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Computer organiztion1

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Umang Gupta

This document provides an overview of a computer system architecture course. It outlines the chapters that will be covered in the class, including digital logic circuits, digital components, data representation, register transfer and microoperations, basic computer organization and design, programming the basic computer, microprogrammed control, central processing unit, pipeline and vector processing, computer arithmetic, input-output organization, memory organization, and multiprocessors. The class aims to teach students how a computer works by building a "Mano machine" and learning about its hardware and software architecture in detail. Students will complete homework problems and have the option to complete a design report. Their grade will be based on homework, exams, an optional report, and class participation.

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1-1 Computer System Architecture M. Morris Mano 정보통신공학과 이 명 의(A-405) melee@kut.ac.kr Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-2 Class Overview Contents Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits The fundamental knowledge needed for the design of digital systems constructed with individual gates and flip-flops. Chap. 2 Digital Components The logical operation of the most common standard digital components(Decoders, Multiplexers, Registers, Counters, and Memories). These digital components are used as building blocks for the design of larger units(Mano Machine). Chap. 3 Data Representation Various data types found in digital computers are represented in binary form in computer registers. Chap. 4 Register Transfer and Microoperations A register transfer language is used to express microoperations in symbolic form. Symbols are defined for arithmetic, logic, and shift microoperations. To show the hardware design of the most common microoperations, a composite arithmetic logic shift unit is developed. Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design The organization and design of a basic digital computer(Mano Machine). Register transfer language is used to describe the internal operation of the computer. By going through the detailed steps of the design presented in this chapter, the student will be able to understand the inner workings of digital computers. Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-3 Class Overview Chap. 6 Programming the Basic Computer The 25 instructions of the basic computer to illustrate techniques used in assembly language programming. Programming examples are presented for a number of data processing tasks. The basic operations of an assembler are presented to show the translation from symbolic code to an equivalent binary program. Chap. 7 Microprogrammed Control Introduction to the concept of microprogramming. A specific microprogrammed control unit is developed to show by example how to write microcode for a typical set of instructions. The design of the control unit is carried-out in detail. Chap. 8 Central Processing Unit CPU as seen by the user(ISA). General register organization, the operation of memory stack, variety of addressing modes, instruction format. The Reduced Instruction Set Computer(RISC) concept. Chap. 9 Pipeline and Vector Processing The concept of pipelining is explained(Pipeline can speed-up processing). Both arithmetic and instruction pipeline is considered Vector processing is introduced(Example: Floating-point operations using pipeline procedures) Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-4 Class Overview Chap. 10 Computer Arithmetic Arithmetic algorithms for digital hardware implementation(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Chap. 11 Input-Output Organization Computer communication with input and output devices. I/O interface units are presented to show the way that the processor interacts with external peripherals. 4 modes of transfer : Programmed I/O, Interrupt initiated transfer, direct memory access, and IOP. Chap. 12 Memory Organization The concept of memory hierarchy : cache memory, main memory, auxiliary memory The organization and operation of associative memories is explained in detail. Memory Management Unit : physical address and logical address mapping Chap. 13 Multiprocessors A multiprocessor system is an interconnection of two or more CPUs. Various interconnection structures are presented : Time-shared common bus, Multiport Memory, Crossbar Switch, Multistage Switching Network, Hypercube Interconnection Interprocessor Arbitration : System bus, Serial Arbitration Procedure, Parallel Arbitration Logic, Dynamic arbitration Algorithms. Interprocessor Communication and Synchronization : Mutual Exclusion with a Semaphore Cache coherence Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-5 Class Overview All 3 subjects associated with computer hardware in this book Computer Organization(Chap 1, 2, 3, 4) H/W components operation/connection. Various digital components used in the organization and design of digital computer. Computer Design(Chap 5, 6, 7) H/W Design/Implementation. The steps that a designer must go through to design and program an elementary digital computer(Chap. 6 : program = ISA) Computer Architecture(Chap 6, 8, 9, 11, 12) Structure and behavior of the computer as seen by the user » Information format, Instruction set, memory addressing : S/W = ISA » CPU, I/O, Memory : H/W Chapter in detail » » » » Computer System Architecture Chap. 6 : ISA Chap. 8 and 9 : CPU Chap. 11 : I/O Chap. 12 : Memory Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-6 Class Overview What is “Computer Architecture”? - Hennessy and Patterson, Computer Organization and Design(1990) Computer Architecture Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) : S/W Machine Organization : H/W and Design “ISA(Instruction Set Architecture)”? the attributes of a system as seen by the programmer, i.e., the conceptual structure and functional behavior, as distinct from the organization of the data flows and controls, the logic design, and the physical implementation. - Amdahl, Blaaw, and Brooks(1964) Instructions, Addressing modes, Instruction and data formats, Register “Machine Organization”? CPU(Control & Data path), Memory, Input/Output Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
Class Overview 1-7 First Course in Computer Hardware Learn how a computer actually works Build the “Mano Machine” Learn one computer in detail, others are mastered easily. Homework: Solve the even number of problems Due at the beginning of the next class Optional “Mano Machine” Design Report Grade: Homework(20%) Optional Report(10%) Mid/Final Exam(each 30%) Class Participation(10%) Lecture Notes: http://microcom.kut.ac.kr Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
8 Student Types 1-8 Insecure: 25 % Silent: 20 % Independent: 12 % Friendly: 11 % Obedient: 10 % Heroic: 9 % Critic: 9 % Unmotivated: 4 % - Michigan State University Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-9 1-1 Digital Computers Digital Computer = H/W + S/W Digital implies that the information in the computer is represented by variables that take a limited number of discrete values. the decimal digits 0, 1, 2,….,9, provide 10 discrete values, but digital computers function more reliably if only two states are used. because of the physical restriction of components, and because human logic tends to be binary(true/false, yes/no), digital component are further constrained to take only two values and are said to be binary. Bit = binary digit : 0/1 Program(S/W) Application S/W API Operating System ROM BIOS A sequence of instruction S/W = Program + Data Computer H/W » The data that are manipulated by the program constitute the data base Application S/W = DB, word processor, Spread Sheet System S/W = OS, Firmware, Compiler, Device Driver Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-10 1-1 Digital Computers continued Computer Hardware(H/W) CPU Memory Program Memory(ROM) Data Memory(RAM) Memory I/O Device Interface: 8251 SIO, 8255 PIO, 6845 CRTC, 8272 FDC, 8237 DMAC, 8279 KDI CPU Input Device: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner Output Device: Printer, Plotter, Display Storage Device(I/O): FDD, HDD, MOD Input Device Interface or IOP Output Device Figure 1-1 Block Diagram of a digital Computer Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-11 1-2 Logic Gates ADC(Analog to Digital Conversion) Signal Physical Quantity V, A, F, 거리 0 : 0.5v Binary Information Discrete Value 1 : 3v Gate The manipulation of binary information is done by logic circuit called “gate”. Blocks of H/W that produce signals of binary 1 or 0 when input logic requirements are satisfied. Digital Logic Gates : Fig. 1-2 AND, OR, INVERTER, BUFFER, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR x y Computer System Architecture xy x y xy Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits x x © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-3 Boolean Algebra 1-12 Boolean Algebra Deals with binary variable (A, B, x, y: T/F or 1/0) + logic operation (AND, OR, NOT…) Boolean Function: variable + operation F(x, y, z) = x + y’z George Boole Born: 2 Nov 1815 in Lincoln, Lincolnshire, England Died: 8 Dec 1864 in Ballintemple, County Cork, Ireland Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-13 1-3 Boolean Algebra Boolean Function: variable + operation F(x, y, z) = x + y’z Truth Table: Fig. 1-3(a) Logic Diagram: Fig. 1-3(b) Relationship between a function and variable Algebraic Expression Logic Diagram(gates로 표현) x y z 2n Combination Variable n = 3 Computer System Architecture F 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 x y F z Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-14 Purpose of Boolean Algebra To facilitate the analysis and design of digital circuit Boolean function = Algebraic form = convenient tool Truth table (relationship between binary variables : Fig 1-3a) Algebraic form Logic diagram (input-output relationship : Fig. 1-3b) Algebraic form Find simpler circuits for the same function : by using Boolean algebra rules Boolean Algebra Rule : Tab. 1-1 - Operation with 0 and 1: x + 0 = x , x + 1 = 1 , x • 1 = x , x • 0 = 0 - Idempotent Law: x + x =x , x • x = x - Complementary Law: x + x' = 1 , x • x' = 0 - Commutative Law: x + y = y + x , x • y = y • x - Associative Law: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z , x • ( y • z) = (x • y) • z - Distributive Law: x • ( y+ z) = (x • y) + (x • z) , x + (y • z) = (x + y) • (x + z) - DeMorgan's Law: (x + y)' = x' • y’ , (x • y )’ = x’ + y’ General Form: (x1 + x2 + x3 + … xn)' = x1' • x2' • x3' • … xn’ ( A U B ) c = Ac I B c (x1 • x2 • x3 • … xn) ' = x1' + x2' + x3' + … xn’ Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-15 [예제] Fig. 1-6(a) [예제] F= AB’ + C’D + AB’ + C’D = x + x (let x= AB’ + C’D) =x = AB’ + C’D F= ABC + ABC’ + A’C = AB(C + C’) + A’C Fig. 1-6(b) = AB + A’C 1 inverter, 1 AND gate 감소 Fig. 1-4 2 graphic symbols for NOR gate x y z (x+y+z)’ x y z (a) OR-invert x’ y’z’ =(x+y+z)’ (b) invert-AND Fig. 1-5 2 graphic symbols for NAND gate x y z (xyz)’ (a) AND-invert Computer System Architecture x y z (x’+y’+z’) = (xyz)’ (b) invert-OR Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-4 Map Simplification 1-16 Karnaugh Map(K-Map) Map method for simplifying Boolean expressions Minterm / Maxterm Minterm : n variables product ( x=1, x’=0) Maxterm : n variables sum (x=0, x’=1) 2 variables example x 0 y 0 Minterm x'y' m0 Maxterm x +y M0 0 1 x'y m1 x + y' M1 1 0 x y' m2 x'+ y M2 1 1 x y m3 x'+ y' M3 F = x’y + xy m1 M0 • M1 • M2 • M3 m3 = Σ(1,3) = Π (0,2) Computer System Architecture m0 + m1 + m2 + m3 ( m1 + m3 ) (Complement = M0 • M2 ) Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-17 Map 3 variables 2 variables B 0 A C B 1 2 4 variables 3 0 3 5 7 0 6 A C 5 variables 1 3 2 4 2 4 A 1 5 7 6 12 13 15 14 8 C B 9 11 10 D 0 3 8 A 1 2 6 7 5 4 9 11 10 14 15 13 12 B 24 25 27 26 30 31 29 28 16 17 19 18 22 23 21 20 E Computer System Architecture D F Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-18 [예제] F= x + y’z (2) F ( x , y , z ) = Σ(1,4,5,6,7 ) (1) Truth Table x 0 y 0 z 0 F 0 Minterm 0 0 1 1 m1 0 1 0 0 m2 0 1 1 0 m3 1 0 0 1 m4 1 0 1 1 m5 1 1 0 1 m6 1 1 1 1 m7 (3) Computer System Architecture y m0 0 x 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 z F= x + y’z Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-19 Adjacent Square Number of square = 2n (2, 4, 8, ….) The squares at the extreme ends of the same horizontal row are to be considered adjacent 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 0 1 3 2 4 The same applies to the top and bottom squares of a column 0 5 7 6 12 13 15 14 8 9 11 10 Groups of combined adjacent squares may share one or more squares with one or more group Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits 0 0 1 3 4 5 7 0 1 3 5 7 5 7 6 13 15 14 9 11 10 2 4 2 12 6 3 4 2 1 8 The four corner squares of a map must be considered to be adjacent 6 © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-20 B [예제] F ( A, B, C ) = Σ(3,4,6,7) 0 F=AC’ + BC A 3 2 4 5 7 6 0 A 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 C C [예제] F ( A, B, C , D ) = Σ(0,1,2,6,8,9,10) 0 Product-of-Sums Simplification F ( A, B, C , D ) = Σ(0,1,2,5,8,9,10) 3 2 5 7 6 12 13 15 14 8 A 1 4 F=B’D’ + B’C’ + A’CD’ F=B’D’ + B’C’ + A’C’D B C [예제] F ( A, B, C ) = Σ(0,2,4,5,6) F=C’ + AB’ 1 9 11 10 C D Sum of product 0 A Product of Sum Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits 1 3 2 4 F’=AB + CD + BD’(square marked 0’s) F’’(F)=(A’ + B’)(C’ + D’)(B’ + D) 전개 B 5 7 6 12 13 15 14 8 9 11 10 B D © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-21 NAND Implementation Sum of Product : F=B’D’ + B’C’ + A’C’D B’ D’ C’ A’ D NOR Implementation Product of Sum : F=(A’ + B’)(C’ + D’)(B’ + D) A’ B’ C’ D’ D’ B Don’t care conditions 0 F(A,B,C)=Σ(0, 2, 6), d(A,B,C)= Σ(1, 3, 5) F=A’ + BC’= Σ(0, 1, 2, 3, 6) Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits A 4 X X 1 5 X 3 2 7 6 C © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-22 1-5 Combinational Circuits Combinational Circuits in Combinational Circuits (Logic Gates) ... i0 i1 ... A connected arrangement of logic gates with a set of inputs and outputs Fig. 1-15 Block diagram of a combinational circuit f0 f1 fm Analysis Logic circuits diagram Design(Analysis의 반대) Boolean function or Truth table Experience 1. The Problem is stated 2. I/O variables are assigned 3. Truth table(I/O relation) 4. Simplified Boolean Function(Map 과 Boolean 대수 이용) 5. Logic circuit diagram Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-23 Design Example : Full Adder 1. Full adder is a combinational circuits that forms the arithmetic sum of three input bit (Carry considered) 2. 3 Input(x, y, z), 2 Output(S: sum, C: carry) 3. Truth Table 4. Simplification x 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Input y 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 z 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Output C S 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 y y 0 3 5 7 6 z C= xy’z + x’yz + xy =z(xy’ + x’y) + xy =z(x ⊕ y) + xy 5. Logic circuit diagram x y c z s Computer System Architecture 0 2 4 x 1 Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits x 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 z S=xy’z’ + x’y’z + xyz + x’yz’ = z’(xy’ + x’y) + z(x’y’ + xy) = z’(x ⊕ y) + z(x ⊕ y)’ =a’b + ab’ (let a=z, b=x ⊕ y) =x ⊕ y ⊕ z (x ⊕y)’=(xy’+x’y)’ =(x’+y)(x+y’) =x’x+x’y’+xy+yy’ =x’y’+xy © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-24 1-6 Flip-Flops Combinational Circuit = Gate Sequential Circuit = Gate + F/F Flip-Flop The storage elements employed in clocked sequential circuit A binary cell capable of storing one bit of information D(Data) F/F SR(Set/Reset) F/F S R SET CLR Q Q S 0 0 1 1 R 0 1 0 1 Q(t) 0 1 ? Q(t+1) no change clear to 0 set to 1 Indeterminate J K CLR Q Q J 0 0 1 1 K 0 1 0 1 CLR Q D 0 1 Q 0 1 Q(t+1) clear to 0 set to 1 “no change” condition이 없다 : Q(t+1)=D T(Toggle) F/F Q(t+1) Q(t) no change 0 clear to 0 1 set to 1 Q(t)' Complement JK F/F is a refinement of the SR F/F The indeterminate condition of the SR type is defined in complement Computer System Architecture SET 해결방법 : 1) Disable Clock 2) Feedback output into input p.52 JK(Jack/King) F/F SET D T SET CLR Q T 0 1 Q(t+1) Q(t) no change Q'(t) Complement Q T=1(J=K=1), T=0(J=K=0) 이면 JK F/F 수식 표현 : Q(t+1)= Q(t) ⊕ T xor Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-25 Positive clock transition Edge-Triggered F/F State Change : Clock Pulse Rising Edge(positive-edge transition) Falling Edge(negative-edge transition) Setup time(20ns) ts th minimum time that D input must remain at constant value before the transition. Hold time(5ns) minimum time that D input must not change after the positive transition. Propagation delay(max 50ns) time between the clock input and the response in Q 일반 논리 gate에서는 2-20 ns이며 setup 및 hold time은 F/F에서만 정의되며 일반 논리 gate에서는 정의되지 않음. Master-Slave F/F 2개의 F/F을 사용(Slave 와 Master F/F)하며 negative-edge transition 사용 위와 같이 사용하는 이유: Race 현상을 방지 Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-26 Race 현상 조건 - Hold time > Propagation delay 증상 - 0 과 1을 반복하다가 Unstable한 상태가 된다 해결책 - Edge triggered F/F (with little or no hold time) 또는 Master/Slave F/F 사용 예제 : 7470(J-K Edge triggered F/F), 7471(J-K Master/Slave F/F) Excitation Table Required input combinations for a given change of state Present State 와 Next State로 표현 SR F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) S 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 X Don’t Care Computer System Architecture R X 0 1 0 JK F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) J 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 X 1 1 X 0 : Set to 1 1 : Complement K X X 1 0 D F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 D 0 1 0 1 T F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 T 0 1 1 0 1 : Clear to 0 0 : No change Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-27 1-7 Sequential Circuits A sequential circuit is an interconnection of F/F and Gate Clocked synchronous sequential circuit Combinational Circuit = Gate Sequential Circuit = Gate + F/F Input Combinational Circuit Output Flip-Flops Clock Flip-Flop Input Equation Boolean expression for F/F input Input Equation 예제 x DA D SET CLR Q A Q A’ Q B Q B’ DA = Ax + Bx, DB = A’x Output Equation DB y = Ax’ + Bx’ Fig. 1-25 Example of a sequential circuit D SET Clock CLR y Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-28 State Table State Diagram Graphical representation of state table Circle(state), Line(transition), I/O(input/output) Present state, input, next state, output 표현 Input Equ. = Next State Present State A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Input x 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Input Equ. Ax 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Bx 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 DA 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Next State DB 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 A 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 B 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 Output y 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0/0 00 Design Example: Binary Counter x=0 0/00 x=1: 00, 01, 10, 11, 00, 01, ….. x=0: no change State Diagram: 4 state(00, 01, 10, 11) x=0 00 11 x=1 1/01 01 0/1 1/0 01 0/1 0/1 1/0 10 1/0 11 Excitation Table(2 bit counter = 2 F/F) x=1 x=1 K X X 1 0 Next State = Output Present State x=0 Computer System Architecture x=1 JK F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) J 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 X 1 1 X 1/0 10 x=0 A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Input x 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits Next State u F/F Input KA A B JA 0 0 0 x 0 1 0 x 0 1 0 x 1 0 1 x 1 0 x 0 1 1 x 0 1 1 x 0 0 0 x 1 JB 0 1 x x 0 1 x x KB x x 0 1 x x 0 1 © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
1-29 Map for simplification Logic Diagram Input variable: A, B, x B B JA A 0 X 1 4 5 X 3 1 X 2 7 6 KA X A x X 0 X 4 1 5 X 1 3 7 4 A K 6 CLR Q B B A Q 2 KA=Bx JA=Bx 0 SET x x JB X J 1 3 2 1 X X 5 7 6 1 X X KB A 0 X X 1 4 5 X X 1 3 2 7 6 x x JB=x 1 KA=x Sequential Circuit Design Procedure 1-5 절 참고(Combinational Circuit Design) Sequential Circuit은 절차 3에서 State diagram및 State table 이용 # of rows : 2m+n (m - State 수, n - Input 수) Computer System Architecture J Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits K SET CLR Q B Q Clock 1. The Problem is stated 2. I/O variables are assigned 3. Truth table(I/O relation) 4. Simplified Boolean Function 5. Logic circuit diagram © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.

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Computer organiztion1

  • 1. 1-1 Computer System Architecture M. Morris Mano 정보통신공학과 이 명 의(A-405) [email protected] Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 2. 1-2 Class Overview Contents Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits The fundamental knowledge needed for the design of digital systems constructed with individual gates and flip-flops. Chap. 2 Digital Components The logical operation of the most common standard digital components(Decoders, Multiplexers, Registers, Counters, and Memories). These digital components are used as building blocks for the design of larger units(Mano Machine). Chap. 3 Data Representation Various data types found in digital computers are represented in binary form in computer registers. Chap. 4 Register Transfer and Microoperations A register transfer language is used to express microoperations in symbolic form. Symbols are defined for arithmetic, logic, and shift microoperations. To show the hardware design of the most common microoperations, a composite arithmetic logic shift unit is developed. Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design The organization and design of a basic digital computer(Mano Machine). Register transfer language is used to describe the internal operation of the computer. By going through the detailed steps of the design presented in this chapter, the student will be able to understand the inner workings of digital computers. Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 3. 1-3 Class Overview Chap. 6 Programming the Basic Computer The 25 instructions of the basic computer to illustrate techniques used in assembly language programming. Programming examples are presented for a number of data processing tasks. The basic operations of an assembler are presented to show the translation from symbolic code to an equivalent binary program. Chap. 7 Microprogrammed Control Introduction to the concept of microprogramming. A specific microprogrammed control unit is developed to show by example how to write microcode for a typical set of instructions. The design of the control unit is carried-out in detail. Chap. 8 Central Processing Unit CPU as seen by the user(ISA). General register organization, the operation of memory stack, variety of addressing modes, instruction format. The Reduced Instruction Set Computer(RISC) concept. Chap. 9 Pipeline and Vector Processing The concept of pipelining is explained(Pipeline can speed-up processing). Both arithmetic and instruction pipeline is considered Vector processing is introduced(Example: Floating-point operations using pipeline procedures) Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 4. 1-4 Class Overview Chap. 10 Computer Arithmetic Arithmetic algorithms for digital hardware implementation(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Chap. 11 Input-Output Organization Computer communication with input and output devices. I/O interface units are presented to show the way that the processor interacts with external peripherals. 4 modes of transfer : Programmed I/O, Interrupt initiated transfer, direct memory access, and IOP. Chap. 12 Memory Organization The concept of memory hierarchy : cache memory, main memory, auxiliary memory The organization and operation of associative memories is explained in detail. Memory Management Unit : physical address and logical address mapping Chap. 13 Multiprocessors A multiprocessor system is an interconnection of two or more CPUs. Various interconnection structures are presented : Time-shared common bus, Multiport Memory, Crossbar Switch, Multistage Switching Network, Hypercube Interconnection Interprocessor Arbitration : System bus, Serial Arbitration Procedure, Parallel Arbitration Logic, Dynamic arbitration Algorithms. Interprocessor Communication and Synchronization : Mutual Exclusion with a Semaphore Cache coherence Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 5. 1-5 Class Overview All 3 subjects associated with computer hardware in this book Computer Organization(Chap 1, 2, 3, 4) H/W components operation/connection. Various digital components used in the organization and design of digital computer. Computer Design(Chap 5, 6, 7) H/W Design/Implementation. The steps that a designer must go through to design and program an elementary digital computer(Chap. 6 : program = ISA) Computer Architecture(Chap 6, 8, 9, 11, 12) Structure and behavior of the computer as seen by the user » Information format, Instruction set, memory addressing : S/W = ISA » CPU, I/O, Memory : H/W Chapter in detail » » » » Computer System Architecture Chap. 6 : ISA Chap. 8 and 9 : CPU Chap. 11 : I/O Chap. 12 : Memory Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 6. 1-6 Class Overview What is “Computer Architecture”? - Hennessy and Patterson, Computer Organization and Design(1990) Computer Architecture Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) : S/W Machine Organization : H/W and Design “ISA(Instruction Set Architecture)”? the attributes of a system as seen by the programmer, i.e., the conceptual structure and functional behavior, as distinct from the organization of the data flows and controls, the logic design, and the physical implementation. - Amdahl, Blaaw, and Brooks(1964) Instructions, Addressing modes, Instruction and data formats, Register “Machine Organization”? CPU(Control & Data path), Memory, Input/Output Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 7. Class Overview 1-7 First Course in Computer Hardware Learn how a computer actually works Build the “Mano Machine” Learn one computer in detail, others are mastered easily. Homework: Solve the even number of problems Due at the beginning of the next class Optional “Mano Machine” Design Report Grade: Homework(20%) Optional Report(10%) Mid/Final Exam(each 30%) Class Participation(10%) Lecture Notes: http://microcom.kut.ac.kr Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 8. 8 Student Types 1-8 Insecure: 25 % Silent: 20 % Independent: 12 % Friendly: 11 % Obedient: 10 % Heroic: 9 % Critic: 9 % Unmotivated: 4 % - Michigan State University Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 9. 1-9 1-1 Digital Computers Digital Computer = H/W + S/W Digital implies that the information in the computer is represented by variables that take a limited number of discrete values. the decimal digits 0, 1, 2,….,9, provide 10 discrete values, but digital computers function more reliably if only two states are used. because of the physical restriction of components, and because human logic tends to be binary(true/false, yes/no), digital component are further constrained to take only two values and are said to be binary. Bit = binary digit : 0/1 Program(S/W) Application S/W API Operating System ROM BIOS A sequence of instruction S/W = Program + Data Computer H/W » The data that are manipulated by the program constitute the data base Application S/W = DB, word processor, Spread Sheet System S/W = OS, Firmware, Compiler, Device Driver Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 10. 1-10 1-1 Digital Computers continued Computer Hardware(H/W) CPU Memory Program Memory(ROM) Data Memory(RAM) Memory I/O Device Interface: 8251 SIO, 8255 PIO, 6845 CRTC, 8272 FDC, 8237 DMAC, 8279 KDI CPU Input Device: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner Output Device: Printer, Plotter, Display Storage Device(I/O): FDD, HDD, MOD Input Device Interface or IOP Output Device Figure 1-1 Block Diagram of a digital Computer Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 11. 1-11 1-2 Logic Gates ADC(Analog to Digital Conversion) Signal Physical Quantity V, A, F, 거리 0 : 0.5v Binary Information Discrete Value 1 : 3v Gate The manipulation of binary information is done by logic circuit called “gate”. Blocks of H/W that produce signals of binary 1 or 0 when input logic requirements are satisfied. Digital Logic Gates : Fig. 1-2 AND, OR, INVERTER, BUFFER, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR x y Computer System Architecture xy x y xy Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits x x © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 12. 1-3 Boolean Algebra 1-12 Boolean Algebra Deals with binary variable (A, B, x, y: T/F or 1/0) + logic operation (AND, OR, NOT…) Boolean Function: variable + operation F(x, y, z) = x + y’z George Boole Born: 2 Nov 1815 in Lincoln, Lincolnshire, England Died: 8 Dec 1864 in Ballintemple, County Cork, Ireland Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 13. 1-13 1-3 Boolean Algebra Boolean Function: variable + operation F(x, y, z) = x + y’z Truth Table: Fig. 1-3(a) Logic Diagram: Fig. 1-3(b) Relationship between a function and variable Algebraic Expression Logic Diagram(gates로 표현) x y z 2n Combination Variable n = 3 Computer System Architecture F 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 x y F z Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 14. 1-14 Purpose of Boolean Algebra To facilitate the analysis and design of digital circuit Boolean function = Algebraic form = convenient tool Truth table (relationship between binary variables : Fig 1-3a) Algebraic form Logic diagram (input-output relationship : Fig. 1-3b) Algebraic form Find simpler circuits for the same function : by using Boolean algebra rules Boolean Algebra Rule : Tab. 1-1 - Operation with 0 and 1: x + 0 = x , x + 1 = 1 , x • 1 = x , x • 0 = 0 - Idempotent Law: x + x =x , x • x = x - Complementary Law: x + x' = 1 , x • x' = 0 - Commutative Law: x + y = y + x , x • y = y • x - Associative Law: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z , x • ( y • z) = (x • y) • z - Distributive Law: x • ( y+ z) = (x • y) + (x • z) , x + (y • z) = (x + y) • (x + z) - DeMorgan's Law: (x + y)' = x' • y’ , (x • y )’ = x’ + y’ General Form: (x1 + x2 + x3 + … xn)' = x1' • x2' • x3' • … xn’ ( A U B ) c = Ac I B c (x1 • x2 • x3 • … xn) ' = x1' + x2' + x3' + … xn’ Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 15. 1-15 [예제] Fig. 1-6(a) [예제] F= AB’ + C’D + AB’ + C’D = x + x (let x= AB’ + C’D) =x = AB’ + C’D F= ABC + ABC’ + A’C = AB(C + C’) + A’C Fig. 1-6(b) = AB + A’C 1 inverter, 1 AND gate 감소 Fig. 1-4 2 graphic symbols for NOR gate x y z (x+y+z)’ x y z (a) OR-invert x’ y’z’ =(x+y+z)’ (b) invert-AND Fig. 1-5 2 graphic symbols for NAND gate x y z (xyz)’ (a) AND-invert Computer System Architecture x y z (x’+y’+z’) = (xyz)’ (b) invert-OR Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 16. 1-4 Map Simplification 1-16 Karnaugh Map(K-Map) Map method for simplifying Boolean expressions Minterm / Maxterm Minterm : n variables product ( x=1, x’=0) Maxterm : n variables sum (x=0, x’=1) 2 variables example x 0 y 0 Minterm x'y' m0 Maxterm x +y M0 0 1 x'y m1 x + y' M1 1 0 x y' m2 x'+ y M2 1 1 x y m3 x'+ y' M3 F = x’y + xy m1 M0 • M1 • M2 • M3 m3 = Σ(1,3) = Π (0,2) Computer System Architecture m0 + m1 + m2 + m3 ( m1 + m3 ) (Complement = M0 • M2 ) Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 17. 1-17 Map 3 variables 2 variables B 0 A C B 1 2 4 variables 3 0 3 5 7 0 6 A C 5 variables 1 3 2 4 2 4 A 1 5 7 6 12 13 15 14 8 C B 9 11 10 D 0 3 8 A 1 2 6 7 5 4 9 11 10 14 15 13 12 B 24 25 27 26 30 31 29 28 16 17 19 18 22 23 21 20 E Computer System Architecture D F Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 18. 1-18 [예제] F= x + y’z (2) F ( x , y , z ) = Σ(1,4,5,6,7 ) (1) Truth Table x 0 y 0 z 0 F 0 Minterm 0 0 1 1 m1 0 1 0 0 m2 0 1 1 0 m3 1 0 0 1 m4 1 0 1 1 m5 1 1 0 1 m6 1 1 1 1 m7 (3) Computer System Architecture y m0 0 x 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 z F= x + y’z Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 19. 1-19 Adjacent Square Number of square = 2n (2, 4, 8, ….) The squares at the extreme ends of the same horizontal row are to be considered adjacent 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 0 1 3 2 4 The same applies to the top and bottom squares of a column 0 5 7 6 12 13 15 14 8 9 11 10 Groups of combined adjacent squares may share one or more squares with one or more group Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits 0 0 1 3 4 5 7 0 1 3 5 7 5 7 6 13 15 14 9 11 10 2 4 2 12 6 3 4 2 1 8 The four corner squares of a map must be considered to be adjacent 6 © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 20. 1-20 B [예제] F ( A, B, C ) = Σ(3,4,6,7) 0 F=AC’ + BC A 3 2 4 5 7 6 0 A 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 C C [예제] F ( A, B, C , D ) = Σ(0,1,2,6,8,9,10) 0 Product-of-Sums Simplification F ( A, B, C , D ) = Σ(0,1,2,5,8,9,10) 3 2 5 7 6 12 13 15 14 8 A 1 4 F=B’D’ + B’C’ + A’CD’ F=B’D’ + B’C’ + A’C’D B C [예제] F ( A, B, C ) = Σ(0,2,4,5,6) F=C’ + AB’ 1 9 11 10 C D Sum of product 0 A Product of Sum Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits 1 3 2 4 F’=AB + CD + BD’(square marked 0’s) F’’(F)=(A’ + B’)(C’ + D’)(B’ + D) 전개 B 5 7 6 12 13 15 14 8 9 11 10 B D © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 21. 1-21 NAND Implementation Sum of Product : F=B’D’ + B’C’ + A’C’D B’ D’ C’ A’ D NOR Implementation Product of Sum : F=(A’ + B’)(C’ + D’)(B’ + D) A’ B’ C’ D’ D’ B Don’t care conditions 0 F(A,B,C)=Σ(0, 2, 6), d(A,B,C)= Σ(1, 3, 5) F=A’ + BC’= Σ(0, 1, 2, 3, 6) Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits A 4 X X 1 5 X 3 2 7 6 C © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 22. 1-22 1-5 Combinational Circuits Combinational Circuits in Combinational Circuits (Logic Gates) ... i0 i1 ... A connected arrangement of logic gates with a set of inputs and outputs Fig. 1-15 Block diagram of a combinational circuit f0 f1 fm Analysis Logic circuits diagram Design(Analysis의 반대) Boolean function or Truth table Experience 1. The Problem is stated 2. I/O variables are assigned 3. Truth table(I/O relation) 4. Simplified Boolean Function(Map 과 Boolean 대수 이용) 5. Logic circuit diagram Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 23. 1-23 Design Example : Full Adder 1. Full adder is a combinational circuits that forms the arithmetic sum of three input bit (Carry considered) 2. 3 Input(x, y, z), 2 Output(S: sum, C: carry) 3. Truth Table 4. Simplification x 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Input y 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 z 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Output C S 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 y y 0 3 5 7 6 z C= xy’z + x’yz + xy =z(xy’ + x’y) + xy =z(x ⊕ y) + xy 5. Logic circuit diagram x y c z s Computer System Architecture 0 2 4 x 1 Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits x 1 3 2 4 5 7 6 z S=xy’z’ + x’y’z + xyz + x’yz’ = z’(xy’ + x’y) + z(x’y’ + xy) = z’(x ⊕ y) + z(x ⊕ y)’ =a’b + ab’ (let a=z, b=x ⊕ y) =x ⊕ y ⊕ z (x ⊕y)’=(xy’+x’y)’ =(x’+y)(x+y’) =x’x+x’y’+xy+yy’ =x’y’+xy © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 24. 1-24 1-6 Flip-Flops Combinational Circuit = Gate Sequential Circuit = Gate + F/F Flip-Flop The storage elements employed in clocked sequential circuit A binary cell capable of storing one bit of information D(Data) F/F SR(Set/Reset) F/F S R SET CLR Q Q S 0 0 1 1 R 0 1 0 1 Q(t) 0 1 ? Q(t+1) no change clear to 0 set to 1 Indeterminate J K CLR Q Q J 0 0 1 1 K 0 1 0 1 CLR Q D 0 1 Q 0 1 Q(t+1) clear to 0 set to 1 “no change” condition이 없다 : Q(t+1)=D T(Toggle) F/F Q(t+1) Q(t) no change 0 clear to 0 1 set to 1 Q(t)' Complement JK F/F is a refinement of the SR F/F The indeterminate condition of the SR type is defined in complement Computer System Architecture SET 해결방법 : 1) Disable Clock 2) Feedback output into input p.52 JK(Jack/King) F/F SET D T SET CLR Q T 0 1 Q(t+1) Q(t) no change Q'(t) Complement Q T=1(J=K=1), T=0(J=K=0) 이면 JK F/F 수식 표현 : Q(t+1)= Q(t) ⊕ T xor Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 25. 1-25 Positive clock transition Edge-Triggered F/F State Change : Clock Pulse Rising Edge(positive-edge transition) Falling Edge(negative-edge transition) Setup time(20ns) ts th minimum time that D input must remain at constant value before the transition. Hold time(5ns) minimum time that D input must not change after the positive transition. Propagation delay(max 50ns) time between the clock input and the response in Q 일반 논리 gate에서는 2-20 ns이며 setup 및 hold time은 F/F에서만 정의되며 일반 논리 gate에서는 정의되지 않음. Master-Slave F/F 2개의 F/F을 사용(Slave 와 Master F/F)하며 negative-edge transition 사용 위와 같이 사용하는 이유: Race 현상을 방지 Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 26. 1-26 Race 현상 조건 - Hold time > Propagation delay 증상 - 0 과 1을 반복하다가 Unstable한 상태가 된다 해결책 - Edge triggered F/F (with little or no hold time) 또는 Master/Slave F/F 사용 예제 : 7470(J-K Edge triggered F/F), 7471(J-K Master/Slave F/F) Excitation Table Required input combinations for a given change of state Present State 와 Next State로 표현 SR F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) S 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 X Don’t Care Computer System Architecture R X 0 1 0 JK F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) J 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 X 1 1 X 0 : Set to 1 1 : Complement K X X 1 0 D F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 D 0 1 0 1 T F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 T 0 1 1 0 1 : Clear to 0 0 : No change Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 27. 1-27 1-7 Sequential Circuits A sequential circuit is an interconnection of F/F and Gate Clocked synchronous sequential circuit Combinational Circuit = Gate Sequential Circuit = Gate + F/F Input Combinational Circuit Output Flip-Flops Clock Flip-Flop Input Equation Boolean expression for F/F input Input Equation 예제 x DA D SET CLR Q A Q A’ Q B Q B’ DA = Ax + Bx, DB = A’x Output Equation DB y = Ax’ + Bx’ Fig. 1-25 Example of a sequential circuit D SET Clock CLR y Computer System Architecture Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 28. 1-28 State Table State Diagram Graphical representation of state table Circle(state), Line(transition), I/O(input/output) Present state, input, next state, output 표현 Input Equ. = Next State Present State A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Input x 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Input Equ. Ax 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Bx 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 DA 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Next State DB 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 A 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 B 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 Output y 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0/0 00 Design Example: Binary Counter x=0 0/00 x=1: 00, 01, 10, 11, 00, 01, ….. x=0: no change State Diagram: 4 state(00, 01, 10, 11) x=0 00 11 x=1 1/01 01 0/1 1/0 01 0/1 0/1 1/0 10 1/0 11 Excitation Table(2 bit counter = 2 F/F) x=1 x=1 K X X 1 0 Next State = Output Present State x=0 Computer System Architecture x=1 JK F/F Q(t) Q(t+1) J 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 X 1 1 X 1/0 10 x=0 A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Input x 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits Next State u F/F Input KA A B JA 0 0 0 x 0 1 0 x 0 1 0 x 1 0 1 x 1 0 x 0 1 1 x 0 1 1 x 0 0 0 x 1 JB 0 1 x x 0 1 x x KB x x 0 1 x x 0 1 © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.
  • 29. 1-29 Map for simplification Logic Diagram Input variable: A, B, x B B JA A 0 X 1 4 5 X 3 1 X 2 7 6 KA X A x X 0 X 4 1 5 X 1 3 7 4 A K 6 CLR Q B B A Q 2 KA=Bx JA=Bx 0 SET x x JB X J 1 3 2 1 X X 5 7 6 1 X X KB A 0 X X 1 4 5 X X 1 3 2 7 6 x x JB=x 1 KA=x Sequential Circuit Design Procedure 1-5 절 참고(Combinational Circuit Design) Sequential Circuit은 절차 3에서 State diagram및 State table 이용 # of rows : 2m+n (m - State 수, n - Input 수) Computer System Architecture J Chap. 1 Digital Logic Circuits K SET CLR Q B Q Clock 1. The Problem is stated 2. I/O variables are assigned 3. Truth table(I/O relation) 4. Simplified Boolean Function 5. Logic circuit diagram © Korea Univ. of Tech. & Edu. Dept. of Info. & Comm.