other habits are learned.
• Learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour or knowledge. It takes
place when experience or practice causes a change in a person's knowledge or behaviour.
• Language learning is an external event, because it involves an observable change in
behaviour brought about by the stimuli coming from the environment. It does not
involve any unobservable change in mental knowledge. All behaviours can be
explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.
• Only human beings have the capacity for language learning. They acquire a language
as discrete units of habits, independently trained, not as an integrated system.
6.1.2 Background of the Theory
The behaviourist school of thought ran parallel with the psychoanalysis movement in
psychology in the 20th
century. The Behaviourist Theory was first introduced in 1913 by
the American psychologist John B. Watson. Watson is credited by some with coining the
term "behaviourism". Watson’s view was largely influenced by the research of the
Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov during the early 1900s. The most influential version
of this theory is put forward by B. F. Skinner in 1959. His version of Behaviourism is
best known as Radical Behaviourism.
Experiments by the behaviourists identify conditioning as a universal learning process.
Conditionings are primarily of two types, each yielding a different behavioural pattern:
6.1.3 Classical Conditioning
This conditioning was first described by the Russian physiologist IvanPavlov, in 1903
through his experiment on dogs. The general idea of Pavlov’s experiment is this: Pavlov
presented dogs with food to examine their salivary response. He rang a bell just before
serving the food. At first the dogs did not salivate until the food is served. However, when the
bell was rung at repeated feedings, the sound of bell alone caused the dogs to salivate.
Food (Unconditioned Stimulus) Salivation (Unconditioned response)
Food + Bell (conditioned Stimulus) Salivation (conditioned response)
Bell (conditioned Stimulus) Salivation (conditioned response)
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
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Thus in classical conditioning an unconditioned stimulus (food) is paired with a conditioned
stimulus (bell). When they repeatedly occur in pair, the conditioned stimulus acquires the
capacity to produce a conditioned response (salivation). Subsequently, the conditioned
stimulus alone can produce a conditioned response.
Subsequently, it was studied in infants by John B. Watson. Like Pavlov, he was originally
involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human behaviour.
Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of
love and rage. All other behaviour is established through stimulus-response associations
through conditioning.
Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child
(Albert) and a white rat. Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a
sudden loud noise whenever Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the
loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. The fear was
generalised to other small animals. Watson then extinguished the fear by presenting the
rat without the loud noise. Some accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear
was more powerful and permanent than it really was.
Instrumental or Operant Conditioning: Expanding on Watson’s basic stimulus-response
model, Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning, known as operant
conditioning.Skinner’s model was based on the premise that effective language behaviour
consists of producing responses (behaviours) to the correct stimuli (situation). When
a response is followed by a reinforcer (reward) then it is conditioned to occur again. Thus
operant conditioning was used by Skinner to describe the effects of the consequences of a
particular behaviour on the future occurrence of the behaviour. Reinforcement and
punishment are the core ideas of operant conditioning:
6.1.4 Reinforcement
A reinforcer is a stimulus (encouraging activity) that increases the frequency/occurrence
of a response it follows. The act of following a response with a reinforcer is called
reinforcement. Reinforcement (prize) can be classified into the following types:
(i) Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is the encouragement of a desired
response (behaviour) by a pleasant stimulus. It increases the probability of the
reoccurrence of the same response to the same situation. For example, if the child
produces an alternative which is appropriate to the situation, the mother will reward
him/her with some sign of approval (such as smiles, hugs, or food). This approval
or reward will encourage him to repeat the same response to the same situation.
(ii) Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement is the discouragement of an
undesired response (behaviour) by an unpleasant stimulus. It decreases the
probability of the reoccurrence of the same response to the same situation. For
example: If the child produces an utterance which is inappropriate to the situation,
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he/she will not be rewarded. Consequently, the child will not repeat the same
response to the same situation.
6.1.5 Punishment
Punishment is used to erase undesirable behaviours by presenting a distressing stimulus
when the behaviour occurs. Punishment can be classified into the following types:
(i) Positive Punishment: An undesirable stimulus is received after behaviour occurs.
For example, if the learner fails to follow the class then he will be given detention.
(ii) Negative Punishment: A desirable stimulus is lost or removed after a behavior
occurs. For example, if the learner fails to follow the class rules then he will not be
given any recess hour.
Thus, it is quite visible that the Behaviourist Theory (as propounded by Skinner) is
represented as a “stimulus – response – reinforcement” chain. For better understanding,
this chain can be demonstrated in the following illustration:
The Behaviourist Theory explains two major aspects. It firstly explains how the child
produces speech. It secondly explains how he/she understands speech. Positive and
negative reinforcement contain various adult utterances which function as discriminating
stimuli for the production of the child’s responses (behaviours). When the child hears these
adult utterances he/she tries to imitate them to produce his/her speech. The child earns the
ability to understand a speech when he/she becomes able to produce an utterance which is
appropriate to the situation. Reinforcement can come from different sources. The mother is
the primary source of reinforcement because she has to take care of the child almost all the
time. The people around him/her can also provide reinforcement.
6.1.6 Drawbacks
Although sound in many ways, the theory is not free from limitations. The shortcomings
of this theory are as follows:
Firstly, the Behaviourist Theory completely ignores the inborn aspect of human
knowledge.
Secondly, the theory puts over emphasis on the role of imitation and ignores completely
the creativity of the child, making him/her somewhat passive viewer than actor in the
process of language acquisition.
Thirdly, the Behaviourist Theory seems to be somewhat mechanical in nature, since the
child is considered a passive object.
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Fourthly, it cannot develop the child’s problem solving skills. The child may find
himself/herself in a situation where the stimulus to the correct response does not occur. In
such cases the child will not be able to respond.
Fifthly, it fails to explain how the child understands utterances he/she has never heard
before, or produces new and unique utterances.
Finally, the Behaviourist Theory cannot explain how the child proceeds in his/her
journey of language acquisition at such a young age.
Activity-1
Make an observational sheet of different behaviours of individuals exhibited in a
specified time, during classroom teaching.
6.2 Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology:
Alfred Adler was neither a terrorist nor a person driven mad by ambition. Indeed, his
individual psychology presents an optimistic view of people while resting heavily on the
notion of social interest, that is, a feeling of oneness with all mankind. In addition to
Adler’s more optimistic look at people, several other differences made the relationship
between Freud and Adler quite tenuous. First, Freud reduced all motivation to sex and
aggression, whereas Adler saw people as being motivated mostly by social influences
and by their striving for superiority or success; second, Freud assumed that people have
little or no choice in shaping their personality, whereas Adler believed that people are
largely responsible for who they are; third, Freud’s assumption that present behaviour is
caused by past experiences was directly opposed to Adler’s notion that present behaviour
is shaped by people’s view of the future; and fourth, in contrast to Freud, who placed
very heavy emphasis on unconscious components of behaviour, Adler believed that
psychologically healthy people are usually aware of what they are doing and why they
are doing it. As we have seen, Adler was an original member of the small clique of
physicians who met in Freud’s home on Wednesday evenings to discuss psychological
topics. However, when theoretical and personal differences between Adler and Freud
emerged, Adler left the Freud circle and established an opposing theory, which became
known as individual psychology.
Although Alfred Adler has had a profound effect on such later theorists as Harry Stack
Sullivan, Karen Horney, Julian Rotter, Abraham H. Maslow, Carl Rogers, Albert Ellis,
Rollo May, and others (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999), his name is less well known than that
of either Freud or Carl Jung. At least three reasons account for this. First, Adler did not
establish a tightly run organization to perpetuate his theories. Second, he was not a
particularly gifted writer, and most of his books were compiled by a series of editors
using Adler’s scattered lectures. Third, many of his views were incorporated into the
works of such later theorists as Maslow, Rogers, and Ellis and thus are no longer
associated with Adler’s name. Although his writings revealed great insight into the depth
and complexities of human personality, Adler evolved a basically simple and
parsimonious theory. To Adler, people are born with weak, inferior bodies—a condition
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that leads to feelings of inferiority and a consequent dependence on other people.
Therefore, a feeling of unity with others (social interest) is inherent in people and the
ultimate standard for psychological health. More specifically, the main tenets of Adlerian
theory can be stated in outline form. The following is adapted from a list that represents
the final statement of individual psychology (Adler, 1964).
1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behaviour is the striving for success or
superiority.
2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behaviour and personality.
3. Personality is unified and self-consistent.
4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest.
5. The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life.
6. Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
6.2.1 Striving for Success or Superiority
The first tenet of Adlerian theory is: The one dynamic force behind people’s behaviour is
the striving for success or superiority. Adler reduced all motivation to a single drive—the
striving for success or superiority. Adler’s own childhood was marked by physical
deficiencies and strong feelings of competitiveness with his older brother. Individual
psychology holds that everyone begins life with physical deficiencies that activate
feelings of inferiority—feelings that motivate a person to strive for either superiority or
success. Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority, whereas
psychologically healthy people seek success for all humanity. Early in his career, Adler
believed that aggression was the dynamic power behind all motivation, but he soon
became dissatisfied with this term. After rejecting as a single motivational force, Adler
used the term masculine protest, which implied will to power or a domination of others.
However, he soon abandoned masculine protest as a universal drive while continuing to
give it a limited role in his theory of abnormal development. Next, Adler called the single
dynamic force striving for superiority. In his final theory, however, he limited striving for
superiority to those people who strive for personal superiority over others and introduced
the term striving for success to describe actions of people who are motivated by highly
developed social interest (Adler, 1956). Regardless of the motivation for striving, each
individual is guided by a final goal.
6.2.2 Striving for Personal Superiority
Some people strive for superiority with little or no concern for others. Their goals are
personal ones, and their strivings are motivated largely by exaggerated feelings of
personal inferiority, or the presence of an inferiority complex. Murderers, thieves, and
con artists are obvious examples of people who strive for personal gain. Some people
create clever disguises for their personal striving and may consciously or unconsciously
hide their self-centeredness behind the cloak of social concern. A college teacher, for
example, may appear to have a great interest in his students because he establishes a
personal relationship with many of them. By conspicuously displaying much sympathy
and concern, he encourages vulnerable students to talk to him about their personal
problems. This teacher possesses a private intelligence that allows him to believe that he
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is the most accessible and dedicated teacher in his college. To a casual observer, he may
appear to be motivated by social interest, but his actions are largely self-serving and
motivated by overcompensation for his exaggerated feelings of personal superiority.
6.2.3 Subjective Perceptions
Adler’s second tenet is: People’s subjective perceptions shape their behaviour and
personality.
People strive for superiority or success to compensate for feelings of inferiority, but the
manner in which they strive is not shaped by reality but by their subjective perceptions of
reality, that is, by their fictions, or expectations of the future.
Fictionalism
Our most important fiction is the goal of superiority or success, a goal we created early in
life and may not clearly understand. This subjective, fictional final goal guides our style
of life, gives unity to our personality. Adler’s ideas on factionalism originated with Hans
Vaihinger’s book The Philosophy of “As If” (1911/1925). Vaihinger believed that
fictions are ideas that have no real existence, yet they influence people as if they really
existed. One example of a fiction might be: “Men are superior to women.” Although this
notion is a fiction, many people, both men and women, act as if it were a reality. A
second example might be: “Humans have a free will that enables them to make choices.”
Again, many people act as if they and others have a free will and are thus responsible for
their choices. No one can prove that free will exists, yet this fiction guides the lives of
most of us. People are motivated not by what is true but by their subjective perceptions of
what are true. A third example of a fiction might be a belief in an omnipotent God who
rewards good and punishes evil. Such a belief guides the daily lives of millions of people
and helps shape many of their actions. Whether true or false, fictions have a powerful
influence on people’s lives.
Social Interest
The fourth of Adler’s tenets is: The value of all human activity must be seen from the
viewpoint of social interest. Social interest is Adler’s somewhat misleading translation of
his original German term. A better translation might be “social feeling” or “community
feeling,” but this term actually has a meaning that is not fully expressed by any English
word or phrase. Roughly, it means a feeling of oneness with all humanity; it implies
membership in the social community of all people. A person with well-developed
community feeling strives not for personal superiority but for perfection for all people in
an ideal community. Social interest can be defined as an attitude of relatedness with
humanity in general as well as empathy for each member of the human community. It
manifests itself as cooperation with others for social advancement rather than for personal
gain (Adler, 1964).
6.2.4 Style of Life
Adler’s fifth tenet is: The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s
style of life.
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Style of life is the term Adler used to refer to the flavour of a person’s life. It includes a
person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude towards the world. It is the
product of the interaction of heredity, environment, and a person’s creative power. Adler
(1956) used a musical analogy to elucidate style of life. The separate notes of a composition
are meaningless without the entire melody, but the melody takes on added significance
when we recognize the composer’s style or unique manner of expression. A person’s style
of life is fairly well established by age 4 or 5. After that time, all our actions revolve around
our unified style of life. Although the final goal is singular, style of life need not be narrow
or rigid. Psychologically unhealthy individuals often lead rather inflexible lives that are
marked by an inability to choose new ways of reacting to their environment. In contrast,
psychologically healthy people behave in diverse and flexible ways with styles of life that
are complex, enriched, and changing. Healthy people see many ways of striving for success
and continually seek to create new options for themselves. Even though their final goal
remains constant, the way in which they perceive it continually changes. Thus, they can
choose new options at any point in life.
People with a healthy, socially useful style of life express their social interest through
action. They actively struggle to solve what Adler regarded as the three major problems of
life—neighborly love, sexual love, and occupation—and they do so through cooperation,
personal courage, and a willingness to make a contribution to the welfare of another. Adler
(1956) believed that people with a socially useful style of life represent the highest form of
humanity in the evolutionary process and are likely to populate the world of the future.
6.2.5 Creative Power
The final tenet of Adlerian theory is: Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
Each person, Adler believed, is empowered with the freedom to create her or his own style of
life. Ultimately, all people are responsible for who they are and how they behave. Their
creative power places them in control of their own lives, is responsible for their final goal,
determines their method of striving for that goal, and contributes to the development of social
interest. In short, creative power makes each person a free individual. Creative power is a
dynamic concept implying movement, and this movement is the most salient characteristic of
life. All psychic life involves movement toward a goal, movement with a direction (Adler,
1964). Adler (1956) acknowledged the importance of heredity and environment in forming
personality. Except for identical twins, every child is born with a unique genetic makeup and
soon comes to have social experiences different from those of any other human. People,
however, are much more than a product of heredity and environment. They are creative
beings who not only react to their environment but also act on it and cause it to react to them.
Each person uses heredity and environment as the bricks and mortar to build personality, but
the architectural design reflects that person’s own style. Of primary importance is not what
people have been given, but how they put those materials to use. The building materials of
personality are secondary. We are our own architect and can build either a useful or a useless
style of life. We can choose to construct a gaudy façade or to expose the essence of the
structure. We are not compelled to grow in the direction of social interest, inasmuch as we
have no inner nature that forces us to be good. Conversely, we have no inherently evil nature
from which we must escape. We are who we are because of the use we have made of our
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bricks and mortar. Adler (1929/1964) used an interesting analogy, which he called “the law
of the low doorway.” If you are trying to walk through a doorway four feet high, you have
two basic choices. First, you can use your creative power to bend down as you approach the
doorway, thereby successfully solving the problem. This is the manner in which the
psychologically healthy individual solves most of life’s problems. Conversely, if you bump
your head and fall back, you must still solve the problem correctly or continue bumping your
head. Neurotics often choose to bump their head on the realities of life. When approaching
the low doorway, you are neither compelled to stoop nor forced to bump your head. You have
a creative power that permits you.
Activity-2
Ask the students to create a favorable condition by role playing.
6.3 Behavioural Group Management Theory
As management research continued in the 20th century, questions began to come up
regarding the interactions and motivations of the individual within academic institutions.
Management principles developed during the classical period were simply not useful in
dealing with many management situations and could not explain the behaviour of
individuals. In short, classical theory ignored employee motivation and behaviour. As a
result, the behavioural school was a natural outgrowth of this revolutionary management
experiment.
The behavioural group management theory is often called the human relations
movement because it addresses the human dimension. Behavioural theorists believed that
a better understanding of human behaviour, such as motivation, conflict, expectations,
and group dynamics, improved productivity and learning.
The theorists who contributed to this school viewed learners as individuals, resources,
and assets to be developed and worked with — not as machines, as in the past. Several
individuals and experiments contributed to this theory.
Elton Mayo's contributions came as part of the Hawthorne studies, a series of
experiments that rigorously applied classical management theory only to reveal its
shortcomings. The Hawthorne experiments consisted of two studies conducted at the
Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago from 1924 to 1932. The
first study was conducted by a group of engineers seeking to determine the relationship of
lighting levels to worker productivity. Surprisingly enough, they discovered that worker
productivity increased as the lighting levels decreased — that is, until the employees
were unable to see what they were doing, after which performance naturally declined.
A few years later, a second group of experiments began. Harvard researchers Mayo and
F. J. Roethlisberger supervised a group of five women in a bank wiring room. They gave
the women special privileges, such as the right to leave their workstations without
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permission, take rest periods, enjoy free lunches, and have variations in pay levels and
workdays. This experiment also resulted in significantly increased rates of productivity.
In this case, Mayo and Roethlisberger concluded that the increase in productivity resulted
from the supervisory arrangement rather than the changes in lighting or other associated
worker benefits. Because the experimenters became the primary supervisors of the
employees, the intense interest they displayed for the workers was the basis for the
increased motivation and resulting productivity. Essentially, the experimenters became a
part of the study and influenced its outcome. This is the origin of the term Hawthorne
effect, which describes the special attention researchers give to a study's subjects and the
impact that attention has on the study's findings.
The general conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that human relations and the
social needs of workers are crucial aspects of business management. This principle of
human motivation helped revolutionize theories and practices of management.
Abraham Maslow, a practicing psychologist, developed one of the most widely
recognized need theories, a theory of motivation based upon a consideration of human
needs. His theory of human needs had three assumptions:
• Human needs are never completely satisfied.
• Human behaviour is purposeful and is motivated by the need for satisfaction.
• Needs can be classified according to a hierarchical structure of importance, from
the lowest to highest.
Maslow broke down the needs hierarchy into five specific areas:
• Physiological needs. Maslow grouped all physical needs necessary for maintaining
basic human well-being, such as food and drink, into this category. After the need
is satisfied, however, it is no longer is a motivator.
• Safety needs. These needs include the need for basic security, stability, protection,
and freedom from fear. A normal state exists for an individual to have all these
needs generally satisfied. Otherwise, they become primary motivators.
• Belonging and love needs. After the physical and safety needs are satisfied and are
no longer motivators, the need for belonging and love emerges as a primary
motivator. The individual strives to establish meaningful relationships with
significant others.
• Esteem needs. An individual must develop self-confidence and wants to achieve
status, reputation, fame, and glory.
• Self-actualization needs. Assuming that all the previous needs in the hierarchy are
satisfied, an individual feels a need to find himself.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory helped managers visualize employee motivation.
Douglas McGregor was heavily influenced by both the Hawthorne studies and Maslow.
He believed that two basic kinds of managers exist. One type, the Theory X manager, has
a negative view of employees and assumes that they are lazy, untrustworthy, and
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incapable of assuming responsibility. On the other hand, the Theory Y manager assumes
that employees are not only trustworthy and capable of assuming responsibility, but also
have high levels of motivation.
An important aspect of McGregor's idea was his belief that managers who hold either set
of assumptions can create self-fulfilling prophecies — that through their behaviour,
these managers create situations where subordinates act in ways that confirm the
manager's original expectations.
As a group, these theorists discovered that people worked for inner satisfaction and not
materialistic rewards, shifting the focus to the role of individuals in an organization's
performance.
The following are some practical strategies and resources to assist teachers with
classroom behaviour. Whilst there are a number of techniques teachers use to manage
student behaviour, a productive class is the result of the complex interaction of many
factors. In the language of the NSW Quality Teaching model this will include, but is by
no means confined to: Engagaging students, having clear and appropriate but High
Expectations and setting Quality Criteria for the tasks set.
Some suggestions from the element - Student's Self-regulation - in the model are:
• Ensure activities are purposeful and interesting with clear goals that students
perceive to be worthwhile.
• Provide adequate and relevant learning resources which offer students choice and
the motivation to participate.
• Negotiate a shared understanding, expectation and acceptance of responsibilities
and rights within the classroom, e.g. collaboratively develop a code of conduct, and
provide choice and decision-making opportunities for students.
• Encourage student self-evaluation of progress and achievement on learning tasks.
• Ensure students understand the consequences of choices and of their behaviours.
1. Describe Behaviourist Theory as child habit changing theory.
2. Pain Model of behaviour is true representative of child’s behaviour.
3. How Behaviourists Theory helps in promoting good behaviour.
4. Describe Alfred Alder’s theory keeping in view that ‘man’ is a unit.
5. Behavioural group management theory is a theory of human dimension, Explain.
6. How behaviour study helps the teacher to enhance his teaching ability.
7. Describe various aspects of behaviour management theories.
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Ayrault, Evelyn West. (1977) Growing Up Handicapped. NewYork: Seabury Press.
Caraway, Mitch. (1993) "Dealing With Children With Special Needs," Northeast District
Inservice, Ohio State University Extension, Wooster.
Turecki, Stanley, and Wernick, Sarah. (1994) The Emotional Problems of Normal
Children. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell.
Ervin, RA, Radford, PM, Bertsch, K, Piper, AL, Ehrhardt, KE & Poling, A (2001) A
descriptive analysis and critique of the empirical literature on school-based functional
assessment. School Psychology Review. 30, 193-210.
O’Neill, Horner, Albin, Sprague & Storey (1997) Functional Assessment and Program
Development for Problem Behaviour: A Practical Handbook.
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UNIT–7
CLASSROOM STRATEGIES FOR
RESPONDING DIFFICULT BEHAVIOURS
Written By:
Shaheen Ashraf Tahirkheli
Reviewed By:
Dr Naveed Sultana
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CONTENTS
Introduction.............................................................................................. 139
Objectives................................................................................................. 139
7.1 Nature of Difficult/problematic Students............................................... 140
7.1.1 Root Causes of Behaviour Differences...................................... 140
7.2 Principles of Behaviour Correction ........................................................ 142
7.3 Reward Systems....................................................................................... 145
7.3.1 Sanctions and Punishments ........................................................ 145
7.4 Praise and Incentive Rewards System.................................................... 146
7.5 Suggestions for Individual and Class Reward Systems ........................ 147
7.6 Self Assessment Questions ..................................................................... 148
7.7 References/Suggested Readings ............................................................. 148
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INTRODUCTION
Education is a process that brings a positive change in character, abilities and behaviour
of a child. Behaviour, therefore, is the way an individual acts towards people, society or
objects. It can be either bad or good. It can be normal or abnormal according to society
norms. Society will always try to correct bad behaviour and try to bring abnormal
behaviour back to normal. Many children display inappropriate or problem behaviours in
the classroom which can make it difficult for them to learn, cause harm to the child or
others and isolate the child from his or her peers. Behaviour is highly determined by the
function it serves within the immediate situation; however there are influences on
behaviour, called environmental factors, which are not immediately visible in the
classroom situation. These factors may include problems at home, problems on the bus,
and so on. Other important influences include specific individual vulnerabilities of the
child. These vulnerabilities can lead to problematic reactions to situations that other
children handle with greater competence and composure. While the range of these
influences is practically endless, some common ones are worth mention. Child factors
that can influence a behavioural response in a given situation include temperament,
presence of a psychiatric disorder, developmental factors (most notably learning
disabilities), medical conditions, and medications. Social environment factors to consider
include teacher behaviour or characteristics, home environment, peer environment, and
the family’s relationship with the school.
OBJECTIVES
After the study of this chapter, the prospective teachers will be able to;
• know the instinct of the nature of problematic child
• help prospective teachers identify behaviour problems
• respond effectively against the behaviour of problematic child.
• plan reward system for problematic children.
• develop the incentive system for problematic children.
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7.1 Nature of Difficult/Problematic Students
All children have behaviour problems, some being harder to accept than others. Some of
these behaviours can cause children to be aggressive, hostile and difficult to handle,
which may emphasize their respective limitations. As parents, we are our children's first
and foremost teacher. We need to establish our plan for accomplishing rules and
expectations.
When children react with aggression towards what was seemingly a simple request the
underlying principle may be one of frustration. If tasks they could accomplish yesterday
can't be done today, they become angry. If the tasks become more difficult or more
restrictions are applied, they may react with anger. When expectations are raised,
children may become fearful that they can't accomplish what is expected. The fear may
become overwhelming causing children to react to others in a negative manner. The type
of aggression exhibited is determined by the problems that are presented. Sometimes
subtle actions like not eating their food or bedwetting may be their response. Sometimes
more violent actions become a way of controlling the situation. It becomes clear that even
if the children can't communicate their frustration, they can act out the frustration and
achieve attention.
7.1.1 Root Causes of Behaviour Differences
The following are the root causes of behaviour differences:
1. individual differences
2. differences in family patterns
3. impairment/disabilities
4. environmental factors
5. psychological factors.
1. Individual Differences
Pupils change because of growth and development. This is likely to cause differences in
them. Key aspects of these differences include:
a) Sex differences
b) Intellectual differences
c) Physical differences
d) Personal and emotional differences.
e) Differences in family patterns
a) Sex Differences
Each of us is born a boy or a girl, and this in itself is a difference. However, the real
differences are anatomical and physiological, i.e., the organs of the body and
physique. These cause many differences in behaviour. While girls are regarded as
soft and tender, boys are regarded as strong and vigorous. This tends to influence
the kind of activities they indulge in when in school, and hence cause behaviour
differences. Boys may tend to choose physical activities, e.g., a four hundred meter
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race, while the girls do not. However, the problem is that women are often regarded
as the weaker sex, and considered unable to perform as males in several fields.
Such misconceptions and attitudes sometimes influence women assuming pre-
determined roles.
b) Intellectual Differences
You should be aware that there are intellectual differences among individuals.
Some are bright, others dull, while some are geniuses. You may have noticed that
those with low marks suffer from an inferiority complex. Others suffer from a
superiority complex, and think highly of themselves. For your pupils to be able to
work in harmony, you will need to guide and counsel both groups.
c) Physical Differences
People differ in:
– Physical appearance
– Facial features
– Growth and development rate
– Energy
– Posture
– Height, weight and volume.
You may have observed that physical differences make some people dull, others
active, more able, etc. Similarly with intelligence, those who are weaker may feel
inferior and vice versa. This inferiority may result in behaviour problems, e.g.,
isolation from peers.
d) Personal and Emotional Differences
You may have observed that pupils differ in interests, ability, aspirations, belief,
attitudes and other personality traits. If a pupil fails to develop his personality, he
may fail to reach his goals. Such failure usually leads to emotional outbursts; and a
pupil may become frustrated or desperate.
e) Differences in Family Patterns
Parents have traditionally been held responsible for their children’s behaviour or
character, until they reach adolescence. When youngsters misbehave, the natural
tendency is to blame it on parental mismanagement or family disintegration. You
should, however, note that your pupils' behaviour patterns can be influenced by
family patterns and practices.
Activity-1
Visit some school and observe children of different age levels. Record your
observation and identify the nature of problematic children.
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7.2 Principles of Behaviour Correction
Principle 1: Negative consequences sometimes change behaviour, but they do not change
attitude.
In children who consider consequence structures, negative consequences such as time
out, sentence writing, restriction of privileges, verbal correction, and physical
punishment, as well as others, will effect at least temporary behaviour change. Unless
used in combination with equally powerful positive reinforcement strategies, they will,
however, worsen the negative attitudes that underlie the misbehaviour and increase the
likelihood of subsequent misbehaviour. So these temporary changes should not be made
permanent by negative handling.
Principle 2: Only positive reinforcement strategies produce long-term attitudinal change.
As children grow older and into adulthood, positive behaviour is not maintained through the
threat of negative consequences; it is maintained because the individual has an internal
attitude or value system, which discriminates between right and wrong behaviours. In the
long term, children behave properly because they want to, not because they are forced to.
Principle 3: Negative consequences do not improve the behaviour of impulsive children and
frequently increase the frequency and intensity of misbehaviour.
Impulsive children, by definition, do not consider the consequence structure prior to initiation
of the behaviour. No matter how negative the consequence, it cannot influence behaviour
unless it is considered prior to the behaviour itself. In impulsive children, the consideration of
the consequences comes after the behaviour, meaning that it has been outside conscious
cognitive control. When punished for behaviours that are outside their control, they learn
helplessness and respond emotionally with anger, resignation, and eventually depression.
Principle 4: Cognitive control of behaviour can be learned through the use of
appropriate positive reinforcement systems.
Even very impulsive and behaviourally difficult children can learn greater behavioural
control through cognitive strategies. Time out works very well if used for brief periods
for the purpose of establishing emotional control and behavioural calm, and if the time-
out period is followed by cognitive discussion of the reasons for misbehaviour with
appropriate positive alternatives. Where possible, the alternative positive behaviours
should be practiced and positively reinforced, even if the behaviour occurs only with the
direct instigation of an adult. Cognitive cueing strategies, which rely on nonverbal cues
for self-control, are the most effective long term strategy for controlling impulsive
behaviour, but their effective use requires much consistency and patience on the part of
the adults involved in the behaviour management system.
Principle 5: Positive reinforcement systems must be incremental in nature such that the
child can directly observe even small improvements in behaviour.
Many children with significant behavioural problems are very discouraging regarding the
possibility that they can effect positive changes in their lives. Positive reinforcement
systems which have expectations set too high, such that it is difficult for the child to earn
rewards at the outset are a cause of further discouragement and have a negative effect on
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esteem. Systems that have expectations too low however, where almost all children
involved in the program receive the same reward, devalue the accomplishments of the
child who makes very significant progress, and can be equally esteem defeating. Well-
designed positive reinforcement systems rely on incremental rewards where the range of
reinforcement varies from no reinforcement to mild reinforcement to moderate
reinforcement to intense reinforcement, so that the child can witness in a visible and
tangible way relative levels of progress.
Principle 6: You must always reinforce the final compliance with adult authority no
matter how long it takes to get there.
Many children in management systems require numerous requests, or even commands,
before their behaviour finally complies with adult expectation. The tendency is not to
provide positive reinforcement after many reminders, since adult patience is limited and
the adult expectation is that the child should do what he is told the first time.
Unfortunately, if no positive reinforcement is provided following the final compliance,
all that children learn is that there is no reason to comply. The imposition of negative
consequences following compliance only increases the likelihood that non-compliant
behaviour will occur in the future.
Besides these principles, there are many other techniques which help to correct or modify
the problematic behaviour of students.
1. Positive Reinforcement
This is applied where there is a need to promote desirable behaviour. You want to
encourage a student to keep tidy books. You observe the target behaviour, and
reward it with praise or a prize.
2. Extinction or Ignore Technique
This is applied when a student’s behaviour (usually self-defeating), is best
eliminated. The undesired behaviour is simply ignored rather than punished or
reinforced. One particular pupil in your class often attracts your attention by calling
out ‘Sir, Sir,’ instead of putting up his hand. Calling out to you is distracting,
especially if all pupils do it at the same time. You could ignore such a pupil, until
he puts up his hand. Drawing the student's attention to the strategy may increase its
effectiveness, as will consistency in application.
3. The Modelling Technique
You could use this technique to help your pupils adopt new behaviour. The pupil is
made to observe a role model (usually someone she admires or an authority)
demonstrate desirable behaviour, or condemn undesirable behaviour. A pupil in an
upper class can, for example, be a model for pupils in a lower one. By observing
him/her, other pupils may learn to do the same.
4. The Punishment Technique
This is used when it becomes necessary to apply an aversion stimulus to correct
undesirable behaviour. When you see the many techniques available for modifying
behaviour, you may realize that this technique has been over used. Schools have been
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known to use good, honest work as ‘punishment,’ leading to stigmatization in students'
minds. Examples of this may include cutting grass or digging in the school garden.
5. Systematic Desensitization Technique
This technique is effective when dealing with anxiety and other fear-related
problems. The individual is given small doses of what is feared until a relaxed
response is built up. For example, a student who fears to speak in class may first
practise speaking only with the teacher. When she is comfortable with that, she
may be given an opportunity to speak with the teacher and two classmates. After
that, she may try to become involved in a small discussion group, and so on until
her fear is mastered and she gains the confidence to speak in class.
6. The Technique of Over-Correction
This technique is used when a mild punishment is administered for purposes of
reducing disruptive behaviour. As Achebe (cited in Nwoye, 1990) has explained, it
requires the culprit to restore the environment he has damaged to a better condition
than existed before his disruptive behaviour occurred. This is effective when a
student writes on a wall or carves on a school desk. Scrubbing, painting or sanding
damaged property may produce effective behavioural changes in the future.
7. The Time-out Technique
Time-out is used to control the occurrence of undesirable behaviour in pupils by
the withdrawal of privileges in the event of the occurrence of undesirable
behaviour. A student who disrupts classmates in the library, for example, will
probably do so because he is reinforced by doing so. The loss of library privileges,
or sitting alone for a period of time while others are together, may help to eliminate
the problems of behaviour.
8. The Technique of Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is used to encourage the occurrence of desirable behaviour
by removing obstacles against recurrence. Bed-wetting is often caused by late-night
drinks. Eliminating after dinner drinks, and perhaps instituting a wakening late at
night for going to the toilet, may help achieve a dry bed.
9. The Response Cost Technique
This technique is used to eliminate undesirable behaviour by making the culprit
forfeit something valuable. When a student fails to eat canteen food, he may lose
access to canteen privileges.
10. The Shaping Technique
Shaping develops desirable complex human behaviour. This is related to the above
example of systematic desensitization. Small successful steps are linked together to
produce major behaviour changes. A dirty student may first be taught to bathe
daily, and after a consistent behaviour change is made, hair combing may be
addressed, laundry care, etc.
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11. Assertiveness Training
Assertiveness training is used to help pupils control excessive shyness, and other
fear-related problems, that impede their ability to live fully. Assertiveness training
is a widely used behavioural technique. It is based on a combination of modeling
and operant reinforcement approaches. Its purpose is to teach people how to stand
up for themselves without being aggressive. Exploitation depends on the compliant
behaviour of the person exploited. Training can be carried out with individuals or
in groups. It is relevant for a wide range of interpersonal problems. You can use it
to increase assertive skills and reduce aggressiveness in favour of assertiveness.
Activity-2
Make a list of measures you think parents use to control the behaviour of their
children. Discuss each measure with your colleagues.
7.3 Reward System
Praise and reward systems have their origin in behaviourist psychology which in turn
underpins many of the commercial packages on promoting good discipline that are now
available to schools. In brief, these packages suggest that schools can make a difference
to children's behaviour by setting out clear rules and specifying rewards and sanctions for
breaking the rules. The essence of these systems is a belief that children can choose how
to behave. By recognising and rewarding 'good' behaviour and punishing 'bad' behaviour
it is believed that the good behaviour will be encouraged. Many commentators argue that
schools react only to 'bad' behaviour and do nothing to recognise or reinforce the good
behaviour of most young people most of the time. Critics suggest that such an approach is
too simplistic as it eliminates the context in which behaviour occurs and places total
responsibility on the individual for his or her behaviour. Despite these criticisms, praise
and reward systems are now in operation in many primary and secondary schools in
Scotland. Teachers and pupils seem to like them and they are reported as having
beneficial effects on pupil behaviour in general.
7.3.1 Sanctions and Punishments
The consequences of breaking rules are clearly specified. Again this is most effective if
sanctions are worked out collaboratively with pupils and parents. An example of
sanctions for breaking classroom rules is given below. They begin with the less severe
and gradually increase in severity:
• verbal warning;
• pupil moved to another seat;
• punishment exercise;
• pupil moved to another classroom;
• detention;
• referred to a senior member of staff;
• excluded from class;
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At some stage (perhaps if misbehaviour is persistent or serious - but not if there is an
isolated minor problem) parents are informed that their child has been given a
punishment for breaking classroom or school rules. This, in itself, should not be seen as a
sanction as that could lead to a situation in which the only time parents are personally
contacted by teachers is when there is a problem. An aspect of praise systems is that
positive contact with parents is encouraged.
7.4 Praise and Incentive Rewards System
The most novel aspect of these reward systems for teachers is recognizing good behaviour.
It seems to be much more accustomed to noticing and reacting to bad behaviour than to
acknowledging good behaviour. Research on teachers' classroom talk has shown that
teachers use praise very infrequently. Most of their talk concerns giving instructions,
explaining something or organizing their teaching material. Even where individual teachers
use praise and encourage their pupils there is very seldom a formal system for recognizing
pupils’ efforts. In contrast there is a formal system for recognizing bad behaviour.
Praise and reward systems involve the formal and public recognition of good behaviour.
Recognition is the reward. Again, the particular systems in use vary according to the
individual circumstances of each school. They typically involve a praise card or
homework diary in which the teacher stamps a mark or places a sticker to indicate good
behaviour or effort. Each stamp is worth a number of points and the accumulation of
these leads to a bronze, silver or gold award, presented at a year group or school
assembly for the most prestigious award. Schools design their own awards or certificates
and year groups in secondary schools or individual classes in primary schools can have
their own particular designs. These reward systems go a long way in bringing the
problematic students on track to get education. The recognition of their work helps
changing their behaviour.
Parents are informed about the awards to their children and can be present at the award
giving ceremony. At a lower level there can be a positive referral to a senior member of
staff for good behaviour and effort. This makes quite a change for these staff who are
accustomed to seeing pupils for indiscipline rather than for good behaviour. Schools
using these systems report a general improvement in atmosphere, although they are by no
means a panacea for all discipline problems.
Praise and reward systems can help to establish a positive atmosphere in schools by
recognizing the good behaviour and effort of pupils. Most schools have systems for
dealing with bad behaviour and many have systems for recognising the sporting and
academic achievements of pupils. Until recently fewer schools had systems for
recognizing the good behaviour of pupils. Praise and reward systems have to be part of a
larger picture of a whole school ethos of positive relationships. In other words such
systems have to be congruent with the deep structures and values of the school, otherwise
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they are doing no more than putting a Band-Aid on behaviour issues. Most schools who
have experience of these systems say that they help tackle low-level indiscipline and they
help pupils with deeper emotional and behavioural problems. However, additional
support and help is also needed for these pupils.
7.5 Suggestions for Individual and Class Reward System
Across a variety of model specifications, reward systems are found to have stable and
consistent positive impacts for student learning in reading. The effect holds across grades
and across network and non-network charter schools. Moreover, the success of
incentive/reward systems appears to hinge on a number of factors that are under the
control of the school. These are:
1. Schools whose personnel are strongly aligned in the view that reward systems are
effective fare better than schools where the support is weak or where the adults are
less aligned. Where the adults align, several important conditions arise. The rules of
the reward system are more consistently applied, which in turn leads to a more
uniform signal of expectations for students both for behaviour and for learning,
which are well documented antecedents to achievement. At the same time, having
strong confidence in the effectiveness of a reward system is likely also to improve its
impacts by reinforcing the expectations of the adults who employ it with students.
2. Schools in which there is continuous or near-continuous assessment of student
conduct produce larger gains in reading than schools that have reward systems 3but
tally up less frequently. This finding is consistent with established wisdom about
continuity in reinforcement and reward: the more constantly behaviour is
reinforced, the faster and more enduring the learning. So schools might benefit
from a redesign of their systems to provide their students more consistent and
continuous feedback.
3. The effect of reward systems is over and above any gains in academic achievement that
arise when a charter school is a member of a larger network or CMO. The effects are
roughly equivalent, and are additive. However, considering the low costs of operating
reward systems, they provide a cost-effective means to improve learning gains.
4. There are potential problems with selection bias in the schools that adopt reward
systems, but with the currently available data it is not possible to make a certain
determination. Future enhancements to the study will support deeper investigation
into this question.
Activity-3
Visit some school and interview some teachers about problematic children. Ask them
how they handle them and how they set a reward system for problematic children.
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1. How would you identify the nature of problematic students in a primary class of
primary.
2. Describe some principles to modify and correct the behaviour of problematic
children.
3. What is a reward system, how different reward systems work for the betterment of
problematic children?
4. Develop an incentive system for the class of nursery.
Baldwin, John D. and Baldwin, Janice (1981) Behaviour Principles in Everyday Life
Prentice Hall Inc. London
Behaviour Modification UNESCO February 2000
(Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1995; Schmakel, 2008)
Charton, Tony and David, Kenneth (ed) (1989) Managing Misbehaviour. MacMillan
Educ. Ltd: Hong Kong
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UNIT–8
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
TRACKING
Written by:
Muhammad Idrees
Reviewed by:
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CONTENTS
Introduction................................................................................................... 151
Objectives ..................................................................................................... 152
8.1 Classroom Management ................................................................................ 153
8.2 Assessing Problems and Needs of Teachers................................................... 155
8.3 Effective Lesson Planning ............................................................................. 158
8.4 Working with Difficult Schedules.................................................................. 162
8.5 Tools for Teaching ........................................................................................ 165
8.6 Effective Interpersonal Skills in Teaching...................................................... 173
8.7 Summary....................................................................................................... 176
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INTRODUCTION
Elements of classroom management vary from situation to situation. In understanding
this topic, it is clear that a common understanding for the term management might be
useful. For this purpose, management refers to issues of supervision, refereeing,
facilitating, and even academic discipline. The field of education is continuously
changing as well as research on areas such as classroom management. Teachers need to
continuously learn new strategies of classroom management, as well as review old
techniques in order to best serve an ever- changing population of students. Each year,
classrooms are becoming more diverse, the inclusion movement becoming stronger, and
grouping such as tracking becoming less common. The trend in the past couple of
decades has been away from rigid tracking. Without strong classroom management, it is
very difficult for students to thrive academically and socially in a non-stimulating
environment. Taking the time to improve upon one’s classroom management will result
in positive outcomes for all students.
Classroom management is the key component in any educational setting. If students are
in a safe environment, then learning can take place. This doesn’t necessarily mean
punishing behaviour problems but rather a combination of setting the tone in a class,
preventing behaviour problems with interesting and engaging curriculums and effectively
including all students in the classroom so that their needs are met.
Classroom management is the key to an environment where learning can take place and
students can feel safe participating. To create an environment that is conducive to
learning and involves all of the students, the most important part of classroom
management is not the behaviour problems but creating a good rapport with the students,
encouraging them to succeed and setting high expectations for them. Teachers who have
effective classroom management strategies might all appear to have different skills on the
surface. But scratch the surface a little, and you will discover that they all share some
core attributes like patience, determination and consistency.
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OBJECTIVES
The present unit is designed to discuss classroom management tracking. As all of us are
aware of the fact that teachers and students are two main stakeholders during classroom
instruction, therefore both of them have been discussed in detail. In this connection,
various problems faced by the teachers and their relevant needs have been highlighted.
As far as the students are concerned, they belong to various categories with respect to
their individual differences. One of the categories is of the problem children who create
discipline problems in the class and the teacher has to tackle these students as well during
instructional process. This unit also throws light on this problem. Lesson planning is an
effective tool in the hands of the teachers. A lesson plan written in an appropriate way
helps a lot to the teacher for effective teaching learning process and what is a lesson plan
and how it is developed is explained in this unit. Last but not the least; the current unit
also explains various tools for teaching and personal skills.
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
• understand the concept of classroom management
• know the problems and needs of teachers
• comprehend the concept of effective lesson planning
• know how to work with difficult students
• explain various tools for teaching like discipline, instruction and motivation
• understand personal skills of teachers
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8.1 Classroom Management
There are various definitions of what classroom management consists of. Brophy
(1996) defines classroom management as actions taken to create and maintain a learning
environment conducive to successful instruction, arranging the physical environment of
the classroom, establishing rules and procedures, maintaining attention to lessons and
engagement in academic activities. Burden (1995) defines classroom management as
actions and strategies teachers use to maintain order. Duke and Meckel (1980) refer to
classroom management as the procedures needed to establish and maintain an
environment in which instruction and learning can occur. Classroom rules, routines, and
order play an important part in classroom management. All three of these definitions may
vary in how they are worded, but they still emphasize the major themes of classroom
management. The ideas that they have in common are: maintaining order, positive
learning environment, and establishing rules and routines. Students in a classroom that
uses successful classroom management strategies are comfortable in their environment,
they know how the class is run, and they are stimulated in an academic and social
manner.
8.1.1 Principles of Classroom Management
There is a wealth of research available on the principles of classroom management. Each
classroom teacher has his or her individual style of instruction and management. Looking
at research and statistics can help educators take their personal management style and add
onto it, improving on what methods they use. Classroom management is crucial for many
reasons. First of all, learning is very difficult when there are constant distractions
occurring because of behaviour issues. Being part of a class characterized by good
behaviour could be beneficial because students are not exposed to disruptions and
distractions. Also, in well-behaved classes, teachers do not have to take time away from
teaching and student interaction to deal with discipline problems. In contrast, a noisy or
disruptive environment can lead to increase aggression and less helping behaviour. (Bell,
Fisher & Loomis, 1978). Students who are in a classroom which is in constant disarray
also have problems getting the full amount of information being presented to them by
their teachers. One of the goals of good classroom management is to limit the
unnecessary distractions.
Classroom management also entails how students cope with the environment around
them. A positive classroom environment gives a student the opportunity to take what
background knowledge they have and figure out a solution to a situation without being
forced into it by the strict guidelines of the class, or by the obligatory dictation of the
teacher.
With special education, students are becoming more and more part of the mainstream
classroom. Classroom management today needs to be more adapting to the needs of all
students. What may work for most of the students in class may not work for all. Teachers
need to be aware of this fact and incorporate all students’ needs into the classroom
environment. The instructional level needs to be at a place where all of the students in
class are taking in the ideas and information that the teacher is presenting to them. Only
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explaining the expectations and requirements to two-thirds of the students does not give
the rest of the students the opportunity to learn what is expected of them, and how their
classroom is run.
The definition of classroom management cannot be told in a few words. It is more than
just a few sentences on a piece of paper stating how students should act. Having an
environment that is conducive to learning is what every student deserves. How can we
expect students to learn and flourish as individuals if they are forced to follow rules that
they do not fully understand why they need to follow? How can students gain knowledge
of social skills and making decisions if they are given rules that are not enforced or are
not reasonable? Along with an environment that students can flourish in academically
and socially, they should feel physically comfortable. Having each student have a clear
view of the board or overhead allows everyone to get the information that the teacher is
presenting, as well as areas in the room where students can receive materials and/or
manipulative when needed. Using the strategies, research, and techniques discussed
earlier can help in achieving the goal of having a classroom with successful classroom
management. The missing link to make sure great management can occur is not simply
looking at the information provided, but putting it into action. Seeing how our students
react to the strategies and changing things when needed. Each classroom and student is
different, with many great ideas to offer to others. The goal and challenge as a teacher is
to bring those great ides to light.
According to specialists in the field of education, school and classroom management
aims at encouraging and establishing student self-control through a process of promoting
positive student achievement and behaviour. Thus academic achievement, teacher
efficacy, and teacher student behaviour are directly linked with the concept of school and
classroom management. Research shows that a high incidence of classroom disciplinary
problems has a significant impact on the effectiveness of teaching and learning. In this
respect, it has been found that teachers facing such issues fail to plan and design
appropriate instructional tasks. They also tend to neglect variety in lesson plans and
rarely prompt students to discuss or evaluate the materials that they are learning. In
addition, student comprehension or seat work is not monitored on a regular basis. In
contrast, strong and consistent management and organizational skills have been identified
as leading to fewer classroom discipline problems.
Classroom management focuses on three major components: content management,
conduct management, and covenant management. Each of these concepts is defined and
presented in the following lines:
(a) Content Management does not refer only to skills peculiar to teaching a particular
subject but rather to those skills that cut across subjects and activities (Froyen &
Iverson, 1999).The core of instructional management is gaining and maintaining
student cooperation in learning activities. Related to content management, Kounin
(as cited in Froyen & Iverson, 1999) places a special emphasis on instructional
management skills, sequencing and integrating additional instructional activities,
and dealing with instruction-related discipline problems.
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(b) Conduct Management is centered on one’s beliefs about the nature of people. By
integrating knowledge about human diversity (and individuality, at the same time)
into a particular instructional philosophy, teachers could manage their classrooms
in a better and more effective way. In planning classroom management, teachers
should consider using an assertive communication style and behaviour. In addition,
they should always know what they want their students to do and involve them in
the respective learning activities, under the general conditions of clearly and
explicitly stated school wide and classroom rules.
According to Iverson and Froyen (1999), conduct management is essential to the
creation of a foundation for an orderly, task-oriented approach to teaching and
learning, thus leading to granting students greater independence and autonomy
through socialization. An effective conduct management plan should also refer to
teacher control and administration of consequences.
(c) Covenant management stresses the classroom group as a social system. Teacher
and student roles and expectations shape the classroom into an environment
conducive to learning. In other words, the culture of any given school is unique to
that school. However, it is directly influenced by the culture of the larger
community whose educational goals are to be met. A strong connection between
school and community must be constantly revised and modified according to the
requirements of societal dynamism. As schools become very diverse, teachers and
students should become aware of how to use diversity to strengthen the
school/classroom social group.
Activity-1
In your opinion, which component of the classroom management discussed above is
more effective for better learning?
8.2 Assessing Problems and Needs of Teachers
Education is the backbone in the development of any nation. It is a fact that
countries that have an effective system of education also happen to be the leaders
of the world, both socially and economically. In short it is education, which can
turn the population of any country from a burden to human resource.
Pakistan is one of those very few countries where the system of education has
constantly eroded since independence. The situation at present is so worst that the
government has officially declared our system of education to be almost
collapsing and is employing all possible ways and means on emergency basis for
the speedy uplift of our educational system. Several studies have shown that with
the passage of time the problems being faced by both the teachers and students
multiplied. During this period no one paid any attention to them and instead
wasted almost all the energies and resources on improvement of buildings and
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changes in curriculum. One of the key indicators of the above is the fact that since
independence a lot of socially un-acceptable professions had achieved social
acceptance, whereas teachers have lost their social acceptance. Following are
some of the problems and needs faced by the present era teachers:
1. Respect in Society
The first and foremost factor in choosing a profession anywhere is the respect that
it gives to a person who joins it. As already mentioned above, teaching is
constantly loosing its respect. The situation is so bad today that qualified people
opt for other professions and majority of persons joining this profession are of quite
a low caliber.
2. Financial Problems
The other most important factor, which in majority of the cases is as important as
social respect that a profession commands is the financial benefits which a person,
derives from it. The salary of our teacher is quite meager and is not enough to lead
a decent life and support a healthy family. Due to this, majority of teachers adopt a
number of ways and means to supplement their income. This not only diverts the
attention of the teacher but also brings a bad name to this once the most respected
profession. If it is ensured that a teacher gets enough financial benefits with which
he can lead a decent life, he will then be in a position to invest all his energies in
doing justice to his profession.
3. Frequent Transfers between Schools
It has been observed that majority of the teachers are not only posted away from
the cities/villages they belong to but are also subjected to very frequent transfers. It
is a human nature that it takes time to accustom to any new environment. By
posting teachers away from their native cities/villages and then subjecting them to
frequent transfers, they never get accustomed to the schools and students, which
greatly diminish their productivity. This also has another angle i.e. the students too
need time to get to know a teacher and it is only when they understand each other
they can communicate positively. Frequent transfers also have a negative effect on
the family life of teachers especially the education of their children.
4. Unavailability of Accommodation
Accommodation is a major irritant in the sound family life of teachers. Due to
absence of official accommodation majority of the time of a teacher is spent in
finding an accommodation, which he can afford. It has been observed that when
finally a teacher finds an accommodation his next transfer is almost due. This keep
the teacher greatly disturbed, normally they are away from their families most of
the time. According to teachers, this is one of the major factors why the children of
teachers on the average are poor in their studies.
5. Transportation
Transportation is related to accommodation. It has been seen that in majority of the
cases, teachers reside at distance from the schools. Also they cannot afford decent
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transport due to which they are reported to come late and leave as early as possible.
Due to recent hike in transportation costs it is reported that the cases of unreported
absence from duty has also become very common.
6. Training and Education Qualification
It is a fact that once teachers are inducted in our education system they are seldom
provided any training of substance. Due to lack of training they are not aware of
challenges of the future and hence are unable to prepare their students to play their
due role.
7. Political and Social Problems
Since independence, all the institutions of our society have become much
politicized. Teaching profession is no exception to this. Majority of the induction is
on political grounds. A teacher inducted through this system is not liable to merit
but to the political interest of the political force that has inducted the person and so
commits all kinds of blunders to favor them. The negative impact of politics is so
great that who ever wants to uphold merit is punished severely.
8. Teacher and Head Teacher Relations
The negative influence of politics in education is deep rooted. Due to this factor
only those persons who work for the political forces get to the top. Persons who
reach to the top using their political influences pay no attention to develop cordial
relations with their staff. Good relations of head teacher and his teachers are very
important in improving the overall performance of teachers.
9. Grouping in Schools
Our educational institutions are greatly infected with negative politics. The number
of groups within an educational institution is equivalent to the number of political
parties in our country. These groups fight among themselves the way our
politicians fight on the national scene due to which they are never able to play their
positive role. This, in majority of cases engulf the student community too, which
makes things worst.
10. Over Crowded Classrooms
Due to lack of realistic investment in our educational institutions since
independence, the pressure on schools has increased many folds. On the average a
single teacher teaches at least sixty students in a classroom which was basically
meant for thirty students. The scene of multiple classes being taught in a single
room by a single teacher is very common in our primary schools. It should be kept
in mind that it is here that students require maximum personal attention. In our
educational system mostly the teacher is unable to recognize his student; the
question of personal attention cannot even be imagined.
11. Communication Problem
Our system of education lacks communication between teaching staff, parents,
head teachers, and the concerned higher authorities. Due to this they are unable to
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coordinate and make consolidated efforts for the uplift of the educational system
and end-up blaming each other.
12. Medium of Instruction
Due to the existence of multi-medium of instruction as well as ever changing
medium of instruction confuses both the giver and the recipient. The absence of
proper orientation confuses the teachers so greatly that they lose interest in their
profession. What can be expected from a teacher who has lost his interest?
13. Inefficient and Insufficient Teachers
Majority of our teachers are inducted through political connections who lack ability
to teach. On top of this they are never provided training, which can transform them
into good teachers. These coupled with the fact that they are made to face an
overcrowded classroom, which even a qualified teacher cannot face, makes a
nightmare of the whole situation. In majority of our primary schools, a single
teacher not only teaches multiple classes under a tree or in a shabby room but also
administers/ manages the school too. In case the teacher goes on leave, the school
is closed till the teacher returns or another teacher is posted.
14. Absence of Quality Teacher Training Programmes
Once a teacher is inducted, he seldom goes through any training. In case a teacher
is fortunate enough to go for training it never ever is of any quality and hence there
exists no grooming facility for a teacher.
15. Absence of Proper Physical Facilities and Educational Instruments
In order to impart proper education, a teacher requires a number of aids to achieve
this goal. These include a variety of audio visual aids also known as teaching kits
etc. In the absence of these aids a teacher fails to explain all the concepts
theoretically and mostly ends-up confusing the students.
Activity-2
Select a few schools near your residence. Interview some of the teachers teaching there
and try to know their needs and problems. Discuss your findings with your colleagues
and highlight the findings which are common with the findings of your colleagues.
8.3 Effective Lesson Planning
Good lesson planning is essential to the process of teaching and learning. A teacher, who
is trained, is well on his/her way to a successful instructional experience. The
development of interesting lessons takes a great deal of time and effort. All teachers use
lesson plans in one form or another. Some teachers merely organize the lesson of the day
in their heads. Others jot down a few bullet points about what they plan to do each day.
And still others write detailed instructions by using lesson plan templates or guides.
Depending on the experience level of the teacher or the complexity of the lesson, any one
of these three methods may work. However, creating a detailed written lesson plan can
help even the most experienced teacher to prepare and present a more effective lesson.
High quality written lesson plans can help you organize and communicate a strategy so
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that students can reach a stated learning objective. These lesson plans are also important
when a substitute teacher teaches your class and are often required when you are being
observed or evaluated by the principal. It is also important to realize that the best planned
lesson is worthless if interesting delivery procedures, along with good classroom
management techniques, are not in evidence. A well-thought-out lesson plan will help
you to organize thoughts and instructional practices. This, in turn, will help you move
students toward and achieving the goal or goals behind the lesson.
(a) Strategies for Effective Lesson Planning
A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how it
will be done effectively during the class time. Before you plan your lesson, you
will first need to identify the learning objectives for the class meeting. Then, you
can design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback
on student learning. A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three
key components:
• Objectives for student learning
• Teaching/learning activities
• Strategies to check student understanding
Specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help you determine the
kinds of teaching and learning activities you will use in class, while those activities
will define how you will check whether the learning objectives have been
accomplished.
(b) Steps for Developing a Lesson Plan
A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction for an
individual lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class
instruction. Planning the material is much more difficult than delivering the
lessons. Planning is when you look at the curriculum standards and develop the
content that matches those standards. You also have to take into consideration the
needs of the children you are planning for. Luckily, textbooks that are adopted for
your subject areas are typically written with this in mind. All details should be
written down to assist the smooth delivery of the contents. The extent of the detail
will vary depending on the number of years of experience that the teacher has and
the number of times he/she has taught the lesson. Obviously, an instructor with
several years of experience may have plans that are much less detailed than
beginning teachers. There will be requirements mandated by the school system that
employs you regarding your responsibilities. Before developing a lesson plan ask
yourself three basic questions:
• What is the objective your students want to achieve?
• How are they going to achieve this?
• How will you know they've achieved the objective?
Then begin to think about each of the following categories which form the
organization of the plan. While planning, use the questions below to guide you
during each stage.
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(c) Goals
Goals determine purpose, aim, and rationale for what you and your students
will engage in during class time. Use this section to express the intermediate
lesson goals that draw upon previous plans and activities and set the stage by
preparing students for future activities and further knowledge acquisition. The
goals are typically written as broad educational or unit goals adhering to
national curriculum standards. In this section, the following questions are
needed to be addressed:
• What are the broader objectives, aims, or goals of the unit plan/
curriculum?
• What are our goals for this unit?
• What do we expect students to be able to do by the end of this unit?
(d) Objectives
This section focuses on what your students will do to acquire further
knowledge and skills. The objectives for the daily lesson plan are drawn from
the broader aims of the unit plan but are achieved over a well defined time
period. In this section, following questions are needed to be addressed:
• What will students be able to do during this lesson?
• Under what conditions will students' performance be accomplished?
• What is the degree or criterion on the basis of which satisfactory
attainment of the objectives will be judged?
• How will students demonstrate that they have learned and understood the
objectives of the lesson?
(e) Pre-requisites
Pre-requisites can be useful when considering the readiness state of your
students. Pre-requisites allow you, and other teachers replicating your lesson plan,
to factor in necessary pre-activities to make sure that students can meet the lesson
objectives. In this section following questions are needed to be addressed:
• What must students already be able to do before this lesson?
• What concepts have to be mastered in advance to accomplish the lesson
objectives?
(f) Materials
This section has two functions: it helps other teachers quickly determine;
a) how much preparation time, resources, and management will be involved in
carrying out this plan and
b) what materials, books, equipment, and resources they will need to have
ready. A complete list of materials, including full citations of textbooks or
story books used, worksheets, and any other special considerations are most
useful. In this section following questions are needed to be addressed:
• What materials will be needed?
• What textbooks or story books are needed?
• What needs to be prepared in advance?
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(g) Lesson Description
This section provides an opportunity for the author of the lesson plan to share
some thoughts, experience, and advice with other teachers. It also provides a
general overview of the lesson in terms of topic focus, activities, and purpose.
In this section, following questions are needed to be addressed:
• What is unique about this lesson?
• How did your students like it?
• What level of learning is covered by this lesson plan? (Think of Bloom's
Taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,
or evaluation.)
(h) Lesson Procedure
This section provides a detailed, step-by-step description of how to replicate
the lesson and achieve lesson plan objectives. This is usually intended for the
teacher and provides suggestions on how to proceed with implementation of
the lesson plan. It also focuses on what the teacher should have students do
during the lesson. This section is basically divided into several components: an
introduction, a main activity, and closure. There are several elaborations on
this. The format of this section could be as bellow:
(i) Introduction
This section must address the following questions:
• How will you introduce the ideas and objectives of this lesson?
• How will you get students' attention and motivate them in order to hold
their attention?
• How can you tie lesson objectives with student interests and past
classroom activities?
• What will be expected from students?
(j) Main Activity
• What is the focus of the lesson?
• How would you describe the flow of the lesson to another teacher who
will replicate it?
• What does the teacher do to facilitate learning and manage the various
activities?
• What are some good and bad examples to illustrate what you are
presenting to students?
• How can this material be presented to ensure each student will benefit
from the learning experience?
(k) Closure/Conclusion:
• What will you use to draw the ideas together for students at the end?
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• How will you provide feedback to students to clear their misunderstandings
and reinforce their learning?
(l) Follow up Lessons/Activities
• What activities might you suggest for enrichment and remediation?
• What lessons might follow as a result of this lesson?
(m) Assessment/Evaluation
This section focuses on ensuring that your students have arrived at their
intended destination. You will need togather some evidence that they did. This
usually is done by gathering students' work and assessing this work using some
kind of grading rubric that is based on lesson objectives. You could also
replicate some of the activities practiced as part of the lesson, without
providing the same level of guidance as during the lesson. You could always
quiz students on various concepts and problems as well. This section must
address the following questions:
• How will you evaluate the objectives that were identified?
• Have students practiced what you are asking them to do for evaluation?
(n) Conclusion
To be effective, the lesson plan does not have to be an exhaustive document that
describes each and every possible classroom scenario. Nor does it have to
anticipate each and every student’s response or question. Instead, it should provide
you with a general outline of your teaching goals, learning objectives, and means to
accomplish them. It is a reminder of what you want to do and how you want to do
it. A productive lesson is not one in which everything goes exactly as planned, but
one in which both students and instructor learn from each other.
Activity-3
Develop a model lesson plan on any topic in the subject of your interest.
8.4 Working with Difficult Students
A certain class consists of a variety of students belonging to different categories. Some of
them may be intelligent whereas some of them may be dull, some of them may be
overconfident and some of them may be shy. There may be some students who fall in the
category of problem children who are always ready to create problems in the class. The
classroom management techniques help a teacher to tackle these types of students so that
their attention may be diverted to their studies.
The students with disruptive behaviour are known as difficult students. Disruptive
behaviour is defined as repeated, continuous, and/or multiple student behaviours that
hamper the ability of instructors to teach and students to learn. Behavioural disorders also
known as conduct disorders are one of the most common forms of psycho pathology
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among children and young adults. Behavioural disorders become apparent when the
student displays a repetitive and impact persistent pattern of behaviour that results in the
significant disruption in other students. Such disturbances may cause significant
impairments in academic, social, and or occupational functioning. Such a behaviour
pattern is consistent throughout the individual’s life. Common examples of disruptive
behaviours include, but are not limited to:
• Eating in class
• Failing to respect the rights of other students to express their viewpoints
• Talking when the instructor or others are speaking
• Constant questions or interruptions which interfere with the instructor's
presentation
• Overt inattentiveness (e.g., sleeping or reading the paper in class)
• Creating excessive noise with papers, book bags, etc.
• Entering class late or leaving early
• Use of cell phones in the classroom
• Inordinate or inappropriate demands for time and attention
• Poor personal hygiene (e.g., noticeably offensive body)
More extreme examples of disruptive behaviour include, but are not limited to:
• Use of profanity or pejorative language
• Intoxication
• Verbal abuse (e.g., taunting, badgering, intimidation)
• Harassment (e.g., use of “fighting words,” stalking)
• Threats to harm oneself or others
• Physical violence (e.g., shoving, grabbing, assault, use of weapons)
• Initiation of aggressive behaviour and reacting aggressively towards others.
• A display of bullying, threatening, or intimidating behaviour.
• Deliberate destruction of other's property.
• Showing little empathy and concern for the feelings, wishes, and well being of
others.
• Showing callous behaviour towards others and lack of feelings of guilt or remorse.
(a) General Strategies for Improvement
In order to overcome this type of behaviour, the teachers may take following
measures:
• Ask previous teachers about interactive techniques that have previously been
effective with the student in the past.
• Expose students with behavioural disorders to other students who
demonstrate the appropriate behaviours.
• Have pre-established consequences for misbehaviour.
• Administer consequences immediately and then monitor proper behaviour
frequently.
• In group activities, acknowledge the contributions of the student with a
behavioural disorder.
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• Devise a contingency plan with the student in which inappropriate forms of
response are replaced by appropriate ones. .
• When appropriate, seek input from the student about their strength,
weaknesses and goals.
• Enforce classroom rules consistently.
• Provide encouragement.
• Reward more than you punish, in order to build self-esteem.
• Praise immediately at all good behaviour and performance.
• Change rewards if they are not effective for motivating behavioural change.
• Develop a schedule for applying positive reinforcement in all educational
environments.
• Monitor the student's self-esteem. Assist in modification, as needed.
• Do not expect students with behavioural disorders to have immediate
success; work for improvement on an overall basis.
• As a teacher, you should be patient, sensitive, a good listener, fair and
consistent in your treatment of students with behavioural disorders.
• Present a sense of high degree of possessiveness in the classroom
environment.
• Use a wide variety of instructional equipment which can be displayed for the
students to look at and handle.
• Group participation in activities is highly desirable because it makes social
contacts possible.
• Monitor the student carefully to ensure that students without disabilities do
not dominate the activity or detract in any way from the successful
performance of the student with the behavioural disorder.
• Some aggressive students act as they do because of a subconscious desire for
attention, and it is possible to modify their behaviour by giving them
recognition.
• Have the individual with the behavioural disorder be incharge of an activity
which can often reduce the aggressiveness.
• Special efforts should be made to encourage and easily facilitate students
with behavioural disorders to interact.
• Show confidence in the student’s ability and set goals that realistically can be
achieved.
• Consultation with other specialists, including the special education teacher,
school psychologist, and others may prove helpful in devising effective
strategies.
• Be fair and consistent, but temper your consistency with flexibility.
• Present a sense of positiveness in the learning environment.
• Remain calm, state the infraction of the rule, and avoid debating or arguing
with the student with a behavioural disorder.
Activity-4
There are some students in your class who always create disciplinary problems during
your instruction. Being a teacher, how would you tackle them?
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8.5 Tools for Teaching
There are many tools with the teachers for effective teaching. A few of them are
discussed as under.
8.5.1 Discipline
Perhaps the single most important aspect of teaching is classroom management. You can't
successfully teach your students if they are not in control. .There is a number of ways that
a teacher can promote good discipline in the classroom. There are many reasons why
discipline can be a problem in your classroom. One of the reasons could be your teaching
style. If you aren't reaching every one of your students, they can become bored,
disinterested and restless. Every student has their own learning style and an area where
they excel. If you are reaching these students by using a variety of methods, they are
motivated and less likely to cause trouble. Following are some of the most common
discipline methods:
(a) Assertive Discipline: It was created by Lee Canter. Canter believes that if you
“catch” a student being good by recognizing them when they behave, they will
work harder at behaving. He also believes that there should be consistent
consequences of breaking the rules that are very clear. In a nutshell, the teacher
comes up with no more than five rules for the classroom. Each time a rule is
broken, a consequence is given. If the misbehaviour continues, the consequences
get more severe every time. At the same time, students are rewarded for behaving
properly. This can range from a field trip, pizza party, and a snack.
(b) Discipline with Dignity: This controversial discipline programme, created by
Richard L. Curwin and Allen N. Mendler, is based on the premise that students are
treated with dignity at all times. It is meant to build self-esteem and encourage
responsible behaviour. This program is especially helpful in severe situations that
frequently occur in inner-city schools. Typically a contract is created by both the
student and the teacher. The contract includes prevention, “action dimension,” and
resolution. Your rules must make sense and be fair. Prevention is done with
preplanning to eliminate possible areas of problems. Make sure students are aware
of what is expected of them. The action consists of record keeping and classroom
management. Finally the resolution component is dealing with the continual rule
breaker. Discipline should not interfere with motivation. Teach responsibility rather
than obedience.
The controversy with this method is the length a teacher goes to protect student
dignity and the fact there is no punishment. Students frequently select their own
consequences. Teacher responses to severe discipline problems is unusual Reality
Therapy (RT)- This program was created by William Glasser. The emphasis of this
program is to help students connect behaviour with consequence. This is done with
class meetings, clear rules, and contracts. This also includes Positive Approach to
Discipline (PAD), which is based on Reality Therapy.
(c) Transactional Analysis (TA): This programme by Dr. Eric Berne, is based on the
premise that every human has a child, adult, and parent psyche. Students and
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teachers are encouraged to stay in the adult domain and avoid a parent/child
relationship. Problems are dealt with cooperation and goodwill. Like Discipline
with Dignity, there is a strong focus on self esteem and motivation.
(d) Teacher Effectiveness Training (TET): This is another popular student discipline
strategy. The purpose of TET is to increase time on task. There are seven skills that
are taught in a TET classroom. The curriculum design is based on a four-step
learning model, SIPA.
Classroom discipline and management causes the most fear and consternation in
new teachers. However, classroom management is a skill that is not only learned
but practiced daily. Here are ten tips that can lead to successful classroom
management and discipline. These tips can help you cut down on discipline
problems and leave you with fewer interruptions and disruptions.
1. It's Easier to Get Easier
Many teachers make the mistake of starting the school year with a poor discipline
plan. Students quickly assess the situation in each class and realize what they will
be allowed to get away with. Once you set a precedent of allowing a lot of
disruptions, it can be very hard to start better classroom management and discipline
techniques. However, it is never tough to get easier as the year goes on. While you
don't have to follow the adage, “Never smile until Christmas,” it does have its
merits.
2. Fairness is Key
Students have a distinct sense of what is and what is not fair. You must act fairly
for all students if you expect to be respected. If you do not treat all students
equitably, you will be labeled as unfair students will not be keen to follow your
rules. Make sure that if your best student does something wrong, they too get
punished for it.
3. Deal with Disruptions with as Little Interruption as Possible
When you have classroom disruptions, it is imperative that you deal with them
immediately and with as little interruption of your class momentum as possible. If
students are talking amongst themselves and you are having a classroom
discussion, ask one of them a question to try to get them back on track. If you have
to stop the flow of your lesson to deal with disruptions, then you are robbing
students who want to learn of their precious in-class time.
4. Avoid Confrontations in Front of Students
Whenever there is a confrontation in class there is a winner and a loser. Obviously
as the teacher, you need to keep order and discipline in your class. However, it is
much better to deal with discipline issues privately than cause a student to 'lose
face' in front of their friends. It is not a good idea to make an example out of a
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disciplinary issue. Even though other students might get the point, you might have
lost any chance of actually teaching that student anything in your class.
5. Stop Disruptions with a Little Humor
Sometimes all it takes is for everyone to have a good laugh to get things back on
track in a classroom. Many times, however, teachers confuse good humor with
sarcasm. While humor can quickly diffuse a situation, sarcasm may harm your
relationship with the students involved. Use your best judgment but realize that
what some people think as funny others find to be offensive.
6. Keep High Expectations in Your Class
Expect that your students will behave, not that they will disrupt. Reinforce this with
the way you speak to your students. When you begin the day, tell your students
your expectations. For example, you might say, “During this whole group session, I
expect you to raise your hands and be recognized before you start speaking. I also
expect you to respect each other's opinions and listen to what each person has to
say.”
7. Over plan
Free time is something teachers should avoid. By allowing students time just to talk
each day, you are setting a precedent about how you view academics and your
subject. To avoid this, over plan. Write additional activities into your lesson plans
just in case your main lessons run short. When you have too much to cover, you'll
never run out of lessons and you will avoid free time. You can also fill up any left
over time with mini-lessons.
8. Be Consistent
One of the worst things you can do as a teacher is to not enforce your rules
consistently. If one day you ignore misbehaviours and the next day you jump on
someone for the smallest infraction, your students will quickly lose respect for you.
Your students have the right to expect you to basically be the same everyday.
Moodiness is not allowed. Once you lose your student's respect, you also lose their
attention and their desire to please you.
9. Make Rules Understandable
You need to be selective in your class rules (no one can follow 180 rules
consistently). You also need to make them clear. Students should understand what
is and what is not acceptable. Further, you should make sure that the consequences
for breaking your rules are also clear and known beforehand.
8.5.2 Instruction
In your day-to-day work, you might find that there are times when you need to provide a
client with documentation that walks them through a process or teaches them how to do
something they may be unfamiliar with. Here are six tips to help you create a
comprehensive yet coherent instruction manual.
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1. Get Out of Your Own Head
When you begin to prepare instructions for processes you know inside and out, you
will need to consciously take a step back and approach the material from a new
angle. Start at square one by assuming the audience will have zero knowledge of
the subject matter.
2. Know the Objective
Make sure you know exactly what your manual needs to cover in order to avoid
information overload or confusion that can come from too many details. This is
especially important when the process is complex or has a lot of different parts.
3. Outline It First
Before jumping in and creating steps, create a high-level outline of what the
document will cover, including main and subsections. This will help you make sure
your process makes sense and that each section of the manual is consistently
structured.
4. Make It Easy to Understand
Lists are a great way to outline steps for doing something because they can help
people move item by item in the way you intend. It’s also a good idea to use a table
of contents and make your document searchable, if possible, to further support your
step-by-step approach.
5. Be Brief
It’s tempting to want to explain everything in fine detail since it’s material you
know so well, but stick with only what the recipient needs to know. Focus on using
only as many words as necessary to get your point across.
6. Use Visual Aids
Screenshots, diagrams and even videos are a great way to beef up your manual and
make it easier to understand. Keep the formatting of these supporting materials
consistent and to the point to avoid overwhelming the reader.
8.5.3 Motivation
Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about learning, but many need or expect their
instructors to inspire, challenge, and stimulate them. Effective learning in the classroom
depends on the teacher's ability to motivate students. Whatever level of motivation your
students bring to the classroom will be transformed, for better or worse, by what happens
in that classroom.
Unfortunately, there is no single magical formula for motivating students. Many factors
affect a given student's motivation to work and to learn interest in the subject matter,
perception of its usefulness, general desire to achieve, self-confidence and self-esteem, as
well as patience and persistence (Bligh, 1971; Sass, 1989). And, of course, not all
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students are motivated by the same values, needs, desires, or wants. Some of your
students will be motivated by the approval of others, some by overcoming challenges.
Researchers have begun to identify those aspects of the teaching situation that enhance
students' self-motivation (Lowman, 1984; Lucas, 1990; Weinert & Kluwe, 1987; Bligh,
1971). To encourage students to become self-motivated independent learners, instructors
can do the following:
• Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that they can
do well.
• Ensure opportunities for students’ success by assigning tasks that are neither too
easy nor too difficult.
• Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.
• Create an atmosphere that is open and positive.
• Help students feel that they are valued members of a learning community.
Research has also shown that good everyday teaching practices can do more to counter
student apathy than special efforts to attack motivation directly (Ericksen, 1978). Most
students respond positively to a well-organized course taught by an enthusiastic instructor
who has a genuine interest in students and what they learn. Thus activities you undertake
to promote learning will also enhance students' motivation.
General Strategies for Enhancing Motivation
Here are a few strategies which may be useful for enhancing students’ motivation.
1. Capitalize on Students' Existing Needs
Students learn best when incentives for learning in a classroom satisfy their own
motives for enrolling in the course. Some of the needs your students may bring to
the classroom are the need to learn something in order to complete a particular task
or activity, the need to seek new experiences, the need to perfect skills, the need to
overcome challenges, the need to become competent, the need to succeed and do
well, the need to feel involved and to interact with other people. Satisfying such
needs is rewarding in itself, and such rewards sustain learning more effectively
than do grades. Design assignments, in-class activities, and discussion questions to
address these kinds of needs. (McMillan & Forsyth, 1991)
2. Make Students Active Participants in Learning
Students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, solving. Passivity
dampens students' motivation and curiosity. Pose questions. Don't tell students
something when you can ask them. Encourage students to suggest approaches to a
problem or to guess the results of an experiment. Use small group work. (Lucas,
1990).
3. Ask Students to Analyze What Makes Their Classes More or Less “Motivating.”
Sass (1989) asks his classes to recall two recent class periods, one in which they
were highly motivated and one in which their motivation was low. Each student
makes a list of specific aspects of the two classes that influenced his or her level of
motivation, and students then meet in small groups to reach consensus on
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characteristics that contributed to high and low motivation. In over twenty courses,
Sass reports, the following eight characteristics emerge as major contributors to
students’ motivation:
• Instructor's enthusiasm
• Relevance of the material
• Organization of the course
• Appropriate difficulty level of the material
• Active involvement of students
• Variety
• Rapport between teacher and students
• Use of appropriate, concrete, and understandable examples
4. Hold High but Realistic Expectations for Your Students
Research has shown that a teacher's expectations have a powerful effect on a student's
performance. If you act as though you expect your students to be motivated,
hardworking, and interested in the course, they are more likely to be so. Set realistic
expectations for students when you make assignments, give presentations, conduct
discussions, and grade examinations. “Realistic” in this context means that your
standards are high enough to motivate students to do their best work but not so high
that students will inevitably be frustrated in trying to meet those expectations. To
develop the drive to achieve, students need to believe that achievement is possible -
which means that you need to provide early opportunities for success. (Bligh, 1971;
Forsyth & McMillan, 1991, Lowman, 1984)
5. Help Students Set Achievable Goals for Themselves
Failure to attain unrealistic goals can disappoint and frustrate students. Encourage
students to focus on their continued improvement, not just on their grade on any
one test or assignment. Help students evaluate their progress by encouraging them
to critique their own work, analyze their strengths, and work on their weaknesses.
For example, consider asking students to submit self-evaluation forms with one or
two assignments. (Cashin, 1979; Forsyth & McMillan, 1991)
6. Tell Students What They Need to Do to Succeed in Your Course
Don't let your students struggle to figure out what is expected of them. Reassure
students that they can do well in your course, and tell them exactly what they must
do to succeed. Say something to the effect that “If you can handle the examples on
these problem sheets, you can pass the exam. People who have trouble with these
examples can ask me for extra help.” Or instead of saying, “You're way behind,”
tell the student, “Here is one way you could go about learning the material. How
can I help you?” (Cashin, 1979; Tiberius, 1990).
7. Strengthen Students' Self-motivation
Avoid messages that reinforce your power as an instructor or that emphasizes
extrinsic rewards. Instead of saying, “I require,” “you must,” or “you should,” stress
“I think you will find. . . “or “I will be interested in your reaction.” (Lowman, 1990)
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8. Avoid Creating Intense Competition among Students
Competition produces anxiety, which can interfere with learning. Reduce students'
tendencies to compare themselves to one another. Bligh (1971) reports that
students are more attentive, display better comprehension, produce more work, and
are more favorable to the teaching method when they work cooperatively in groups
rather than compete as individuals. Refrain from public criticisms of students'
performance and from comments or activities that pit students against each other.
(Eble, 1988; Forsyth & McMillan, 1991)
9. Be Enthusiastic About Your Subject
An instructor's enthusiasm is a crucial factor in student motivation. If you become
bored or apathetic, students will too. Typically, an instructor's enthusiasm comes
from confidence, excitement about the content and genuine pleasure in teaching. If
you find yourself uninterested in the material, think back to what attracted you to
the field and bring those aspects of the subject matter to life for your students. Or
challenge yourself to devise the most exciting way top resent the material, however
dull the material itself may seem to you.
10. Work from Students' Strength and Interest
Find out why students are enrolled in your course, how they feel about the subject
matter, and what their expectations are. Then try to devise examples, case studies, or
assignments that relate the course content to students' interests and experiences. For
instance, a chemistry professor might devote some lecture time to examining the
contributions of chemistry to resolving environmental problems. Explain how the
content and objectives of your course will help students achieve their educational,
professional, or personal goals. (Brock, 1976; Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990)
11. Vary Your Teaching Methods
Variety reawakens students' involvement in the course and their motivation. Break
the routine by incorporating a variety of teaching activities and methods in your
course: role playing, debates, brainstorming, discussion, demonstrations, case
studies, audiovisual presentations, guest speakers, or small group work. (Forsyth &
McMillan, 1991)
12. Emphasize Mastery and Learning Rather Than Grades
Ames and Ames (1990) report on two secondary school math teachers. One teacher
graded every homework assignment and counted homework as 30 percent of a
student's final grade. The second teacher told students to spend a fixed amount of
time on their homework (thirty minutes a night) and to bring questions to class
about problems they could not complete. This teacher graded homework as
satisfactory or unsatisfactory, gave students the opportunity to redo their
assignments, and counted homework as 10 percent of the final grade. Although
homework was a smaller part of the course grade, this second teacher was more
successful in motivating students to turn in their homework. In the first class, some
students gave up rather than risk low evaluations of their abilities. In the second
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class, students were not risking their self-worth each time they did their homework
but rather were attempting to learn. Mistakes were viewed as acceptable and
something to learn from.
Researchers recommended emphasizing grading by eliminating complex systems of
credit points; they also advise against trying to use grades to control non-academic
behaviour (for example, lowering grades for missed classes) (Forsyth & McMillan,
1991; Lowman 1990). Instead, assign ungraded written work; stress the personal
satisfaction of doing assignments, and help students measure their progress.
13. Give Students Feedback as Quickly as Possible
Return tests and papers promptly, and reward success publicly and immediately.
Give students some indication of how well they have done and how to improve.
Rewards can be as simple as saying a student's response was good, with an indication
of why it was good, or mentioning the names of contributors: “Cherry's point about
pollution really synthesized the ideas we had been discussing.” (Cashin, 1979)
14. Reward Success
Both positive and negative comments influence motivation, but research
consistently indicates that students are more affected by positive feedback and
success. Praise builds students' self-confidence, competence, and self-esteem.
Recognize sincere efforts even if the product is less than stellar. If a student's
performance is weak, let the student know that you believe he or she can improve
and succeed over time. (Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990)
15. Introduce Students to the Good Work Done by their Peers
Share the ideas, knowledge, and accomplishments of individual students with the
class as a whole:
• Pass out a list of research topics chosen by students so they will know
whether others are writing papers of interest to them.
• Make available copies of the best papers and essay exams.
• Provide class time for students to read papers or assignments submitted by
classmates.
• Have students write a brief critique of a classmate's paper.
• Schedule a brief talk by a student who has experience or who is doing a
research paper on a topic relevant to your lecture.
16. Be Specific when Giving Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is very powerful and can lead to a negative class atmosphere.
Whenever you identify a student's weakness, make it clear that your comments
relate to a particular task or performance, not to the student as a person. Try to
cushion negative comments with a compliment about aspects of the task in which
the student succeeded. (Cashin, 1979)
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17. Avoid Demeaning Comments
Many students in your class may be anxious about their performance and abilities.
Be sensitive to how you phrase your comments and avoid offhand remarks that
might prick their feelings of inadequacy.
18. Avoid Giving in to Students' Please for “the Answer” to Homework Problems
When you simply give struggling students the solution, you rob them of the chance
to think for themselves. Use a more productive approach (Fiore, 1985):
• Ask the students for one possible approach to the problem.
• Gently brush aside students’ anxiety about not getting the answer by
refocusing their attention on the problem at hand.
• Ask the students to build on what they do know about the problem.
• Resist answering the question “is this right?” Suggest to the students a way to
check the answer for themselves.
• Praise the students for small, independent steps.
If you follow these steps, your students will learn that it is all right not to have an instant
answer. They will also learn to develop greater patience and to work at their own pace.
And by working through the problem, students will experience a sense of achievement
and confidence that will increase their motivation to learn.
Activity-5
Discipline and motivation are important factors for effective instruction. Being a
teacher, mention some of the other factors which are as important as these.
8.6 Effective Interpersonal Skills in Teaching
Effective personal and interpersonal skills underpin professional practice. They have a
number of dimensions including empathy, team working, creative thinking, the skill of
reflection and a sense of humour. All are underpinned by effective communication skills
in their widest sense. These include:
• effective questioning
• reflective listening
• non-verbal communication.
These skills should never be used in isolation. They form an essential part of the dialogue
that effective teachers develop with their learners to bring about positive changes in
behaviour and to deepen understanding.
1. Effective Questioning
Questioning has many dimensions. For example, teachers use it to:
• check what learners know
• assess their learning
• draw on personal experience
• promote development of practical skills
• encourage reflection on progress and the learning process.
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2. Using Discussion
Active learning approaches stimulate discussion and deepen learning; this is
particularly effective when learners work in small groups. These subject-focused
resources give an overview of classroom practice but draw out some common
principles.
To stimulate ideas, view the video clips and consider:
• What strategies for introducing discussion are evident?
• What benefits do you think the teacher was looking for?
• How did the learners respond?
• What role did the teacher play?
• What would you describe as good practice?
• What, if anything, do you think could have been done differently to support
learning?
3. Managing Groups
Group work is particularly valuable when the aim of learning is to develop
conceptual understanding or strategies for solving more challenging problems. In
these areas, learners need to share alternative views, interpretations or approaches.
In small groups learners are able to check their understanding by explaining, or
rehearsing, it in their own words to at least one other person, who could give them
instant feedback. It also provides a ‘safe’ arena in which to ask questions.
You might use the resources as part of a teacher education or professional
development programme to address some of the challenges of group management:
• What can a teacher do to facilitate learning in groups?
• What can be gained from observing and listening to learners at work?
• What do you notice about planning and group management strategies?
• How did the learners benefit from working in groups?
• What, if anything, do you think could have been done differently, to support
learning?
• What can go wrong with group work? How could you prevent these
problems happening?
• If you are feeling unsure about managing groups, what skills do you most
need to develop?
4. Effective Teacher Personal Skills
Together with professional skills, effective teachers use their personal skills with
the students as these skills play an important role in students learning process,
achievement, and behaviour. Some of these skills are as under:
(a) Caring
Effective teachers care about their students in order to bring the best of each one to
encourage learning. According to Gurney (2007), learning has been considered as
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an emotional exercise which will allow the students to get engaged as it appeals to
be emotional. Besides, Eisner (2002) suggests that “teaching is a caring exercise”
which takes an important role in effective learning process. Showing care includes
listening to the students, not only when they are in the classroom, but also about
their particular lives and/or personal problems. The role of the effective teachers, in
this situation, is to be good listeners, paying attention to, and showing
understanding through tenderness and patience. According to Strong et al. (2004)
students perceive effectiveness when teachers show kindness, gentleness and
encouragement. Effective teachers demonstrate genuine concern and empathy
toward students through understanding the students´ concerns and questions.
Stronge et al. (2004) stated that effective teachers listen to the students’ arguments
and help and/or indicates them how to resolve their problems, and are willing to
talk about their personal lives and experiences respecting the confidentiality issues.
Therefore, there is a more effective achievement when the teacher demonstrates
that cares about the students and knows them individually.
(b) Knowing the Students Individually
Caring teachers also know the students individually and give them individual
attention and develop productive relationships with their students. They treat their
student with respect and expect the same in return, enhancing the students learning
progress. It is not enough to know the students in their formal setting (in the
classroom: their learning strategies or learning style), but also, to know them in
their informal setting (outside the classroom: likes and dislikes, background, their
motivation, aptitude and attitude to learn). These have great effect on behaviour
and performance in the classroom, and in their learning process (Cruickshank &
Haefele, 2001). In addition, according to Stronger et al. (2004) caring goes beyond
listening, understanding and knowing the students, it is also being patient, kind,
warm, sensitive, human with them. It is to be adaptable to particular students’
situations, honest, trustworthy, encouraged, and having and showing affection and
love for them. Sizer (1999) stated that students cannot be taught well if we do not
know them.
(c) Teacher-Students Relationship
Effective teachers do not only have a teacher-student relationship in the classroom,
but also demonstrate interest in students´ lives beyond the classroom, using a wide
variety of strategies to interact with them outside the class, and the educational
institution. This also encourages students to perform their best in the classroom
(Kohn, 1996). The election on the type of social event can be easier if the teacher
knows the students preferences. Students really appreciate the teacher who attends
social event with them, such as the graduation, the end course dinner, a visit to a
museum, a local event, a concert, etc. According to Stronge et al. (2004) the social
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interactions between the teacher and students encourage students leaning and
achievement. Besides, this helps introvert or low self-esteem learners to be better
integrated in the group. This increases students´ participation and motivation,
which enhance a more favourable leaning environment, and challenge the students
to succeed. Wolk, (2002) stated that a strong relationships with the students helps
to decrease discipline problems. Therefore, a teacher who spends more time
interacting socially with the students, working directly with them, and
demonstrates a sense of fun and willingness to participate, in a friendly and
personal manner, is considered to be effective. Knowing the students and having a
teaching-student relationship with them creates a warm classroom and learning
environment.
(d) Classroom Environment
Wang et al. (1997) found classroom climate to be one of the most important factors
to affect students’ achievement, although, on the contrary, it has been a strong
predictor of students’ aggression. However, having an optimal relationship with the
students helps to create a warm and safe classroom environment so that students
can achieve their potential, as they feel safe and confident to attempt new tasks and
participate (Reynolds & Muijs, 1999).
Activity-6
Teaching is a profession which needs skills like other professions. Some of the factors
regarding this are discussed under this topic. Mentions some of the other factors which
are not explained here.
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8.7 Summary
The current unit deals with the classroom management and its related topics. A good
teacher has the inborn quality of managing a class efficiently which is the prerequisite for
effective teaching learning process. If a certain teacher is not aware of classroom
management techniques then certainly he will have to face many problems like discipline
problems, lack of motivation from students side etc. In this regard, it is the basic
responsibility of the society to know about the problems and needs of the teachers so that
they may be able to perform their duties with peaceful mind. In this unit various problems
faced by the teachers have been discussed. As far as the effective teaching is concerned,
the comprehensive lesson plans play the vital role. With the help of these plans, the
teachers are able to pre-plan how they will teach a particular topic so that the pre-defined
objectives may be achieved in a better way. It is a well known fact that all the students
are not at the same mental level. Moreover, there are individual differences which are
always present among the students. There are some students which are very obedient and
hard working, but on the other hand some students are problem creating students who
don’t study themselves nor let the other students to study. It is the responsibility of a
good teacher to adjust these students with other students so that they may be adjusted in
the class and work properly. The teaching learning process is a two way process
including both of the students and teachers. For effective teaching, the teachers may have
some relevant teaching tools like discipline, an attractive way of instruction and
motivational techniques. Discipline is the first basic necessity for teaching. If the class is
not disciplined, then certainly the students will not take any interest in their studies and
consequently there will be no effective learning. In the same way the teacher should be
capable of delivering his/her lesson in an interesting way by using some motivational
techniques. In addition to the above mentioned factors, the teachers should have some
personal skills as well, like an attractive personality, friendly environment in the class
and good social interaction with the students so that they may discuss their problems
without any fear and hesitation.
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1. What do you mean by classroom management? What are the views of various
experts on this topic?
2. In your view, what are the main problems which are being faced by Pakistani
teachers? What measures do you suggest in overcoming these problems?
3. “Effective lesson planning is the core element in instruction”. Comment.
4. In every class there are some problem students. Being a teacher how would you
tackle these students along with the rest of the class?
5. What are different tools of teaching for effective instruction? Give your views.
6. Briefly explain what do you mean by discipline, instruction and motivation?
7. Personal skills of teachers are very important for better teaching. In your opinion
what skills a teacher should have to become a successful instructor?
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Froyen, L. A., & Iverson, A. M. (1999). Schoolwide and Classroom Management: The
Reflective Educator-Leader (3rd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Gurney, P. (2007) “Five factors for effective teaching” Journal of Teachers Work, Vol. 4,
Issue 2, 89-98
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Lowman, J. (1984). Mastering the Techniques of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Teaching and Learning, No. 42. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Ed.) Lexington, Mass.: Heath.
McMillan, J. H., & Forsyth, D. R. (1991) “What Theories of Motivation Say About Why
Learners Learn.” In R. J. Menges and M. D. Svinicki (eds.), College Teaching: From
Theory to Practice. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 45. San Francisco:
Reynolds, D. and Muijs, D. (1999) “The Effective Teaching of Mathematics: a Review of
Research”, School Leadership & Management, 19(3), 273-288
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Teaching of Psychology, 16 (2), 86-88.
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teachers” Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA, USA
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UNIT–9
PROBLEMS IN CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT
Written by:
Dr. Muhammad Saeed
Reviewed by:
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CONTENTS
Introduction................................................................................................... 183
Objectives ..................................................................................................... 183
9.1 Classroom Management ................................................................................ 184
9.2 Problems in Classroom Management............................................................. 184
9.3 Elimination of Problems in Classroom Management...................................... 187
9.4 Preventing Classroom discipline Problems..................................................... 189
9.5 Disruptive Behaviour and its Sources............................................................. 191
9.6 Activities....................................................................................................... 193
9.7 Self Assessment Exercise .............................................................................. 194
9.8 Suggested Readings....................................................................................... 197
9.9 References..................................................................................................... 198
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INTRODUCTION
The unit on ‘Problems in Classroom Management’ is an important unit of B. Ed (Hons)
four-year course on ‘Classroom Management’. It has been designed to look into the
global practices in classroom management with a focus on problems and issues related to
classroom management in Pakistan.
The unit starts with the introduction of classroom management in view of the definitions
by different experts. It mainly highlights the works of Froyen and Iverson (1999), Emmer,
Evertson, and Worshan (2003), and Evertson and Weinstein (2006).
The main thrust of the unit is on ‘Issues and Problems in Classroom Management’. Here
firstly the concept of conflict and conflict management has been presented, and then the
key issues of classroom management such as positive behaviour support (PBS) and social
and emotional learning (SEL) are discussed. After then Do’s and Don’ts in context to
classroom management as stated by Kratchowill (2005) are presented. This part ends
with many general key issues and problems in classroom management.
One important theme is ‘Elimination of Problems in Classroom Management’. It includes
the different strategies need to make classroom management efficient and effective. Here
the views of different experts such as Bellard (2005), McCleary (2005), Brophy (2006),
Horne and Brown (2007) and Kratochwill (2011) are presented. .
The last major theme of the unit is ‘Disruptive Behaviour’ which focuses the description
of the main sources of disruptive behaviour.
OBJECTIVES
After reading the unit, you will be in position to;
• aware the students about the concept of classroom management.
• describe the key issues and problems of classroom management.
• highlight strategies to overcome classroom discipline problems.
• describe the strategies to overcome classroom management problems
• define, enlist and describe the sources of disruptive behaviour.
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9.1 Classroom Management
Classroom management is a term specifically used by teachers to make sure that teaching
learning process in classroom is running smoothly in spite of disturbing behaviour by
students. The term also implies the avoidance of disruptive behaviour (Wolfgang &
Glickman, 1986).
Classroom management refers to the procedure; strategies and instructional techniques
teachers use to manage student behaviour and learning activities (Emmer, Evertson &
Worshan, 2003). Classroom management is one of the most important aspects of teaching;
indeed experiencing and dealing problems in this area is very important to address.
Classroom is a complex and dynamic place where students develop different ways of
doing their work. When students interact, some of these differences can lead to conflict
(Basit, et al., 2010). It is a place where teaching learning discourse occurs. Stone (2005)
states ‘every classroom has its unique chemistry, and likewise, each teacher is a unique
individual with different expectations and needs’.
Classroom management is closely linked to issues of motivation, discipline and respect. It
refers to all things that a teacher does to organize students’ space, time, and materials to
foster their involvement and cooperation in all classroom activities and to establish
productive working environment (Ahmad, 2010).
Froyen and Iverson (1999) state that there are three major components of classroom
management: Content management, conducts management, and covenant management.
Content management does not refer to skills peculiar to teaching a particular subject
rather them to those skills that cut across subject and activities.
Conduct management is centered on one’s beliefs about the nature of people by
integrating knowledge about human diversity into a particular instructional philosophy;
teacher could manage classrooms in a better, more effective way.
Covenant management focuses the classroom group as a social system. Teacher and
student’s roles and expectations shape the classroom into an environment conducive to
learning.
9.2 Problems in Classroom Management
Classroom management carries a number of problems and issues. One of the key
problems is conflict management. The conflicts may emerge between student - student,
and between teacher - student. A conflict is basically a disagreement between two or
more parties concerning the activities used to achieve certain goals (Szilagyi, 1986). It is
a state of affairs in which people express differences in satisfying their needs and
interests, and they experience interference in achieving them. A conflict is a struggle or
contest between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values, or goals. Conflict
management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self-awareness about
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conflict modes, conflict communication skills, and establishing a structure for managing
conflict (The Foundation Coalition, 2003).
Teachers are mainly concerned with two kinds of classroom issues. First, preventing
discipline problems, and second, current discipline problems. To address these concerns,
researchers have established several systems. One of such systems is called ‘positive
behaviour support (PBS) (Crone & Horner, 2003; Crone, Horner, & Hawken, 2004), and
the other is ‘social and emotional learning (SEL) which reflects the work of Weisberg
and his colleagues affiliated with the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning (CASEL). PBS programmes typically involve a school-wide structure of
support for teachers that adopt evidence that adopt evidence-based programmes (see
Freiberg & Lapointe, 2006), and small group and individualized programmes for more
serious student discipline concerns (Robinson & Griesemer, 2006). PBS is typically set
up as a multi-level model of intervention. It begins with: a) school-wise systems of
support (called universal or primary intervention); b) small group or more focused
interventions (called selected or focused and more intense services) for problematic or
more disruptive behaviour; and c) individualized interventions (called indicated or
tertiary intervention).
Literature highlights different core issues regarding classroom management problems.
1. Undermining the teacher’s authority
The teacher should avoid exercising his/her authority while dealing with students.
The student may be told in loneliness about his/her confrontational attitude and
make effort to resolve through mutual discussions and meetings. The students
should be encouraged to ask questions rather snub them.
2. Leaving class too frequently
Leaving class frequently by the teacher and/or students is one of the most frequent
problem and issue in our schools, colleges, and sometimes even in universities. The
teacher should be punctual and he/she should discourage his/her students to leave
classes without any genuine reason. Failing which results in students’ absenteeism
and poor performance.
3. Spacing out or sitting with back to teacher
If the practice of spacing out or sitting back to the teacher is very frequent, it will
negatively affect learning. If this problem is repeated, students need to know that
their non-verbal behaviour is perceived as disinterest. The teacher might ask the
student for the comfortable seat in the class.
4. Poor hygiene
Poor hygiene, use of too much perfume, cigarette etc. create problem for many
students in the class as these affect the physical environment of the class. Clean
water should be available to the students. Likewise, adequate and comfortable bath
facility should be available in the school premises.
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5. Verbal or physical threats
Some teachers target some students for some verbal and/or physical threats, which
is an illegal act. This should be avoided to promote students learning abilities to the
maximum possible extent.
6. Cell phone and food disruptions
In some cases, there is a problem in the class that many students don’t off their
mobile phones inspite of giving them repeated instructions. Similarly some students
eat or drink food or chew gum items very frequently in the class hours which disrupt
the classroom teaching learning process. The teacher should take serious notice and
the institution must have a very clear and strict policy in this regard.
7. Monopolizing discussions
This is a common but manageable problem. Many students are excited and
talkative so it might be good to give some class periods to settle in. The teacher
needs to handle such students skillfully.
8. Sleeping in the class
Sleeping in the class is usually considered as ‘rude’. It should not be tolerated. To
avoid this problem, the teacher should not give much home work; the amount of
home work should be appropriate. Some students don’t sleep at night due to some
other problems which the teacher should ask them in loneliness. Another strategy is
to ask students to actively participate in class activities.
9. Refusal to speak/participate
Some of the students don’t speak or actively participate in the various activities.
There may be many possible reasons for this. For example, some may be terrified
from teacher’s behaviour, and some may have health problem. Such students
should be encouraged to speak. More questions should be asked to such students.
10. Sharing /copying work
Some students don’t do work on their own, rather depends on others. Some, for
example, copy other’s work while some copy from internet. Sometimes, the parents
or siblings dictate or write on their own the work of the students. The teacher
should take care of such practices as these affect student learning. If the problem is
at the end of parents, the teacher should either contact or write them in a proper
way. The teacher should clearly share the plagiarism policy with the students.
He/she should clearly warn students and their parents, that in case of much copying,
student will be dropped or his/her grade may be affected.
11. Disrespectful Behaviour
The students should be respected as they also have their feelings. There are
different ways for this. For example, if a student did not perform well, he/she
should be realized and one or more meetings may be arranged to highlight that
success brings happiness and failure results in dissatisfaction. If a student performs
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well in any activity, he/she may be motivated or encouraged by giving some
appreciation or other rewards.
12. Lack/underutilization of resources
It happens many times that classroom lacks in learning resources, for example,
suitable board, multimedia, projector, prerequisites for classroom ventilation etc.
The lack of resources or underutilization of available resources also creates
disinterest among the students in the class and they remain away from their studies.
9.3 Elimination of Problems in Classroom Management
Bernal (2005) states that best classroom management is linked with viable plan,
appropriate methods and strategies, and adequate resources and management skills of the
teacher. It is generally perceived that classroom management in a broader perspective
adds parents in the process. The teacher should be proactive i.e. he/she should not wait
until a situation reaches the crisis point, rather thinks to improve the classroom teaching
learning process right from the beginning. He/she should have contacts and discuss with
the parents and other teachers.
McCleary (2005) puts emphasis on the relationships in the classroom. Not only the
teacher should consider and evaluate the classroom relationships; but the school also to
look into the essential components of classroom management. There are a few tools or
techniques that guide teachers through this important reflection. First, every classroom
has its unique chemistry, and likewise each teacher is a unique individual with different
expectations and needs. The teacher should accordingly determine the nature of the
relationships in the class. Second, when you build strong relationship between yourself
and your students, you create a foundation that supports learning, student achievement,
and positive social development. Third, improving classroom environment should evolve
rewarding and meaningful results. Fourth, a teacher who allows negativism to pervade
his/her classroom undermines any successful relationship with students. A double
standard exists when dealing with this topic. Fifth, a strong classroom relationship is also
built on consistency. Students, especially those who may be more likely to cause
classroom management challenges, react well to consistency and predictability. One of
the most important things here is that a teacher is to be in the classroom as often as he/she
can. Teachers, who miss their classes very often, generally face classroom problems.
Effective classroom management generally answers to following four core questions.
1. Know what you want and what you don’t want.
2. Show and tell your students what you want.
3. When you get what you want, acknowledge it.
4. When you get something else, act quickly and appropriately.
Horne and Brown (2007) also realize the importance of managing relationships with
pupils in the classroom, besides relationships with the colleagues. They are of the view
that a good working environment in the classroom depends upon the rapport developed
between the pupils and their teacher. Learning is far more likely to flourish where a
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relationship is based on mutual trust and respect rather than fear and dominance. To
manage good relationship with students, following principles should be observed.
1. Respect your students and treat them as an individual.
2. Be genuine and caring for your students. Keep them in front instead undermining
their abilities.
3. Establish good rapport with your students. Start this process from the very
beginning.
4. Act as an ideal teacher and human being before your students. The teacher should
be a role model for their students so he/she should be very careful all the time.
5. Set your classroom standards and share with your pupils at the beginning.
6. Act like a civilized person in the class. Never discourage any student rather
encourage them to exploit their abilities.
7. Have a sense of humour and use it in the classroom as and when needed.
8. Avoid unnecessary criticism.
9. Try to be impartial with all students irrespective of ability, socio-economic status,
race and color.
10. Listen to each student and give them equal opportunity in the class to share their
views. Don’t impose your instructions all the times.
11. Be consistent and keep your personality impressive and open to all.
Bellard (2005) diverts our attention towards classroom discipline. Exemplary teaching
and learning can take place only if a foundation of exemplary discipline strategies has
been established in the classroom. A teacher can employ different discipline strategies in
the class. First, to create a workable and stable democracy, individuals must have the
emotional and intellectual maturity to understand the responsibilities that democracy
entails. They also need the knowledge and skills that will permit them to make rational,
moral choices that are in the best interest of society as a whole and not just in their own
interests. Second, teacher is the authority. The teachers who exercise authority use all of
the tools at their disposal to help their students learn. They take responsibility for their
class and are always prepared. In many cases, well-prepared lesson that actively engage
the students will cut down on many discipline problems. Most students really do not want
to learn and enjoy a class by interrupting classroom learning in any way. Third, students
prefer a teacher who is demanding over caring. Maintaining high standards and discipline
in the class will actually foster self-esteem. Most students actually respect a teacher who
is more demanding than caring. Fourth, there is a need that all of the students’ parents
should sign a discipline contract with the school at the beginning of the class. Fifth, the
teacher should share the classroom rules, expectations and consequences, and reinforce in
the class. If he/she says this will be a reward of best achievement or this will be
punishment or penalty of this classroom misbehaviour, he/she must do it. Sixth, the
teacher should gain popularity by having good relationships with his/her head teacher, the
senior and the junior colleagues.
Horne and Brown (2007) are of the view that management of pupils in the class needs to
be looked at in terms of the extent to which any particular form of organization allows the
teacher to interact positively and economically with the pupils. In other words, it is
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necessary to organize time, resources, and activities in order to maximize learning. They
suggest following principles should be observed for effective classroom management.
1. Have clear indications that the classroom is a learning environment.
2. Know in advance the organizational structure of the lesson.
3. Make sure the physical layout of the room is appropriate.
4. Manage the arrival and departure of pupils skillfully.
5. Help pupils to know what behaviour is expected.
6. Display pupil’s work and provide them necessary feedback.
7. Have as many kinds of display material as possible.
8. Maintain a working atmosphere in the class.
9. Respond to unexpected or inappropriate behaviour.
10. Make sure resources are accessible to all pupils.
Kratochwill (2011) states that classroom management strategies are most effective if they
include:
• organized instruction to optimize student learning
• lessons in group management
• development of student social skills and self-regulations
• customized interventions to assist with specific student behaviour problems
• a multi-tiered system of management
Effective classroom management must be aligned with instructional goals and activities.
Brophy (2006) noted that when teachers identify what good student behaviour looks like;
they can work backwards from desired outcomes to determine which management
systems will be most effective. Examples of these behaviour include arriving in class on
time, taking owns seat if specified, leaving front seats vacant for students having any
disability, being prepared for a lesson, paying keen interest in classroom activities,
develop and implement effective classroom assessment tools, encourage students to ask
questions, respond to students questions, giving feedback on assignments etc. Accepted
behaviours may vary for different classroom organizational systems (whole school, small
group, or individual tutoring). Classroom management strategies may need to be adapted
to unique contexts and environments that emerge in physical classrooms.
9.4 Preventing Classroom Discipline Problem
It is a common experience that once a teacher loses control of his classroom, it becomes
increasingly more difficult for him to regain the control. Research from Berliner (1988)
and Brophy and Good (1986) show that the time that teacher has to take to step to bring
improvement in misbehaviour caused by poor classroom management skills results in a
lower rate of academic engagement in the classroom. From a student’s perspective,
effective classroom management involves clear communication of behaviour and
academic expectations, as well as a cooperative learning environment (Allen, 1986).
Prevention of classroom management problems can be resolved by setting standards for
behaviour in class, developing a process for notifying students of the standards,
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developing a process to respond to violations of class standards as well as university
standards, and responding to violations in a consistent and fair manner.
Techniques to Decrease Inappropriate Student Behaviour
First strategy to decrease the inappropriate behaviour is to remove a student from the
classroom; it may leave positive effects on the teacher and the student. The teacher
receives relief from the inappropriate behaviour, and the student receives relief from the
aversive task. Second, training on effective classroom management should give pre-
service and developing teachers adequate conceptualization of the critical content. For
example, videotapes of classroom situations may provide a medium for discussion and
analysis of classroom management applications (Emmer & Stough, 2001). Third strategy
is a case method of instruction. Case method of instruction is a strategy to enhance a
teacher’s problem solving and decision-making skills. By analyzing cases, teachers are
able to apply their knowledge of classroom organization and behaviour management to
real life situation. Professional development schools and supervised field
experience/teaching practice are two ways that pre-service and novice teachers gain
pragmatic experience.
Schools individually should take a preventive approach and establish school wide
behaviour support systems that link class wide, targeted group, and individualized
behaviour plans to the school wide plan. In addition, schools should utilize staff with
strong expertise to provide collaborative consultation to teachers experiencing difficulty
with classroom management and student behaviour. Strong administrative support is a
critical factor in the successful development and implementation of such efforts.
Dos in Classroom Management
Kratochwill (2011) describes classroom management in terms of Dos and Don’ts. He
states that primary level interventions are applied to all students in the school; about 80%
of the students may respond to this level. These interventions:
• Create interest in classroom lessons and materials
• Ensure that there is a match between student’s skills and classroom instructional level
• Develop home-school partnership through which students’ learning and behaviour
can be fostered and students needs can be met
• Teach students the skills (e.g. study skills, time management) they need to meet
classroom expectations
• Establish procedures for teaching expected positive behaviours
• Establish a system for monitoring students’ progress and record keeping
At secondary or selected prevention system, about 10 to 20% of students need additional
support. These include:
• Institute self-management programmes
• Institute conflict management programmes
• Institute mentoring programmes
• Institute daily check-in and check-out procedures
• Institute specialized social skill instruction
• Establish family involvement in all programmes
190

At tertiary or individualized prevention system level, 5 to 7 % of the students will need
this kind of support. This includes:
• Establish a problem solving team that teacher and others can go for help
• Develop function-based interventions
Don’ts in Classroom Management
• Use vague rules
• Rules that you are unwilling to enforce
• Ignore student behaviour and violate school or classroom rules
• Engage in ambiguous or inconsistent treatment of misbehaviour
• Use harsh or embarrassing punishments
• Use corporal punishments
• Students’ suspension from school wherever possible
• Solve students’ serious problems alone without consulting other colleagues
9.5 Disruptive Behaviour and its Sources
Undesirable classroom behaviours, such as wandering around the room, aggression,
disturbing another's property, disruptive noise, turning attention away from the teacher,
inappropriate verbalization and inappropriate tasks during a lesson is referred as
disruptive behaviour.
Disruptive classroom behaviour hurts students and teachers. Kay (2000) an educational
consultant, defines disruptive classroom behaviour as any inappropriate student behaviour.
Students misbehave in an attempt to gain the recognition and acceptance they want.
Ingrersoll and Smith (2003) found that classroom organization and behaviour
management competencies significantly influence the persistence of new teachers in
teaching careers. Disruptive classroom behaviour is a significant reason why teachers
leave the profession. Browers and Tomic (2000) also found that new teachers typically
express concerns about lacking effective means to handle the significant disruptive
behaviour of students. Teachers who have problems with behaviour management and
classroom discipline are frequently ineffective in the classroom, and they often report
high levels of stress and symptoms of burnout (Berliner, 1986; Browers & Tomic, 2000;
Espin & Yel, 1994). Kellam, Ling, Merisca, Brown, and Ialongo (1998) found that
disruptive behaviour is a particular problem in classrooms of disadvantaged students.
Following are the major sources of disruptive behaviour of students.
9.5.1 Call out
Calling out is one of the more common problems teachers encounter in the classroom.
Fortunately, it also is one of the easiest problems to manage. A student's classroom
interruptions may take different forms – from blurting out an answer without raising his
hand, to respond when another student has been called on, to make an unsolicited
comment in the middle of a lesson or discussion. Whatever form the interruption takes,
191

students who call out can get you and the class off track, as well as prevent other students
from participating fully in class activities.
(http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/shore/shore003.shtml)
9.5.2 Fighting
Sometimes students are found disputing verbally with other students which are veiled
while sometimes are more explicit. In aggressiveness student may approach the instructor
or fellow students frighteningly or actually show the individual, or worse, physically
attack them.
9.5.3 Cheating
Cheating is becoming more and more of a problematic issue in education in many
classrooms around the world. The issue of cheating is far, however from being solved:
cell phones and text messages have become an additional culprit for cheating on tests and
it is uncertain how future technology will continue to affect the cheating situation.
Students cheat because of many reasons, one of the most common reasons of the cheating
may be that they don't feel they can succeed on the test and as a result, they feel a need to
cover up for whatever weaknesses they may have.
(http://doritsasson.suite101.com/cheating-in-the-classroom-a21143)
9.5.4 Come in Late
When students come to class late, it can disrupt the flow of a lecture or discussion,
distract other students, impede learning, and generally erode class morale. Moreover, if
left unchecked, lateness can become chronic and spread throughout the class.
(www.cmu.edu/teaching/solveproblem/strat-latetoclass/index.html)
9.5.5 Homework
Homework assignments are referred as the tasks which are assigned by the teachers to the
students to be completed outside the class. Students not doing their homework are the
source of disruptiveness in the classroom thus behaviour is detrimental to the academic
community and classroom management because it interferes with the learning process for
other students and inhibits the ability of instructors to teach most effectively.
9.5.6 Drugs Addiction
Drugs addiction cause behaviour problems in students specially they become aggressive,
don’t obey rules argues with their elders and peers, they may hurt to others, lacking
accountability and blaming others, show inappropriate behaviours, be involved in theft,
start fights, and lacks respect for and authority violates rules regularly in this way these
things create problems specially in class room management and spoiled their other
fellows.
9.5.7 Psychological Problems
A lingering pattern of disruptive behaviour may indicate as mental health disorder.
Possible disorders indicated by such behaviour include attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, also known as ADHD, and oppositional defiant disorder. ADHD, characterized
192

by an inability to pay attention and impulsive behaviours, often causes behavioural
problems in class. The symptoms of ADHD clash with the expectations of the classroom
environment. Children with ADHD may talk out of turn, have difficulty staying seated
and find it challenging to maintain focus during instructional time.
Children with oppositional defiant disorder exhibit behaviours of negativity, defiance,
disobedience and hostility towards authority figures, according to the Mayo Clinic. These
symptoms may lead to problems in school, temper tantrums, aggressiveness toward peers
and other disruptive classroom behaviours (Aiger, 2010).
9.6 Activities
Activity-1
Identify one specialized feature in each of the three types of classroom management –
content, conduct and covenant.
Activity-2
PBS is a multi-level model of interaction. Write down two points in support to this
statement.
Activity-3
Identify two Dos’ and two Don’ts in context to classroom management not being
indicated by Kratochwill (2011).
Activity-4
Close your eyes and count the 12 major issues and problems of classroom
management.
Activity-5
Enlist the authors indicated under the sub-topic ‘Techniques to decrease inappropriate
students’ behaviour’ and give one point in support to their work.
Activity-6
Briefly explain the above four core questions of classroom management in your own
words.
Activity-7
Design a flow chart showing key words of all the above principles of maintaining good
relationships with students in the class.
Activity-8
Identify five principles for effective classroom management not being directly
highlighted by Horne and Brown (2006), and Kratochwill (2011).
Activity-9
Enlist the sources of disruptive behaviour with their key description.
193

9.7 Self-Assessment Exercise
Part-1: Multiple Choice Questions
Note: Encircle or tick mark (√) the correct/best answer in each of the following items.
1. The primary aim of classroom management is to:
a) Motivate students towards learning
b) Use different discipline strategies
c) Gain and maintain student cooperation to promote learning
d) Deals effectively with disruptive students
e) Use effective teaching learning strategies
2. Who divided classroom management into content, conduct and covenant
management?
a) Froyen and Ivertson
b) Evertson and Weinstein
c) Crone and Honer
d) Crone, Horner and Hawken
e) Freiberg and Lapointe
3. Covenant management deals with:
a) Self efficacy of students
b) Community problems
c) Teacher’s control and administration
d) Maintain strong socio-cultural system
e) Enhancement of teacher’s professional skills
4. Classroom management is a/an:
a) Instructional activity
b) Single activity
c) Multi-faceted activity
d) Measure of learning achievement
e) Activity of resolving disruptive behaviour problems
5. A conflict is a/an:
a) Agreement between two more parties
b) Agreement among more than two parties
c) Disagreement between two parties
d) Disagreement among more than two parties
e) Struggle between people’s ideas and beliefs
194

6. Under the broader framework of classroom management, school-wide structure
refers to:
a) Instructional management
b) Positive behaviour support
c) Social and emotional learning
d) CASEL
e) Individualized instructions
7. Who has explained classroom management in terms of Do’s and Don’ts?
a) Froyen
b) Evertson
c) Freiberg
d) Kratochwill
e) Lapointe
8. Effective classroom management is associated with:
a) Feasible plan
b) Viable teaching strategies
c) Adequate resources
d) Teacher’s administrative and managerial skills
e) All above
9. In the context of classroom management, McCleary puts emphasis on classroom:
a) Chemistry
b) Control
c) Environment
d) Atmosphere
e) Relationships
10. The expert who has done work on classroom discipline is:
a) Horne
b) Brown
c) Crone
d) Bellard
e) Brophy
11. Effective classroom management must be aligned with:
a) Instructional goals and activities
b) Classroom discipline
c) Students’ disruptive behaviour
d) Accepted behaviours
e) Material resources
195

12. The key problem or issue of classroom management from teacher’s perspective
may be:
a) Maximum utilization of available resources
b) Sleeping in the class
c) Copying too much by the students
d) Use of mobiles by the students
e) Poor hygienic conditions in the class
13. Which should be taken as the last resort by the teacher?
a) Changing seat
b) Off-task paperwork
c) Time-outs
d) Detentions
e) Discipline referrals
14. An educational consultant defines disruptive classroom behaviour as any
inappropriate student behaviour.
a) Browers
b) Ingrersoll
c) Kay
d) Smith
15. A strategy to enhance a teacher’s problem solving and decision-making skills is:
a) Goals and detentions
b) Goals, interventions and rewards
c) Actions and consequences
d) Interventions and actions
e) Goals, actions and consequences
Key of MCQs for Self-assessment
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Key C A D C E B D E E D A A E B B
Part-II: Short Answer Questions
1. In what way discipline is an important component of classroom management?
2. Give two definitions of classroom management and derive one of its
comprehensive definitions as per your perception.
3. Distinguish between PBS and SEL.
4. Enlist any five key Do’s of classroom management in order of priority.
5. Enlist any five key Don’ts of classroom management in order of priority.
6. Suggest three techniques to decrease inappropriate disruptive behaviour of students.
7. Briefly describe the three components of classroom management stated by Froyen
and Iverson (1999).
196

8. What may be the three major sources of disruptive behaviour of students in
classroom?
9. Write down the causes of cheating?
10. How do the psychological problems of students create the management problems in
classroom?
Part-III: Essay type Questions
1. Discuss the key issues and problems of classroom management along with viable
remedial measures in the context of Pakistani schools.
2. Discuss in detail the sources of disruptive behaviour.
3. Elaborate the effective techniques to decrease inappropriate student behaviour in
classroom.
9.8 Suggested Readings
Ahmad, M. (2010). Application of Classroom Management Strategies in Public and Private
Sector at School Level in Pakistan. International Journal of Library and Information Science,
2(9), 177-183.
Brophy, J. E. (2006). History of Research on Classroom Management. In C. M. Evertson
& C. S. Weinstein (Eds.) Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice and
Isuues (pp. 17-44) Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Horne, H. & Brown, S. (2007). Tips for school improvement. London; Routledge.
Kratochwill, T. (2011). Classroom Management: Teachers Modules.
USA: American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classroom_management
197

9.9 References
Ahmad, M. (2010). Application of Classroom Management Strategies in Public and
Private Sector at School Level in Pakistan. International Journal of Library and
Information Science, 2(9), 177-183.
Aiger, A. (2010). What Is Disruptive Behaviour in the Classroom? Retrieved December
14, 2011 from: http://www.livestrong.com/article/147291-what-is-disruptive-behaviour-
in-the-classroom/
Allen, J. D. (1986). Classroom Management: Student’s Perspectives, Goals and
Strategies. American Education Research Journal, 23, 437-459.
Basit, A., Rahman, F., Jumani, N. B., Chishti, S.H., & Malik, S. (2010). An Analysis of
Conflict Resolution Strategies in Pakistani Schools. International Journal of Academic
Research, 2(6), 212-218.
Bellard, K. (2005). Classroom Discipline, in R. Stone (Ed.) Best Classroom Practices for
Reaching All Learners (pp. 41-44), Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Berliner, D. C. (1986). In Pursuit of Expert Pedagogue. Educational Researcher, 15(7), 5-13.
Bernal, J. (2005). Classroom Management and Finding Success in Your AP Spanish
Program, in R. Stone (Ed.) Best Classroom Practices for Reaching All Learners (pp. 41-
44), Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Brophy, J. E. (2006). History of Research on Classroom Management. In C.M. Evertson
& C.S. Weinstein (Eds.) Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice and
Isuues (pp. 17-44) Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Brophy, J. E., & Good, T. l. (1986). Teacher Behaviour and Student Achievement. In M.
C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd
ed., pp. 328-375). New York:
MacMillan.
Browers, A., & Tomic, W. (2000). A Longitudinal Study of Teacher Burnout and Perceived
Self-efficacy in Classroom Management, Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(2), 239-253.
Carnine, D. (1976). Effects of two Teacher Presentation Rates on Off-task Behaviour,
Answering Correctly, and Participation. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 9(2),
199-206.
Crone, D. H. & Horner, R. H. (2003). Building Positive Behaviour Support Systems in
Schools: Functional Behaviour Assessment. New York: Guilford.
Crone, D. H., Horner, R. H. & Hawken, L. S. (2004). Responding to Behaviour Problems
in Schools: The Behaviour Education Program. New York: Guilford.
Donovan, M. S. & Cross, C. T. (2002). Minority Students in Special and Gifted
Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
198

Emmer, E. T. & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom Management: A Critical Part of
Educational Psychology with Implications for Teacher Education. Educational
Psychologist, 36(2), 103-112.
Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M. & Worshan, M. E. (2003). Classroom Management for
Secondary School Teachers (6th
edition), Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Espin, C. A., & Yell, M. L. (1994). Critical Indicators of Effective Teaching for
Preservice Teachers: Relationship Between Teaching Behaviours and Ratings of
Effectiveness. Teacher Education and Special Education, 17, 154-169.
Evertson, C. M., & Weinstein, C. S. (2006). Classroom Management as a Field of Inquiry.
In C.M. Evertson & C.S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of Classroom Management:
Research, Practice and Contemporary Issues (pp. 3-16). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Freiberg, H. J. & Lapointe, J. M. (2006). Research-based Programs for Preventing and
Solving Discipline Problems. In C. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.) Handbook of
Classroom Management: Research, Practice and Contemporary Issues (pp. 735-786),
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Froyen, L. A., & Iverson, A. M. (1999). Schoolwide and Classroom Management: The
Reflective Educator-leader (3rd
ed.). Upper Saddle River: NJ: Prentice-Hall. (Also
accessible at: http://www.intime.uni.edu/model/teacher/teac3summary.html)
Gootman, M. E. (2008). The Caring Teacher’s Guide to Discipline: Helping Students
Learn Self-Control, Responsibility and Respect, K-8.
Harrell, P., Leavell, A., van Tassell, F., & McKee, K. (2004). No Teacher Left Behind:
Results of a Five-Years Study of Teacher Attrition. Action in Teacher Education, 26, 47-59.
Horne, H. & Brown, S. (2007). Tips for School Improvement. London; Routledge.
Ingersoll, R. M., & Smith, T. M. (2003). The Wrong Solution to the Teacher Shortage.
Educational Leadership, 60(8), 30-33.
Kay, B. (2000). What to do With the Kid Who.
Kellam, S., Ling, S., Merisca, R., Brown, C. H., & Ialongo, N. (1998). The Effect of the
Level of Aggression in the First Grade Classroom on the Course and Malleability of
Aggressive Behaviour into Middle School. Development Psychopathalogy, 10 165-185.
Kratochwill, T. (2011). Classroom Management: Teachers Modules. USA: American
Psychological Association, Washington, DC. University of Wisconsin.
McCleary, J. (2005). Relationship and Classroom Management, R. Stone (Ed.) Best
Classroom Practices for Reaching All Learners (pp. 63-66), Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Mierzwik, D. (2005). Classroom Record Keeping: Tips for Time-Strapped Teachers.
199

Paine, S. C., Radicci, J., Roseilini, L. C. Deutchman, L. & Darch, C. B. (1983).
Structuring Your Classroom for Academic Success. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Robinson, S. L., Griesemer,, S. M. R. (2006). Helping Individual Students with Problem
Behaviour. In C. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.) Handbook of Classroom
Management: Research, Practice and Contemporary Issues (pp. 787-802), Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stone, R. (2005). Best Classroom Management Practices for Reaching all Learners.
Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2006). A Promising Approach to Expanding and Sustaining
School-Wide Positive Behaviour Support. School of Psychology Review, 35, 245-259.
Sutherland, K. S. Alder, N., & Gunter, P. L. (2003). The Effect of Varying Rates of
Opportunities to Respond to Academic Requests on the Behaviour of Students with EBD.
Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, 11 239-248.
Szilagyi, A.D. Jr. (1986). Management and Performance (3rd
edition), London: Scott,
Foresman and Co.
The Foundation Coalition (2003). Understanding conflict and Conflict Management.
Retrieved July 12, 2010 from: www.foundationcoalition.org.
University of Phoenix (2011). Classroom Management and Management of Student
Conduct. _____: APRIMA 1997-2011, Education Information for New and Future
Teachers. (Accessible at: http://adprima.com/managing.htm )
Wolfgang, C.H., & Glickman, C.D. (1986). Solving Discipline Problems. London: Allyn
and Bacon.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classroom_management
1996-2011, Education World, INC.
http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/shore/shore003.shtml
Cheating in the Classroom.
http://doritsasson.suite101.com/cheating-in-the-classroom-a21143
http://doritsasson.suite101.com/cheating-in-the-classroom-a21143
Students come to class late.
www.cmu.edu/teaching/solveproblem/strat-latetoclass/index.html
200

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