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- 2. Cryptography Course number: 4003-482 / 4005-705 Instructor: Ivona Bezáková Today’s topics: 1. Logistics: - Class list - Syllabus 2. The Math 3. What is Cryptography 4. Some Classical Cryptosystems
- 3. The Math We will go beyond descriptions of cryptographic algorithms and ways how to break them. We will use a lot of math and CS theory in this course, including: - some abstract algebra (number theory, groups, rings, fields) - some linear algebra - some probability and information theory - some complexity theory It is important to be comfortable with math!
- 4. What is Cryptography - the study of secure communication over insecure channels. Typical scenario: Alice Bob Eve
- 5. What is Cryptography Alice Bob Eve Private-key cryptosystems: Chapter 2 (& 4) - Alice and Bob agree on a key beforehand Alice: plaintext -> encryption (via the key) -> ciphertext -> send to Bob Bob: decrypt the ciphertext (using the key) to reconstruct the plaintext
- 6. What is Cryptography Eve: - she does not know the key, she cannot decrypt… ??? - she tries to read the current message, she can also try to figure out the key - in our book she sometimes acts as a malicious active attacker (usually called Mallory): corrupting Alice’s message, or masquerading as Alice Symmetric-key cryptosystems: - private-key cryptosystems use (essentially) the same key for encryption and decryption
- 7. Some Cryptanalysis Terminology Cryptanalysis - the process of attempting to compute the key - the most common attack models: - ciphertext only attack - known plaintext attack - chosen plaintext attack - chosen ciphertext attack What’s the weakest type of attack?
- 8. Cryptographic Applications 1. Confidentiality 2. Data integrity 3. Authentication 4. Non-repudiation
- 9. Classical Cryptosystems (Starting Chapter 2, sneaking in some math from Chapter 3.) Conventions: - plaintext: lowercase - CIPHERTEXT: uppercase - Spaces and punctuations will be usually omitted. - Letter of the alphabet will be often identifies with numbers 0,1,…,25.
- 10. Monoalphabetic Ciphers - Each letter is mapped to a unique letter. - Examples: shift cipher, substitution cipher, affine cipher - We will need modular arithmetic (and we’ll introduce more than we need in this chapter – it will all be useful later).
- 11. Modular Arithmetic Let a, b be integers, m be a positive integer. We write: a ´ b (mod m)if m divides (a-b) (Read it as: “a is congruent to b mod m”.) Examples: (true/false) 7 ´ 5 (mod 3) 4 ´ 1 (mod 3) 7 ´ 1 (mod 3) -4 ´ -1 (mod 3) 66 ´ 0 (mod 3) -8 ´ 7 (mod 3)
- 12. Modular Arithmetic Let a be an integer, m be a positive integer. We use: a mod m to denote the remainder when a is divided by m. The remainder is always a number from {0,1,2,…,m-1}. Examples: 8 mod 3 = 1 mod 1 = 0 mod 2 = 63 mod 7 = -8 mod 3 = 3 mod 6 = -63 mod 7 = Is % in Java/C/C++ the same as mod ?
- 13. Modular Arithmetic Zm denotes the set {0,1,2,…,m-1}, with two operations: - addition (modulo m) - multiplication (modulo m) Zm is a commutative ring, i.e.: - addition and multiplication (mod m) are closed, commutative, associative, and multiplication is distributive over addition - 0 is the additive identity - each element has an additive inverse
- 14. Modular Arithmetic Zm denotes the set {0,1,2,…,m-1}, with two operations: - addition (modulo m) - multiplication (modulo m) Zm is a commutative ring, i.e.: - addition and multiplication (mod m) are closed, commutative, associative, and multiplication is distributive over addition - 0 is the additive identity - each element has an additive inverse
- 15. Shift Cipher The key k is an element of Z26. We encrypt a letter x 2 Z26 as follows: x (x+k) mod 26 How to decrypt ? x Remarks: - For k=3 this is known as the Caesar cipher, attributed to Julius Caesar. - Shift cipher works over any Z .
- 16. Shift Cipher How good is it ? - the good: efficient encryption/decryption computation - the bad: easy to attack (not very secure) - how ? Kerckhoff’s Principle: - Eve knows the cipher but does not know the key. - Always assumed in cryptanalysis.
- 17. Substitution Cipher - Monoalphabetic cipher defined by a permutation of the alphabet. - Example: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz ONETWHRFUISXVGABCDJKLMPQYZ What is the key in this example ? - Exercise: decode: EDYBKARDOBFY
- 18. Substitution Cipher How good is it ? - the good: efficient encryption/decryption - the bad(?): is it secure ? - approach 1: try all possible keys - is this feasible ? Hint: frequency tables, e.g., for English see Table 2.1, page 17
- 19. Affine Ciphers The key is a pair (®,¯) 2 Z26£Z26 such that gcd(®,26)=1. Then, encryption is done via an affine function: x (®x + ¯) mod 26 How to decrypt ? x Remark: The affine cipher can be defined over any Zm.
- 20. Affine Ciphers Questions: - How does it relate to the shift and the substitution ciphers ? - How many possible keys are there ? - Why do we have the condition gcd(®,26)=1 ? - What is ®-1 ?
- 21. Affine Ciphers Questions: - Efficiently computable encryption and decryption ? - Is it secure ? How to cryptanalyze ?