![detersive, and anthelmintic; the last more particularly so. The double
flowers of the wild tree (BALAUSTINES; BALAUSTIÆ), as well as those of
the cultivated one (CYTINI), are tonic and astringent.—Dose, 15 to 20
gr. of the root-bark, repeated every 30 or 40 minutes, until four doses
have been taken, followed by castor oil; in tapeworm. As an
astringent, all the parts described are commonly given under the form
of decoction.
POMMADE. [Fr.] The term applied by Continental perfumers to
any soft fragrant ointment (POMATUM).
In the preparation of pommades one of the first objects of
consideration is to obtain their fatty basis in as fresh and pure a state
as possible. Lard, beef, and mutton suet, beef marrow, veal fat, and
bear’s fat, are the substances commonly employed for this purpose,
either singly or in mixtures of two or more of them. The fat, carefully
selected from a young and healthy animal, after being separated from
extraneous skin and fibre, is pounded in a marble mortar, in the cold,
until all the membranes are completely torn asunder. It is next placed
in a covered porcelain or polished metal pan, and submitted to the
heat of a water bath, which is continued until its fatty portion has
liquefied, and the albuminous and aqueous matter, and other foreign
substances, have completely separated and subsided. The liquid fat is
then carefully skimmed, and at once passed through a clean flannel
filter. In this state it may be aromatised or perfumed at will; after
which, when it is intended that the pommade should be opaque and
white, it is assiduously stirred or beaten with a glass or wooden knife,
or spatula, until it concretes; but when it is desired that it should
appear transparent or crystalline, it is allowed to cool very slowly, and
without being disturbed. To prevent the accession of rancidity, a little
benzoic acid, gum benzoin, or nitric ether may be added to the fat,
whilst in the liquid state, as noticed under Fat and Ointment.
Sometimes a small portion of white wax or beeswax (according to the
intended colour of the product) is melted with the fat to increase its
solidity. Some parties employ a few grains of powdered citric acid per
ounce, in a like manner, with the intention of increasing the whiteness](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11333-250222213036-6cac15a6/85/Complete-Answer-Guide-for-Business-Data-Communications-Infrastructure-Networking-and-Security-7th-Edition-Stallings-Solutions-Manual-16-320.jpg)
![usual reagents, either in the solid state, or after being dissolved in
distilled water. Or the extract, obtained as above, may be boiled as
directed with rectified spirit, the solution filtered, the spirit distilled
off, and a small quantity of pure liquor of potassa added to the
aqueous residue, which is then to be shaken up with about 1 fl. oz. of
ether; lastly, the ethereal solution, which separates and floats on the
surface, is decanted, evaporated, and the residuum tested, as before.
The alkaline liquid, from which the ether has been decanted, is then
separated from any precipitate which may have formed, and both of
these separately tested for alkaloids.
b. From 2 to 3 oz. of purified animal charcoal are diffused
through 1⁄2 gall. of the beer, and is digested in it, with frequent
agitation, for from 8 to 12 hours; the liquor is next filtered, and the
charcoal collected on the filter is boiled with about 1⁄2 pint of
rectified spirit; the resulting alcoholic solution is then further treated
as above, and tested. This answers well for the detection of strychnia
or nux vomica.
6. Picric acid. This substance, which was formerly employed to
impart bitterness to London porter in lieu of hops, may be detected as
follows:—
a. A portion of the liquor agitated with a little solution of
diacetate of lead loses its bitter flavour if it depends on hops, but
retains it if it depends on picric acid.
b. Pure beer is decoloured and deodorised by animal charcoal;
but beer containing picric acid, when thus treated, retains a lemon-
yellow colour and the odour.
c. Unbleached sheep’s wool, boiled for six or ten minutes, and
then washed, takes a canary-yellow colour if picric acid be present.
The test is so delicate that 1 grain of the adulterant in 150,000 gr. of
beer is readily detected.
d. (Vitate.[117]) The author agitates 10 c.c. of the suspected beer
in a test tube with half its volume of pure amylic alcohol. If the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11333-250222213036-6cac15a6/85/Complete-Answer-Guide-for-Business-Data-Communications-Infrastructure-Networking-and-Security-7th-Edition-Stallings-Solutions-Manual-29-320.jpg)
![mixture is left to settle, the amylic stratum separates entirely, and is
drawn off with a pipette, evaporated to dryness at a convenient
temperature in a porcelain capsule, and the residue is finally taken up
in a little distilled water with the aid of heat. The aqueous solution is
divided into portions, and submitted to the following reagents. One
portion is treated with a solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper,
which, in dilute solutions of picric acid, instantly produces a turbidity,
due to the formation of very minute crystals of the ammonio-picrate
of copper, of a greenish colour. Another portion may be treated with a
concentrated solution of cyanide of potassium, which produces a
blood-red colour, more or less intense, according to the quantity of
picric acid present, in consequence of the formation of iso-purpuric
acid. A third portion may be submitted to the action of sulphide of
ammonium, rendered still more alkaline by the addition of a few
drops of ammonia. Here also a blood-red colour is produced, which
becomes more intense on the application of heat, and is due to the
formation of picramic acid.
[117] ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xxxv, p. 75.
7. Mineral matter.—a. A weighed quantity of pure beer evaporated
to dryness, and then incinerated, does not furnish more than from
·20% to ·35% of ash, the quantity varying within these limits with the
strength of the liquor and the character of the water used in brewing
it.
b. A solution of this ash, made by decoction with distilled water,
should be only rendered slightly turbid by solutions of acetate of lead,
bichloride of platinum, nitrate of baryta, nitrate of silver, oxalate of
ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen.
c. If the beer contained common salt, the above solution will give
a cloudy white precipitate with a solution of nitrate of silver. Each
grain of this precipitate is equivalent to 1⁄2 gr. of common salt
(nearly).
d. If GREEN COPPERAS (sulphate of iron) is present, ferridcyanide of
potassium gives a blue precipitate, and ferrocyanide of potassium a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11333-250222213036-6cac15a6/85/Complete-Answer-Guide-for-Business-Data-Communications-Infrastructure-Networking-and-Security-7th-Edition-Stallings-Solutions-Manual-30-320.jpg)
![bluish-white one, turning dark blue in the air; solution of chloride of
barium gives a white precipitate, each grain of which, after being
washed, dried, and ignited, represents 1·188 gr. of crystallised
protosulphate of iron.
e. The ash, digested in water slightly acidulated with nitric acid,
and then boiled, yields a solution which, when cold, gives a black
precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen, and a white one with dilute
sulphuric acid when lead is present.
8. Wittstein’s method for the detection of ADULTERANTS in beer.
[118] One litre of the suspected beer is evaporated by a moderate
heat to the consistence of a thick syrup. This is poured into a tared
glass cylinder capable of containing ten times its volume and
weighed; five times its weight of 93° to 95° alcohol is added, and the
whole frequently stirred, by means of a thick glass rod, during
twenty-four hours.
[118] ‘Archiv der Pharmacie,’ January, 1876, (‘Pharm. Journal,’
3rd series, v.)
By this means all the gum, dextrin, sulphates, phosphates, and
chlorides are separated, and a comparatively small portion is obtained
in solution. After clearing, this solution is decanted, the residue is
again treated with fresh alcohol, the two products mixed, filtered, and
the alcohol driven off by a gentle heat.
a. Of the syrupy residue left after this evaporation, a small
portion is diluted with three times its bulk of water, and tested for
picric acid, according to the directions already given.
b. The remaining largest portion of the syrup is agitated for some
time with six times its weight of pure colourless benzol (boiling point
80° C.); this is decanted off, and the operation is repeated with fresh
benzol, and the two liquors, the first of which has become yellow, the
second having scarcely changed colour, are evaporated at a gentle
heat. The pale, yellow, resinous residue thus obtained may possibly
contain brucine, strychnine, colchicine, or colocynthin. To ascertain](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11333-250222213036-6cac15a6/85/Complete-Answer-Guide-for-Business-Data-Communications-Infrastructure-Networking-and-Security-7th-Edition-Stallings-Solutions-Manual-31-320.jpg)
![Prep. From new milk, 1⁄2 pint; sherry or marsala, 1 wine-
glassful; treacle, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls, or q. s.; heat them together in
a clean saucepan until the milk coagulates. This is called ‘treacle
posset’ or ‘molasses posset,’ and, taken on retiring to rest, is highly
esteemed in some parts of the country as a domestic remedy for
colds. Lemon juice, strong old ale, or even vinegar, is occasionally
substituted for wine, and powdered ginger or nutmeg added at will.
POT METAL. See Cock metal.
POT′ASH. The ‘potash,’ or ‘potashes’ of commerce is an impure
carbonate of potassium, so named after the pots or vessels in which
it was first made. The ‘potash,’ or ‘potassa,’ of the chemist is the
hydrate of a peculiar metal, potassium, which is more particularly
referred to below. The word potash is vulgarly applied to the crude or
commercial carbonate of potassium. See Carbonate of Potassium, &c.
Potash is now principally obtained from the following sources:—
1. From carnallite,[119] a hydrated double chloride of potassium
and magnesium, which occurs associated with other salts of
potassium and magnesium, as well as of sodium, in a bed of clay, at
Stassfurth, near Madgeburg, in Prussia.
[119] Carnallite contains nearly a fourth of its weight of
potassium chloride.
2. Feldspar and similar minerals.
3. Sea water, and the mother-liquor of salt works.
4. Native saltpetre.
5. The ashes of several plants.
6. The calcined residue of the molasses of beet-root sugar
remaining after distillation.
7. The seaweeds, as a by-product of the manufacture of iodine.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11333-250222213036-6cac15a6/85/Complete-Answer-Guide-for-Business-Data-Communications-Infrastructure-Networking-and-Security-7th-Edition-Stallings-Solutions-Manual-34-320.jpg)
![8. From the fleece of the sheep.[120]
[120] Maumené and Rogelet state that a fleece weighing 9
lbs. contains about 6 ounces of pure potash.
The following is a process for obtaining alkali from seaweed,
described in the ‘Chemical News’ for Nov. 10th, 1876:—
At the chemical works at Aalbourg, in Jutland, Denmark, where
about 30 tons of alkali are made per week by the ammonia process,
Mr Theobald Schmidt, the director of the manufactory, proposes to
work, in conjunction with this process, a method devised by himself
of treating seaweed so as to obtain iodine, potash, salts, and other
marketable products therefrom.
In Denmark a very heavy duty is levied on the importation of
common salt, whilst enormous quantities of seaweed rich in iodine
and potash can be obtained at small cost in the neighbourhood of the
works. Mr Schmidt’s process is as follows:—After the seaweed is dried
and burnt, a concentrated solution of the ash is made and added to
the liquor, containing chlorides of sodium and calcium, left after the
ammonia has been recovered in the ammonia-soda process by boiling
with lime. The sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia, contained in
the ash of the seaweed are thereby decomposed, and hydrated
sulphate of lime and hydrated magnesia are precipitated in a form
which may be available for paper-making, as ‘pearl-hardening.’ The
last traces of sulphates are got rid of by adding a small quantity of
solution of chloride of barium. To the clear solution nitrate of lead is
now added, until all the iodine is precipitated as iodide of lead, which
is then separated by filtration and treated for the production of iodine
or iodides. After filtration the liquid is boiled; nitrate of soda is added
to convert the chloride of potassium present into nitrate of potash.
The latter is separated by crystallisation. There remains a solution of
common salt, containing traces of ammonia from the previous soda
operation, and a trace of chloride of potassium. This solution is again
treated by the ordinary ammonia-soda process for the production of
bicarbonate of soda and white alkali. See Carbonate of Potassium, &c.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11333-250222213036-6cac15a6/85/Complete-Answer-Guide-for-Business-Data-Communications-Infrastructure-Networking-and-Security-7th-Edition-Stallings-Solutions-Manual-35-320.jpg)
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- 5. Table 10.1 Typical Electronic Mail Facilities (page 1 of 2) Message Preparation Word Processing Facilities for the creation and editing of messages. Usually these need not be as powerful as a full word processor, since electronic mail documents tend to be simple. However, most electronic mail packages allow "off- line" access to word processors: the user creates a message using the computer's word processor, stores the message as a file, and then uses the file as input to the message preparation function of the email facility. Annotation Messages often require some sort of short reply. A simple technique is to allow the recipient to attach annotation to an incoming message and send it back to the originator or on to a third party. Message Sending User Directory Used by the system. May also be accessible to users to be able to look up addresses. Timed Delivery Allows the sender to specify that a message be delivered before, at, or after a specified date/time. A message is considered delivered when it is placed in the recipient's mailbox. Multiple Addressing Copies of a message are sent to multiple addressees. The recipients are designated by listing each in the header of the message or by the use of a distribution list. The latter is a file containing a list of users. Distribution lists can be created by the user and by central administrative functions. Message Priority A message may be labeled at a given priority level. Higher-priority messages will be delivered more rapidly, if that is possible. Also, the recipient will be notified or receive some indication of the arrival of high-priority messages. Status Information A user may request notification of delivery or of actual retrieval by the recipient. A user may also be able to query the current status of a message (e.g., queued for transmission, transmitted but receipt confirmation not yet received). Interface to Other Facilities These would include other electronic systems, such as telex, and physical distribution facilities, such as couriers and the public mail service (e.g., U.S. postal service).
- 6. Table 10.1 Typical Electronic Mail Facilities (page 2 of 2) Message Receiving Mailbox Scanning Allows the user to scan the current contents of mailbox. Each message may be indicated by subject, author, date, priority, and so on. Message Selection The user may select individual messages from the mailbox for display, printing, storing in a separate file, or deletion. Message Notification Many systems notify an online user of the arrival of a new message and indicate to a user during log on that there are messages in his or her mailbox. Message Reply A user may reply immediately to a selected message, avoiding the necessity of keying in the recipient's name and address. Message Rerouting A user who has moved, either temporarily or permanently, may reroute incoming messages. An enhancement is to allow the user to specify different forwarding addresses for different categories of messages.
- 7. Table 10.2 MIME Content Types Type Subtype Description Text Plain Unformatted text; may be ASCII or ISO 8859. Multipart Mixed The different parts are independent but are to be transmitted together. They should be presented to the receiver in the order that they appear in the mail message. Parallel Differs from Mixed only in that no order is defined for delivering the parts to the receiver. Alternative The different parts are alternative versions of the same information. They are ordered in increasing faithfulness to the original and the recipient's mail system should display the "best" version to the user. Digest Similar to Mixed, but the default type/subtype of each part is message/rfc822. Message rfc822 The body is itself an encapsulated message that conforms to RFC 822. Partial Used to allow fragmentation of large mail items, in a way that is transparent to the recipient. External-body Contains a pointer to an object that exists elsewhere. Image jpeg The image is in JPEG format, JFIF encoding. gif The image is in GIF format. Video mpeg MPEG format. Audio Basic Single-channel 8-bit ISDN mu-law encoding at a sample rate of 8 kHz. Application PostScript Adobe Postscript. octet-stream General binary data consisting of 8-bit bytes.
- 8. Table 10.3 Key Terms Related to HTTP Cache A program's local store of response messages and the subsystem that controls its message storage, retrieval, and deletion. A cache stores cacheable responses in order to reduce the response time and network bandwidth consumption on future, equivalent requests. Any client or server may include a cache, though a cache cannot be used by a server while it is acting as a tunnel. Client An application program that establishes connections for the purpose of sending requests. Connection A transport layer virtual circuit established between two application programs for the purposes of communication. Entity A particular representation or rendition of a data resource, or reply from a service resource, that may be enclosed within a request or response message. An entity consists of entity headers and an entity body. Gateway A server that acts as an intermediary for some other server. Unlike a proxy, a gateway receives requests as if it were the original server for the requested resource; the requesting client may not be aware that it is communicating with a gateway. Gateways are often used as server-side portals through network firewalls and as protocol translators for access to resources stored on non-HTTP systems. Message The basic unit of HTTP communication, consisting of a structured sequence of octets transmitted via the connection. Origin Server The server on which a given resource resides or is to be created. Proxy An intermediary program that acts as both a server and a client for the purpose of making requests on behalf of other clients. Requests are serviced internally or by passing them, with possible translation, on to other servers. A proxy must interpret and, if necessary, rewrite a request message before forwarding it. Proxies are often used as client-side portals through network firewalls and as helper applications for handling requests via protocols not implemented by the user agent. Resource A network data object or service that can be identified by a URI. Server An application program that accepts connections in order to service requests by sending back responses. Tunnel An intermediary program that is acting as a blind relay between two connections. Once active, a tunnel is not considered a party to the HTTP communication, though the tunnel may have been initiated by an HTTP request. A tunnel ceases to exist when both ends of the relayed connections are closed. Tunnels are used when a portal is necessary and the intermediary cannot, or should not, interpret the relayed communication. User Agent The client that initiates a request. These are often browsers, editors, spiders, or other end- user tools.
- 9. Table 10.4 Multimedia Terminology Media Refers to the form of information and includes text, still images, audio, and video. Multimedia Human-computer interaction involving text, graphics, voice and video. Multimedia also refers to storage devices that are used to store multimedia content. Streaming media Refers to multimedia files, such as video clips and audio, that begin playing immediately or within seconds after it is received by a computer from the Internet or Web. Thus, the media content is consumed as it is delivered from the server rather than waiting until an entire file is downloaded.
- 10. Table 10.5 Domains of Multimedia Systems and Example Applications Domain Example Application Information management Hypermedia, multimedia-capable databases, content-based retrieval Entertainment Computer games, digital video, audio (MP3) Telecommunication Videoconferencing, shared workspaces, virtual communities Information publishing/delivery Online training, electronic books, streaming media
- 11. Table 10.6 Acceptable Use Responsibilities Activity Executive Sponsors All Managers System Admins CISO All Personnel Auditors Inform users X X X A Implement user sanctions X X C A Acquire hardware and software properly X X C X/A Comply with copyright and licensing X X X X X X/A Comply with personally- owned software policy X X X X X X/A Protect intellectual property X X X X X X/A Comply with email policy X X X X X X/A Comply with email encryption policy X X X X X X/A Comply with Internet policy X X X X X X/A Comply with information resources policy X X X X X X/A CISO = Chief information security officer X = Responsible for accomplishment C = Consulting support as required A = Independent compliance auditing
- 12. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 13. The treatment of cases of poisoning varies with the substance occasioning it; the proper antidotes will be found noticed under the names of the various substances that exert a deleterious action on the animal body. It may here, however, be useful to remark that, in almost all cases of poisoning, copious vomiting should be excited as soon as possible by the administration of a powerful emetic; its action being promoted by copious draughts of lukewarm water, tickling the throat with the finger, &c. Should this fail, but not otherwise, the stomach-pump should be had recourse to. The vomiting should be kept up and the stomach well washed out with bland albuminous or mucilaginous liquids, such as milk-and-water, barley water, sweetened water, flour-and-water, or any similar matters, as circumstances may afford. After the vomiting a brisk aperient draught, or clyster, may be administered, and nervous irritability or exhaustion allayed by means of ether, opium, wine, or warm spirit-and-water, as the case may require. Even in a suspected case of poisoning, when proper medical advice is not at hand, an emetic should be immediately administered. Vomiting may be, in general, produced very promptly by merely swallowing a cupful of warm water mixed with a teaspoonful of flour of mustard. If no dry mustard is at hand, a portion of the contents of a mustard-pot, put into the water, will answer nearly as well. As mustard may thus prove of so much use, it should never be wanting in any house; but even should there be no mustard at hand, warm water by itself, freely taken, forms a tolerably efficacious emetic. POLARISA′TION (of Light). A change produced upon light by the action of certain media and surfaces, by which it ceases to present the ordinary phenomena of reflection and transmission. Instruments or apparatus employed to effect this change are called ‘polariscopes.’ Although the polarisation of light is frequently employed as a means of chemical investigation, and is of the utmost interest to the philosophical inquirer, its consideration scarcely comes within the province of this work. See ‘Watt’s Dict. of Chemistry,’ ‘Ganot’s Physics,’ &c. POL′ISH. Various substances, differing widely from each other, are popularly known under this name. See Powders, Varnish, &c., and
- 14. below. Polish, French. See French polish. Polish, French Reviver. Prep. 1. Linseed oil, 1⁄2 pint; pale lac varnish and wood naphtha, of each 1⁄4 pint; well shaken together, and again every time before use. 2. Methylated rectified spirit, 3 pints; linseed oil and French polish, of each 1 pint; as the last. 3. Linseed oil (pale), 1 quart; strong distilled vinegar, 1⁄2 pint; spirit of turpentine, 1⁄4 pint; muriatic acid, 1 oz. Furniture Cream. Prep. 1. Pearlash, 2 oz.; soft soap, 4 oz.; beeswax, 1 lb.; water, 1 gall.; boil until the whole is united and forms a creamy liquid when cold. 2. Beeswax, 1⁄2 lb.; good yellow soap, 1⁄4 lb.: water, 5 pints; boil to a proper consistence with constant agitation, then add of boiled oil and spirit of turpentine, of each 1⁄2 pint. For use, the above are diluted with water, spread upon the surface with a painter’s brush, and then polished off with a hard brush, cloth, or leather. 3. Boiled oil (pale), 1⁄2 pint; beeswax, 11⁄2 oz.; mixed by heat. Applied by a ‘rubber,’ and at once polished off. 4. (For wooden furniture.) White wax, 8 parts; resin, 2 parts; true Venice turpentine, 1⁄2 pint; melt at a gentle heat. The warm mass, completely melted, is poured into a stone jar, agitated, and 6 parts of rectified oil of turpentine added thereto. After 24 hours the mass, having the consistency of soft butter, is ready for use. Before using the paste the furniture should be washed with soap and water, and then well dried. (‘Dingler’s Journal.’) Furniture Oil. See Oils, Mixed. Furniture Paste. Prep. 1. Oil of turpentine, 1 pint; alkanet root, 1⁄4 oz.; digest until sufficiently coloured, then add of beeswax (scraped small), 4 oz.; put the vessel into hot water, and stir until the
- 15. mixture is complete, then put it into pots. If wanted pale, the alkanet root should be omitted. 2. (White.) White wax, 1 lb.; solution of potassa, 1⁄2 gall.; boil to a proper consistence. Polish, Harness. See Blacking, Harness. Polish, Leather. See Blacking. POL′LARD. See Flour. POL′YCHREST. Syn. Polychrestus, L. A term formerly applied to several medicines on account of the numerous virtues they were supposed to possess. Sal polycrestus is the old name for sulphate of potassa. POL′YCHROITE. The name formerly given to the colouring matter of saffron, from the variety of colours which it exhibits with different reagents. Its alcoholic and aqueous solutions are of a golden yellow; nitric acid turns it green; sulphuric acid, first blue, and then lilac. POM′ACE. See Cider. POMA′TUM. Syn. Pommade, Fr. This term was originally applied to a fragrant ointment prepared with lard and apples; but is now wholly restricted, in this country, to solid greasy substances used in dressing the hair. The pomatums of French pharmacy (POMMADES, GRAISSES MÉDICAMENTEUSES—P. Cod.; LIPAROLÉS—Guibourt; LIPAROLÉS and LIPAROIDÉS—Béral; STEAROLÉS—Chéreau) are soft ointments, having a basis of lard or fat, without resinous matter. See Ointment and Pommade. POMEGRAN′ATE. The Tunica granatum (Linn.), a small tree indigenous in Persia and the East. Fruit (POMEGRANATE; GRANATA, MALA PUNICA) is cooling and astringent; fruit-rind (POMEGRANATE PEEL; MATACORIUM, CORTEX GRANATI; GRANATUM—Ph. L.) and root-bark (GRANATI RADIX—B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) are powerfully astringent,
- 16. detersive, and anthelmintic; the last more particularly so. The double flowers of the wild tree (BALAUSTINES; BALAUSTIÆ), as well as those of the cultivated one (CYTINI), are tonic and astringent.—Dose, 15 to 20 gr. of the root-bark, repeated every 30 or 40 minutes, until four doses have been taken, followed by castor oil; in tapeworm. As an astringent, all the parts described are commonly given under the form of decoction. POMMADE. [Fr.] The term applied by Continental perfumers to any soft fragrant ointment (POMATUM). In the preparation of pommades one of the first objects of consideration is to obtain their fatty basis in as fresh and pure a state as possible. Lard, beef, and mutton suet, beef marrow, veal fat, and bear’s fat, are the substances commonly employed for this purpose, either singly or in mixtures of two or more of them. The fat, carefully selected from a young and healthy animal, after being separated from extraneous skin and fibre, is pounded in a marble mortar, in the cold, until all the membranes are completely torn asunder. It is next placed in a covered porcelain or polished metal pan, and submitted to the heat of a water bath, which is continued until its fatty portion has liquefied, and the albuminous and aqueous matter, and other foreign substances, have completely separated and subsided. The liquid fat is then carefully skimmed, and at once passed through a clean flannel filter. In this state it may be aromatised or perfumed at will; after which, when it is intended that the pommade should be opaque and white, it is assiduously stirred or beaten with a glass or wooden knife, or spatula, until it concretes; but when it is desired that it should appear transparent or crystalline, it is allowed to cool very slowly, and without being disturbed. To prevent the accession of rancidity, a little benzoic acid, gum benzoin, or nitric ether may be added to the fat, whilst in the liquid state, as noticed under Fat and Ointment. Sometimes a small portion of white wax or beeswax (according to the intended colour of the product) is melted with the fat to increase its solidity. Some parties employ a few grains of powdered citric acid per ounce, in a like manner, with the intention of increasing the whiteness
- 17. of the compound; but the practice is not to be commended, as pommades so prepared prove injurious to the hair. The French perfumers, who are celebrated for the variety and excellence of their pommades, divide them into four classes:— 1. Pommades by infusion. These are made by gently melting in a clean pan, over a water bath, 2 parts of hog’s lard, and 1 part of beef suet (both of the finest quality, and carefully ‘rendered’), and adding thereto one part of the given flowers, previously carefully picked and separated from foreign matter; or, if the odorous substance is a solid, then coarsely bruised, but not reduced to fine powder. The mixture is next digested at a very gentle heat for from 12 to 24 hours, with occasional stirring, the vessel being kept covered as much as possible during the whole time. The next day the mixture is reheated, and again well stirred for a short time, after which it is poured into canvas bags, and these, being securely tied, are submitted to powerful pressure, gradually increased, in a screw or barrel press. This operation is repeated with the same fat and fresh flowers, several times, until the pommade is sufficiently perfumed. A good pommade requires thrice to six times its weight in flowers to be thus consumed; or of the aromatic barks and seeds a corresponding proportion. The pommades of cassia, orange flowers, and several others kept by the French perfumers, are prepared in this manner. 2. Pommades by contact (ENFLEURAGE). These are made by spreading, with a palette knife, simple pommade (made with lard and suet as above) on panes of glass or pewter plates, to the thickness of a finger, and sticking the surface all over with the sweet-scented flowers. These last are renewed daily for one, two, or three months, or until the pommade has become sufficiently perfumed. On the large scale, the panes are placed in small shallow frames, made of four pieces of wood nicely fitted together, and are then closely piled one upon another. On the small scale, pewter plates are generally used, and they are inverted one over the other. In some of the perfumeries of France many thousands of frames are employed at once. The pommades of jasmin, jonquil, orange flowers, narcissus, tuberose,
- 18. violet, and of some other delicate flowers, are prepared in this manner. 3. Pommades by addition. These are prepared by simply adding the fragrant essences or essential oils, in the required quantity, to the simple pommade of lard and suet to produce the proper odour. In this way the pommades of bergamotte, cédrat, cinnamon, lemons, lemon thyme, lavender, limettes, marjoram, Portugal roses, rosemary, thyme, verbena, and about 40 others kept by the Parisian perfumers, are made. 4. Mixed pommades. Of these a great variety exists, prepared by the addition of judicious combinations of the more esteemed perfumes to simple pommade; or, by the admixture of the different perfumed pommades, whilst in the semi-liquid state. (See below.) The coloured pommades derive their respective tints from tinctorial matter added to the melted fat before perfuming it. Green is given by gum guaiacum (in powder), or by the green leaves or tops of spinach, parsley, lavender, or walnut;—RED, by alkanet root and carmine;— YELLOW and ORANGE, by annatto or palm oil; WHITE POMMADES are made with mutton suet, instead of beef suet. The BROWN and BLACK hard pomatums, vended under the name of ‘COSMETIQUE,’ are noticed at page 513. A few compound pommades are used as skin cosmetics. Pommade. Syn. Pomatum. Prep. 1. (Plain pomatum, Simple p.)—a. From lard, 2 lbs.; beef suet, 1 lb.; carefully rendered as above. The ordinary consistence for temperate climates. b. Lard and suet, equal parts. For warm climates. Both may be scented at will. 2. (Scented pomatum.)—a. Plain pomatum, 1 lb.; melt it by the least possible degree of heat, add of essence of lemon or essence of bergamot, 3 dr.; and stir the mixture until it concretes. This forms the ordinary ‘pomatum’ of the shops. b. Plain pomatum, 11⁄2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 11⁄2 dr.; essence of lemon, 1 dr.; oils of rosemary and cassia, of each 1⁄2 dr.;
- 19. oil of cloves, 20 drops. More fragrant than the last. Pommade, Castor Oil. Prep. 1. From castor oil, 1 lb.; white wax, 4 oz.; melt them together; then add, when nearly cold, of essence of bergamot, 3 dr.; oil of lavender (English), 1⁄2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 10 drops. Supposed to render the hair glossy. 2. (Crystallised.) From castor oil, 1 lb; spermaceti, 3 oz.; melt them together by a gentle heat, add, of essence of bergamot, 3 dr.; oil of verbena, lavender, and rosemary, of each 1⁄2 dr.; pour it into wide-mouthed glass bottles, and allow it to cool very slowly and undisturbed. Pommade, Castor Oil and Glycerine. (American receipt.) White wax, 11⁄2 oz.; glycerin, 2 oz.; castor oil, 12 oz.; essence of lemon, 5 dr.; essence of bergamot, 2 dr.; oil of lavender, 1 dr.; oil of cloves, 10 drops; annatto, 10 gr.; rectified spirit and distilled water, of each a sufficient quantity. By a moderate heat dissolve the wax in a small portion of the castor oil (one fourth), and triturate it with the remainder of the oil and glycerin till quite cool; then add volatile oils. Lastly, rub the annatto with a drachm of water till smoothly suspended; add a drachm of alcohol, and stir the colouring into the pomade until it is thoroughly mixed. Avoid much heat. Pommade, Cazenave’s. Prep. From prepared beef marrow, 4 oz.; tincture of cantharides (P. Cod.), 3 to 4 dr.; powdered cinnamon, 1⁄2 oz.; melt them together, stir until the spirit has, for the most part, evaporated, then decant the clear portion, and again stir it until it concretes. Recommended as a remedy for baldness and weak hair. It is to be used night and morning; the head being washed with soap- and-water, and afterwards with salt-and-water, before applying it. Dr Cattell scents it with the oils of origanum and bergamot instead of cinnamon. Pommade, Collante. Prep. 1. Oil of almonds, 3 oz.; white wax, 3⁄4 oz.; melt them together, and add, of tincture of mastic (strong), 1 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1⁄2 dr. Used to stiffen the hair, and keep it in form.
- 20. 2. Burgundy pitch (true), 3 oz.; white wax, 2 oz.; lard, 1 oz.; melt, and, when considerably cooled, stir in, of tincture of benzoin, 1 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1⁄2 dr. Used to fasten false curls. Pommade, Cowslip. Prep. From plain pommade, 2 lbs.; essence of bergamot, 3 dr.; essence of lemon and essence of orange peel, of each 1 dr.; huile au jasmin and essence de petit grain, of each 1⁄2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 6 drops. Pommade, Crystallised. Prep. From olive oil and spermaceti, as crystallised castor oil pommade, with scent at will. Pommade of Cucumbers. Syn. Pommade de Concombres, Unguentum cucumis. Prep. Lard, 10 oz.; veal suet, 6 oz.; balsam of tolu, 9 gr.; rose water, 44 minims; cucumber juice, 12 oz., by weight. Melt the lard and the suet over a water bath, and add the tolu, previously dissolved in a little alcohol, and then the rose water. When clear, decant it into a tinned basin, then add to a third of the cucumber juice, and stir continually for 4 hours; pour off the juice and add another third, stir as before, then pour off, and add the remainder of the juice; separate as much as possible the fat from the liquid, melt by a water bath, and after some hours skim, and put into pots. (Beat, when in a semi-liquid state, with a wooden spatula, when it will become much lighter and nearly double in bulk.) Pommade d’Alyon. See Ointment of Nitric acid. See Cups. Pommade de Beauté. Prep. From oil of almonds, 2 oz.; spermaceti, 2 dr.; white wax, 11⁄2 dr.; glycerin, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1⁄2 dr.; mixed by a gentle heat. Used as a skin cosmetic as well as for the hair. Pommade de Casse. Prep. From plain pommade, 1 lb.; palm oil, 1⁄2 oz.; melt, pour off the clear, and add oil of cassia and huile au jasmin, of each 1 dr.; neroli, 20 drops; oil of verbena or lemon grass, 15 drops; otto of roses, 5 drops; and stir until nearly cold. Very fragrant.
- 21. Pommade d’Hebe. Prep. To white wax, 1 oz., melted by a gentle heat, add, of the juice of lily bulbs and Narbonne honey, each 2 oz.; rose water, 2 dr.; otto of roses, 2 drops. Applied night and morning to remove wrinkles. Pommade de Ninon de l′Enclos. Prep. Take of oil of almonds, 4 oz.; prepared lard, 3 oz.; juice of houseleek, 3 fl. oz. Used chiefly as a skin cosmetic. Said to be very softening and refreshing. Pommade Divine. Prep. 1. Washed and purified beef marrow, 2 lbs.; liquid styrax, cypress wood, and powdered orris root, of each 2 oz.; powdered cinnamon, 1 oz.; cloves and nutmegs, of each (bruised) 1⁄2 oz.; digest the whole together by the heat of a water bath for six hours, and then strain through flannel. 2. Plain pommade, 2 lbs.; essence of lemon and bergamot, of each 2 dr.; oils of lavender and origanum, of each 1 dr.; oils of verbena, cassia, cloves, and neroli, of each 12 drops; huile au jasmin, 3 dr.; essence of violets, 1⁄2 oz. Pommade, Dupuytren’s. Prep. 1. Take of prepared beef marrow, 12 oz.; melt, add of baume nerval (see Ointment, Nervine), 4 oz.; Peruvian balsam and oil of almonds, of each 3 oz.; and lastly, of alcoholic extract of cantharides, 36 gr.; (dissolve in) rectified spirit, 3 fl. dr. This is the original formula for this celebrated pommade. The following modifications of it are now commonly employed:— 2. (Cap.) Beef marrow, 2 oz.; alcoholic extract of cantharides, 8 gr.; rose oil, 1 dr.; essence of lemons, 30 drops. 3. (Guibourt.) Beef marrow and ‘baume nerval’ (page 1179), of each 1 oz.; rose oil, 1 dr.; alcoholic (or acetic) extract of cantharides, 6 gr.; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, q. s. These compounds are used to promote the growth of the hair and to prevent baldness, for which purpose they are usually coloured and scented according to the taste of the manufacturer. To be useful, they should be well rubbed on the scalp, at least once daily, for several weeks, and the head should be occasionally washed with soap-and-water.
- 22. Pommade, East India. Prep. Take of suet, 3 lbs.; lard, 2 lbs.; beeswax (bright), 1⁄2 lb.; palm oil, 2 oz.; powdered gum benzoin, 3 oz.; musk (previously triturated with a little lump sugar), 20 gr.; digest the whole together in a covered vessel, by the heat of a water bath, for 2 hours, then decant the clear portion, and add, of essence of lemon, 1⁄2 oz.; oil of lavender, 1⁄4 oz.; oils of cloves, cassia, and verbena, of each 1⁄2 dr. A favourite pommade in the East Indies. Pommade for Freckles. (‘New York Druggists’ Circular.’) Prep. Citrine ointment and oil of almonds, of each 1 dr.; spermaceti ointment, 6 dr.; oil of roses, 3 drops. Mix well in a wedgwood mortar, using a wooden or bone knife. Pommade, Hard. Syn. Hard pomatum, Roll p. Prep. 1. Take of beef suet, 2 lbs.; yellow wax, 1⁄4 lb.; spermaceti, 1 oz.; powdered benzoin, 1⁄4 oz.; melt them together, then add, of oil of lavender, 2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 1⁄2 dr. Before it concretes pour it into moulds of paper or tin foil. 2. Mutton suet and lard, of each 1 lb.; white wax, 6 oz.; melt, and add, of essence of lemon, 2 dr.; oil of cassia, 1⁄2 dr. Other perfumes may be employed at will. Hard pomatums are used to gloss and set the hair. They act both as ‘pommade’ and ‘fixateur.’ See Cosmetique. Pommade, Macassar. Prep. From castor oil, 5 oz.; white wax, 1 oz.; alkanet root, 1⁄2 dr.; heat them together until sufficiently coloured, then strain, and add, oil of origanum and oil of rosemary, of each 1 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 1⁄2 dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops. Said to be equal in efficacy to MACASSAR OIL. Pommade, Marechal. Plain pommade scented by digesting it with poudre maréchale. Pommade, Marrow. Syn. Marrow pomatum. Prep. From prepared beef marrow, 1⁄2 lb.; beef suet, 1⁄4 lb.; palm oil, 1⁄4 oz.; melted together and scented at will.
- 23. Pommade, Millefleur. Prep. From plain pommade scented with a mixture of essence of lemon and essence of ambergris, each 4 parts; oil of lavender, 2 parts; oil of cloves and essence de petit grain, of each 1 part; or with other like perfumes so proportioned to each other that no one shall predominate. Much esteemed. Pommade, Roll. See Pommade, Hard. Pommade, Roman. See below. Pommade, Rose. Syn. Rose pomatum. This is plain pommade or hard lard, which has been well beaten with eau de rose, or, better still, scented with otto of roses. It is sometimes tinged with alkanet root. Pommade, Soft. Plain pomatum scented at will. Pommade, Soubeiran’s. Prep. From beef marrow, 11⁄2 oz.; oil of almonds, 1⁄2 oz.; disulphate of quinine, 1 dr. Recommended for strengthening and restoring the hair. Pommade, Transparent. Prep. Spermaceti, 2 oz.; castor oil, 5 oz.; alcohol, 5 oz.; oil of bergamot, 1⁄2 dr.; oil of Portugal, 1⁄2 dr. Pommade, Vanilla. Syn. Roman pommade, Pommade à la vanille, Pommade Romain. From plain pommade and pommade à la rose, of each 12 lbs.; powdered vanilla, 1 lb.; heat them together in a water bath, stir constantly for 1 hour, let it settle for another hour, decant the clear, and add, oil à la rose, 21⁄2 lbs.; bergamot, 4 oz. POPPY. Syn. White poppy; Papaver somniferum, L. The capsules or fruit (“mature”—Ph. L.; “not quite ripe”—Ph. E.) form the poppies or poppy-heads of the shops (PAPAVERIS CAPSULÆ; PAPAVER—Ph. L., E., & D.). They are anodyne and narcotic, similar to opium, but in only a very slight degree. The seeds (MAW SEED), which are sweet, oleaginous, and nutritious, are used as a substitute for almonds in confectionery and mixtures, and are pressed for their oil. See Extract, Opium, and Syrup.
- 24. Poppy, Red. Syn. Corn poppy, Corn rose; Papaver rhœas, L. The fresh petals or flowers (RHŒADOS PETALA; RHŒAS—Ph. L., E., & D.) are reputed pectoral, but are chiefly employed on account of their rich colour. See Syrup. POP′ULIN. Syn. Populinum, L. A peculiar neutral, crystallisable substance, formerly supposed to be an alkaloid, found, associated with SALICIN, in the root-bark of the Populus tremula (Linn.), or aspen. Prep. Concentrate the decoction by a gentle heat, and set it aside in a cool situation to crystallise; dissolve the crystals which are deposited in rectified spirit, decolour them by digestion with animal charcoal, filter, and again crystallise. To render them still purer they may be redissolved and crystallised a second and a third time, if necessary. Prop., &c. It resembles salicin in appearance and solubility, but, unlike that substance, has a penetrating sweet taste. Dilute acids convert it into benzoic acid, grape sugar, and saliretin; and with a mixture of sulphuric acid and bichromate of potassa it yields a large quantity of salicylous acid. It appears to be tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge. POR′CELAIN. See Pottery. PORK. The value of pork as an article of diet is well known. That from the young and properly fed animal is savoury, easy of digestion, and, when only occasionally employed, highly wholesome; but it is apt to disagree with some stomachs, and should, in such cases, be avoided. To render it proper for food, it should be thoroughly but not overcooked. When salted it is less digestible. The frequent use of pork is said to favour obesity, and to occasion disorders of the skin, especially in the sedentary. See Meat. POR′PHYRIZED, PORPHORIZA′TION. Words coined by recent pharmaceutical writers, and possessing similar meanings to LEVIGATED and LEVIGATION.
- 25. PORPHY′ROXIN. A neutral crystallisable substance discovered by Merck in opium. It is soluble in both alcohol and ether, insoluble in water, and is characterised by assuming a purplish-red colour when heated in dilute hydrochloric acid. PORRI′GO. See Ringworm. POR′TER. This well-known beverage, now the common drink of the inhabitants of London, by whom it is generally termed ‘beer,’ originated with a brewer named Harwood, in 1722. Previously to this date, ‘ale,’ ‘beer,’ and ‘twopenny,’ constituted the stock in trade of the London publican, and were drunk, either singly or together, under the names of ‘half-and-half’ or ‘three threads,’ for which the vendor was compelled to have recourse to two or three different casks, as the case might demand. The inconvenience and trouble thus incurred led Mr Harwood to endeavour to produce a beer which should possess the flavour of the mixed liquors. In this he succeeded so well that his new beverage rapidly superseded the mixtures then in use, and obtained a general preference among the lower classes of the people. At first this liquor was called ‘entire’ or ‘entire butt,’ on account of it being drawn from one cask only, but it afterwards acquired, at first in derision, the now familiar name of ‘porter,’ in consequence of its general consumption among porters and labourers. The word ‘entire’ is still, however, frequently met with on the signboards of taverns about the metropolis. The characteristics of pure and wholesome porter are its transparency, lively dark brown colour, and its peculiar bitter and slightly burnt taste. Originally, these qualities were derived from the ‘high-dried malt,’ with which alone it was brewed. It is now generally, if not entirely, made from ‘pale’ or ‘amber malt,’ mixed with a sufficient quantity of ‘patent’ or ‘roasted malt’ to impart the necessary flavour and colour. Formerly, this liquor was ‘vatted’ and ‘stored’ for some time before being sent out to the retailer, but the change in the taste of the public during the last quarter of a century in favour of the mild or new porter has rendered this unnecessary. The best ‘draught porter,’ at the time of its consumption, is now only a few weeks old.
- 26. In this state only would it be tolerated by the modern beer-drinker. The old and acid beverage that was formerly sold under the name of porter would be rejected at the present day as ‘hard’ and unpleasant, even by the most thirsty votaries of malt liquor. The ‘beer’ or ‘porter’ of the metropolitan brewers is essentially a weak mild ale, coloured and flavoured with roasted malt. Its richness in sugar and alcohol, on which its stimulating and nutritive properties depend, is hence less than that of an uncoloured mild ale brewed from a like original quantity of malt. For pale malt is assumed to yield 80 to 84 lbs. of saccharine per quarter; whereas the torrefied malt employed by the porter brewers only yields 18 to 24 lbs. per quarter, and much of even this small quantity is altered in its properties, and is incapable of undergoing the vinous fermentation. In the manufacture of porter there is a waste of malt which does not occur in brewing ale; and the consumer must, therefore, either pay a higher price for it or be content with a weaker liquor. The hygienic properties of porter, for the most part, resemble those of other malt liquors. Some members of the faculty conceive that it is better suited to persons with delicate stomachs and weak digestion than either ale or beer. That there may be some reason for this preference, in such cases, we are not prepared to deny, but undoubtedly, when the intention is to stimulate and nourish the system, ale is preferable. Certain it is, however, that the dark colour and strong taste of porter render its adulteration easier than that of ale, whilst such adulteration is more difficult of detection than in the paler varieties of malt liquors. “For medical purposes, ‘bottled porter’ (CEREVISIA LAGENARIA) is usually preferred to ‘draught porter.’ It is useful as a restorative in the latter stages of fever, and to support the powers of the system after surgical operations, severe accidents, &c.” (Pereira, ii, 982.) When ‘out of condition’ or adulterated, porter, more than perhaps any other malt liquor, is totally unfit for use as a beverage, even for the healthy; and when taken by the invalid, the consequences must necessarily be serious. Dr Ure says that pure porter, “when drank in moderation, is a far wholesomer beverage for the people than the thin acidulous wines of France and Germany.”
- 27. The manufacture of porter has been described in our article on Brewing, and is also referred to above. It presents no difficulty or peculiarity beyond the choice of the proper materials. A mixture of ‘brown’ and ‘black malt’ is thought to yield a finer flavour and colour to the pale malt that gives the body to the liquor than when ‘black’ or ‘roasted malt’ is employed alone. The proportion of the former to the latter commonly varies from 1-6th to 1-4th. When ‘black malt’ is alone used, the proportion varies from the 1-10th to 1-15th. 1 lb. of ‘roasted malt,’ mashed with about 79 lbs. of pale malt, is said to be capable of imparting to the liquor the flavour and colour of porter. The following formulæ were formerly commonly employed in London: — 1. (Draught porter.) From pale malt, 31⁄2 q. s.; amber malt, 3 q. s.; brown malt, 11⁄2 q.; mash at twice with 28 and 24 barrels of water, boil with brown Kent hops, 56 lbs., and set with yeast, 40 lbs. Prod. 28 barrels, or 31⁄2 times the malt, besides 20 barrels of table- beer from a third mashing. 2. (Bottling porter; Brown stout.) From pale malt, 2 q. s.; amber and brown malt, of each 11⁄2 qr.; mash at 3 times with 12, 7, and 6 barrels of water, boil with hops, 50 lbs., and set with yeast, 26 lbs. Prod. 17 barrels, or 11⁄2 times the malt. The purity and quality of porter, as well as of other malt liquors, may be inferred in the manner noticed under Beer; but can only be positively determined by a chemical examination. For this purpose several distinct operations are required:— 1. Richness in ALCOHOL. This may be correctly found by the method of M. Gay-Lussac; or from the boiling point. (See Alcoholometry and Ebullioscope.) The method with anhydrous carbonate of potassa will also give results sufficiently near to the truth for ordinary purposes, when strong or old beer is operated on. The quantity of the liquor tested should be 3600 water grains measure; and it should be well agitated, with free exposure to the air, after weighing it, but before testing it for its alcohol. The weight of alcohol
- 28. found, multiplied by 1·8587, gives its equivalent in sugar. This may be converted into ‘brewer’s pounds’ or density per barrel, as below. 2. Richness in SACCHARINE or EXTRACTIVE MATTER. A like quantity of the liquor under examination, after being boiled for some time to dissipate its alcohol, is made up with distilled water, so as to be again exactly equal to 3600 water-grains measure. The sp. gr. of the resulting liquid is then taken, and this is reduced to ‘brewers’ pounds’ per barrel, by multiplying its excess of density above that of water (or 1000) by 360, and pointing off the three right-hand figures as decimals. 3. Acetic acid or VINEGAR. This is determined by any of the common methods of ACIDIMETRY (which see; see also Acetimetry). Each grain of anhydrous acetic acid so found represents 1·6765 gr. of sugar. 4. Gravity of ORIGINAL WORT. This is obtained by the addition of the respective quantities of saccharine matter found in Nos. 1, 2, and 3 (above). These results are always slightly under the true original density of the wort, as cane sugar appears to have been taken by the Excise as the basis of their calculations. More correctly, 12% of proof spirit is equivalent to 19 lbs. of saccharine per barrel. 101⁄2 lbs. of saccharine are equiv. to 1 gall. of proof spirit. 5. Detection of NARCOTICS. This may be effected either by the method described under Alkaloid, or by one or other of the following processes:— a. Half a gallon of the beer under examination is evaporated to dryness in a water bath; the resulting extract is boiled for 30 or 40 minutes in a covered vessel with 10 or 12 fl. oz. of alcohol or strong rectified spirit, the mixture being occasionally stirred with a glass rod, to promote the action of the menstruum; the alcoholic solution is next filtered, treated with a sufficient quantity of solution of diacetate of lead to precipitate colouring matter, and again filtered; the filtrate is treated with a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, again filtered, and then evaporated to dryness; it may then be tested with any of the
- 29. usual reagents, either in the solid state, or after being dissolved in distilled water. Or the extract, obtained as above, may be boiled as directed with rectified spirit, the solution filtered, the spirit distilled off, and a small quantity of pure liquor of potassa added to the aqueous residue, which is then to be shaken up with about 1 fl. oz. of ether; lastly, the ethereal solution, which separates and floats on the surface, is decanted, evaporated, and the residuum tested, as before. The alkaline liquid, from which the ether has been decanted, is then separated from any precipitate which may have formed, and both of these separately tested for alkaloids. b. From 2 to 3 oz. of purified animal charcoal are diffused through 1⁄2 gall. of the beer, and is digested in it, with frequent agitation, for from 8 to 12 hours; the liquor is next filtered, and the charcoal collected on the filter is boiled with about 1⁄2 pint of rectified spirit; the resulting alcoholic solution is then further treated as above, and tested. This answers well for the detection of strychnia or nux vomica. 6. Picric acid. This substance, which was formerly employed to impart bitterness to London porter in lieu of hops, may be detected as follows:— a. A portion of the liquor agitated with a little solution of diacetate of lead loses its bitter flavour if it depends on hops, but retains it if it depends on picric acid. b. Pure beer is decoloured and deodorised by animal charcoal; but beer containing picric acid, when thus treated, retains a lemon- yellow colour and the odour. c. Unbleached sheep’s wool, boiled for six or ten minutes, and then washed, takes a canary-yellow colour if picric acid be present. The test is so delicate that 1 grain of the adulterant in 150,000 gr. of beer is readily detected. d. (Vitate.[117]) The author agitates 10 c.c. of the suspected beer in a test tube with half its volume of pure amylic alcohol. If the
- 30. mixture is left to settle, the amylic stratum separates entirely, and is drawn off with a pipette, evaporated to dryness at a convenient temperature in a porcelain capsule, and the residue is finally taken up in a little distilled water with the aid of heat. The aqueous solution is divided into portions, and submitted to the following reagents. One portion is treated with a solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper, which, in dilute solutions of picric acid, instantly produces a turbidity, due to the formation of very minute crystals of the ammonio-picrate of copper, of a greenish colour. Another portion may be treated with a concentrated solution of cyanide of potassium, which produces a blood-red colour, more or less intense, according to the quantity of picric acid present, in consequence of the formation of iso-purpuric acid. A third portion may be submitted to the action of sulphide of ammonium, rendered still more alkaline by the addition of a few drops of ammonia. Here also a blood-red colour is produced, which becomes more intense on the application of heat, and is due to the formation of picramic acid. [117] ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xxxv, p. 75. 7. Mineral matter.—a. A weighed quantity of pure beer evaporated to dryness, and then incinerated, does not furnish more than from ·20% to ·35% of ash, the quantity varying within these limits with the strength of the liquor and the character of the water used in brewing it. b. A solution of this ash, made by decoction with distilled water, should be only rendered slightly turbid by solutions of acetate of lead, bichloride of platinum, nitrate of baryta, nitrate of silver, oxalate of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen. c. If the beer contained common salt, the above solution will give a cloudy white precipitate with a solution of nitrate of silver. Each grain of this precipitate is equivalent to 1⁄2 gr. of common salt (nearly). d. If GREEN COPPERAS (sulphate of iron) is present, ferridcyanide of potassium gives a blue precipitate, and ferrocyanide of potassium a
- 31. bluish-white one, turning dark blue in the air; solution of chloride of barium gives a white precipitate, each grain of which, after being washed, dried, and ignited, represents 1·188 gr. of crystallised protosulphate of iron. e. The ash, digested in water slightly acidulated with nitric acid, and then boiled, yields a solution which, when cold, gives a black precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen, and a white one with dilute sulphuric acid when lead is present. 8. Wittstein’s method for the detection of ADULTERANTS in beer. [118] One litre of the suspected beer is evaporated by a moderate heat to the consistence of a thick syrup. This is poured into a tared glass cylinder capable of containing ten times its volume and weighed; five times its weight of 93° to 95° alcohol is added, and the whole frequently stirred, by means of a thick glass rod, during twenty-four hours. [118] ‘Archiv der Pharmacie,’ January, 1876, (‘Pharm. Journal,’ 3rd series, v.) By this means all the gum, dextrin, sulphates, phosphates, and chlorides are separated, and a comparatively small portion is obtained in solution. After clearing, this solution is decanted, the residue is again treated with fresh alcohol, the two products mixed, filtered, and the alcohol driven off by a gentle heat. a. Of the syrupy residue left after this evaporation, a small portion is diluted with three times its bulk of water, and tested for picric acid, according to the directions already given. b. The remaining largest portion of the syrup is agitated for some time with six times its weight of pure colourless benzol (boiling point 80° C.); this is decanted off, and the operation is repeated with fresh benzol, and the two liquors, the first of which has become yellow, the second having scarcely changed colour, are evaporated at a gentle heat. The pale, yellow, resinous residue thus obtained may possibly contain brucine, strychnine, colchicine, or colocynthin. To ascertain
- 32. this, three portions of the resin are placed on a porcelain capsule; one is treated with nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·33 to 1·40), another with concentrated sulphuric acid, and the third, after a few morsels of red chromate of potash have been added, also with sulphuric acid. A red colour, produced by the nitric acid, indicates brucine with certainty, and a violet colour colchicine; a red colour produced by sulphuric acid indicates colocynthin, and a purple violet, produced by sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash, reveals strychnine. Resin in which one or other of these colorations is produced possesses an extremely bitter taste; that in which the coloration does not take place is also bitter, but the bitterness recalls the well-known hop flavour. c. The syrup which has been treated with benzol is freed, by gentle heating, from the small quantity of benzol remaining, and agitated twice with pure colourless amylic alcohol (boiling point 132° C.). The first portion of the alcohol acquires a more or less wine or golden-yellow colour. It would take up any picrotoxin or aloes if present, and thereby acquire a strongly bitter taste. If neither of these two substances be present, the amylic alcohol does not become bitter, because neither the hop bitter nor the remaining four bitter principles—absinthin, gentipicrin, menyanthin, and quassiin—are soluble in it. In order to distinguish picrotoxin from aloes a portion of the first obtained amylic alcoholic solution is poured upon glass, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously. If a fine white crystallisation be formed picrotoxin is present, if not aloes is present, and can only be recognised by its peculiar, saffron-like odour. d. The syrup which has been treated with benzol and amylic alcohol is freed by means of blotting paper from the small quantity of amylic alcohol adhering to it, evaporation by heat being impracticable in consequence of the high boiling point of the alcohol, and shaken with anhydrous ether. This takes up the hop bitter yet present and absinthin. After evaporation the latter is easily recognised through its wormwood-like aroma; it also gives a reddish-yellow solution with
- 33. concentrated sulphuric acid, which changes quickly to an indigo-blue colour. e. After treating with ether the syrup has yet to be tested for gentipicrin, menyanthin, and quassiin. As it is now free from the hop bitter, a decidedly bitter taste points to one of these three substances. Any remaining ether is removed, and the syrup is dissolved in water and filtered; to one portion is added strong ammoniacal solution of silver, and it is then heated. If it remains clear quassiin is present; if a silver mirror be formed it originates either with gentipicrin or menyanthin. Another portion is evaporated to dryness on porcelain, and concentrated sulphuric acid added. If, while cold, no change of colour takes place, but on heating it becomes carmine red, gentipicrin is present; menyanthin would give a yellowish-brown colour, gradually changing to violet. For further information connected with this subject, see Alcoholometry, Ale, Beer, Brewing, Malt liquors, &c. PORT-FIRE. A paper tube, from 9 to 12 inches in length, filled with a slow-burning composition of metal powder, nitre, and sulphur, rammed moderately hard, by a similar process to that adopted for small rockets. It is used in lieu of a touch-match, to fire guns, mortars, pyrotechnical devices, &c. PORTLAND CEMENT. A species of mortar formed by calcining a mixture of limestone and argillaceous earth, and grinding the calcined mass to powder, in which state it must be preserved from the air. It is characterised by absorbing a large quantity of water, and then rapidly becoming solid, and, after a time, acquiring considerable hardness. See Mortar and Cement. POSOL′OGY. See Dose. POS′SET. Syn. Possetum, L. Milk curdled with wine or any other slightly acidulous liquor. It is usually sweetened with either sugar or treacle, and is taken hot.
- 34. Prep. From new milk, 1⁄2 pint; sherry or marsala, 1 wine- glassful; treacle, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls, or q. s.; heat them together in a clean saucepan until the milk coagulates. This is called ‘treacle posset’ or ‘molasses posset,’ and, taken on retiring to rest, is highly esteemed in some parts of the country as a domestic remedy for colds. Lemon juice, strong old ale, or even vinegar, is occasionally substituted for wine, and powdered ginger or nutmeg added at will. POT METAL. See Cock metal. POT′ASH. The ‘potash,’ or ‘potashes’ of commerce is an impure carbonate of potassium, so named after the pots or vessels in which it was first made. The ‘potash,’ or ‘potassa,’ of the chemist is the hydrate of a peculiar metal, potassium, which is more particularly referred to below. The word potash is vulgarly applied to the crude or commercial carbonate of potassium. See Carbonate of Potassium, &c. Potash is now principally obtained from the following sources:— 1. From carnallite,[119] a hydrated double chloride of potassium and magnesium, which occurs associated with other salts of potassium and magnesium, as well as of sodium, in a bed of clay, at Stassfurth, near Madgeburg, in Prussia. [119] Carnallite contains nearly a fourth of its weight of potassium chloride. 2. Feldspar and similar minerals. 3. Sea water, and the mother-liquor of salt works. 4. Native saltpetre. 5. The ashes of several plants. 6. The calcined residue of the molasses of beet-root sugar remaining after distillation. 7. The seaweeds, as a by-product of the manufacture of iodine.
- 35. 8. From the fleece of the sheep.[120] [120] Maumené and Rogelet state that a fleece weighing 9 lbs. contains about 6 ounces of pure potash. The following is a process for obtaining alkali from seaweed, described in the ‘Chemical News’ for Nov. 10th, 1876:— At the chemical works at Aalbourg, in Jutland, Denmark, where about 30 tons of alkali are made per week by the ammonia process, Mr Theobald Schmidt, the director of the manufactory, proposes to work, in conjunction with this process, a method devised by himself of treating seaweed so as to obtain iodine, potash, salts, and other marketable products therefrom. In Denmark a very heavy duty is levied on the importation of common salt, whilst enormous quantities of seaweed rich in iodine and potash can be obtained at small cost in the neighbourhood of the works. Mr Schmidt’s process is as follows:—After the seaweed is dried and burnt, a concentrated solution of the ash is made and added to the liquor, containing chlorides of sodium and calcium, left after the ammonia has been recovered in the ammonia-soda process by boiling with lime. The sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia, contained in the ash of the seaweed are thereby decomposed, and hydrated sulphate of lime and hydrated magnesia are precipitated in a form which may be available for paper-making, as ‘pearl-hardening.’ The last traces of sulphates are got rid of by adding a small quantity of solution of chloride of barium. To the clear solution nitrate of lead is now added, until all the iodine is precipitated as iodide of lead, which is then separated by filtration and treated for the production of iodine or iodides. After filtration the liquid is boiled; nitrate of soda is added to convert the chloride of potassium present into nitrate of potash. The latter is separated by crystallisation. There remains a solution of common salt, containing traces of ammonia from the previous soda operation, and a trace of chloride of potassium. This solution is again treated by the ordinary ammonia-soda process for the production of bicarbonate of soda and white alkali. See Carbonate of Potassium, &c.
- 36. POTAS′SIUM. K. The metallic base of potash. It was discovered, in 1807, by Sir H. Davy, who obtained it by submitting moistened potassium hydrate, under a film of naphtha, to the action of a powerful voltaic current. It has since been procured by easier methods, of which the following, invented by Brunner, is the best. Prep. An intimate mixture of carbonate of potassium and charcoal is prepared by calcining, in a covered iron pot, the crude tartar of commerce; when cold, it is rubbed to powder, mixed with 1- 10th part of charcoal in small lumps, and quickly transferred into a retort of stout hammered iron; the latter may be one of the iron bottles in which quicksilver is imported, a short and somewhat wide iron tube having been fitted to the aperture; the retort, thus charged, is placed upon its side, in a furnace so constructed that the flame of a very strong fire, preferably fed with dry wood, may wrap round it, and maintain every part of it at a very high and uniform degree of heat. A copper receiver, divided in the centre by a diaphragm, is next connected to the iron pipe, and kept cool by the application of ice, whilst the receiver itself is partly filled with mineral naphtha, to preserve the newly formed potassium as it distils over. The arrangement of the apparatus being completed, the fire is gradually raised until the requisite temperature, which is that of full whiteness, is reached, when decomposition of the alkali by the charcoal commences, carbonic acid gas is abundantly disengaged, and potassium distils over, and falls in large drops into the liquid. To render the product absolutely pure, it is redistilled in an iron or green- glass retort, into which some naphtha has been put, that its vapour may expel the air, and prevent the oxidation of the metal. The pieces of charcoal are introduced for the purpose of absorbing the melted carbonate of potassium and preventing its separation from the finely divided carbonaceous matter. Prod. 3% to 4% of the weight of tartar acted on; 1 lb. yielded 280 gr. Prop., &c. Pure potassium is a brilliant white metal, with a high lustre; at the common temperature of the air it is soft, and may be easily cut with a knife, but at 32° Fahr. it is brittle and crystalline; it melts completely at 136° Fahr., and in close vessels distils unaltered