Computer oganization input-output
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The document discusses input/output (I/O) organization and buses. It describes how I/O devices connect to the processor and memory via a shared bus. It discusses different I/O access methods like memory-mapped I/O and special I/O instructions. It also covers I/O interfaces, interrupts, direct memory access (DMA), and bus arbitration methods.
Computer oganization input-output
- 1. Input/output Organization Deepak John ,Department OF Computer Applications SJCET-Pala
- 3. Single Bus Processor Memory I/O device 1 I/O device n Bus •Multiple I/O devices may be connected to the processor and the memory via a bus. •Bus consists of three sets of lines to carry address, data and control signals. •Each I/O device is assigned an unique address. •To access an I/O device, the processor places the address on the address lines. •The device recognizes the address, and responds to the control signals.
- 4. I/O devices and the memory may share the same address space: Memory-mapped I/O. Any machine instruction that can access memory can be used to transfer data to or from an I/O device. Simpler software. I/O devices and the memory may have different address spaces: Special instructions to transfer data to and from I/O devices. I/O devices may have to deal with fewer address lines. I/O address lines need not be physically separate from memory address lines. In fact, address lines may be shared between I/O devices and memory, with a control signal to indicate whether it is a memory address or an I/O address.
- 5. Interface •I/O device is connected to the bus using an I/O interface circuit which has: - Address decoder, control circuit, and data and status registers. •Address decoder decodes the address placed on the address lines thus enabling the device to recognize its address. •Data register holds the data being transferred to or from the processor. •Status register holds information necessary for the operation of the I/O device. •Data and status registers are connected to the data lines, and have unique addresses. •I/O interface circuit coordinates I/O transfers. I/O interfacedecoder Address Data and status registers Control circuits Input device Bus Address lines Data lines Control lines
- 6. • Recall that the rate of transfer to and from I/O devices is slower than the speed of the processor. This creates the need for mechanisms to synchronize data transfers between them. Program-controlled I/O: Processor repeatedly monitors a status flag to achieve the necessary synchronization. Processor polls the I/O device. Two other mechanisms used for synchronizing data transfers between the processor and memory: Interrupts. Direct Memory Access.
- 7. Interrupts
- 8. • In program-controlled I/O, when the processor continuously monitors the status of the device, it does not perform any useful tasks. • An alternate approach would be for the I/O device to alert the processor when it becomes ready. – Do so by sending a hardware signal called an interrupt to the processor. – At least one of the bus control lines, called an interrupt-request line is dedicated for this purpose. • Processor can perform other useful tasks while it is waiting for the device to be ready.
- 9. Interrupt Service routineProgram 1 here Interrupt occurs M i 2 1 i 1+ •Processor is executing the instruction located at address i when an interrupt occurs. •Routine executed in response to an interrupt request is called the interrupt-service routine. •When an interrupt occurs, control must be transferred to the interrupt service routine. •But before transferring control, the current contents of the PC (i+1), must be saved in a known location. •This will enable the return-from-interrupt instruction to resume execution at i+1. •Return address, or the contents of the PC are usually stored on the processor stack.
- 10. Increases the delay between the time an interrupt request is received, and the start of execution of the interrupt-service routine. This delay is called interrupt latency. In order to reduce the interrupt latency, most processors save only the minimal amount of information: This minimal amount of information includes Program Counter and processor status registers. When an interrupt receives, processor inform the device that it has recognized the interrupt request. This can be accomplished in two ways: Some processors have an explicit interrupt-acknowledge control signal for this purpose. In other cases, the data transfer that takes place between the device and the processor can be used to inform the device.
- 11. Enabling and Disabling Interrupts Interrupt-requests, interrupt the execution of a program, and may alter the intended sequence of events: Sometimes such alterations may be undesirable, and must not be allowed. For example, the processor may not want to be interrupted by the same device while executing its interrupt-service routine. Processors generally provide the ability to enable and disable such interruptions as desired by Interrupt-enable and Interrupt-disable . To avoid interruption by the same device during the execution of an interrupt service routine: First instruction of an interrupt service routine can be Interrupt- disable. Last instruction of an interrupt service routine can be Interrupt- enable.
- 12. Handling Multiple Devices Consider a simple arrangement where all devices send their interrupt- requests over a single control line in the bus. When the processor receives an interrupt request over this control line, This information is available in the status register of the device requesting an interrupt: The status register of each device has an IRQ bit which it sets to 1 when it requests an interrupt. Interrupt service routine can poll the I/O devices connected to the bus. The first device with IRQ equal to 1 is the one that is serviced. Polling mechanism is easy, but time consuming to query the status bits of all the I/O devices connected to the bus.
- 13. Vectored Interrupts • The device requesting an interrupt may identify itself directly to the processor. – Device can do so by sending a special code to the processor over the bus. – Code supplied by the device may represent a part of the starting address of the interrupt-service routine. – The remainder of the starting address is obtained by the processor based on other information such as the range of memory addresses where interrupt service routines are located. • Usually the location pointed to by the interrupting device is used to store the starting address of the interrupt-service routine.
- 14. Interrupt nesting • I/O devices are organized in a priority structure: – An interrupt request from a high-priority device is accepted while the processor is executing the interrupt service routine of a low priority device. • A priority level is assigned to a processor that can be changed under program control. – Priority level of a processor is the priority of the program that is currently being executed. – When the processor starts executing the interrupt service routine of a device, its priority is raised to that of the device. – If the device sending an interrupt request has a higher priority than the processor, the processor accepts the interrupt request.
- 15. Priority arbitration Device 1 Device 2 Devicep Processor INTA1 INTR1 I NTRp INTA p •Each device has a separate interrupt-request and interrupt- acknowledge line. •Each interrupt-request line is assigned a different priority level. •Interrupt requests received over these lines are sent to a priority arbitration circuit in the processor. •If the interrupt request has a higher priority level than the priority of the processor, then the request is accepted.
- 16. Simultaneous Requests Processor Device 2 I NTR INTA Device nDevice 1 Polling scheme: •If the processor uses a polling mechanism to poll the status registers of I/O devices to determine which device is requesting an interrupt. •In this case the priority is determined by the order in which the devices are polled. •The first device with status bit set to 1 is the device whose interrupt request is accepted. Daisy chain scheme: •Devices are connected to form a daisy chain. •Devices share the interrupt-request line, and interrupt-acknowledge line is connected to form a daisy chain. •When devices raise an interrupt request, the interrupt-request line is activated. •The processor in response activates interrupt-acknowledge. •Received by device 1, if device 1 does not need service, it passes the signal to device 2. •Device that is electrically closest to the processor has the highest priority.
- 17. •When I/O devices were organized into a priority structure, each device had its own interrupt-request and interrupt-acknowledge line. •When I/O devices were organized in a daisy chain fashion, the devices shared an interrupt-request line, and the interrupt-acknowledge propagated through the devices. •A combination of priority structure and daisy chain scheme can also used. Device Device circuit Priority arbitration Processor Device Device I NTR1 INTRp INTA1 INTA p •Devices are organized into groups. •Each group is assigned a different priority level. •All the devices within a single group share an interrupt-request line, and are connected to form a daisy chain.
- 18. Controlling Device Requests Only those devices that are being used in a program should be allowed to generate interrupt requests. To control which devices are allowed to generate interrupt requests, the interface circuit of each I/O device has an interrupt-enable bit. If the interrupt-enable bit in the device interface is set to 1, then the device is allowed to generate an interrupt-request.
- 19. Exceptions the term exception is used to refer to any event that causes an interruption. Interrupt-requests from I/O devices is one type of an exception. Other types of exceptions are: Recovery from errors Debugging Privilege exception Many sources of errors in a processor. For example: Error in the data stored. Error during the execution of an instruction. When such errors are detected, exception processing is initiated. Processor takes the same steps as in the case of I/O interrupt-request. It suspends the execution of the current program, and starts executing an exception-service routine.
- 20. • Debugger uses exceptions to provide important features: – Trace, – Breakpoints. • Trace mode: – Exception occurs after the execution of every instruction. – Debugging program is used as the exception-service routine. • Breakpoints: – Exception occurs only at specific points selected by the user. – Debugging program is used as the exception-service routine.
- 21. Difference between handling I/O interrupt-request and handling exceptions due to errors: In case of I/O interrupt-request, the processor usually completes the execution of an instruction in progress before branching to the interrupt-service routine. In case of exception processing however, the execution of an instruction in progress usually cannot be completed. • Certain instructions can be executed only when the processor is in the supervisor mode. These are called privileged instructions. • If an attempt is made to execute a privileged instruction in the user mode, a privilege exception occurs. • Privilege exception causes: – Processor to switch to the supervisor mode, – Execution of an appropriate exception-servicing routine.
- 23. DMA Direct Memory Access (DMA): A special control unit may be provided to transfer a block of data directly between an I/O device and the main memory, without continuous intervention by the processor. Control unit which performs these transfers is a part of the I/O device’s interface circuit. This control unit is called as a DMA controller. DMA controller performs functions that would be normally carried out by the processor: For each word, it provides the memory address and all the control signals. To transfer a block of data, it increments the memory addresses and keeps track of the number of transfers.
- 24. DMA Procedure To initiate the DMA transfer, the processor informs the DMA controller of: Starting address, Number of words in the block. Direction of transfer (I/O device to the memory, or memory to the I/O device). Once the DMA controller completes the DMA transfer, it informs the processor by raising an interrupt signal.
- 25. Direct Memory Access memory Processor System bus Main KeyboardDisk/DMA controller Printer DMA controller DiskDisk •DMA controller connects a high-speed network to the computer bus. •Disk controller, which controls two disks also has DMA capability. It provides two DMA channels. •It can perform two independent DMA operations, as if each disk has its own DMA controller. Network Interface
- 26. Memory Access Processor and DMA controllers have to use the bus in an interwoven fashion to access the memory. DMA devices are given higher priority than the processor to access the bus. Among different DMA devices, high priority is given to high- speed peripherals such as a disk or a graphics display device. Processor originates most memory access cycles on the bus. DMA controller can be said to “steal” memory access cycles from the bus. This interweaving technique is called as “cycle stealing”. An alternate approach is to provide a DMA controller an exclusive capability to initiate transfers on the bus, and hence exclusive access to the main memory. This is known as the block or burst mode.
- 27. Bus Arbitration Processor and DMA controllers both need to initiate data transfers on the bus and access main memory. The device that is allowed to initiate transfers on the bus at any given time is called the bus master. When the current bus master relinquishes its status as the bus master, another device can acquire this status. The process by which the next device to become the bus master is selected and bus mastership is transferred to it is called bus arbitration. Centralized arbitration: A single bus arbiter performs the arbitration. Distributed arbitration: All devices participate in the selection of the next bus master.
- 28. Centralized Arbitration Processor DMA controller 1 DMA controller 2BG1 BG2 B R B BSY • Bus arbiter may be the processor or a separate unit connected to the bus. Normally, the processor is the bus master, unless it grants bus membership to one of the DMA controllers. • DMA controller requests the control of the bus by asserting the Bus Request (BR) line. • In response, the processor activates the Bus-Grant1 (BG1) line, indicating that the controller may use the bus when it is free. • BG1 signal is connected to all DMA controllers in a daisy chain fashion. • BBSY signal is 0, it indicates that the bus is busy. When BBSY becomes 1, the DMA controller which asserted BR can acquire control of the bus.
- 29. Distributed arbitration All devices waiting to use the bus share the responsibility of carrying out the arbitration process. Arbitration process does not depend on a central arbiter and hence distributed arbitration has higher reliability. Each device is assigned a 4-bit ID number. All the devices are connected using 5 lines, 4 arbitration lines to transmit the ID, and one line for the Start-Arbitration signal. To request the bus a device: Asserts the Start-Arbitration signal. Places its 4-bit ID number on the arbitration lines. The pattern that appears on the arbitration lines is the logical-OR of all the 4-bit device IDs placed on the arbitration lines.
- 30. • Arbitration process: – Each device compares the pattern that appears on the arbitration lines to its own ID, starting with MSB. – If it detects a difference, it transmits 0s on the arbitration lines for that and all lower bit positions. – The pattern that appears on the arbitration lines is the logical-OR of all the 4-bit device IDs placed on the arbitration lines.
- 31. •Device A has the ID 5 and wants to request the bus: - Transmits the pattern 0101 on the arbitration lines. •Device B has the ID 6 and wants to request the bus: - Transmits the pattern 0110 on the arbitration lines. Arbitration process: •Each device compares the pattern that appears on the arbitration lines to its own ID, starting with MSB. •If it detects a difference, it transmits 0s on the arbitration lines for that and all lower bit positions. •Device A compares its ID 5 with a pattern 0101 to pattern 0111. •It detects a difference at bit position 0, as a result, it transmits a pattern 0100 on the arbitration lines. •The pattern that appears on the arbitration lines is the logical-OR of 0100 and 0110,which is 0110. •This pattern is the same as the device ID of B, and hence B has won the arbitration.
- 32. Buses
- 33. – The primary function of a bus is to provide a communications path for the transfer of data. Bus also includes lines to support interrupts and arbitration. • A bus protocol is the set of rules that govern the behavior of various devices connected to the bus , when to place information on the bus, assert control signals, etc. • Three types of bus lines: data, address, control Control signals specify: Whether it is a read or a write operation. Required size of the data, when several operand sizes (byte, word, long word) are possible. Timing information to indicate when the processor and I/O devices may place data or receive data from the bus. • Bus master (initiator) / slave (target) Schemes for timing of data transfers over a bus can be classified into: Synchronous, Asynchronous.
- 34. Bus cycle Data Bus clock command Address and t0 t1 t2 Time Master places the device address and command on the bus, and indicates that it is a Read operation. Addressed slave places data on the data lines Master “strobes” the data on the data lines into its input buffer, for a Read operation. •In case of a Write operation, the master places the data on the bus along with the address and commands at time t0. •The slave strobes the data into its input buffer at time t2. Synchronous bus • all devices derive timing information from a common clock line. • define equal time intervals
- 35. • Once the master places the device address and command on the bus, it takes time for propagating this information to the devices: – This time depends on the physical and electrical characteristics of the bus. • Also, all the devices have to be given enough time to decode the address and control signals, so that the addressed slave can place data on the bus. • Width of the pulse t1 - t0 depends on: – Maximum propagation delay between two devices connected to the bus. – Time taken by all the devices to decode the address and control signals, so that the addressed slave can respond at time t1.
- 36. • At the end of the clock cycle, at time t2, the master strobes the data on the data lines into its input buffer if it’s a Read operation. – “Strobe” means to capture the values of the data and store them into a buffer. • When data are to be loaded into a storage buffer register, the data should be available for a period longer than the setup time of the device. • Data transfer has to be completed within one clock cycle. – Clock period t2 - t0 must be such that the longest propagation delay on the bus and the slowest device interface must be accommodated. – Forces all the devices to operate at the speed of the slowest device.
- 37. • Most buses have control signals to represent a response from the slave. • Control signals serve two purposes: – Inform the master that the slave has recognized the address, and is ready to participate in a data transfer operation. – Enable to adjust the duration of the data transfer operation based on the speed of the participating slaves. • High-frequency bus clock is used
- 38. Asynchronous bus Data transfers on the bus is controlled by a handshake between the master and the slave. Common clock in the synchronous bus case is replaced by two timing control lines: Master-ready, Slave-ready. Master-ready signal is asserted by the master to indicate to the slave that it is ready to participate in a data transfer. Slave-ready signal is asserted by the slave in response to the master-ready from the master, and it indicates to the master that the slave is ready to participate in a data transfer.
- 39. • Data transfer using the handshake protocol: – Master places the address and command information on the bus. – Asserts the Master-ready signal to indicate to the slaves that the address and command information has been placed on the bus. – All devices on the bus decode the address. – Addressed slave performs the required operation, and informs the processor it has done so by asserting the Slave-ready signal. – Master removes all the signals from the bus, once Slave-ready is asserted. – If the operation is a Read operation, Master also strobes the data into its input buffer.
- 40. Slave-ready Data Master-ready and command Address Bus cycle t1 t2 t3 t4 t5t0 Time t0 - Master places the address and command information on the bus. t1 - Master asserts the Master-ready signal. Master-ready signal is asserted at t1 instead of t0 t2 - Addressed slave places the data on the bus and asserts the Slave-ready signal. t3 - Slave-ready signal arrives at the master and removes master ready signal. t4 - Master removes the address and command information. t5 - Slave receives the transition of the Master-ready signal from 1 to 0. It removes the data and the Slave-ready signal from the bus.
- 41. Asynchronous vs. Synchronous bus • Advantages of asynchronous bus: – Eliminates the need for synchronization between the sender and the receiver. – Can accommodate varying delays automatically, using the Slave-ready signal. • Disadvantages of asynchronous bus: – Data transfer rate with full handshake is limited by two-round trip delays. – Data transfers using a synchronous bus involves only one round trip delay, and hence a synchronous bus can achieve faster rates.
- 43. Interface circuits I/O interface consists of the circuitry required to connect an I/O device to a computer bus. Side of the interface which connects to the computer has bus signals for: Address, Data Control Side of the interface which connects to the I/O device has: Datapath and associated controls to transfer data between the interface and the I/O device. This side is called as a “port”. Ports can be classified into two: Parallel port, Serial port.
- 44. Function of I/O Interface • Provide a storage buffer for at least one word of data; • Contain status flags that can be accessed by the processor to determine whether the buffer is full or empty; • Contain address-decoding circuitry to determine when it is being addressed by the processor; • Generate the appropriate timing signals required by the bus control scheme; • Perform any format conversion that may be necessary to transfer data between the bus and the I/O device.
- 45. Parallel Port • A parallel port transfers data in the form of a number of bits, typically 8 or 16, simultaneously to or from the device. • For faster communications Valid Data Keyboard switches Encoder and debouncing circuit SIN Input interface Data Address R / Master-ready Slave-ready W DATAIN Processor
- 46. Parallel port •Processor is 32-bits and uses memory-mapped I/O and the asynchronous bus protocol. •On the processor side of the interface we have: - Data lines. - Address lines - Control or R/W line. - Master-ready signal and - Slave-ready signal. •On the keyboard side of the interface: - Encoder circuit which generates a code for the key pressed. - Debouncing circuit which eliminates the effect of a key bounce (a single key stroke may appear as multiple events to a processor). - Data lines contain the code for the key. - Valid line changes from 0 to 1 when the key is pressed. This causes the code to be loaded into DATAIN and SIN to be set to 1.
- 47. CPU SOUT Output interface Data Address R / Master-ready Slave-ready Valid W DataDATAOUT PrinterProcessor Idle •Printer is connected to a processor using a parallel port. •Processor is 32 bits, uses memory-mapped I/O and asynchronous bus protocol. •On the processor side: - Data lines. - Address lines - Control or R/W line. - Master-ready signal and - Slave-ready signal. •On the printer side: - Idle signal line which the printer asserts when it is ready to accept a character. This causes the SOUT flag to be set to 1. - Processor places a new character into a DATAOUT register. - Valid signal, asserted by the interface circuit when it places a new character on the data lines.
- 48. Serial Port • A serial port is used to connect the processor to I/O devices that require transmission of data one bit at a time. • Serial port communicates in a bit-serial fashion on the device side and bit parallel fashion on the bus side. – Transformation between the parallel and serial formats is achieved with shift registers that have parallel access capability.
- 49. I NTR Chip and register select Status and control Accept Ready R/W RS0 RS1 My-address Receiving clock T ransmission clock D7 D0 Output shift register DATAOUT DATAIN Input shift register Serial Serial input •Input shift register accepts input one bit at a time from the I/O device. •Once all the 8 bits are received, the contents of the input shift register are loaded in parallel into DATAIN register. •Output data in the DATAOUT register are loaded into the output shift register. •Bits are shifted out of the output shift register and sent out to the I/O device one bit at a time. •As soon as data from the input shift registers are loaded into DATAIN, it can start accepting another 8 bits of data.
- 50. Serial interfaces require fewer wires, and hence serial transmission is convenient for connecting devices that are physically distant from the computer. Speed of transmission of the data over a serial interface is known as the “bit rate”. Bit rate depends on the nature of the devices connected. In order to accommodate devices with a range of speeds, a serial interface must be able to use a range of clock speeds. Several standard serial interfaces have been developed: Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) for low- speed serial devices. RS-232-C for connection to communication links.
- 52. Standard I/O interfaces A personal computer has: A motherboard which houses the processor chip, main memory and some I/O interfaces. A few connectors into which additional interfaces can be plugged. Processor bus is defined by the signals on the processor chip. Devices which require high-speed connection to the processor are connected directly to this bus. Because of electrical reasons only a few devices can be connected directly to the processor bus.
- 53. Motherboard usually provides another bus that can support more devices. Processor bus and the other bus (called as expansion bus) are interconnected by a circuit called “bridge”. Devices connected to the expansion bus experience a small delay in data transfers. Design of a processor bus is closely tied to the architecture of the processor. No uniform standard can be defined. Expansion bus however can have uniform standard defined. • A number of standards have been developed for the expansion bus. • Three widely used bus standards: – PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) – SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) – USB (Universal Serial Bus)
- 54. Main memory Processor Bridge Processor bus PCI bus memory Additional controller CD-ROM controller Disk Disk 1 Disk 2 ROM CD- SCSI controller USB controller Video K eyboard Game disk IDE SCSI bus ISAEthernet Interface Expansion bus on the motherboard Bridge circuit translates signals and protocols from processor bus to PCI bus. Interface
- 55. PCI Bus Peripheral Component Interconnect Low-cost bus Processor independent Plug-and-play capability . The PCI is designed primarily to support burst amount transfer of data. The bus supports three independent address spaces: memory, I/O, and configuration. A master is called an initiator in PCI terminology. The addressed device that responds to read and write commands is called a target.
- 56. Data transfer signals on the PCI bus. Name Function CLK A 33-MHz or 66-MHz clock. FRAME# Sent by the initiator to indicate the duration of a transaction. AD 32 address/data lines, which may be optionally increased to 64. C/BE# 4 command/byte-enable lines (8 for a 64-bit bus). IRD Y#, TRD Y# Initiator-ready and Target-ready signals. DEVSEL# A response from the device indicating that it has recognized its address and is ready for a data transfer transaction. IDSEL# Initialization Device Select.
- 57. Device Configuration When an I/O device is connected to a computer, several actions are needed to configure both the device and the software that communicates with it. PCI incorporates in each I/O device interface a small configuration ROM memory that stores information about that device. The PCI initialization software reads these ROMs and determines whether the device is a printer, a keyboard, an Ethernet interface, or a disk controller. It can further learn about various device options and characteristics. Devices are assigned addresses during the initialization process. Electrical characteristics: PCI bus has been defined for operation with either a 5 or 3.3 V power supply
- 58. SCSI Bus Small Computer System Interface. It refers to a standard bus defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). In the original specifications of the standard, devices such as disks are connected to a computer via a 50-wire cable, which can be up to 25 meters in length and can transfer data at rates up to 5 megabytes/s. The SCSI bus standard has undergone many revisions, and its data transfer capability has increased very rapidly, almost doubling every two years. SCSI-2 and SCSI-3 have been defined, and each has several options. Because of various options SCSI connector may have 50, 68 or 80 pins.
- 59. The SCSI bus is connected to the processor bus through a SCSI controller. This controller uses DMA to transfer data packets from the main memory to the device, or vice versa. A packet may contain a block of data, commands from the processor to the device, or status information about the device. A controller connected to a SCSI bus is one of two types – an initiator or a target. The disk controller operates as a target. It carries out the commands it receives from the initiator. The initiator establishes a logical connection with the intended target. Once this connection has been established, it can be suspended and restored as needed to transfer commands and bursts of data. This ability to overlap data transfer requests is one of the key features of the SCSI bus that leads to its high performance.
- 60. Assume that processor needs to read block of data from a disk drive and that data are stored in disk sectors that are not contiguous. The processor sends a command to the SCSI controller, which causes the following sequence of events to take place: 1. The SCSI controller, acting as an initiator. 2. When the initiator wins the arbitration process, it selects the target controller and hands over control of the bus to it. 3. The target, realizing that it first needs to perform a disk seek operation, sends a message to the initiator indicating that it will temporarily suspend the connection between them. Then it releases the bus. 4. The target controller sends a command to the disk drive to move the read head to the first sector involved in the requested read operation. Then, it reads the data stored in that sector and stores them in a data buffer. When it is ready to begin transferring data to the initiator, the target requests control of the bus. After it wins arbitration, it reselects the initiator controller, thus restoring the suspended connection.
- 61. 6. The target transfers the contents of the data buffer to the initiator and then suspends the connection again 7. The target controller sends a command to the disk drive to perform another seek operation. Then, it transfers the contents of the second disk sector to the initiator as before. At the end of this transfers, the logical connection between the two controllers is terminated. 8. As the initiator controller receives the data, it stores them into the main memory using the DMA approach. 9. The SCSI controller sends as interrupt to the processor to inform it that the requested operation has been completed
- 62. Table 4. The SCSI bus signals. Category Name Function Data DB(0) to DB(7) Data lines: Carry one byte of information during the information transfer phase and identify device during arbitration, selection and reselection phases DB(P) Parit y bit for the data bus Phase BSY Busy: Asserted when the bus is not free SEL Selection: Asserted during selection and reselection Information type C/D Con trol/Data: Asserted during transfer of con trol information (command, status or message) – – – – – – MSG Message: indicates that the information being transferred is a message – Operation of SCSI bus from H/W point of view
- 63. Handshake REQ Request: Assertedby a targetto requesta data transfercycle ACK Acknowledge: Asserted by the initiator when it hascompleted adata transfer operation Direction of transfer I/O Input/Output: Assertedto indicatean input operation (relative to the initiator) Other ATN Attention: Asserted by an initiator when it wishesto senda messageto a target RST Reset: Causesall device controls to disconnect from the bus and assumetheir start-upstate – – – – – Category Name Function Table 4. The SCSI bus signals.(cont.)
- 64. Main Phases involved Arbitration A controller requests the bus by asserting BSY and by asserting it’s associated data line When BSY becomes active, all controllers that are requesting bus examine data lines Selection Controller that won arbitration selects target by asserting SEL and data line of target. After that initiator releases BSY line. Target responds by asserting BSY line Target controller will have control on the bus from then Information Transfer Handshaking signals are used between initiator and target At the end target releases BSY line Reselection
- 65. Free Arbitration Selection Targets examine ID DB 2 DB 5 DB 6 BSY SEL Figure 42. Arbitration and selection on the SCSI bus.Device 6 wins arbitration and selects device 2.
- 66. USB Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard developed through a collaborative effort of several computer and communication companies, including Compaq, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, Lucent, Microsoft, Nortel Networks, and Philips. Speed Low-speed(1.5 Mb/s) Full-speed(12 Mb/s) High-speed(480 Mb/s) Port Limitation Device Characteristics Plug-and-play
- 67. Host computer Root hub Hub I/O device Hub I/O device I/O device Hub I/O device I/O device I/O device Universal Serial Bus tree structure
- 68. To accommodate a large number of devices that can be added or removed at any time, the USB has the tree structure as shown in the figure. Each node of the tree has a device called a hub, which acts as an intermediate control point between the host and the I/O devices. At the root of the tree, a root hub connects the entire tree to the host computer. The leaves of the tree are the I/O devices being served (for example, keyboard, Internet connection, speaker, or digital TV) In normal operation, a hub copies a message that it receives from its upstream connection to all its downstream ports. As a result, a message sent by the host computer is broadcast to all I/O devices, but only the addressed device will respond to that message. However, a message from an I/O device is sent only upstream towards the root of the tree and is not seen by other devices. Hence, the USB enables the host to communicate with the I/O devices, but it does not enable these devices to communicate with each other.
- 69. Addressing When a USB is connected to a host computer, its root hub is attached to the processor bus, where it appears as a single device. Each device on the USB, whether it is a hub or an I/O device, is assigned a 7-bit address. This address is local to the USB tree and is not related in any way to the addresses used on the processor bus. A hub may have any number of devices or other hubs connected to it, and addresses are assigned arbitrarily. When a device is first connected to a hub, or when it is powered on, it has the address 0. Periodically, the host polls each hub to collect status information and learn about new devices that may have been added or disconnected. When the host is informed that a new device has been connected, it uses a sequence of commands to send on the corresponding hub port, read information from the device about its capabilities, send configuration information to the device, and assign the device a unique USB address. Once this sequence is completed the device begins normal operation and responds only to the new address.
- 70. USB Protocols All information transferred over the USB is organized in packets, where a packet consists of one or more bytes of information. There are many types of packets that perform a variety of control functions. The information transferred on the USB can be divided into two broad categories: control and data. Control packets perform such tasks as addressing a device to initiate data transfer, acknowledging that data have been received correctly, or indicating an error. Data packets carry information that is delivered to a device. A packet consists of one or more fields containing different kinds of information. The first field of any packet is called the packet identifier, PID, which identifies the type of that packet.
- 71. PID0 PID1 PID2 PID3 PID0PID0 PID1 PID2 PID3 (a) Packet identifier field PID ADDR ENDP CRC16 8 7 4 5Bits (b) Token packet, IN or OUT PID DATA CRC16 8 0 to 8192 16Bits (c) Data packet Figure 45. USB packet format. Control packets used for controlling data transfer operations are called token packets.
- 72. Fig: An output transfer ACK Token Data0 Token Data1 Host Hub I/O Device Token Data0 ACK ACK Token Data1 ACK Time
- 73. Isochronous Traffic on USB One of the key objectives of the USB is to support the transfer of isochronous data. Devices that generates or receives isochronous data require a time reference to control the sampling process. To provide this reference. Transmission over the USB is divided into frames of equal length. A frame is 1ms long for low-and full-speed data. The root hub generates a Start of Frame control packet (SOF) precisely once every 1 ms to mark the beginning of a new frame. The arrival of an SOF packet at any device constitutes a regular clock signal that the device can use for its own purposes. Following each SOF packet, the host carries out input and output transfers for isochronous devices. This means that each device will have an opportunity for an input or output transfer once every 1 ms.
- 74. Electrical Characteristics The cables used for USB connections consist of four wires. Two are used to carry power, +5V and Ground. Thus, a hub or an I/O device may be powered directly from the bus, or it may have its own external power connection. The other two wires are used to carry data. Different signaling schemes are used for different speeds of transmission. At low speed, 1s and 0s are transmitted by sending a high voltage state (5V) on one or the other o the two signal wires. For high-speed links, differential transmission is used.