Computer hardware

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Guided By:- Presented By:-
Mass Info Vision Pvt. Ltd. Miss Suprabha sahoo
Rourkela, Odisha, India Mayubhanj, Odisha, India

Computer is a electronics machine made with
electronics devices which accept the data as input,
process the data based on instruction given &
produce the output on the output device.
The main advantages of computers is its storage
capability. which can store data & timely retrieve
as & when required.

Processing unit

Control unit
input output
Arithmetical &
logical unit

Storage unit

 Input:-
This the process of computer accepting the data
instruction through input device.
Example:- keyboard, scanner
 processing :-
This the process of performing of lesion such as
arithithmatical & logical operation based on set
instruction given.
 Processing Unit:-
It consists of two parts control unit & Arithmetical
& Logical Unit. The control unit control the flow of
data from various input output devices & internal
component. ALU performing data processing.
Example:- processor

 Output:-
The process data from CPU which is in the
form of machine level language will be
converted into user under stable language &
then feed to the output device.
 Storage Unit:-
The storage unit is used to store data &
information permanently for future retrieval.

 The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually
it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk.
Inside this box are many electronic components that
process information. The most important of these
components is the central processing unit (CPU), or
microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer.
Another component is random access memory (RAM),
which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses
while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is
erased when the computer is turned off. Almost every other
part of your computer connects to the system unit using
cables. The cables plug into specific ports (openings),
typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is
not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral
device or device.

 Processor is the brain of the brain of the
computer.
 Data processing & execution of data's is
perform in it.

TRANSISTOR:-
 It is the basic component of microprocessor.
 Transistors are act as on/off switch inside the
microprocessor.

 Clock is the internal component of
microprocessor which measures the
speed at which the microprocessor
executes the instruction . This is called
clock speed.
 Clock speed is measured in terms of
MHz or Ghz.

 An IC is an electronic device in which large
circuit is suppressed into a small circuit.
 An IC consists of transistor, register, & other
elements.

Integrated circuit

 The resistors are the local storage area of
microprocessor.
 The resistor holds the data's while the
microprocessor works on a task.

 It is the component of the microprocessor that
helps the microprocessor that t helps the
microprocessor to communicate with the rest
part of the computer.

 It is kwon as primary cache memory.
 It is built inside microprocessor.
 The sizes is up to 8 to 64 kb

 It is known as the secondary cache
memory.
 It is a separate chip on the motherboard.
 The sizes is up to 2 MB to 3 MB

 The branch prediction unit is
responsible for branching the
instruction.

The microprocessor works on the following 4
way:-
1.Fetch:-
Fetch is the process of loading the instruction
to be executed from the computer memory.
PREFETCHING:-
Pre fetching is the process of loading the next
instruction to be executed.

2. DECODE:-
Decode is the process of transferring the data
into a coded form that can be understood by
the microprocessor.
3.EXECUTE:-
process the data , perform arithmetical &
logical operation.
4.STORE:-
Store the result of execution in the computer
memory or resistor

start

Fetch the instruction

Decode into
binary form

execute

store

end

1. Core to duo
2. Dual core
3. Core to guard
4. Core to extreme
5. Intel Pentium pro
6. Intel Pentium Xeon

 static RAM(SRAM)
 dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Fast Page Mode Dynamic RAM(FPMDRAM)
 Extended Data Out RAM(EDORAM)
 Synchronous Dynamic RAM(SDRAM)
 Dual Data Rate SDRAM(DDRSDRAM)
 Ram bus Dynamic RAM(RDRAM)
 Dual data Rate
 Dual Data Rate2
 Video RAM

 The classification of Ram into different area &
identifying which process in CPU should be
allocated to which memory area is known as
memory mapping.

Extended Memory Area

64kb
High memory Area
384kb Primary Reservation

Upper Memory Area 640kb

Conventional Memory Area

 Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-
only memory that holds instructions for starting up the
computer. Unlike RAM, ROM cannot be written to.
 Types of ROM
 PROM(programmable read-only memory): A PROM is a
memory chip on which you can store a program. But once
the PROM has been used, you cannot wipe it clean and use
it to store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-
volatile.
 EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory): An
EPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by
exposing it to ultraviolet light.
 EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory):An EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be
erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.

Your computer has one or more disk drives—
devices that store information on a metal or plastic
disk. The disk preserves the information even
when your computer is turned off.
Hard disk drive
Your computer's hard disk drive stores
information on a hard disk—a rigid platter or stack
of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard
disks can hold massive amounts of information,
they usually serve as your computer's primary
means of storage, holding almost all of your
programs and files. The hard disk drive is
normally located inside the system unit.

PLATTERS:
 Platter is a circular, metal disk that is mounted
inside a hard disk drive. Several platters are
mounted on a fixed spindle motor to create more
data storage surfaces in a smaller area. The platter
has a core made up of aluminium or glass
substrate, covered with a thin layer of Ferric oxide
or cobalt alloy. On both sides of the substrate
material, a thin coating is deposited by a special
manufacturing technique. This, thin coating where
actual data is stored is the media layer.

 Each platter is broken into thousands of tightly
packed concentric circles, known as tracks.
These tracks resemble the structure of annual
rings of a tree. All the information stored on
the hard disk is recorded in tracks. Starting
from zero at the outer side of the platter, the
number of tracks goes on increasing to the
inner side. Each track can hold a large amount
of data counting to thousands of bytes.

 Each track is further broken down into smaller
units called sectors. As sector is the basic unit
of data storage on a hard disk. A single track
typically can have thousands of sectors and
each sector can hold more than 512 bytes of
data. A few additional bytes are required for
control structures and error detection and
correction.

 Sectors are often grouped together to form
Clusters. Generally size of cluster is 4 kb

 The heads are an interface between the magnetic
media where the data is stored and electronic
components in the hard disk. The heads convert
the information, which is in the form of bits to
magnetic pulses when it is to be stored on the
platter and reverses the process while reading.
Each platter has two read/write heads, one
mounted on the top and the other one at the
bottom. These heads are mounted on head sliders,
which are suspended at the ends of head arms. The
head arms are all fused into a singular structure
called actuator, which is responsible for their
movement.

 Spindle motor plays an important role in hard
drive operation by turning the hard disk
platters. A spindle motor must provide stable,
reliable, and consistent turning power for
many hours of continuous use. Many hard
drive failures occur due to spindle motor not
functioning properly

 Hard disk is made with an intelligent circuit
board integrated into the hard disk unit. It is
mounted on the bottom of the base casting
exposed to the outer side. The read/write
heads are linked to the logic board through a
flexible ribbon cable.

 Jumper:-
It is a small piece of Plastic & metal that is used
to connect & remove hardware devices from
computer.

CD and DVD drives:-
Nearly all computers today come equipped
with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the
front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to
read (retrieve) data from a CD; many CD
drives can also write (record) data onto CDs. If
you have a recordable disk drive, you can store
copies of your files on blank CDs. You can also
use a CD drive to play music CDs on your
computer.

Floppy disk drive:-
Floppy disk drives store information on floppy
disks, also called floppies or diskettes.
Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can
store only a small amount of data. They also
retrieve information more slowly and are more
prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy
disk drives are less popular than they used to
be, although some computers still include
them.

A mouse is a small device used to point to and
select items on your computer screen. Allows
the entry of data and executes programs.

 A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into
your computer. Like the keyboard on a typewriter,
it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has
special keys:
 The function keys, found on the top row, perform
different functions depending on where they are
used.
 The numeric keypad, located on the right side of
most keyboards, allows you to enter numbers
quickly.
 The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow
you to move your position within a document or
webpage.

 The Basic Input/output System controls the
computer’s basic operations and is responsible
for starting up the computer and hardware.
 Its most important role is to load the operating
system.

Some of the other common tasks that the BIOS
performs include:
 Check the CMOS Setup for custom settings
 Load the interrupt handlers and device drivers
 Initialize registers and power management
 Perform the power-on self-test (POST)
 Display system settings
 Determine which devices are bootable

 A monitor displays information in visual
form, using text and graphics. The portion of
the monitor that displays the information is
called the screen. Like a television screen, a
computer screen can show still or moving
pictures.
 There are two basic types of monitors: CRT
(cathode ray tube) monitors and the newer
LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors. Both
types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors
have the advantage of being much thinner and
lighter.

 A printer transfers data from a computer onto
paper. You don't need a printer to use your
computer, but having one allows you to print
email, cards, invitations, announcements, and
other material.
 The two main types of printers are inkjet printers
and laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most
popular printers for the home. They can print in
black and white or in full color and can produce
high-quality photographs when used with special
paper. Laser printers are faster and generally
better able to handle heavy use.

 Scanner is a device which is used to convert the
Analog data to digital data. Means Hard copy
to soft copy.

 Speakers are used to play sound. They can be
built into the system unit or connected with
cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music
and hear sound effects from your computer.

 To connect your computer to the Internet, you
need a modem. A modem is a device that sends
and receives computer information over a
telephone line or high-speed cable. Modems
are sometimes built into the system unit, but
higher-speed modems are usually separate
components.
 The main function of modem is to convert
analog data to digital data & vice versa.

 This transfers data between all of the
computer’s components: the human nervous
system.
 It is the main circuit board that incommoded
processor slot, RAM slot , Extension slot , PCI
slot, Serial port, parallel port, connectors for
keyboard & mouse etc.

 Firewire is also known as IEEE 1394. It is
basically a high performance serial bus for
digital and audio equipment to exchange data.
The technology preceded USB but yet is faster
than any current USB port. Often used for
transferring digital video to the PC straight
from a digital camera. The FireWire header
onboard means you can install a FireWire port
on your machine.

 Now the most common slot for Graphics cards,
the PCI Express 16x slots provides 16 separate
lanes or data transfer. PCI express 1.0 slots
offer a data transfer rate of 250MB/s the second
generation of PCI express (PCI Express 2.0)
offers twice the data rate at 500MB/s.
Currently in development is PCI Express 3.0
which offers 1GB/s of data transfer.

 Like the PCI Express 16x above the 1x slot uses
exactly the same system but only has a single
lane of serial data transfer. These slots are used
for expansion cards that do no require the same
amount of data transfer that a graphics card
requires. You will usually find components
such as tv tuners, network cards and sound
cards make use of the PCI Express 1x slot.

 The Motherboards chipset can be described as
what sets it apart from other boards in its
category. Different chipsets contain different
features and components. A chipset is a
number of integrated circuits built onto the
board to provide specific functions e.g. one
part of the chipset may be an onboard
component such as a modem or sound chip.
Other parts may be used to control the CPU
functions.

 The standard ATX power connector, the cable
for this will be coming from the PSU, a clip is
normally provided to make sure you get them
in the correct order. As a tip, don't try to push
too hard if its stuck, check to see that it is in the
correct way, I have seen plenty of power
connectors where the pins have pushed out
some of the connectors, these can be difficult to
get back into place, so its best to be careful.

 All the CPU "sockets look very similar, however they
are different in the way they have different amount of
pins and in different layouts. There are currently two
major CPU socket types PGA and LGA. PGA or Pin
Grad Array uses a system of pins on the CPU and holes
on the socket to line up and hold a CPU in place. The
introduction of the ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) socket for
PGA types allowed the CPU's to be lined up without
any pressure on the CPU until a level is pulled down.
LGA or Land Grid Array uses a system of gold plated
copper pads that make contact with the motherboard.
It is very important to read your motherboard manual
to discover what types of CPU's you motherboard
supports as most motherboards are aimed at a specific
type of CPU.

 DIMM's are by far and away the most used
memory types in today's computers. They vary
in speeds and standards however and they
need to match up to what your motherboard
has been designed to take. The four standards
of DIMM's being used at the moment are SDR
(Single Data Rate), DDR (Double Data Rate),
DDR2 and DDR3. The speeds of memory can
vary between 66Mhz to 1600Mhz.

 Not available on all motherboards, but some
allow direct control of the motherboard via
simple buttons. Power switch, error checking,
CMOS clearing, passwords and more features
can be accessed directly on the motherboard on
some models.

 When we talk about chipsets you mainly only
ever hear about the North bridge. Even those
into PC technology have a hard time naming
the south bridges without looking them up.
Names like Nforce 2 and KT600 are North
bridges. The South Bridge does an important
job as well. It handles things like the PCI bus,
onboard Network and sound chips as well as
the IDE and SATA buses.

 Serial ATA or more commonly seen as S-ATA
is a new way of connecting your Hard Drives
to your PC. S-ATA drives have the capability of
being faster than the IDE counterparts and also
have smaller thinner cables which help with
the airflow of the system. S-ATA hard disks are
fast becoming the norm for hard drive
technology. Current motherboards feature both
IDE and S-ATA connectors to facilitate all types
of storage hardware.

 As well as having USB ports on the rear of the
motherboard, motherboard manufacturers
often add a couple of USB headers so you can
connect optional cables for extra USB ports.
These cables are often supplied and you only
need to add them on if you need the extra
connectivity. USB 2.0 replaced USB 1.1 as a
much faster solution. It is backwards
compatible meaning all USB 1.1 devices will
work in these new USB 2.0 ports.

 The battery gives the board a small amount of
power in order to store some vital data on your
machine when the power is off. Data stored is that
like the time and date so you don't have to reset
them every time you boot the machine up.
Motherboard batteries are usually long lasting
Lithium batteries. Removing this can reset all the
data on your machine including the BIOS
settings, however not replacing this correctly can
lead to irreparable damage to the motherboard.
Only remove the battery if it is dead or if you can't
have access any other way to resetting the data on
your machine by use of the clear CMOS jumper or
something similar.

 The PCI bus (not PCI express) is now an older
technology and although the PCI slots are still
available, they have decreased in number and
are being replaced by the PCI Express 1x slots.
Its unlikely that you will get a motherboard
without a PCI slot at the moment due to the
fact that a lot of components still use the
standard PCI slot. It would be awkward to
upgrade to a system without PCI slots as it
may mean upgrading more components than
you would like to,

 More simple than the IDE connector you only
have to remember to get the red line to pin 1 of
the connector and the red line to pin 1 on the
floppy drive, This port is only to be used with
floppy drives. You may not have a floppy
controller on your motherboard as its slowly
being phased out as more people are using
writable CD's and DVDs to transfer data, to
store data and to use as boot up discs.

 he connector to which you will insert an IDE cable
(supplied with motherboard) IDE cables connect
devices such as hard disks, CD Drives and DVD
Drives. The current 4 standards of IDE devices are
ATA 33/66/100 and 133. the numbers specify the
amount of data in Mb/s in a max burst situation.
In reality there is not much chance of getting a
sustain data rate of this magnitude. Both the
connectors and devices are backwards compatible
with each other, however they will only run at the
slowest rated speed between them. All IDE cables
will come with a red line down one side, this red
line is to show which way it should be plugged in.

 The “Peripheral Component Interconnect” is a
high-speed connection to adding devices to a
computer including SCSI cards, video, sound,
modems, and other PCI devices.

 It transfers data from the computer to the
monitor. 3-D cards are necessary for games.

 A card installed in a computer that unable the
computer to communicate a network. All NIC
implement a networking standards called
Ethernet Every client & server must have a
network interface card in order to be a part of
network.

 The Universal Serial Bus Port allows for the
connecting of many external devices to the
computer.

 IDE/ATA/PATA:- 40 no's
 Floppy Disk Drive:- 34 no's
 AT:-12 no's
 ATX:- 20+4 no's
 USB(Universal Serial Bus):- 9 no's
 VGA(Video Graphic Array):- 15 no's
 Parallel port:- 26 no's
 Serial port:- 9 no's

 Firmware is a combination of software and
hardware. Computer chips that have data or
programs recorded on them are firmware.
These chips commonly include the following:
 ROMs (read-only memory)
 PROMs (programmable read-only memory)
 EPROMs (erasable programmable read-only
memory)
 Example :- BIOS

 A computer's power supply (SMPS) converts
electricity received from a wall outlet into DC
current amounts that are needed by the various
components of the system.

 Power Connector - ATX power supplies use a
single 20 or 24 pin (on newer versions) to
connect to the system board. Some
motherboards require an additional 4, 6, or 8
pin auxiliary power connector. Power
connectors are keyed to make sure that the
connector is plugged in properly.

 SATA Connectors -
SATA hard drives use a special 15 pin power
connector. This connector supports 3.3, 5, and
12 volt devices. Make sure your power supply
has one of these or you can get a Molex to
SATA adapter if it doesn't.

 Molex Connectors - These connectors are used
for connecting IDE hard drives, DVD and CD
drives, and other devices that require 5 or 12
volts of power. These are keyed to prevent
plugging them in upside-down, however, it is
possible to do and will cause serious
problems/damage to the system.

 Mini Connectors -
These connectors also supply 5 or 12 volts,
but are basically only used to connect floppy
drives. These are even easier to plug in
upside-down.

 An Uninterrupted power supply is essentially a
back-up battery to power electronic gadgets
like Computer in the event of a power failure.
If it happens, the Gadget will draw power from
the UPS and will run the load for a prescribed
time depending on the capacity of the battery.
The change over time from the mains to battery
power is a fraction of a second, so that the
computer will not shut down. This is essential
to protect the data in the computer. Basically
there are two types of UPS. These are Offline
UPS and Online UPS.

 Online UPS on the other hand uses an Inverter which
always on to give sine wave AC in the output socket.
The incoming AC is first converted into DC by a
transformer to charge the battery as well as to give
power to the inverter transformer. The inverter
transformer converts the DC to AC continuously to
power the load. If power fails, the battery backup
circuit switches on and takes the load. Online UPS is
more efficient than the Offline UPS and uses a
“Constant duty Inverter”. It also has a “Static bypass”
system that transfers the load to the AC power if the
inverter system fails. The advantage of the Online UPS
is that, it clean up the AC waveform by converting it
into DC then reconverting this DC to fresh AC.

 Off line UPS passes the input AC to the output
sockets if the AC power is available. It always
monitor the voltage level in the mains, and if
there is a voltage drop or mains failure, it
switches on the inverter to give AC power to
the device until the mains supply returns to
normal. The switch over time from AC to
inverter AC is less than five mili seconds so
that the functioning of the gadget is not
affected.

Surge:-
when current is flowing more than 220 volt it is
called surge.
Brownout:-
when current is flowing less than 220 volt it is
Called Brown out.
Blackout:-
When current does not flowing through the
device
Line Conditioner:-
Always supplies exact voltage to the device.
UPS:-
always supplies constant voltage of 220 vplt.

This is the signal generated by the power
supply after the completion of its internal test
& send to the motherboard to indicate that the
power is ready for use. With out receiving that
signal motherboard will not start.

 Bus is a group of electrical conductors running
parallel to each other carrying charge from one
point to another with in the computer.
 Bus can be copper tresses on ckt board or wires in
a cable.
 The no of parallel wires in a bus is called bus
width.
 If the bus connect the main processor with the
computer memory then it is called system bus or
front side bus.
 If the bus connect input output device then it is
called I/O Bus.

 With increase in processing speed of modern day
processor . There is an increase in heat generation
Which can cause the permanent damage of computer.
To cool the processor from being heated Heat sinks are
used.
 There are two type of Heat sink:-
Passive Heat Sink:-
 The cooling device which is used to cool the processor
& does not have any moving part is called Passive Heat
sink.
Active Heat sink:-
 It is also called CPU fan. It is enhancement to the
passive heat sink. Active heat sink contain a small fan
that is blows Directly into the heat sink metal.

 Serial communication
In telecommunication and computer
science, serial communication is the process of
sending data one bit at a time, sequentially,
over a communication channel or computer
bus.
 Parallel communication
In telecommunication and computer
science, parallel communication is a method of
conveying multiple binary digits (bits)
simultaneously.

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