Communication Skills-1.pptx kmtc clinical notes

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
1ST YEARS, SEPTEMBER 2024 [YR 1 SEM 1]
MODULE 2:
2.2: COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Code: COM 103; Hours - 30; Credits - 3
1

Module Competence
 This Module is designed to equip the
learner with skills, concepts and
principles of communication to enable
them communicate effectively in their
respective profession.
2

Module Units
Module Units Hours
1. Introduction to communication 04
2. Modes of communication 10
3. Patterns of communication 06
4. Listening skills 04
5. Reading and writing skills 06
3

Module Learning Outcomes
 By the end of this module, the learner should
be able to: -
1. Demonstrate understanding of the process of
communication
2. Apply different modes of communication for
effective communication
3. Describe the different patterns of
communication
4. Demonstrate active listening
5. Demonstrate skills in report writing
4

Module Content
1. Introduction to communication: Communication, theories,
model, elements, stages, processes and importance
2. One way-Two way communication: advantages, disadvantages,
effective communication, characteristics, advantages and
barriers to effective communication.
3. Mode of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal and mass
communication.
4. Types of communication: Oral, verbal characteristics, verbal,
written, interview, public speaking, elements of non-verbal,
importance of non-verbal
5. Listening skills: Listening steps, levels of listening, barriers to
effective listening skill and improving listening skills.
6. Patterns to communication: Patterns, direction of
communication, strategies to improving communication.
7. Reading and writing skills: Introduction to reading, reading
techniques, critical reading and presentations. 5

Reference
1. Gopal, N. (2009). Business
Communication. New Delhi: New Age
International Publishers.
2. Sillars, S. (2001). Success in
Communication. London: John Murray
6

Mode of Learning
1. Interactive Lectures
2. Participatory learning
3. Group Discussions
4. Assignments
7

Introduction
 The term communication is derived from the Latin
word communis, meaning common and thus when we
communicate we try to establish a commonness of
ideas with someone.
 Communication - means the need for creating common
understanding between the sender and the receiver.
 It’s the giving, receiving or exchange of information,
opinions or ideas by writing, speech or visual means or
any combination.
 Communication can be defined as the process by
which people share ideas, experience, knowledge and
feelings through the transmission of symbolic
messages.
8

 The means of communication are usually spoken or
written words, pictures or symbols. But we also give
information through body language, gestures, and
looks, facial expressions can show how we feel and
what we think about an issue or another person.
 It can be a formal dialogue between two people at a
workplace, or even an informal tête-à-tête between
two friends.
 Communication can occur with or without words
and through a number of communication media.
 There are various channels of communication that
can be used in interpersonal communication: oral,
written, non-verbal etc.
9

Hearing
Seeing
Smell
Touch
Taste
Communication is a Series of Experiences of

Importance of communication
1. Communication is a vital human
activity as man is a social being and
need to interact with one each other..
2. Proper coordination is made possible
3. Time wasted in correcting mistakes that
occur as a result of lack of effective
communication could be saved by
establishing an effective communication
system.
4. To understand the message. 11

5. To motivate people to act and attain
certain goals.
6. To understand the problems people
have and know how to help the people
to solve them.
7. To reduce tension in people.
8. To establish mutual relationships with
people
9. To establish conducive working
atmosphere in organizations
10.To improve and increase productivity
12

Qualities of an effective Communicator
 Knowledgeable: Has relevant knowledge of the
topic
 Good Listener: Listens keenly to the learners
 Friendly: Should not be harsh to learners
 Observant: Should be able to discover learners’
problems by observation
 Positive: Has a good attitude towards learners
 A good planner: Plans messages and learning
sessions in advance
 Patient, confident, clear, and audible: Motivates
learners, varies dialogue methods
13

Principles of communication
 Principle of clarity – Message must be clear.
 Principle of attention – Full attention to message.
 Principle of timeliness – Right time.
 Principle of emotional appeal – Look for pegs on
which to hang the message i.e. Ideas relating to
receivers personal interest.
 Principle of organization – arrange and present
facts and ideas logically.
NB: Principle - ethical standard: a standard of moral or
ethical decision-making. Way of working: the basic way in
which something works. [rule / standard]
14

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
1. FORMAL COMMUNICATION
 This is the official way of communicating with people in
an organization. The communication may be passed
orally or in written form.
 The messenger flows from top to bottom e.g. from the
top management to staff at the lower levels following an
hierarchy or chain or command in the particular
organization.
 Formal communication flows in three directions namely:
- [Direction of Communication flow in an Organization]
1) Vertical Communication
2) Horizontal Communication
3) Diagonal Communication
15

Vertical communication [downward and upward]
Downward – directed
 Communication flows from the top management to the
lowest level of employees.
 Main purpose - to direct, instruct and evaluate, provide
information on goals/policies of organization.
 This type of communication is authoritative and can lead
to poor morale, low productivity, frustrates employees,
kills creativity/innovativeness of low level employees
Upwards - directed upwards
 Communication flows from staff at lower level and middle
levels to the top management, to managers, supervisors
 Forms of Communication include: memos, reports,
meetings, informal discussions etc.
16

Horizontal communication/lateral
 People of the same level/status
 Forms of communication includes: meetings, seminars
 Helps coordinate, problem solving
 Helps form relationships with peers, direct contact, reduce
communication inaccuracy
Diagonal communication
 Tasks frequently arise which involves more than one department
and there is often no obvious line of authority through which a
manager may follow.
 A manager may be dealing with a colleague more senior/junior to
him in another department.
 Relies heavily on cooperation/respect between parties concerned.
External communication
 Occurs between managers and people outside the organization
 Customers, suppliers, government officers, other interest groups
 Helps link organization to the external world.
17

2. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
 An informal and unofficial form of communication between
groups of an organization. The messages are discussed
casually and are not recognized by the management.
 Informal communication is also known as “grapevine’’
 The grapevine is a form of Information containing some half
truths.
 Channel that disseminates news/gossips and rumors within
an organization
 Its fast pace, rapid and unpredictable
 Source of very confidential information/feedback
 As a result failure of formal system of communication,
carelessness
 Letters left on the desk unattended, loud voices from closed
doors,
 It’s a natural activity.
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Grapevine communication
 Communication that has been released prematurely
but its source can be traced and has some truths.
 Used by management to test waters particularly when
implementing new policies that have adverse effects
on employees i.e. retrenchment.
 The management is thereby able to weight the pros
and cons of policy before implementing.
Rumour
 Information arise out of speculations. This happens
when people are kept in suspense and do not know
what is happening.
 The source cannot be traced
 Truth cannot be established
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3. UNCONSCIOUS COMMUNICATION
 Its where a wrong meaning has been transferred
because of the way communication has been
conveyed unconsciously to the receiver.
 Usually the sender of the message is unaware that
their behavior is sending wrong signals e.g. if you
appear quite casual when giving important
information the recipient will misinterpret the
importance of the information because of the manner
in which you speak.
 Its important for health workers to be aware of their
unconscious communication
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THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION
 A theory is a group of linked ideas intended to
explain something. It’s an idea to explain
something, or a set of guiding principles.
 A theory provides a framework for explaining
observations.
 The explanations are based on assumptions.
From the assumptions follows a number of
possible hypotheses. They can be tested to
provide support for, or challenge, the theory
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1. Agenda-Setting Theory
 McCombs and Shaw (1993): The media not
only tell people what to think about in broad
terms, but additionally how to think about
specific items, and then what to think.
 In other words, media shape top-of-mind
presence regarding issues.
 However, with the next news cycle, a topic
from the day before may disappear, and so
does its importance among news consumers.
22

Agenda-Setting Theory – Continued’
 Rogers and Dearing (1996) further developed this
theory and provided key agenda-setting concepts
 Concept 1: The agenda-setting process is a very
fluid, dynamic attempt to get the attention of the
media, the public and/or policy makers.
 Concept 2: The agenda is a “set of issues.”
Recent research indicates that agenda-setting
theory can be multi-directional.
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2. Diffusion Theory
 Process by which new ideas are adopted or
rejected.
 We are creatures of habit.
 Human beings do not like change.
 Helps you understand and explain:
a) Why you can’t accomplish major change in a
brief time.
b) Why you can’t accomplish major change
through the news media only.
c) What kind of interpersonal communication is
most effective in accomplishing major change.
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 Emphasizes why channels of interpersonal
communication are the most effective.
 Word-of-mouth is very important in diffusion. We
need targeted audiences to talk about what they
are reading in the papers or are seeing on
television
Stages in the diffusion process
 There are five stages within the diffusion process:
1. Awareness –Individual is aware of “it.”
2. Interest – Wants to learn more.
3. Evaluation – Asks others for feedback.
4. Trial – Uses a sample, etc.
5. Adoption – Now a user/believer.
25

Categories of people
There are five categories of people in diffusion theory:
1. Innovators
2. Early adopters
3. Early majority
4. Majority
5. Non adopters (laggards)
 Remember to be sensitive to customs and values—
change is accepted when it supports these.
 Remain aware of how long the process can take.
 Use diffusion process to manage change.
 Learn to recognize where audiences are in the process.
 Understand what type of communication works best
and when.
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COMMUNICATION MODELS
 Model: - simplified version: a simplified version of
something complex used in analyzing and solving
problems or making predictions.
 Models of communication refers to the conceptual
model used to explain the human communication
process. The first major model for communication
came in 1949 by Claude Elwood Shannon and
Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories. Following
the basic concept, communication is the process
of sending and receiving messages or transferring
information from one part (sender) to another
(receiver).
27

1. Shannon and weaver communication
model
 It is the Simplest model of communication.
 reflects the work of Shannon and Weaver.
 Model consists of a sender, a message, a channel
where there is no medium where the message
travels, noise or interference (social setting) .
 Often, communicators blame the audience for
not accepting a message, but it is often that the
sender, encoding process or channels chosen
were not applied correctly and the receiver.
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 This first model is missing an essential step in
the communications process —feedback. Without
feedback, we don’t know if the receiver
Overcoming barriers to effective
communication:
 Design and deliver message so that it gets the
attention of intended audience.
 Relate to common experiences between the
source and destination.
 Offer a way to meet personality needs appropriate
to the group situation the receiver is in at the
time you want that receiver to respond received
or understood our message.
29

2. Wilbur Schramm communication model
 Communication is something people do.
 There is no meaning in a message except what
people put into it.
 To understand human communication process, one
must understand how people relate to each other.
Wilbur Schramm’s Modifications:
 Added to the model the context of the relationship,
and how that relationship will affect Communicator
A and Communicator B.
 Included the social environment in the model,
noting that it will influence the frame of reference of
both Communicator A and B
30

3. Walter Lippmann’s model
Walter Lippmann’s barriers to effective
communication include:
 Artificial censorship.
 Gatekeepers in the media.
 Shrinking news holes.
 Limitation of social contact.
 Meager time for paying attention.
The Seven Cs of Communication help overcome
barriers:
1. Clarity 2. Credibility
3. Content 4. Context
5. Continuity 6. Capability 7. Channels
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4. The Hawthorne
The Hawthorne Effect:
 We don’t always need words to communicate.
 Example: A company that could not afford raises,
instead repainted and refreshed the workspace.
 As a result, employee productivity increased.
 Researchers concluded improvements
communicated the message “We care” to employees.
5. The linear model
 This model shows communication events as a one sided
activities from the leader to the follower.
 This model does not explain face to face communication
but represent other way of communicative acts like
billboards, television, flyers and signs.
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6. The interactional model
 In this model the follower is involved in some response to
the message, after receiving the message the follower then
decodes the message to ascertain some form of meaning for
the message.
 This model represent e-mail, telephone calls, paging
someone.
 In this model, even if there is no response from the follower,
the lack of response is feedback to the leader.
7. The transactional model
 This model best explains face to face human communication
showing involvement of the responses of other person
continuously.
 In this model, there is constant encoding and decoding of
messages when talking face to face with another person.
 This model explains the communication process.
33

The Public Opinion Process
Grunig identified four types of publics based on the
way they behave toward messages and issues:
1. All-issue publics
2. Apathetic publics
3. Single-issue publics
4. Hot-issue publics
Grunig also identified another way of labeling publics:
1. Non publics
2. Latent publics
3. Aware publics
4. Active publics
34

 The types of publics are important to the process of
public opinion because influencing each of them
will require different tactics.
We must also consider the elements that make up
public opinion: opinion, belief, attitude and value.
 Opinion – View formed in the mind about a
particular matter.
 Belief – State or habit in which trust or confidence
is placed in some person or thing.
 Attitude – Mental position with regard to fact or
state; a feeling or emotion toward a fact or state.
 Value – Something intrinsically valuable or
desirable; something esteemed.
35

 What happens when individual opinions merge into
public opinion?
 A classic, early model comes from the work of
sociologists Lang and Lang in “Collective Dynamics.”
 In any given situation, there is an existing mass sentiment or
a general social consensus.
 At different times, people have different views about issues,
which leads to public debate.
 Public debates lead people to make up their minds.
 When people make up their minds, a new public opinion
develops.
 This new public opinion can lead to social action (an election,
taking a product off the market, etc.).
 At this point, a new social value has emerged and becomes
part of mass sentiment. (The time it takes for this to occur is
significant.)
36

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 It is the passing of information from sender to the
receiver
COMPONENTS / ELEMENTS OF THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Easily remembered by the acronym MSCREFS
which stands for:
 M- Message
 S- Source
 C- Channel
 R- Receiver
 E- Feedback
 S- Social settings
37

The Communication Process
SENDER
(encodes)
RECEIVER
(decodes)
Barrier
Barrier
Medium
Feedback/Response

PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
Receiver
Sender
Encode
Decode
Decode
Encode
Noise
Noise
Medium

Communication process
40
Thoughts/Ideas
Encoding
Transmission
Reception
Decoding
Understanding
Feedback

MESSAGE
 It’s the information intended to be passed to the audience. The
message needs to have purpose and relevant facts to be
communicated to the audience. The content should suit the level
of the audience.
 The message should be: 7cs of effective communication.
1. Clear
 When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or
message.
 To be clear try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence.
Make sure it is easy for your reader to understand your meaning
 People shouldn’t have to read between the lines and make
assumptions on their own to understand what you are trying to say.
2. Concise
 When you are concise in your communication, you stick to the point
and keep it brief. Your audiences doesn’t want to read six sentences
when you could communicate your message in three.
41

3. Concrete
 When your message is correct, then your audience has a
clear picture of what you are telling them.
 There are details and vivid facts but not too many. Your
message is solid.
4. Correct
 Correct communication fits the audience. Correct
communication is also error - free communication
 Do the technical terms you use fit the your audience level of
education or knowledge
 Have you checked your writing for grammatical errors?
 Are all names and titles spelled correctly?
5. Coherent
 When your communication is coherent, it’s logical. All points
are connected and relevant to the main topic and the tone
and flow of the text is consistent.
42

6. Complete
 In a complete message, the audience has everything they
need to be informed, and if applicable, taken action
 Does message include a “call to action”, so that your
audience clearly knows what you want them to do?
 Have you included all relevant information – contact
names, dates, times, locations and so on?
7. Courteous
 Courteous communication is friendly, open and honest.
There are no hidden insults or passive - aggressive tones.
 You keep your readers view point in mind, and you are
empathetic to their needs.
 A little bit of courtesy, even in difficult situations, can go
along way
43

[Media] Ways messages can be conveyed to other people.
MEDIUM – Refers to the ways messages can be conveyed to other people.
The main media of Communication are:
1. Written communication - letters, circulars, reports, minutes,
articles, memos, posters, notices etc.
2. Oral communication - meetings, telephone call, interview,
lectures, discussions, public speaking. conference, oral
presentation, face to face interaction etc.
3. Non verbal communication: Communication where words are
not used - the body never lies. Gestures, postures, facial
expressions, tone of voice ,dressing, proximity, smell, time etc.
 We communicate 7% verbal, 38% vocal-paralinguistic e.g. accent
emphasize, 55% body
 If you are not able to read the body language, then you miss most
of the communication.
 Avoid danger of misreading the body language
4. Visual (audio) communication - film, video, charts. graphs,
photos etc
44

TOTAL COMMUNICATION PROCESS
45
Reading
16%
Writing
9% Speaking
30%
Listening
45%

SOURCE / SENDER / ENCODER
 This refers to the origin of the of the message. The source of the
message determines the clarity of the message to the audience. The
sender should consider the environment before communicating. The
environment should cause no interruptions during the time of
conveying the message.
 Characteristics of the sender which influence communication
includes
 Mood
 Knowledge of the subject matter
 Attitude
 Knowledge of the audience
 Social cultural background
 Economic status
 Age
 Sex
 Religion
These characteristics should be considered when sending health
messages to families and communities.
46

Source:
 Why to communicate?
 What to communicate?
 Usefulness of the communication.
 Accuracy of the Information to be communicated.
 Source - where the message begins transmitted by
the brain by: (a) Speech/Writing, (b) Body
movements, (c) Art, (d) Music
Encoding:
• The process of transferring the information you want to communicate into
a form that can be sent and correctly decoded at the other end.
• Ability to convey the information.
• Eliminate sources of confusion. For e.g. cultural issues, mistaken
assumptions, and missing information.
• Knowing your audience.
• Encoding - tell others about yourself and your goals.

Effective communication requires the sender to:
 Know the subject well
 Be interested in the subject
 Know the audience members and establish a rapport with them
 Speak at the level of the receiver
 Choose an appropriate communication channel
CHANNEL
 This the medium used to convey the message from the source (sender) to the
destination (receiver). (e.g. speech, memos, telephones).
 The communication channel should suit the needs of the audience receiving
it.
 Direct channels - This includes the verbal and non-verbal channels of
communication.
 Indirect channels - Includes body language that is subconsciously
recognized by the receiver but not under the direct influence of the sender.
 Communication is achieved through three main channels (methods) namely
 Verbal communication
 Non verbal communication
 Written communication
48

Verbal communication
 It is expressed through face to face conversations,
telephone calls, radio and television broadcasts
 You communicate verbally when giving patients report
to another member of staff and when sharing health
messages with clients.
 Verbal communication involves the art of talking and
listening. The tone of voice can communicate feelings
and emotions that are as significant as words being
spoken. It is important to use words that do not offend
in any way. Avoid using jargon, medical or other words
that the patient may not be familiar to.
Non- verbal communication
 This is what is commonly known as body position,
gestures and facial expressions
49

 It is also referred to as body language because it can be used to
communicate as much as words. The most common body signs
which can be observed from clients / patients include winking,
beckoning, crying, wriggling, facial expressions yawning,
restlessness, dilated pupils, constricted pupils’ staring at a fixed
point. It is often through body language that we express our
attitude towards an issue a person or persons behavior. Its
important for all nurses to be skilled in interpreting the body
language of patients and clients. This will help you understand
the needs and concerns more carefully. You must also be aware
of your own body language and the signals that you may be
unknowingly sending to your patients and clients.
 The following show some meanings
 Beckoning- calling for help
 Raising hand- calling for attention
 Laughing- elated mood or being amused
 Restlessness- discomfort or feeling pain
50

Some major areas of non-verbal behaviors to explore are:
 Eye contact
 Facial expressions
 Gestures
 Posture and body orientation
 Proximity
 Paralinguistic
 Humor
SIX WAYS OF USING NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION SKILLS EFFECTIVELY

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
 This involves circulating messages through the printing
medium. This may be through examples newspapers,
newsletters, posters, letters, circulars, memoranda and through
electronic media like fax, e- mails and telegrams. Some of the
written communications found in health facilities include policy
documents, procedure manuals, circulars, memoranda, letters,
posters, journals, patients care plans and observation charts.
Factors To Consider before Selecting a Channel
 Speed - the urgency of the communication
 Accuracy - will the information be received accurately
 Safety - the risk of losing the communication in transits
 Record - is it necessary to have a record of the communication
 Impression - the reaction of the recipients in terms of
language, quality of paper, print etc.
 Cost - all element of cost must be considered
 Secrecy - will other people have access to message.
52

RECEIVER/DECODER
 This is the person or persons who receive the
message conveyed from the source. The receiver
should be psychologically ready to receive the
message send.
 Important characteristics which influence the
message conveyed include:
 Mood of the receiver
 Attitude towards the message and the language
used
 Level of education
 Economic/social/cultural background of the
audience
53

 EFFECTIVE DECODING:
 Listen actively,
 Reading information carefully,
 Avoid Confusion,
 Ask question for better understanding.
Decode:
To transform an encoded message into an understandable
form.
Decoding = What do others do to help you understand
what they are trying to convey = heard and interpreted
(e.g.= are you talking to peers and the language will be
understood
Find meaning of indirect language: to find the direct
meaning of cryptic or indirect language.
Make sense of, Translate

EFFECTS
 This is the impact or outcomes after sending the message to the receiver
(audience). For example if you are sharing a health message with
individuals, the family, or in the community, the effect may be defined
as the desired impact or outcomes that are expected over a period of
time after sharing the health message. The impact is observed after
individuals/ families/ community acquire the knowledge, attitudes and
change behavior. In summary the characteristics of effects of message
comprise of three elements;
 Knowledge gained after conveying the message to the receiver(audience)
 Change of attitudes by the community which occurs after sharing a
health message
 Change of behavior which is accompanied by abandoning the social
cultural beliefs which promoted the occurrence of the health problem
___________________________________________________________________
 NB: NOISE - Any factor that hinders proper exchange of information
except those caused by sender and receiver
 DISTORTION – Change of meaning from that intended by the sender
during encoding or decoding
55

FEEDBACK
 Effective communication occurs when the receiver is able
restate the original message given by the sender. Feedback is
the process of finding out whether the communicated message
is understood as intended. The message is understood when
the response of the receiver reflects the meaning of the original
message from the sender. Feedback may be verbal or non-
verbal. It may take written form also in form of memos, reports,
etc.
 What made you understand
SOCIAL SETTING
 This refers to the environment in which the message is
conveyed from the source and that of the receiver(audience).
Both the environment of the source of the message of the
message and the receiver are important and determine the
degree of understanding the message. The social setting should
be free from unnecessary noises or disturbances.
56

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
 Barriers are factors which prevent effective
communication
 Barriers to effective communication may be due
to six elements of communication process:
 Source
 Message
 Channel
 Receiver
 Effects
 Social setting
57

Barriers resulting from source
The sender should have the qualities that facilitate effective
communication. The sender should have sound understanding
of his audience and a good knowledge of his subject.
1. Semantic barriers - Failure to recognize social cultural
and psychological factors which can lead to communication
breakdown. e.g. when addressing illiterate peasants one
has to put oneself in their situation to be able to appreciate
their culture, values, perceptions, worries and hopes
2. Physical barriers - these may attributed to climate e.g.
very cold or hot weather, wind, noise etc.
3. System overload - may occur when an individual receives
too much information at the same time.
4. Lack of privacy and confidentiality
5. Language barrier - the sender should appropriate
language according to the level and age of the receiver
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BARRIERS AFFECTING MESSAGE
 If the massage do not have the qualities of a message
for effective communication there will be communication
break down. To avoid failure in communication one
should address the following factors:-
1. The message should be addressed in simple language
2. It must be problem centered
3. It should be culturally relevant and not offensive to
values and beliefs of the community and individuals.
Religious believes are particularly important
4. The message should fall within socio-economic abilities
of the audience
5. The message must demonstrate that it is much more
important and beneficial to do what is proposed in the
message than what the message opposes
59

BARRIERS RESULTING FROM THE RECEIVER
 If the receiver of the message is inadequately prepared
physically, socially, and psychologically about the venue and
time of giving the health message, he/she may come late
 If the receiver does not know the benefits to gain from the
message he/ she may have little interest to listen to the message
 If the receiver does not understand the language
 If the sender stammers and speaks inaudibly
 If the message is received in a noisy environment
 If the message is transmitted against religious beliefs of the
community
 If the sender does not know the socio-economic status of the
community
 If the message contains too much information
 If the message takes a longtime to reach the receiver the
audience will change their priorities
60

BARRIERS RESULTING FROM SOCIAL SETTING
 The selected venue for receiving the message has
different posters which are not relevant to the
health message given.
 The sender does not consider the social status of
the audience
 The sender of the message must consider the age
and the marital status of the audience when
planning the venue
 The sender does not consider the cultural beliefs
of the audience
 The message is not action oriented
61

BARRIERS AFFECTING COMMUNICATION CHANNEL
 If the sender speaks with a low voice that the receiver can't hear
well.
 When the media for communication is selected without
considering the socio economic status of the audience
 If you select a verbal communication channel without considering
the age of the receiver, the message content, language sex etc.
BARRIERS AFFECTING THE IMPACT/EFFECTS OF
COMMUNICATION
 If the sender fails to use appropriate language and to
prepare the audience on the importance of the message for
improvement of their health status
 If the receiver of the message is emotionally disturbed
 The sender of the message may fail to involve the audience
in the planning phase and therefore disregards the cultural
beliefs of the community
62

BARRIERS AFFECTING FEEDBACK
 If the sender of the message does not clarify all the
points to enable the receiver understand it.
 The sender of the message use symbols which the
receiver interprets wrongly without asking for
clarifications
 The sender may speak in un audible voice
 The receiver of the message may have a negative or
different attitude towards the message given
 The sender may send the message by verbal
communication without requesting the receiver to
have a pen and a paper to write down main points.
 The sender of message may take long time talking to
the receiver and as result they become bored
63

SUMMARY OF BARRIERS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Establishing a common bond through communication does not always come
easily. There are many barriers that make it difficult for communication to
achieve its goal. Some of these barriers are:
 Age/status differences: When the sender and the receiver are of different
age groups or social standings, communication may suffer. Old men, for
example, may not want to listen to a young sender/extensionist, depending
on the message. A lawyer may not want to hear what a peasant farmer has
to say.
 Language: The use of language that is not understood by the audience will
stop communication in its tracks. For example, the use of sheng’ may be
appropriate for urban young people, but not a rural adult audience. The
audience may also use language in a way that is not understood by the
sender/ extensionist, e.g., the use of riddles.
 Political differences: People of different political orientations may find it
difficult to accommodate messages/ideas from each other.
 Communication overload: Too many messages at one time may be so
confusing that people cannot comprehend them.
 Mistrust: If either or both the sender and the receiver do not trust each
other, communication may be delayed or halted.
 Gender roles: Men may not agree to listen to women.
64

 Timing: The message may be too late for effective action, or the audience
may not have time to listen to it.
 Competition for attention: Everybody wants to talk, or other
distractions interfere with attention.
 Incomplete messages: When only part of the message is delivered, either
through ignorance or oversight, this causes confusion.
 Personal traits: The know – it – all, negative personality, inferiority and
superiority complexes, individual mannerisms, and so on, can all cut
communication short.
 SEMANTICS - Definition of words, Choice of words - When to use certain
channel.
 Poor choice, Use of channels - When to use certain channel
 Physical distractions
 Noise, physical, psychological
 Effects of emotions
 Perceptions
 Filtering, screening, negative information
 Evaluating the source
 Absence of feedback, poor feedback
 Poor listening
65

TO OVERCOME BARRIERS: [Barrier solutions]
 Learn to use feedback well.
 Be sensitive to receiver’s point of view.
 Listen to UNDERSTAND!
 Use direct, simple language, or at least use language
appropriate to the receiver.
 Use proper channel(s). Learn to use channels well.
 Learn to use supportive communication, not defensive
communication.
 Reinforce words with actions
 Present information in orderly/systematic manner
 Understand/manage your audience
 Know content of delivery
 Write clearly
 Avoid information under load/overload
 Provide right environment free from noise
 Plan communication carefully

How to Improve Existing Level of
COMMUNICATION?
IMPROVE LANGUAGE.
IMPROVE PRONUNCIATION.
WORK ON VOICE MODULATION.
WORK ON BODY LANGUAGE.
READ MORE
LISTEN MORE
AVOID READING OR WATCHING OR LISTENING UNWANTED LITERATURE, GOSSIP, MEDIA
PRESENTATION ETC.
INTERACT WITH QUALITATIVE PEOPLE.
IMPROVE ON YOU TOPIC OF DISCUSSION,
PRACTICE MEDITATION & GOOD THOUGHTS.
THINK AND SPEAK.
DO NOT SPEAK TOO FAST.
USE SIMPLE VOCABULARY.
DO NOT SPEAK ONLY TO IMPRESS SOMEONE.
LOOK PRESENTABLE AND CONFIDENT.

Always think ahead about what you are going to say.
Use simple words and phrases that are understood by every body.
Increase your knowledge on all subjects you are required to speak.
Speak clearly and audibly.
Check twice with the listener whether you have been understood accurately or not
In case of an interruption, always do a little recap of what has been already said.
Always pay undivided attention to the speaker while listening.
While listening, always make notes of important points.
Always ask for clarification if you have failed to grasp other’s point of view.
Repeat what the speaker has said to check whether you have understood accurately.
ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION
Dos

ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION
DON’Ts
Do not instantly react and mutter something in anger.
Do not use technical terms & terminologies not understood by majority
of people.
Do not speak too fast or too slow.
Do not speak in inaudible surroundings, as you won’t be heard.
Do not assume that every body understands you.
While listening do not glance here and there as it might distract the
speaker.
Do not interrupt the speaker.
Do not jump to the conclusion that you have understood every thing.

BASIC RULES FOR GOOD COMMUNICATION
 Communication is a discipline in itself and everybody needs to study
its many aspects. The following basic rules if followed carefully by
everyone should ensure fast, accurate communication in the office and
with people outside the organization
1. THINK before communicating i.e. prepare the communication. What
is the objective of the communication? How can the objective best be
achieved?
2. CONSIDER THE IMPLICATIONS of the communication i.e. what
result will it achieve?
3. REVIEW the proposed communication to ensure that it contains all
the information required for the recipient to make a decision or take
action.
4. MAKE A NOTE OF FACTS that you may need for further action or
information and insist that the other people do the same.
5. CONSIDER THE REACTIONS of the person or people who will receive
the communications in terms of both content and tone.
6. Ensure that the communication is CONCISE and CLEAR.
7. OBTAIN FEEDBACK to ensure that the recipient of the
communication has heard and comprehended correctly. 70

MODES (FORMS) OF COMMUNICATION
(ESSENTIAL ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION)
 Communication in the health facility /
organization can occur in four forms:-
1. Intrapersonal communication
2. Interpersonal communication
3. Mass communication
4. Organizational communication
71

Intrapersonal communication
 It occurs when you communicate to yourself without
verbalizing.
 Its an imaginary conversation reflecting the individuals
thoughts and feelings
 Intrapersonal communication helps you to think critically
about important issues before solving a problem e.g.
when planning a patient care plan you think about the
problems and the correct action to alleviate the problem
 Intrapersonal communication is important before
planning a health message to share with a group of
people /clients.
 Its an important part of planning the message and its
importance lies in how successfully it is translated into
action
72

Interpersonal communication
 This is face to face communication between two or more
persons
 This kind of communication may occur between clinical officers
and their clients or other medical professionals
 It is very effective and one should be able to share health
messages with the community/clients in order to change their
attitude and behavior
 It is an important form of communication because the parties
involved have a chance to ask for clarification of the subject
matter or issues.
Mass communication
 It is a form of communication that is used to reach many
people at the same time through the media of mass circulation
or coverage e.g. television, radio and newspapers
 Emergencies warranting communication through the mass
media include times of disaster or disease outbreaks
73

Organizational communication
 Organizational communication occurs between the
management and the employees. This form of
communication is necessary in order to achieve the
desired goals of the organization
 It may occur between the managers, supervisors and all
employees
 The communication may occur vertically from the top to
all employees in the organization or horizontally when
supervisors consult one another
 Organizational communication harmonizes all activities
performed by different technical personnel in the
institution
 It also regularizes the activities of the public and private
institutions sharing common interests in the same locality.
74

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION (IPC)
 Its is the process that helps us express our feelings, ideas, and
thoughts and share them with the people around us.
 Efficient interpersonal communication is a very good quality
that helps people in every aspect of life be it personal or
professional
 Its is the process where a person expresses his thoughts,
converts the thoughts into a well designed message and sends
the message across a communication channel (oral, visual,
written, etc.) and the receiver receives the message and
responds to the message and sends his reply back via the
communication channel.
 It can be a formal dialogue between two people at a workplace,
or even an informal tête-à-tête between two friends.
 It can be a formal dialogue between two people at a workplace,
or even an informal tête-à-tête between two friends.
75

 Communication can occur with or without words and through
a number of communication media.
 Although interpersonal communication can encompass oral,
written, and nonverbal forms of communication, the term is
usually applied to spoken communication that takes place
between two or more individuals on a personal, face-to-face
level.
 Some of the types of interpersonal communication that are
commonly used within a business organization include staff
meetings, formal project discussions, employee performance
reviews, and informal chats.
 Interpersonal communication with those outside the business
organization can take a variety of forms as well, including
client meetings, employment interviews, or sales visits.
76

Interpersonal Communication Styles:
1. Controlling Style
 Sender leaves little or no room for the receiver to provide
feedback or reply. People who are generally senior in workplace
hierarchy use it to communicate with their subordinates and
although this style might prove to be an efficient form of
communication during crisis situations, it uses power, can
intimidate the receiver or the audience and can actually create a
communication gap. Easier & faster for sender.
2. Egalitarian Style
 Its is much more efficient than the controlling style since it
facilitates healthy two-way communication wherein information
is shared mutually. -It is used to stimulate others to express
their ideas & opinions.
 This style of communication encourages the participants to
express their ideas and hence creates a co-operative and healthy
atmosphere.
77

3. Structuring Style
 Its is generally used to communicate specific goals and bring
co-ordination to an organization. To avoid making this a one-
way conversation it is always better to modify this style and
keep it more open to responses from the audience
 Cites company standards, rules, goals, procedures etc.
 Should be counter balanced with the egalitarian style.
4. Dynamic Style
 This is style of interpersonal communication which is a high-
energy approach which involves use of motivating words and
phrases to encourage the person to get inspired and achieve a
certain goal.
 uses inspirational pleas to motivate another person to take
action.
 This style can be effective in crisis situations, but it is
generally ineffective when the receivers do not have enough
knowledge or experience to take the required action.
78

5. Relinquishing Style
 Its is highly open for ideas to the extent that it can transfer
the responsibility of the communication to the receiver.
 Its Deferential rather than Directive. It is highly receptive
to the ideas of others, to the point of shifting responsibility
for communication to the receiver.
 The style is particularly effective when the receivers have
the knowledge, experience, and willingness to assume
responsibility.
6. Withdrawal Style
 It is ironical to call this process a style of interpersonal
communication since the withdrawal style is basically the failure
or lack of communication.
 This is a style of interpersonal communication in which the
person shows complete disinterest to participate in the
communication process or carry it forward.
79

Importance of interpersonal communication
1. Communication is a vital human activity as man is a
social being and need to interact with one each other..
2. Proper coordination is made possible
3. Time wasted in correcting mistakes that occur as a result
of lack of effective communication could be saved by
establishing an effective communication system.
4. To understand the message.
5. To motivate people to act and attain certain goals.
6. To understand the problems people have and know how
to help the people to solve them.
7. To reduce tension in people.
8. To establish mutual relationships with people
9. To establish conducive working atmosphere in an
organizations
10. To improve and increase productivity
80

Key Interpersonal Skills
Good interpersonal skills requires:
1. Dedication
2. Sensitivity to others
3. Flexibility
4. Continual effort
5. Building relationships,
6. Fostering open communication
7. Managing conflict
Functions of Interpersonal Communication
8. To express and receive interpersonal needs
9. Gain knowledge about another individual
10. Understand what someone says in a given
context
11. To establish an identity
81

The Johari Window
 The process of self-disclosure is best illustrated by
the Johari Window or Model.
 Self-disclosure – Important Talk Key to establishing
firm or good working relationships. It is the process
in which one person tells another about something
he or she would not tell any one. It helps one reflect
on his or her thoughts, perceptions, and feelings.
The panes in the Johari window [Four Windows of
the Johari Window]
1. Open pane
2. Blind pane
3. Hidden pane
4. Unknown pane
82

1. The open pane or ‘free to self and others’ –
information about ourselves that we are willing to
communicate as well as information we are unable
to hide.
2. Blind pane - The blind pane or the ‘blind to self,
seen by others’ - certain things that we do not know
about ourselves that others know about us.
3. Hidden pane - The hidden pane or self hidden from
others’ involves information that we deliberately
hide from others.
4. Unknown pane - The unknown pane or ‘a
nondisclosure area’ an area that provides no
possibility of disclosure because it is not known to
the self or to others.
83

ONE-WAY TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION
 Communication can travel in two directions.
 Use this model to reflect on your communication style
with families.
1. One-way communication:
 Information flows only in one direction – from the sender
to the receiver with no feedback
 A much common way of communication because it is
faster and easier for the sender and there is no trouble
from disagreement.
 There may be mistakes in transmission of information.
 One-way communication is linear and limited because it
occurs in a straight line from sender to receiver and
serves to inform, persuade or command.
 SENDER MESSAGE RECEIVER
84

Two-way communication
 A process in which information flows in two-directions – the
receiver provides feedback and the sender receptive to the
feedback.
 It is more accurate and fewer mistakes in transmission.
 But it is time-consuming and more difficult for the sender.
 Two-way communication always includes feedback from the
receiver to the sender and lets the sender know the message
has been received accurately.
 In two-way communication, communication is negotiated.
Both sender and receiver listen to each other, gather
information and are willing to make changes to work together
in harmony. Their intent is to negotiate a mutually
satisfactory situation.
 Message
 Sender Receiver
 Feedback
85

Examples of One-way communication:
 Listening to programs, speeches and radio watching films and
most televisions programs, and reading books and magazines.
Examples of two-way communication:
 Listening to programs, speeches and radio watching films and
most televisions programs, and reading books and magazines.
Comparison between one way and two way
86
One-way
 Hard to understand
 The sender is conveying
message to receiver
without expecting the
message receivers to ask
questions about it
Two-way
 Easier to understand
 Receivers can ask
questions message

Advantages and disadvantages of one way communication
87
Advantage
 The sender has no
problem; they can carry
on with their work and
don’t have to worry
about anything.
Disadvantage
 They cannot state their
opinion and how the
media text has affected
them.
Advantages and disadvantages of two way communication
Advantage
 The senders and the receivers
get to discuss what they would
like. They can respond to the
sender and ask questions or
talk about concerns over with
the sender.
Disadvantage
 The sender gets bothered and has to
always focus on what the receivers
want more than what they want.
Most times this is a bother to most
senders because every one has a
different opinion about things and
the sender has to make something
that majority of the people will enjoy.

COMMUNICATION PATTERNS
 Communication Patterns are a structures of communication
links in the work team and its evaluation in terms of efficiency
of communication and satisfaction of group members.
 Communication patterns shows how communication flows
within a group. It is a part of group communication.
 They are the communication links in work teams according to
the organizational structures.
 The patterns are related to work efficiency and who is
responsible towards whom or who talks to whom. It also
relates to satisfaction of group members and decision-making
process.
 This can be applied to groups but all-to-one and one-to-all
communication are also taken to be communication patterns.
 When many people give information to one person, it is all-to-
one communication and if one person provides information to
many, it is one-to-all communication. For example, speeches
88

Types of Communication Patterns
 The communication patterns that have been given by Harold J. Leavitt
for four-and-five member group are:- Circle, Chain, Wheel, Y, and
Network.
1. Circle
 In circle communication pattern, there is a leader and hierarchies in the
group members. Here, the leader can only communicate to the members
who are next to him/her like their direct subordinates. He/she cannot
talk with any other members too, like the lowest level of workers.
2. Chain (line)
 Communication follows a certain chain of command.
 It is either top to bottom level staffs or bottom to top level staffs. It is a
one-way flow of communication.
 In chain communication pattern, all members cannot communicate
with the leader of the group like in a circle.
 So, the members might not get the exact message sent by the leader but
an altered version of it. The leader won’t even be aware what distorted
message others lower in the command got.
 Feedbacks can also be distorted.
89

3. Wheel (star)
 There is a leader at the center of all communication. All others are
members that stand at the same level in the structure.
 All members can communicate with the leader and vice versa. But,
members cannot interact with each other. Sometimes, members do not
even know of the existence of other members of the same group.
4. Y
 Is more complicated as there are different sub-groups within a group.
 In the center is a leader who manages these sub-groups.
5. Network
 Bureaucratic organization communications structures are taken as
network pattern of communication as it is a non-symmetric network of
people with social relations. Their job roles are interlinked.
 Communication in networks can be prescriptive, like rules given from
leader to other members or descriptive like case reports given by
members to leaders.
 The network is a communication pattern in which anyone can
communicate with anyone else as per their needs and requirements. In
a network, communication differs due to physical proximity and
organizational structures too 90

WRITING SKILLS
 Writing is the expression of language inform of
symbols on a surface.
 The primary purpose of writing is communication
 It takes different forms e.g. paragraph, essay, report
etc.
 It is the production of information
 Writing is a medium of human communication that
represents language and emotion with signs and
symbols.
 In most languages, writing is a complement to
speech or spoken language. Writing is not a
language, but a tool used to make languages be
read.
91

Importance of writing
 It enables one to pass their message economically,
clearly, correctly and appropriately.
 It is a pivotal form of communication in all walks of life.
 Helps collect your thoughts
 Form of output; thinking made evident; “thinking with a
pencil”.
 Means of building fluency.
 Way of developing accuracy (in grammar, vocabulary,
etc.)
 Premier way in which children think and express their
ideas.
 Way children express creativity, uniqueness, and
indicate what they want.
 Critical skill for academic or professional success.
92

STAGES IN WRITING
1. Planning stage
2. Drafting stage
3. Revising stage
4. Editing and proof reading
PLANNING STAGE - planning starts with the following;
i. Thinking - the writing process starts in the mind the writer
must be clear about the following: what kind of a document they
wish to write; what you want to write about; whom you wish to
write for.
ii. Researching - it involves gathering information from:
a) Primary source - this is material or information gathered
through observation/direct experience, questionnaires and
interviews
b) Secondary sources - involves gathering information from print
and non print sources. Print sources includes books, articles,
reports etc.
93

iii. Organizing the material
 Its important to come up with an essay outline which enables
the writer to organize the material gathered/researched.
Uses/purpose of an outline
 It acts as a preliminary guide i.e. organization
 It acts as a way of checking the draft later. An essay outline
enables the writer to assess whether the essay is well
organized.
DRAFTING STAGE
 After the work of gathering ideas one writes through the first
draft . Then go through the draft asking/checking;
 Whether the writing makes sense
 Whether anything has been left out
 Whether something should be explained differently/more
 Whether more details/examples are needed
 Whether stronger beginning/conclusion is required
94

REVISING STAGE
 It involves going through your second draft until you are
completely satisfied that it is ready for submission to your
intended reader. You check on the following;
i. Whether the ideas are fully explained
ii. Whether there are details that require expanding
iii. Whether the ideas are in order
iv. Whether the parts connect with each other
v. Whether the sentences are clear
vi. Whether the most important phrase and statement are in
the most places in the sentences and in paragraphs
EDITING STAGE
 It presumes the existence of a completed document . It involves
checking and correcting errors of content and grammar.
PROOF READING
 it involves reading through the document checking of any errors
that could have been overlooked.
95

Flowchart of the Writing Process
(Hyland, 2008, p. 100)

Four kinds of knowledge that we need in order to
write
 Knowledge of language: - Spelling, Punctuation.
Grammatical structures, Lexis, Cohesion and
coherence
 Knowledge of topic, i.e. knowing what we are writing
about.
 Knowledge of audience i.e. knowledge of who we are
writing to.
 Stored writing plans: Background knowledge
(schemata) e.g. formal schemata: formal,
organisational structures of different types of text
97

ESSAY WRITING
 The word essay comes from a Latin word exigere
which means to examine, test or to literally drive out.
Characteristics of a good assay
1. Must have unity- an essay must have unity
developing one theme with a definite purpose
2. Order- an assay must follow a certain ordered line of
thought and come to a definite conclusion.
3. Brevity- an essay should outline the main points
which should be concisely expressed
4. Style- the language of an essay should be dignified
5. Personal touch- an essay should reveal the personal
feelings and opinions of the writer i.e. bring the
individuality of the writer.
98

Types of assays
1. Expository/explanative essays
2. Narrative essays
3. Argumentative essays
4. Descriptive essays
Expository/explanative essays
Exposition emphasis the following;
 What something is
 How it works
 How different parts of one thing are related
 Why something happened the way it did
 Why do you think a given thing is likely or not likely to
happen
 The commonest and the shortest form of exposition is
definition 99

Narrative essays
 This is telling a story. So the act of narration produces a
narrative. Narration must produce an organization of events
in a sequential order.
 Every narrative must have;
1. Plot or general idea
2. Must have events
3. Must have characters
4. Must be a setting
5. The relationship between all of them
Descriptive essay
 The defining characteristic of description make the reader
get an impression of the theme being talked about.
Description appeals to basic senses of sight, smell, touch
taste and hearing.
 The focus is our ability to visualize the event, object etc.
100

Argumentative essay
 The function of an argumentative essay is to
prove a point or convince others of the
correctness of a given point or feeling. There are
two important properties of a good argument
namely;
1. Reasonableness
2. logic
101

Differences in written and oral language
102
Speaking:
• Impermanent.
• Immediate (unplanned).
• Variation / Casual.
• Low lexical density.
• High Paralinguistics.
• Communal activity.
• Universal.
• Simple sentences.
• Voiced.
• Pronounce.
• Feedback .
• Pause / Intonation
Writing:
• Permanent.
• Delayed (planned).
• Conventional / Stylized.
• High lexical density.
• Low Paralinguistics.
• Solitary Activity.
• Learned.
• Complex sentences.
• Thought / Read.
• Spell.
• No feedback.
• Punctuation.

LETTER WRITING
Structure of an official letter
 Organizations reference - this is always followed by a number . It links the
letter to another communication in the organization and sometimes to a file
number
 Your reference - this is usually the reference quoted in the letter you are
replying . It also makes it easier to trace the earlier communication in the
filing cabinet.
 Date - all letters should have a date. This makes it easier to file in a correct
chronological order. The month should be written in full without
abbreviations e.g. 4th December 2015
 Receivers name - “Mr” is the title commonly used for men. “Ms” is used for
women instead of Miss/Mrs because it refers to both without indicating
whether an individual is married or unmarried. Miss/Mrs should be used
only if you know the marital status of the individual.
 Receivers address - the address should be written in full
 Attention indicator - it refers to the officer/person taking action on the letter
 Salutation - this is the opening greeting of a letter. It depends on how you
know the person you are addressing the letter to . Some usual forms of
salutation are indicated below;
103

 Dear sir - it is used when you are writing a letter to an
organization or a firm in general and not to an
individual within it.
 Dear sir or madam - either of these is appropriate if you
know the sex of the person you are writing to.
 Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms - these are used to begin letters to
people whom you have met or written before and are
followed by the surname of the addressee e.g. dear Mr.
john
 Subject heading - the main aim of the subject heading
is to briefly and clearly state what the letter is about. It
tells the reader at a glance what the subject of the letter
is and so it should be short and to the point , that is ,
not more than six words . E.g. your request for
promotion or your notice of intention to retire.
104

 Body of the letter - the body of the letter consists of: an introduction part or
acknowledgement if there has been previous correspondence, a second part
which gives information and states the facts, a final paragraph suggesting the
action the reader of the letter should take.
 Subscription or complementary close - this is the formal conclusion of the
letter. Its form is decided by the form of salutation used. Letters beginning “dear
sir” or “dear madam” should end with “yours faithfully”. Letters beginning “dear
Mr./Mrs./ms” should end with yours sincerely. Letters beginning with
dear(name) can end less formally and on a warmer and more personal; note ,
such as “yours” “with best wishes“ or “kind regards”. It should be done when the
writer and the addressee know each other well.
 Signature - when a letter is typed , a space is left after the close of the letter for
the writer to sign his/her name.
 Writers name - it should appear below the signature. The name of the writer
should be in full. The position of the writer should be below the name. the
employment identification number should be the position.
 Enclosures - abbreviated as “enc.” is typed below the signature at the foot of the
page. This is to remind the sender to enclose the item, and also make sure that
the receiver notes this and does not discard it with the envelope.
 Ps- stands for “post scriptum.” it is used when adding something which has
been left out from the body of the letter.
105

Layout of the letter
 The senders address should appear at the right
hand side of the page.
 Each paragraph should be indented and begin
about 1.5 cm from the left hand margin. If
paragraphs are not indented, then double
spacing should be left between paragraphs.
 The complementary close and the name typed
beneath should be at the centre at the foot of the
page.
106

Principles of letter writing
Courtesy - it is the ability to tactfully refuse to
perform favour but at the same time keep a friend.
 Therefore one should write in a friendly manner
avoiding words that may sound harsh or rude.
Clarity - always use a simple language and pinpoint
the key unfamiliar ides you may wish to convey.
 The reader should understand the message with
ease. Make the letter interesting to ensure the
reader gets the exact meanings of the message
conveyed.
Conciseness - this is expressing ideas briefly to
avoid the reader getting bored.
107

CONDUCTING MEETINGS
 In order to conduct a successful meeting one needs to;
1. Prepare for the meeting
2. Prepare an agenda for the meeting
3. Manage and conduct the process of the of the meeting
effectively
4. Record its proceedings and circulate the minutes.
Preparation for public meetings
 Prior notification of the meeting to all concerned participants
 Date and day of the meeting is given
 Venue of the meeting is selected for its convenience to the
majority.
 Time of starting and closing the meeting should be indicated
in the invitation letter
 The participants should be given the agenda or matters
which will be discussed in the meeting in advance.
108

Agenda
 An agenda is a statement of matters/issues to be
discussed in a meeting.
Purpose of an agenda
a) To ensure that the objective of the is
accomplished
b) Ensure no listed item for discussion is omitted
c) Ensure matters/issues are discussed in the
correct sequence
d) Ensure important points/issues in the meeting
are highlighted
109

Process of conducting a meeting
 The chairman and the secretary are required to attend the meeting
punctually.
 The chairman calls the meeting to order when the participants make
a quorum
Functions of the chairman
i. To call the meeting to order
ii. To welcome of the participants
iii. To finalize and close the agenda
iv. To maintain order during the meeting
v. To maintain the timeframe each participant is given to contributions
vi. To ensure participation of every member
vii. To keep discussion focused on the agenda
viii. To give guidance at the right time
ix. To decide when a point is debated exhaustively
x. To summarize different opinions
xi. To guide the secretary to write the correct decisions on the minutes
xii. To close the meeting
xiii. To announce the date of the next meeting
110

Functions of the secretary
a) To circulate an attendance list to the
participants
b) To take accurate minutes of all decisions
reached during the meeting
c) To avoid use of abbreviations and
vocabulary/technical words the participants
cannot understand
d) To circulate the minutes in advance to all the
participants
e) To make the preparations for the next meeting
111

The minutes
The minutes are a short summary of the proceedings and
the decisions reached on each agenda item during the
meeting. The minutes consist of the following;
1. The date, time and venue of the meeting
2. The names of the office bearers
3. The names of other members in attendance
4. The names of those present at the meeting
5. The names of those who sent apologies
6. Decisions made by the participants, the
responsibilities arising from a decision and the name of
the person responsible for carrying them out.
7. The results in the event of vote
8. The names and the signatures of the chairman and the
secretary after the minutes are approved
112

LISTENING SKILLS
 Listening is paying attention to and trying to get meaning out of
something that we hear.
 Listening is a selective, active mental process/activity whereas
hearing is an automatic physical activity.
 The process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and
responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages; to hear
something with thoughtful attention
Importance of listening
a) It is a fundamental skill and foundation of all other skills i.e.
listening-speaking-reading-writing
b) Listening is a predominant activity for majority of the people.
People spent time on listening than the other communication
skills. (listening - 45%, speaking - 30%, reading - 16%, writing -
0.9%
c) Listening is a core skill for professionals in most fields
d) Listening is an important source of knowledge and information
113

Functions of listening in verbal interactions
a) It enables one to focus specifically on the
message being communicated by the other
person.
b) It enables one to gain full and accurate
understanding of the other persons message
c) It allows one to convey interest, concern and
attention
d) It encourages full open and honest expression
towards the message
e) It enables one develop an other centered
approach
114

Types of listening
1. Comprehensive listening (active listening) - this is
where one listen to get information, instructions etc. so as
to increase understanding, enhance experience or to get
the main points e.g. lecture, presentation
2. Evaluative listening/critical - this is listening to a
speaker who is trying to persuade or influence our
attitudes, believes in a particular direction . At the end of
the listening process you are expected to make a judgment
based on the information given.
3. Appreciative listening - this listening for pleasure i.e. to
relax, to unwind, enjoy ourselves, cultural understanding
or obtain spiritual satisfaction.
4. Empathetic listening - it is listening to somebody who
has a need top talk. Listening for the benefit of the speaker
115

Hearing Vs Listening
Hearing – Physical process,
natural, passive
Listening – Physical as well
as mental process, active,
learned process, a skill
Listening is hard.
You must choose to participate in the process of listening.

 Listening is a conscious activity based on three
basic skills:
1) Attitude
2) Attention
3) Adjustment
Attitude - Maintain a constructive Attitude
Attention - Strive to pay Attention
Adjustment - Cultivate a capacity for Adjustment
Listening Steps:
 Listening is an active process that has three basic steps.
1. Hearing
2. Understanding
3. Judging
117

VALUE OF LISTENING
 Listening to others is an elegant art.
 Good listening reflects courtesy and good manners.
 Listening carefully to the instructions of superiors improve competence and
performance.
 The result of poor listening skill could be disastrous in business,
employment and social relations.
Good listening can eliminate a number of imaginary grievances of
employees.
Good listening skill can improve social relations and conversation.
Listening is a positive activity rather than a passive or negative activity.

Barriers to listening
 Daydreaming.
 Preparing our responses ahead of time.
 Thinking about other people, places or things.
 Being preoccupied and distracted. When you're
preoccupied, your mind wanders.
 Communicating in a noisy environment.
 Your personal mind set.
 Interrupting the other person.
 Your physical state.
119

7 Ways to Improve Your Listening
7 strategies and suggestions to help improve listening skills.
1.) Increase your listening span:
 Try to resist the temptation to interrupt.
2.) Take time to listen:
Don't put obvious limitations on your listening time - the
speaker will feel rushed.
3.) Listen between the lines:
Don't just listen to what is being said.
Try to understand the attitudes, needs and motives behind
the words.
4.) Give your full attention:
Nodding or interjecting occasionally to clarify a point lets the
speaker know you are interested.
If the speaker pauses briefly, don't rush to fill the silence.
Use open-ended questions to encourage elaboration.
120

5.) Restate the message:
When you are sure that the speaker has finished,
restate the main points.
This is a good organizing strategy for you.
It also gives the speaker assurance that the message
has been received.
6.) Listen for ideas as well as facts:
A good listener makes an effort to understand what
the facts add up to.
7.) Don't monopolize:
Resist the urge to dominate a situation or to feel that
you know everything about a situation.
Be open to new ideas and allow the speaker to have
his or her say.
121

Ten Rules for Good Listening
Rule Listening Reasoning Behind the Rule
1. Stop talking You cannot listen if you are
talking.
2. Put the person at ease Help a person feel free to talk;
create a permissive environment.
3. Show the person you Look and act interested; listen to
want to listen understand, not to oppose.
4.Remove distractions Don’t doodle, tap, or shuffle
papers; shut the door if necessary
to achieve quiet.

5. Empathize Try to see the other person’s
point of view.
6. Be patient Allow plenty of time; do not
interrupt; don’t start for the
door or walk away.
7. Hold your temper An angry person takes the wrong
meaning from words.

8.Go easy on argument Don’t put people on the defensive
and criticism and cause them to “clam up” or
become angry; do not argue-
even if you win, you lose.
9. Ask questions This encourages a person and
shows that you are listening; it
helps to develop points further.
10. Stop talking This is first and last, because all
other guides depend on it; you
cannot listen effectively while you
are talking.
Source: Adapted from Human Behavior at Work, Fifth Edition, by Keith Davis. 1977.

READING
 The intake of information
 "Reading" is the process of looking at a series of written symbols
and getting meaning from them. Reading is a receptive skill -
through it we receive information. But the complex process of
reading also requires the skill of speaking, so that we can
pronounce the words that we read.
Important things to note about reading
 Before all else, if you don’t like to read, accept the importance of
the skill and work on it. This is CRITICAL to your success!
 Commit to reading goals
 Plan time and space to concentrate
 Capture and connect
 Know how to read primary and secondary sources.
 Preview and Review
Types of reading sources
 Primary and Secondary Sources
125

ELEMENTS OF READING PLAN [Reading techniques]
1. Preview
2. Skimming
3. Active Reading
4. Analytic Reading
5. Review
126
 Primary Source - material
written in some original
form; more difficult
reading level.
 Autobiographies
 Speeches
 Research Reports
 Government Documents
 Scholarly Articles
 Secondary Source -
summarizes or
interprets primary
sources
 Magazine Articles
 Textbooks

1. Preview
 Scan the material to see what lies ahead.
 Consider the context for the assignment.
 Consider the length of the reading assignment and estimate
how long it will take.
 Consider the structure and features of the reading to help you
digest the material.
 Consider the difficulty and plan your time accordingly.
2. Skimming
 Skimming covers the content at a general level.
 It involves reading at about twice your normal rate.
 Focuses on introductory statements, topic sentences and
boldface terms.
 Provides the chance for you to see what kind of information the
assignment contains
 Enables you to gather the surface ideas if you don’t have
enough time to read deeply.
127

3. Active Reading
 Use it to avoid empty reading — reading then realizing that
no information has come across.
 Identify yourself completely in what the author is trying to
say: throw yourself into his mind!
 Focus on identifying the main ideas and on understanding
how supporting points reinforce those ideas.
 In other words, get really interested & involved!
4. Analytic Reading
 Reading at a more intense level.
 Involves breaking ideas open and digging underneath their
surface.
 Enables you to try to spot flaws in the writer’s logic.
 Promotes a comparison of the work to other works.
 Should involve questioning the author and yourself.
 In other words, active skepticism with a purpose
128

5. Reviewing
 Review to remember the main points of the material.
 Test yourself on your comprehension.
 Some ways to review:
 Notes
 Study questions
 Flash cards
 Visual maps
 Outlines
 Make reviewing every week a study goal.
 Reviewing is an excellent memory aid.
TIPS FOR IMPROVING READING ABILITY
 Find a quiet study location.
 Read in 50-minute blocks with breaks in between.
 Take notes, recite key ideas or jot down questions in the margins.
 Experiment with your reading rate.
 Focus on key issues in the text.
129

A Summary of Strategies to Improve Reading
 Practice a positive attitude.
 Make the author your companion.
 Pace yourself according to difficulty level.
 Take breaks to restore concentration.
 Shift gears when you do not make progress.
 Read other sources if the reading is confusing.
 Build your vocabulary.
 Work on reading faster.
 Increase your accountability for reading.
130

CRITICAL READING
 This is the process of reading that goes beyond just
understanding a text.
 This is a more ACTIVE way of reading. It is a deeper
and more complex engagement with a text.
 It’s a process of analyzing, interpreting and,
sometimes, evaluating. When we read critically, we
use our critical thinking skills to QUESTION both the
text and our own reading of it.
 Critical reading involves:-
1. carefully considering and evaluating the reading.
2. Identifying the reading's strengths and implications.
3. Identifying the reading's weaknesses and flaws.
131

There are two steps to preparing to read critically:
1. Self-Reflect: What experiences, assumptions, knowledge, and
perspectives do you bring to the text?
What biases might you have? Are you able to keep an open mind
and consider other points of view?
2. Read to Understand:
a. Examine the text and context: Who is the author? Who is the
publisher? Where and when was it written? What kind of text is it?
b. Skim the text: What is the topic? What are the main ideas?
c. Resolve confusion: Look up unfamiliar words or terms in
dictionaries or glossaries. Go over
difficult passages to clarify them.
WHAT IS THE PROCESS FOR READING CRITICALLY?
1. Analysis Asks: What are the patterns of the text?
2. Interpretation Asks: What do the patterns of the argument
mean?
3. Evaluation Asks: How well does the text do what it does? What
is its value?
132

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN READING AND
CRITICAL READING?
133
Reading Critical Reading
Purpose To get a basic grasp of
the text
To form judgments about HOW a
text works
Activity Absorbing/Understanding Analyzing/Interpreting/Evaluating
Focus What a text SAYS What a text DOES and MEANS
Questions What is the text saying?
What information can I
get out of
it?
How does the text work? How is it
argued?
What are the choices made? The
patterns that result?
What kinds of reasoning and
evidence are used?
What are the underlying
assumptions?
What does the text mean?
Direction WITH the text (taking for
granted it is right)
AGAINST the text (questioning its
assumptions and
argument, interpreting meaning in
context)
Response Restatement, Summary Description, Interpretation, Evaluation

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