Current Trends In Diachronic Semantics And
Pragmatics 1st Edition Majbritt Mosegaard Hansen
download
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-diachronic-
semantics-and-pragmatics-1st-edition-majbritt-mosegaard-
hansen-2517034
Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com
Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.
Current Trends In Analysis Its Applications And Computation
Proceedings Of The 12th Isaac Congress Aveiro Portugal 2019 Paula
Cerejeiras
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-analysis-its-
applications-and-computation-proceedings-of-the-12th-isaac-congress-
aveiro-portugal-2019-paula-cerejeiras-46494974
Current Trends In Web Engineering Icwe 2022 International Workshops
Becs Sweet And Wals Bari Italy July 58 2022 Revised Selected Papers
Giuseppe Agapito
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-web-engineering-
icwe-2022-international-workshops-becs-sweet-and-wals-bari-italy-
july-58-2022-revised-selected-papers-giuseppe-agapito-49113510
Current Trends In The Identification And Development Of Antimicrobial
Agents M Aminul Mannan
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-the-identification-
and-development-of-antimicrobial-agents-m-aminul-mannan-49608938
Current Trends In Archaeological Heritage Preservation National And
International Perspectives Proceedings Of The International Conference
Iai Romania November 610 2013 Tefan Caliniuc Editor
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-archaeological-
heritage-preservation-national-and-international-perspectives-
proceedings-of-the-international-conference-iai-romania-
november-610-2013-tefan-caliniuc-editor-49990258
Current Trends In Slavery Studies In Brazil Stephan Conermann
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-slavery-studies-in-
brazil-stephan-conermann-50318972
Current Trends In Economics Business And Sustainability Proceedings Of
The International Conference On Economics Business And Sustainability
Icebs 2023 J Aloysius Edward
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-economics-business-
and-sustainability-proceedings-of-the-international-conference-on-
economics-business-and-sustainability-icebs-2023-j-aloysius-
edward-50584512
Current Trends In Computational Modeling For Drug Discovery Supratik
Kar
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-computational-
modeling-for-drug-discovery-supratik-kar-50710344
Current Trends In The Development And Teaching Of The Four Language
Skills Esther Usjuan Editor Alicia Martnezflor Editor
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-the-development-and-
teaching-of-the-four-language-skills-esther-usjuan-editor-alicia-
martnezflor-editor-50958986
Current Trends In Narratology Greta Olson Editor
https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-narratology-greta-
olson-editor-50993260
Current Trends In Diachronic Semantics And Pragmatics 1st Edition Majbritt Mosegaard Hansen
Current Trends In Diachronic Semantics And Pragmatics 1st Edition Majbritt Mosegaard Hansen
CURRENT TRENDS IN DIACHRONIC
SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS
STUDIES IN PRAGMATICS
Series Editors: Bruce Fraser, Kerstin Fischer, Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen
The Studies in Pragmatics series is dedicated to publishing innovative,
authoritative monographs and edited collections from all micro-, macro-,
and meta-pragmatic linguistic perspectives. Rooted in the interdisciplinary
spirit of the Journal of Pragmatics, it welcomes not only book proposals
from linguistics proper but also pragmatically oriented proposals from
neighboring disciplines such as interactional sociology, language
philosophy, communication science, social psychology, cognitive science,
and information science. The goal of the series is to provide a widely read
and respected international forum for high-quality theoretical, analytical,
and applied pragmatic studies of all types. By publishing leading-edge
work on natural language practice, it seeks to extend our growing
knowledge of the forms, functions, and foundations of human interaction.
Other titles in this series:
FISCHER Approaches to Discourse Particles
AIJMER & SIMON-
VANDENBERGEN
Pragmatic Markers in Contrast
FETZER & FISCHER Lexical Markers of Common Grounds
CAFFI Mitigation
ROSSARI, RICCI &
SPIRIDON
Grammaticalization and Pragmatics:
Facts, Approaches, Theoretical Issues
FRASER & TURNER Language in Life, and a Life in Language:
Jacob Mey – A Festschrift
Proposals for the series are welcome. Please contact the Series Editor,
Bruce Fraser: bfraser@bu.edu
CURRENT TRENDS IN DIACHRONIC
SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS
EDITED BY
MAJ-BRITT MOSEGAARD HANSEN
The University of Manchester, UK
JACQUELINE VISCONTI
University of Genova, Italy
United Kingdom – North America – Japan
India – Malaysia – China
Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK
First edition 2009
Copyright r 2009 Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Reprints and permission service
Contact: booksandseries@emeraldinsight.com
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any
form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting
restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA
by The Copyright Clearance Center. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of
information contained in the text, illustrations or advertisements. The opinions expressed
in these chapters are not necessarily those of the Editor or the publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-1-84950-677-9
ISSN: 1750-368X (Series)
Awarded in recognition of
Emerald’s production
department’s adherence to
quality systems and processes
when preparing scholarly
journals for print
Studies in Pragmatics (SiP)
Series Editors
Bruce Fraser
Boston University, USA
Kerstin Fischer
University of Southern Denmark
Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen
University of Manchester, UK
Consulting Editor
Jacob L. Mey
University of Southern Denmark
Editorial Board
Diane Blakemore, University of Salford, UK
Shoshana Blum-Kulka, Hebrew University, Israel
Laurel Brinton, University of British Columbia, Canada
Claudia Caffi, University of Genoa, Italy
Alessandro Duranti, UCLA, USA
Anita Fetzer, University of Lueneburg, Germany
Marjorie Goodwin, UCLA, USA
Hartmut Haberland, University of Roskilde, Denmark
William F. Hanks, University of California, USA
Sachiko Ide, Tokyo Women’s University, Japan
Kasia Jaszczolt, University of Cambridge, UK
Elizabeth Keating, University of Texas, USA
Sotaro Kita, University of Bristol, UK
Ron Kuzar, University of Haifa, Israel
Lorenzo Mondada, University of Lyon 2, France
Henning Nølke, University of Aarhus, Denmark
Etsuko Oishi, Fuji Women’s University, Japan
Srikant Sarangi, Cardiff University, UK
Marina Sbisà, University of Trieste, Italy
Current Trends In Diachronic Semantics And Pragmatics 1st Edition Majbritt Mosegaard Hansen
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Current Trends in Diachronic Semantics and Pragmatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
APO: Avoid Pragmatic Overload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Regine Eckardt
Diachronic Pathways and Pragmatic Strategies: Different Types of Pragmatic
Particles from a Diachronic Point of View. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Ulrich Detges and Richard Waltereit
Context Sensitive Changes: The Development of the Affirmative Markers godt ‘good’
and vel ‘well’ in Danish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Eva Skafte Jensen
Procatalepsis and the Etymology of Hedging and Boosting Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Kate Beeching
Central/Peripheral Functions of allora and ‘Overall Pragmatic Configuration’:
A Diachronic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Carla Bazzanella and Johanna Miecznikowski
The Importance of Paradigms in Grammaticalisation: Spanish Digressive
Markers por cierto and a propósito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Maria Estellés
The Multiple Origin of es que in Modern Spanish: Diachronic Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Magdalena Romera
From Aspect/Mood Marker to Discourse Particle: Reconstructing Syntactic and
Semantic Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Bethwyn Evans
The Grammaticalization Channels of Evidentials and Modal Particles in German:
Integration in Textual Structures as a Common Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Gabriele Diewald, Marijana Kresic and Elena Smirnova
Evidentiality, Epistemicity, and their Diachronic Connections to Non-Factuality . . . . . . . . 211
Mario Squartini
The Grammaticalization of Negative Reinforcers in Old and Middle French:
A Discourse–Functional Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen
A Roots Journey of a French Preposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Silvia Adler and Maria Asnes
The Grammaticalization of Privative Adjectives: The Case of Mere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Elke Gehweiler
The Origin of Semantic Change in Discourse Tradition: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Katerina Stathi
viii Table of Contents
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Silvia Adler, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Maria Asnes, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
Carla Bazzanella, Università degli Studi, Turin, Italy
Kate Beeching, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
Ulrich Detges, Institute for Romance Philology, University of Munich, Germany
Gabriele Diewald, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany
Regine Eckardt, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
Maria Estellés, Universidad de Valencia, Spain
Bethwyn Evans, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
Elke Gehweiler, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen, The University of Manchester, UK
Eva Skafte Jensen, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark
Marijana Kresic, University of Zadar, Croatia
Johanna Miecznikowski, Università della Svizzera italiana, Lugano, Switzerland
Magdalena Romera, Universidad de las Islas Baleares, Palma de Mallorca, Baleares, Spain
Elena Smirnova, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany
Mario Squartini, Università di Torino, Torino, Italy
Katerina Stathi, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
Jacqueline Visconti, University of Genova, Italy
Richard Waltereit, Newcastle University, UK
Current Trends In Diachronic Semantics And Pragmatics 1st Edition Majbritt Mosegaard Hansen
Current Trends in Diachronic Semantics and Pragmatics
Edited by Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited. All rights reserved.
1
CURRENT TRENDS IN DIACHRONIC SEMANTICS
AND PRAGMATICS
Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
1. THE ROLE OF PRAGMATIC INFERENCING IN MEANING CHANGE
Research on semantic change has gained considerable momentum from the idea that pragmatic
factors are a driving force in the process. The idea, first suggested by Grice (1989 [1975]: 39), that
‘‘it may not be impossible for what starts life, so to speak, as a conversational implicature to
become conventionalized’’, was systematized in Traugott’s Invited Inferencing Theory of
Semantic Change (IITSC) (Traugott, 1999; Traugott and Dasher, 2002). More precisely, semantic
change is seen as ‘‘arising out of the pragmatic uses to which speakers or writers and addressees or
readers put language, and most especially out of the preferred strategies that speakers/writers use
in communicating with addressees’’ (Traugott and Dasher, 2002: xi). The model, which is based
on Levinson’s theory of generalized conversational implicature (GCIs) (Levinson, 2000), in
particular on the distinction between ‘‘coded’’, ‘‘utterance-type’’ and ‘‘utterance-token’’ levels of
meaning (Levinson, 1995), is represented in Figure 1.1 (from Traugott and Dasher, 2002: 38).
In this model, assuming that the meaning M1 of a lexeme L is linked to the conceptual structure
Ca at stage I, innovation may be produced by speakers/writers employing L in a particular,
‘‘utterance-token’’, use. Should such a use spread to more contexts and become salient in the
community, it acquires the status of a ‘‘generalized invited inference’’ and may eventually become
semanticized as a new coded meaning M2 for L at stage II.
The IITSC arose in the context of reflection on replicated cross-linguistic regularities in
semantic change, which the theory explained by assuming that they are the outcome of similar
cognitive and communicative processes across languages. This has a number of consequences,
salient among which is the idea that meanings can be predicted to become increasingly pragmatic,
procedural, and metatextual. More specifically, a significant number of observed meaning changes
appear to instantiate the following clines, referred to as ‘‘semantic–pragmatic tendencies’’:
(i) truth-conditionalWnon-truth-conditional;
(ii) contentWcontent/proceduralWprocedural;
(iii) scope-within-propositionWscope-over-propositionWscope-over-discourse;
(iv) non-subjectiveWsubjectiveWintersubjective (Traugott and Dasher, 2002: 40).1
Figure 1.1. Model of the Invited Inferencing Theory of Semantic Change (IITSC; Traugott,
1999: 96) (M ¼ coded meaning; C ¼ conceptual structure) from Traugott and Dasher (2002: 38).
1
These clines represent a revision of three, by now very well known, tendencies posited in Traugott
(1989: 34–35), viz. (I) Meanings based in the external described situation W meanings based in the
internal (evaluative/perceptual/cognitive) described situation; (II) Meanings based in the external
or internal described situation W meanings based in the textual and metalinguistic situation;
(III) Meanings tend to become increasingly based in the speaker’s subjective belief state/attitude toward
the proposition.
2 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
Most recent discussions in the fields of diachronic semantics and pragmatics revolve, as far as
we can tell, around refining this paradigm. In particular, alternative proposals center on four key
issues, which we shall elaborate on in the remainder of this introduction, highlighting the
contribution made by the present volume.
1.1. What pragmatic entities are involved?
The first issue concerns the nature and likely sequence of the pragmatic entities involved in the
model, for example, the role of generalized versus particularized conversational implicatures
(PCIs) in language change and their relationship to the issues of propagation and actualization. In
fact, reflection on diachronic models for change has led to renewed discussion of the
characteristics of key pragmatic notions, such as that of implicature.
Thus, the three-stage model outlined in the IITSC, whereby semantic change would proceed
from PCI via GCI to coded meaning, has been criticized, for instance, by Hansen and Waltereit
(2006: 248), in whose opinion:
in formulating their model of semantic change, Levinson (1995, 2000) as well as Traugott and
Dasher (2002) redefine the notion of GCIs. From being a purely pragmatic phenomenon, GCIs, as
understood in connection with the macro-sequence under review, become something more akin to
the phenomena of either propagation or actualization of specific linguistic changes.
The authors present an alternative proposal, grounded in the assumption that PCIs are
‘‘prototypically in the communicative foreground of messages, whereas generalized conversa-
tional implicatures are prototypically backgrounded’’ (Hansen and Waltereit, 2006: 235). The
sequence PCI-GCI-coded meaning is argued to be rare, most cases of semantic change being
either instances of a PCI semanticizing directly (PCI-coded meaning) or of a GCI semanticizing,
but only after having being foregrounded as a PCI (GCI-PCI-coded meaning). Indeed, the
necessity of an intermediate GCI stage would seem to simply preclude semantic change based on
metaphor, for the latter relies, in the Gricean view, on ostensive flouting of the quality maxim, a
maxim which according to Levinson (2000: 74) cannot generate GCIs at all. In those cases where
a PCI does turn into a GCI, it is, in fact, likely that it will not become fully semanticized (PCI-
CGI-*coded meaning). In other words, the role of the different types of implicature in meaning
change is a good deal more nuanced than the IITSC model would suggest.
The issue of the nature of the pragmatic entities involved in change is addressed from a
different angle by Schwenter and Waltereit (forthcoming). These authors provide an outline of the
evolution of the additive particle too and some of its counterparts in Spanish and German, to show
how counter-argumentative uses of the particle in novel discourse contexts can override the
additive presupposition normally associated with such particles. Accommodating that
Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 3
presupposition becomes too costly and leads to reanalyzing the too element as a new form-
function pairing. The initial diachronic examples in bridging contexts are plausibly interpretable
as conveying the additive meaning of too, but the adversative properties of the dialogal discourse
context appear to have led hearers to understand too as expressing a new, rhetorically strategic
meaning with strong counter-argumentative force.
In a similar vein, Eckardt (this volume) proposes that language change may be triggered, not
just by implicatures, but also by unwarranted presuppositions. She shows that, antedating the
emergence of the contemporary senses of certain words, one finds uses of those words in which
their presuppositions are violated, in the sense that they contradict common world knowledge.
Eckardt refers to such instances as ‘‘little pragmatic accidents’’. Many such ‘‘accidents’’ may best
be repaired by a listener who hypothesizes that the problematic item is in fact being used in a new
sense. According to this author, such utterances create a pragmatic overload: under a conservative
interpretation, they will trigger presuppositions that the listener cannot accommodate because they
do not make sense. Thus, the listener can either (a) be uncharitable and refuse to interpret the
utterance at all, (b) face the pragmatic overload and attempt to reconceptualize the world such that
the presupposition is consistent, or (c) hypothesize a new meaning for parts of the utterance,
including the item that gave rise to the problematic presupposition.
Proposals such as these raise the further issue of the role and scope of the Uniformitarian
Principle in diachronic semantics and pragmatics. Within the field of linguistics, the
Uniformitarian Principle consists in the assumption that the processes underlying instances of
language change in the past were essentially the same as those that can be seen to operate today
(e.g., Labov, 1994: 21). Among the contributors to the present volume, Eckardt explicitly argues
that a virtue of her analysis is its conformity with the Uniformitarian Principle, and many of the
remaining contributors tacitly rely on that principle in their analyses.
However, while the principle can probably be uncontroversially applied in the study of
phonological change, for instance, given that the physiological properties of speech have not
changed, it becomes more problematic in the analysis of meaning change; for, as a number of
scholars have argued, speech acts and events, norms of politeness, principles of text structure, and
conversational routines are by no means directly comparable neither across contemporary cultures
nor across different historical stages of a given culture or society (e.g., Wierzbicka, 1991, 2006;
Jacobs and Jucker, 1995; Arnovick, 1999; Scollon and Scollon, 2001). To the extent that this is
true, how can we be justified in assuming that patterns of inference, and hence the fundamental
pragmatic entities underlying them, such as presuppositions and implicatures, were similar to
those that we take to be operative in contemporary Western discourse? In those cases where the
nature of both an older ‘‘source’’ meaning and a newer ‘‘target’’ meaning of a given linguistic item
or construction is well established, it seems legitimate to suppose that the motivations for and
mechanisms of extension/change which would most plausibly get us from source to target
according to contemporary patterns of inference are likely to have been likewise instrumental in
4 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
bringing about the change in the past.2
As soon as reconstruction is involved to a more significant
extent, we are on shakier ground, however.
For this reason, as current theorizing about diachronic semantics and pragmatics, as
exemplified by the contributions to this volume, develops and is refined, there can be little doubt
that the field would benefit from being informed to a greater extent by insights from
‘‘pragmaphilology’’ (Jacobs and Jucker, 1995) or ‘‘historical discourse analysis proper’’ (Brinton,
2001), that is, the synchronic study of discourse–pragmatic structures and functions and their
corresponding means of expression in older texts. At present, however, there appears to be
relatively little overlap among practitioners of the two disciplines.
1.2. What are the respective roles of the speaker and the hearer?
A second major issue in diachronic semantics and pragmatics concerns the redefinition of the
respective roles of speakers/writers and addressees/readers in the process of innovation. In
particular, a set of proposals criticizes the speaker-based nature of the IITSC approach. As noted
by Traugott (1999: 95):
Although it recognizes the importance of guiding addresses to an interpretation [ . . . ] nevertheless
the assumption of IITSC is that the speaker/writer does most of the work of innovation, not the
hearer/reader. The idea is that the speaker/writer tries out a new use exploiting available
implicatures. If the innovative use succeeds, the hearer/reader will interpret the intention
correctly, and possibly experiment in similar ways in producing speech/writing. But rarely does
the act of interpretation itself lead directly to innovation.
Although this is to some extent a classic chicken-and-egg problem, Traugott’s assumption has
been challenged by several scholars, among whom the authors of the two parallel studies already
mentioned above, both proposing a model of semantic change based on the diachronically less
used notion of presupposition.
In the view of both Schwenter and Waltereit (forthcoming) and Eckardt (this volume), hearers
who are unable or unwilling to accommodate presuppositions assume a novel interpretation of a
former presupposition trigger and eventually pass this new interpretation on to other people,
thereby changing the language. According to Schwenter and Waltereit, a hearer who is confronted
with an utterance and assigns an interpretation to it that deviates from that utterance’s literal
meaning has, in principle, two options: (i) assume that regular pragmatic operations, such as
2
Even this cannot be taken for granted, however: when scholars rely on their semantic–pragmatic
intuitions, competing mechanisms may sometimes be invoked with equal probability to account for one
and the same instance of change.
Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 5
conversational inference and the accommodation of presuppositions, mediate between the literal
meaning and the chosen nonliteral interpretation; (ii) assume a novel conventional meaning for
some element of that utterance. In that case, fewer pragmatic computations, and/or less costly
ones, may be required, since there is no need anymore for them to mediate between the
chosen interpretation and the traditional (previous) conventional meaning. If a hearer chooses
(ii) and uses the novel form-meaning pairing in his/her own discourse, the language will have
changed.
Assuming that interpretive efforts by the listener are at the heart of ‘‘Avoid-Pragmatic-
Overload’’-induced changes, Eckardt (this volume) moreover suggests a hearer-driven conception
of the trend toward subjectification. Earlier approaches, she argues, leave open the question
whether the subjective element is pressed into an utterance as a kind of Sprachnot phenomenon by
the speaker or enters the meaning of words by an interpretive effort of the listener. Eckardt
suggests that, in at least some cases, the subjective element enters the language via the interpretive
efforts of the listener, not because
listeners are constantly searching to see the speaker’s soul through his utterances, but because in
the case of a truly senseless utterance the charitable listener will try to make at least some sense of
that utterance. It is much more implausible to perceive subjectification as a speaker-driven
process. Uttering incoherent sentences and hoping that the listener will grab your message does
not seem a rational communicative strategy (Eckardt, this volume).
Hansen (2008: 76) likewise argues that the reanalyses performed by hearers may be unintended
by speakers, and that they may even, on some occasions, result from clear misunderstandings on
the hearer’s part. In particular, theories that attribute a central role to the metonymical processes
cannot afford to ignore this possibility, in so far as literal and metonymical meanings will often be
mutually compatible. To take a simple example, if the change from Latin TESTIMONIUM (testimony)
W French témoin (witness) came about as suggested by Koch (2004: 16f ), namely via the
(necessary) metonymical link between the existence of testimony and that of a witness, in contexts
where utterances such as (1) would be produced, then it is unlikely that it would have been
speaker driven:
(1) [Judge:] Audiamus testimonium proximum!
‘Let’s hear the next piece of testimony!’
Even more obviously, while the change responsible for the two currently competing meanings
of the Danish noun bjørnetjeneste (literally ‘bear favor’), ‘a favor that has unintended negative
results’ W ‘a really big favor’, can be attributed to the non-transparency of that noun, and hence
its potential ambiguity in contexts such as (2), it is highly implausible that speakers familiar with
the original, negatively loaded, meaning could be held responsible for the rise of the innovative,
positively loaded, interpretation. In this case, there can be little doubt that the process must have
6 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
been driven by hearers who were unfamiliar with the intended meaning and who were therefore
forced to make conjectures:
(2) Peter overtalte chefen til at give mig opgaven. Det var sørme en bjørnetjeneste!
Literally: ‘Peter persuaded the boss to give me the task. That was really a bear-favor!’
1.3. In what types of context does semantic–pragmatic change take place?
The third rapidly evolving area of discussion concerns the characterization of the contexts in
which inferencing takes place. Invited inferencing and context-induced reinterpretation both
assume pragmatic polysemy and ambiguity. In this respect a set of proposals have been advanced
in the literature about such ambiguous contexts. Heine (2002: 86), for instance, proposes a series
of four stages in semasiological change, and sees the pivotal stage as constituted by what he refers
to as ‘‘bridging contexts’’, that is, contexts where the use of a given expression allows, in addition
to its conventional meaning, an inference to an innovative meaning (see also Evans and Wilkins,
2000: 549; Enfield, 2005: 318).3
Putting more emphasis on structural constraints, Diewald (2002,
2006) proposes that ambiguity and structural factors accumulate in one context, which she calls a
‘‘critical context’’.
An innovative element in the reflection on this topic has been the increasing awareness of the
importance of taking interactional factors into account when defining the contexts for change, for
instance, dialogic and contesting contexts evoking multiple viewpoints, turn-taking, and other
interactional moves.
The refinement of context characterization is a main thread throughout the papers in this
volume. Such a refinement is operated at multiple levels: from linguistic features (co-text) to
cognitive and/or interactional properties (context) to features of specific genres influencing
semantic change (discourse tradition). At the linguistic level, Evans’, Jensen’s, and Romera’s
papers offer fine-grained analyses of the formal and functional co-textual variables to which
changes can be attributed. Thus, a detailed reconstruction of the change from aspect/mood marker
to discourse particle in Morovo is related by Evans to the morphosyntactic and semantic
characteristics of the construction. In Jensen’s paper, the semantics of predicates is shown to
interact with properties of specific slots in a topological model of Danish sentences, thereby
affecting the development of the affirmative markers godt and vel; while in Romera’s contribution,
a set of formal and functional variables are shown to contribute to the evolution of Spanish es que.
3
Whereas Heine (2002) assumes that the innovative (target) meaning is the intended one, Hansen
(2008: 63) proposes that it is still backgrounded at this stage, and only foregrounded when the
subsequent ‘‘switch-context’’ stage is reached.
Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 7
The second level, that of cognition and interaction, which is not always given prominence in
diachronic semantics and pragmatics studies, is central to many papers in the present volume:
Hansen draws attention to what she calls ‘‘Janus-faced contexts’’, that is, contexts in which the
cognitive contents of a negated clause are oriented simultaneously to previous and to upcoming
discourse, and proposes that such contexts are crucial to the grammaticalization of bipartite
sentence negation in French. Paradigmatic associations (also treated by Diewald et al. and Jensen)
are argued to have predictive value by Estellès, who shows how paradigmatic pressures can lead
to change. Bazzanella and Miecznikowski analyze how Italian allora has evolved from expressing
referential (temporal) meaning to fulfilling a range of inferential functions, and argue that the
driving forces in these changes should be sought among properties of spoken language in
interaction (e.g., planning, recipient designed, discourse structuring) as well as among properties
of co-constructed argumentational discourse (e.g., recurrent schemas of reasoning; the need to
attribute conclusions and premises to participants and to monitor the degree of sharedness/
expectedness of standpoints at any moment of their negotiation; the direct relevance of dialogical
reasoning to decisions about future actions). Similarly, Detges and Waltereit argue that discourse
markers arise as the result of argumentational procedures in the negotiation in discourse, marking,
for example, a change of activity or disagreement, while the polyphonic component in modal
particles arises as the conventionalization of disputing the validity of a given proposition in
dialogic exchanges. Finally, Beeching highlights the crucial role of concessive contexts in
pragmaticalization processes such as the evolution of hedging and boosting particles in a variety
of languages.
At a more general level, Stathi’s study of the development of the German verb gehören
(literally ‘belong to’) shows how discourse traditions (in this case, administrative and judicial
texts) may influence change, an aspect previously discussed by Pons Borderı́a (2006).
1.4. What is the precise nature of and relationship among the observed tendencies
of semantic–pragmatic change?
The fourth issue revolves around both refining the clines (i) to (iv) identified above and
understanding the relationship between such tendencies: for instance, the relationship between
grammaticalization, scope, and subjectification (Company Company, 2006a,b; Traugott, forth-
coming), or the issue of whether to define the evolution of pragmatic markers as an instance of
grammaticalization (Brinton and Traugott, 2005; Diewald et al., this volume) or of
pragmaticalization (Erman and Kotsinas, 1993; Dostie, 2004; Hansen, 2008: Chapter 3).
With respect to the latter, those who argue that pragmatic markers are grammaticalized focus
on the fact that the evolution of pragmatic markers will typically feature the decategorialization of
the source item, some degree of phonological reduction of that source item, as well as
subjectification and increased ‘‘procedurality’’ of its content.
8 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
Those scholars who prefer to describe pragmatic markers as ‘‘pragmaticalized’’, on the other
hand, do so on the basis of Lehmann’s (1985) six classic parameters of grammaticalization, viz.
phonological and/or semantic attrition, paradigmatization, obligatorification, scope reduction,
syntagmatic coalescence, and syntagmatic fixation. According to Lehmann’s model, grammati-
calized items will exhibit a high degree of several of these characteristics. As noted by Waltereit
(2002: 1005), Eckardt (2003: 42), and Hansen (2008: 57f ), pragmatic markers as a class tend not
to fulfill Lehmann’s criteria to any great extent. Rather, they typically exhibit scope increase,
greater syntactic freedom, optionality, and strengthening of their pragmatic import.
The former problem has to do with whether subjectification is necessarily part of, and unique
to, the grammaticalization process, which, if true, raises questions about the scope of
grammaticalized items. According to Traugott (1995) and Brinton and Traugott (2005),
subjectification is at the very least a strong tendency in grammaticalization, particularly in its
early stages (Traugott, 1995: 47), but it is nevertheless an independent process (Brinton and
Traugott, 2005: 109; Traugott, forthcoming). Company Company (2006a) argues that
subjectification is not just a semantic–pragmatic phenomenon, but actually constitutes a specific
type of syntactic change as well, namely one that is characterized by scope increase and syntactic
isolation, and she conceives of subjectification as a subtype of grammaticalization. It seems to us
that what this author calls subjectification would largely be equivalent to what others describe as
pragmaticalization, were it not for the fact that she deems the syntactic changes mentioned
criterial, as opposed to just typical, of subjectification. However, the existence of items like the so-
called modal particles that are a salient feature of the Continental Germanic languages appears to
provide a strong argument against such a view, for while modal particles are indubitably
subjectified as compared to their source items and also exhibit scope increase, they are
nevertheless syntactically highly constrained.
This debate raises the issue of the exact understanding of what is implied by notions such as
grammaticalization and pragmaticalization: are these labels for specific processes of change, in
which case they have independent theoretical status, or are they largely just convenient shorthands
for the cumulative results of sets of frequently converging, but essentially independent, changes
that linguistic items and constructions can undergo? If the former, we would expect there to be a
rather strict separation between grammaticalized and pragmaticalized items. If the latter, we
should not be surprised to find cases where either or both label(s) might seem appropriate. This
would appear to be the case, for instance, with the Germanic modal particles mentioned above,
which are characterized by scope increase, optionality, and pragmatic strengthening, but also –
unlike discourse markers, for instance – by paradigmatization and syntagmatic fixation.
The issues surrounding grammaticalization, pragmaticalization, and processes, such as
subjectification which may be prominently associated with either, are highlighted in many of
the papers in the present volume, which analyze the evolution of procedural meanings of various
kinds. Thus, several papers feature different types of pragmatic markers as their object of study
Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 9
(Bazzanella and Miecznikowski, Beeching, Detges and Waltereit, Eckardt, Estellès, Evans,
Gehweiler, Jensen, Romera), while others are concerned with items and constructions expressing
modality (Stathi), evidentiality (Diewald et al., Squartini), negation (Hansen), and relational
meanings (Adler and Asnes). Saliently, Diewald at al. refine the grammaticalization model as the
reinterpretation and abstraction of a relational semantic template from (i) referential to (ii) text-
integrative/connective to (iii) indexical-grammatical function, exemplified by the evolution of
evidentials and modal particles in German, while Detges and Waltereit’s tackle the thorny issue of
the categorization of discourse markers versus modal particles, which the authors claim arise from
different mechanisms of change. Their paper proposes a fine-tuning of the subjectification model
by showing how and why different types of procedural meanings arise.
1.5. Concluding remarks
We suggest that, in a number of ways, the present volume constitutes an important contribution
to our current understanding of historical semantics and pragmatics:
First, several papers in this collection revisit, in a diachronic perspective, key theoretical
notions that are typically confined to the synchronic perspective, such as presuppositions
(Eckardt), paradigms (Estellès), word order (Jensen), and discourse status (Hansen). This
allows the authors to test and refine current models of semantic change and to provide
innovative accounts of causes and motivations for linguistic changes.
Second, the semantic domains covered by the case studies are ones that are generally
considered central (spatiality, temporality, negation, modality, evidentiality, subjectivity,
scalarity, intensification, and concession).
Third, the volume commends itself not only by virtue of the variety of approaches to meaning
that are represented here, from prototype theory (Bazzanella and Miecznikowski) to monosemy
(Adler and Asnes), but also very much by the range of data adduced from languages other than
English (several Romance languages, German, Danish, and Oceanic languages).
2. SUMMARIES OF THE INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS
The papers collected in this volume originate in a workshop on Diachronic Semantics and
Pragmatics, organized by the volume editors at the 18th International Conference on Historical
Linguistics (Montreal, August 2007).
In her article, ‘‘Avoid Pragmatic Overload,’’ Regine Eckardt suggests that the role of
pragmatics in language change might not be restricted to implicature, but that presupposition
(failure) is equally a driving force in meaning change. It is well known that utterances may carry
10 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
presuppositions which, if new to the hearer, will have to be accommodated. This is unproblematic
in all those cases where the accommodated information is plausible and uncontroversial. Problems
arise, however, when the speaker relies on presuppositions which are implausible, controversial,
or hard to reconcile with other pieces of knowledge. Eckardt proposes that when faced with the
option of accommodating the impossible, hearers may instead prefer to reanalyze the meaning of
parts of the utterance. Thus, hearers avoid pragmatic overload (problematic presuppositions) and
hypothesize new meanings instead. The proposed analysis is supported by several attested cases
of semantic change to which it can be fruitfully applied. Among others, the author discusses the
reanalysis of German intensifying selbst (-self ) as a focus particle (even), and of German fast
(immovably tight) as an approximative (almost), as well as the development of English even from
a level adjective to a focus marker, and she takes a brief look at the case of Italian perfino which
likewise develops an ‘even’-like reading from its earlier sense ‘through, to the end’ (Visconti,
2005). For each item, it can be argued that the turning point of the development is characterized
by the appearance of uses where the presuppositions of the sentence, if spelled out, are tantamount
to contradictory, or at least highly implausible, information. The proposal confirms the vital role of
pragmatics in language change and identifies yet another type of pragmatic enrichment of
utterances that has, so far, not been widely explored in diachronic linguistics.
In their paper, ‘‘Diachronic Pathways and Pragmatic Strategies: Different Types of Pragmatic
Particles from a Diachronic Point of View’’, Ulrich Detges and Richard Waltereit address one of
the main concerns of research on discourse markers, modal particles, and related elements, namely
the problem of a neat categorical delimitation between these items, by considering whether the
synchronic difference between discourse markers and modal particles can be accounted for in
diachronic terms. Do discourse markers and modal particles arise from different mechanisms of
change? Their cases are the cognate French and Spanish particles bien, both of which originate in
adverbs meaning ‘well’. French bien functions, among other things, as a modal particle.
By contrast, Spanish bien is a discourse marker. It is widely accepted that discourse markers serve
the purpose of coordinating the joint construal of discourse, and according to Detges and
Waltereit, this is directly reflected in their diachronic evolution: thus, the Spanish DM bien is the
routinized residue of negotiations about the next move in conversation. Moreover, their analysis
suggests that discourse markers are a subset of a much wider range of routines that human
beings have at their disposal for the coordination of joint activities. Thus, it is not surprising that
the diachronic evolution of a discourse marker should follow the same pathways as do such
routines. By contrast, modal particles function at the speech-act level and typically make
reference to the hearer’s attitudes concerning the validity of the speech act. More broadly,
the results presented in this paper imply that there are levels of generalization about
semantic change below the overarching tendencies of subjectification. At the same time, they
provide very specific justification for these levels of generalization, and ultimately for
subjectification itself.
Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 11
Eva Skafte Jensen’s article, ‘‘Context Sensitive Changes: The Development of the Affirmative
Markers ‘godt’(good) and ‘vel’ (well) in Danish’’, gives a detailed account of how these Danish
adverbials (meaning, respectively, ‘good’ and ‘well’) came to be used as markers of affirmation.
Special interest is paid to the role played by the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic context of the
lexical items in question. One influential factor is the semantics of the predicates of the sentences
in which the items occur. Predicates conveying subjective meanings and meanings of modal
possibility (e.g., modal verbs, verbs such as føle ‘feel’, vide ‘know’, etc.) seem to provide good
conditions for the development of the affirmative function of the adverbials in question. Another,
less frequently discussed, contextual factor is provided by the rules of word order (topology) in
Danish. Jensen argues that the properties of specific slots and places in the topological model of a
Danish sentence have direct bearing not only on the synchronic interpretation of the adverbials in
question, but also on their possible diachronic reinterpretation as markers of affirmation. A third
contextual factor is of a pragmatic nature, as it is argued that the developments of godt and vel
may be described as ‘‘the conventionalization of a conversational implicature’’. Thus, these
adverbials often occur in utterances where there might be some doubt as to the validity of the
positive value of the propositional contents, thus giving rise to the implicature that ‘someone
might think that the State-of-Affairs is not the case’. As a result of this, affirmative godt and vel
enter into a small paradigm of polarity alongside negation and zero. The cross-linguistic
implications of this account are evaluated, as some languages seem to prefer having adverbials
meaning ‘good’ and ‘well’ develop into markers of affirmation or similar (e.g., Detges and
Waltereit, this volume).
‘‘Procatalepsis and the Etymology of Hedging and Boosting Particles’’ by Kate Beeching sets
out to explore a cognitive basis for procatalepsis, ‘a figure by which an opponent’s objections are
anticipated and answered’, and to argue that the evolution of hedging/boosting particles in a
number of languages may be explained by reference to it. While the role of metaphor and
metonymy in language change is well documented, other classical figures such as synecdoche and
procatalepsis and their relationship with cognition and semantic–pragmatic change have been less
thoroughly investigated. By conceding certain arguments, speakers can strengthen their position
and make it easier to defend, while at the same time exhibiting a sense of fair play. In a similar
manner, a procataleptically derived particle simultaneously hedges and boosts the assertion
associated with it. Beeching’s paper argues that the metonymic contiguity of terms like though
with contexts relating to the negotiation of meaning and the ‘‘Cardinal Concessive frame’’ (X –
statement, Xu – concession, Y – potential refutation) (Couper-Kuhlen and Thompson, 2000) so
commonly invoked in everyday interaction has led them to be used in situations where X and Xu
are unexpressed. Though thus retains a concessive sense, but functions simultaneously as a hedge
and as a booster. What is more, this procataleptic tendency is a cross-linguistic phenomenon
which affects similar adversative and concessive conjunctions and adverbs in different languages,
such as French quand meme, Glasgow but and German aber. While the etymologies, the
12 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
polysemies, and the position in the clause of these various adverbs differ, the fundamental
cognitive reflex depending on the Cardinal Concessive, which is part of our everyday
conceptualization of events, is very similar in all of them. This suggests that the underlying
motivation for the recruitment of such usages is universal, arising from social interactional
exigencies related to questions of face.
The study by Carla Bazzanella and Johanna Miecznikowski, ‘‘Central/Peripheral Functions of
‘allora’ and ‘Overall Pragmatic Configuration,’’’ suggests that Italian allora (‘so’, ‘then’) has
considerably expanded its functional spectrum from the 13th century up to the present day.
Starting out from temporal functions (simultaneity and consecution), the following functions have
been added (in order of diachronic appearance): (i) functions in the domain of causality,
(ii) inferential-evidential functions, and (iii) text and interaction structuring functions. Functional
expansion has been accompanied by semantic shifts, among others a deictic shift (distal W
proximal), as well as by syntactic shifts (in particular, ana-/cataphorical adverb W connective at
utterance margins W iconic segment-initial connective). In this development, the use of allora in
hypothetical constructions – which in themselves are polyfunctional and often potentially
ambiguous – seems to have played an important role. To explain allora’s semantic-functional
expansion, it is useful to posit (a) a basic relational semantics of the lexeme, which is quite stable
over time and (b) general semantic/cognitive principles that account for the relative proximity of
certain semantic domains, and therefore the probability of a (metaphorical) shift from one domain
of meaning to the other. However, (a) and (b) merely delineate potential paths of development; in
the explanation of change, they have to be integrated with specific hypotheses about the driving
forces of change. Bazzanella and Miecznikowski strongly emphasize the importance of pragmatic
factors as driving forces, that is, functional pressures arising in recurrent situations of use. In the
case of allora, strongly argumentational dialogue types seem to have played a key role. In the
analysis offered, the shifts mentioned above are related to both general properties of spoken
language in interaction and more specific properties of co-construed argumentational discourse.
The action of these factors as driving forces can be accounted for if one assumes that the semantic
and functional potential of a linguistic item corresponds to a prototypically organized set of
features which, in language use, is actualized as an ‘overall pragmatic configuration’, in which
some potential features become more relevant than others, in congruence with contextual
parameters, and are thus strengthened by recurrent use in certain constructions and situation types.
Unlike routinization (Hopper, 1987) and context (Hopper and Traugott, 1993 [2003]), both
traditionally regarded as triggers of grammaticalization, a factor such as paradigmatic relations has
mainly been seen as responsible for the spread of change, not as the locus where changes take
place. Against this background, Maria Estelles’ article on ‘‘The Importance of Paradigms in
Grammaticalization: Spanish Digressive Markers ‘por cierto’ and ‘a propósito’’’ highlights their
role as a possible cause of grammaticalization processes. The importance of paradigms is
illustrated by tracing back the history of the two most frequent markers of digression in Spanish,
Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 13
namely por cierto and a propósito (by the way). These particles, despite rather different origins
and evolutions, seem, in the course of the 19th century, to become integrated into a paradigm of
digression. Since then, the use of por cierto, formerly restricted to the intra-sentential level, has
been extended to the textual level, already reached by a propósito. In turn, a propósito came to be
used in appositions, an environment that was previously specific to por cierto.
Magdalena Romera’s ‘‘The Multiple Origin of ‘es que’ in Modern Spanish: Diachronic
Evidence’’ considers how an expression such as es que (it is that), originally part of a structure
that expresses existential meaning, ends up being used by itself as a functional unit to introduce
elaboration–reinterpretation values. Her proposal is that constructions with es que initially express
existential meaning and a more elaborated clarification of the content of a previous segment, but
later the elaboration allows for a more subjective interpretation in terms of the speaker’s
interpretation, which in turn could be understood as an explanation for what was just said. At the
same time, es que constructions lose their subject due to a process of loss of referentiality in the
elements placed in that position. Initially, subjects are highly referential and can be related
anaphorically to the previous content, but later on they are simply elements that anticipate the
focalized content expressed in the subordinate clause. Chronologically, these two processes go
together. From Early Spanish (1200–1300) up to the 16th century, es que constructions are
existential and elaborative structures. The first cases of interpretative uses are found in 1500 and
generalize in the 17th century. The same can be said of the path from integrated constructions (i.e.,
es que constructions with a subject) to nonintegrated ones (i.e., es que constructions without a
subject). No cases of subjectless constructions are found in Early Spanish and only a few cases in
1400. The first uses of es que structures as we know them in Modern Spanish appear in 1500 in
monologues and at the end of that century in dialogues. The subject position is allowed to be left
empty in the 16th century.
Bethwyn Evans’ paper, ‘‘From Aspect/Mood Marker to Discourse Particle: Reconstructing
Syntactic and Semantic Change,’’ examines the reanalysis of an aspect/mood marker as a
discourse connective particle from the perspectives of both syntactic and semantic change.
Evidence of the change is found in the system of subject marking in Marovo, an Oceanic language
of the Solomon Islands. Marovo has preverbal markers which indicate the person and number of
the subject argument and which occur primarily in only two types of constructions: negative
verbal declarative clauses and verbal clauses with an initial discourse connective particle. These
unusual conditions on the presence of subject marking in Marovo are shown to reflect its historical
development. Through comparison of Marovo with other closely related Oceanic languages, it is
demonstrated that subject marking in negative clauses is archaic, reflecting original constructions
in which subject markers occurred within the verb complex alongside preverbal markers of aspect/
mood and negation. The use of subject markers with discourse connective particles reflects the
same original construction, but in this case the reanalysis of an aspect/mood marker as a discourse
connective particle has resulted in the subsequent extension of subject markers to use with
14 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
discourse connective particles in general. A detailed reconstruction of the change, informed by
accepted models of syntactic and semantic reanalysis, suggests that it was motivated by both the
morphosyntactic and semantic characteristics of the construction. While the reanalysis appears to
have been triggered by structural ambiguity resulting from a chance homophony of forms,
semantic and pragmatic aspects of the construction also facilitated the change.
In ‘‘The Grammaticalization Channels of Evidentials and Modal Particles in German:
Integration in Textual Structures as a Common Feature’’, Gabriele Diewald, Marijana Kresic, and
Elena Smirnova are concerned with the grammaticalization of German evidential constructions
and modal particles. In present day German, these items serve as linguistic means for expressing
different grammatical contents, and, at first sight, do not seem to have anything in common
beyond being two evolving grammatical categories. The authors’ first concern in this paper is to
argue that both German evidential periphrases and modal particles serve as grammatical markers.
As such, they meet two criteria that are proposed as definitional of grammatical signs:
(a) indexical potential and (b) paradigmatic integration. The second aim of the paper is to
reconstruct a diachronic developmental path for each category. Thus, the grammaticalization
processes of individual elements are summarized in a unified grammaticalization channel for each
category. The third goal of the paper is to show that there are common developmental tendencies
in the grammaticalization of even such different linguistic elements as evidentials and modal
particles. The intention behind this is to propose that these common features may be powerful
indicators of grammaticalization in general. The starting point is the assumption that, in their
development, these elements follow general tendencies and clines established in grammaticaliza-
tion theory, and the authors show (i) that German evidentials and modal particles develop by
reinterpretation of, and abstraction from, a relational semantic template and (ii) that this
development results in the indexical-grammatical interpretation of that template, which is reached
via an intermediate stage of text-integrative/connective interpretation. By way of generalization,
the authors assume that their model of three successive stages in grammaticalization (which
describe the following semiotic-functional changes in a sign: (i) referential function W (ii) text-
integrative/connective function W (iii) indexical-grammatical function) is applicable to all
grammaticalization processes. Moreover, they emphasize the particular importance of the second
stage in grammaticalization processes – the integration of a sign in specific text structures
whereby the sign comes to serve text-connective functions.
In his article, ‘‘Evidentiality, Epistemicity and Their Diachronic Connections to Nonfac-
tuality,’’ Mario Squartini investigates the diachronic relationship between evidentiality and
epistemicity in the pragmatic and semantic evolution of some Romance forms, including seem-
verbs, hearsay markers such as the American Spanish dizque ‘allegedly, supposedly’, and
inflectional verb forms having epistemic meanings or being used as evidential strategies (the
Romance synthetic futures and conditionals). Despite their diverse origins, all these forms evolve
in similar diachronic directions, demonstrating the crucial role of nonfactuality in the evolution of
Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 15
the evidential meaning connected to hearsay and reportive markers. Nonfactuality, on the other
hand, turns out to be negatively correlated with the diachronic evolution of conjectural and
inferential markers, a fact which raises empirical questions with respect to the much-debated
interpretation of inferentiality as an intermediate area in the crucial boundary between epistemicity
and evidentiality.
Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen’s paper on ‘‘The Grammaticalization of Negative Reinforcers in
Old and Middle French: A Discourse-Functional Approach’’ presents evidence that key stages in
the diachronic evolution of clausal negation in French should be understood as governed by
discourse-functional constraints on the flow of information. Specifically, concerning the
synchronic properties of Old and Middle French negation, she argues that clauses negated by
ne . . . mie/pas were constrained to be discourse-old, as defined by Birner (2006), and that, while
the proposition expressed by such clauses need not be believed, it should be such that the speaker
could assume that it was either already activated in the short-term memory of the hearer or
accessible to activation based on other propositions thus activated. This analysis presents the
advantage of being compatible with what is known about the uses of different forms of negation in
a number of contemporary Romance vernaculars where variation is still maintained between
simple preverbal negators and reinforced expressions which in several cases are etymologically
identical to the French forms. The author suggests, further, a diachronic scenario capable of
explaining the subsequent unmarking of reinforced negation in French, her proposal being
that so-called Janus-faced contexts, that is, contexts that are at one and the same time backwards
and forwards oriented in terms of the flow of information in discourse, constituted the key
bridging contexts that allowed for the reanalysis of the reinforced negators. The advantages of the
proposed scenario are that it not only relies on precisely those discourse-functional constraints that
were argued to govern the use of negative reinforcers at the stage where they were still
conceptually and textually marked, but it is also more precise than existing pragmatically based
explanations.
Silvia Adler and Maria Asnes, in their ‘‘A Roots Journey of a French Preposition,’’ propose a
diachronic investigation of the French preposition jusqu’à (meaning ‘until’, ‘up to’, ‘to’). Their
study reveals that all the present usages of jusqu’à – spatial, temporal, scalar, and quantificational –
already coexist at the early stages of French, which supports the hypothesis of the monosemicity of
this preposition. Thus, all the possible readings of PPs headed by jusqu’à share one semantic
primitive which has to do with the notions of a path and of a culminating point (representing the
limit of the path). It is the nature of the limit provided by the context which accounts for the different
readings of jusqu’à. This suggests, in other words, that the spatiotemporal value cannot be
considered as the core meaning of this preposition: in the case of jusqu’à, there is no real evolution
from spatial to nonspatial, from concrete to abstract, but rather one core sense, in itself abstract,
which is applicable to various domains, such as space, time, and scalarity. All of these conserve the
idea of an axis, a continuum, and an oriented scale.
16 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
Elke Gehweiler’s ‘‘The Grammaticalization of Privative Adjectives: The Case of ‘mere’’’
argues that the present-day English adjectival intensifier/downtoner mere evolved from a privative
adjective with the meaning ‘pure, unmixed’ through a process of grammaticalization and
subjectification. The paper first discusses the synchronic status of mere, showing that mere is a
peripheral member of the word class adjective and is restricted to only a very limited number of
patterns in PDE. In the second part of the paper, the diachronic development of mere from
privative adjective to downtoner is discussed on the basis of diachronic corpus data. Most
importantly, it is argued that the ambiguity of mere in attributive position in certain uses triggered
a reanalysis of mere as intensifier, which was followed by the lexicalization of its new meaning.
The paper suggests that the case of mere is not unique and that other privative adjectives have
developed more grammatical and more subjective meanings in a similar way.
Katerina Stathi’s ‘‘The Origin of Semantic Change in Discourse Tradition: A Case Study’’
shows how the textual context or discourse tradition in which semantic change of a lexical item
originates may be reflected in the meaning of that item. The German verb gehören (literally
‘belong to’) expresses necessity and obligation in a construction with the passive participle.
Diachronic evidence reveals that this meaning arose in contexts of law and administration via
pragmatic inference. A synchronic corpus study shows that a significant proportion of the
participles in this construction refers to ‘‘negative’’ actions (which can be subsumed under the
notion of punishment) on the patient. It is claimed that the dominant meaning of the participles
reflects the original context in which gehören developed the meaning of necessity and obligation.
This is described as an instance of persistence.
REFERENCES
Arnovick, L. K. (1999). Diachronic pragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Birner, B. J. (2006). ‘‘Semantic and pragmatic contributions to information status’’, in M.-B. M. Hansen and
K. Turner (eds.), Explorations in the semantics/pragmatics interface. Special issue of Acta Lingvistica
Hafniensia, 38: 14–32.
Brinton, L. J. (2001). ‘‘Historical discourse analysis’’, in D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen and H. E. Hamilton (eds.),
Handbook of discourse analysis. Oxford: Blackwell, 138–160.
Brinton, L. J. and E. T. Traugott (2005). Lexicalization and language change, (research surveys in linguistics).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Company Company, C. (2006). ‘‘Subjectification of verbs into discourse markers: Semantic–pragmatic change
only?’’. Belgian Journal of Linguistics 20: 97–121.
Company Company, C. (2006). ‘‘Zero in syntax, ten in pragmatics: Subjectification as syntactic cancellation’’,
in A. Athanasiadou, C. Canakis and B. Cornillie (eds.), Subjectification: Various paths to subjectivity,
(cognitive linguistics research 31). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 375–397.
Couper-Kuhlen, E. and S. A. Thompson (2000). ‘‘Concessive patterns in conversation’’, in E. Couper-Kuhlen
and B. Kortmann (eds.), Cause–condition–concession–contrast: Cognitive and discourse perspectives.
Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 381–410.
Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 17
Diewald, G. (2002). ‘‘A model for relevant types of contexts in grammaticalization’’, in I. Wischer and
G. Diewald (eds.), New reflections on grammaticalization. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 103–120.
Diewald, G. (2006). ‘‘Context types in grammaticalization as constructions’’, Constructions, SV1-9. http://
www.constructions-online.de/
Dostie, G. (2004). Pragmaticalisation et marqueurs discursifs. Analyse sémantique et traitement
lexicologique. Brussels: De Boeck/Duculot.
Eckardt, R. (2003). The structure of change. Meaning change under reanalysis. Habilitation thesis, Berlin:
Humboldt Universität (Revised version published in 2006 by Oxford University Press).
Enfield, N. J. (2005). ‘‘Micro- and macro-dimensions in linguistic systems’’, in S. Marmaridou, K. Nikiforidou
and E. Antonopoulou (eds.), Reviewing linguistic thought: Converging trends for the 21st century (Trends
in linguistics. Studies and monographs, Vol. 161). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 313–325.
Erman, B. and U.-B. Kotsinas (1993). ‘‘Pragmaticalization: The case of ba’ and you know’’. Studier i modern
språkvetenskap 10: 76–93.
Evans, N. and D. Wilkins (2000). ‘‘In the mind’s ear: The semantic extensions of perception verbs in
Australian languages’’. Language 76: 546–592.
Grice, H. P. (1989[1975]). ‘‘Logic and conversation’’, in his studies in the way of words. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 22–40.
Hansen, M.-B. M. (2008), Particles at the semantics/pragmatics interface: Synchronic and diachronic issues.
A study with special reference to the French phasal adverbs, (Current research in the semantics–
pragmatics interface, Vol. 19). Oxford/Bingley: Elsevier/Emerald.
Hansen, M.-B. M. and R. Waltereit (2006). ‘‘GCI theory and language change’’, in M.-B. M. Hansen and
K. Turner (eds.), Explorations in the semantics/pragmatics interface. Special issue of Acta Lingvistica
Hafniensia, 38: 235–268.
Heine, B. (2002). ‘‘On the role of context in grammaticalization’’, in I. Wischer and G. Diewald (eds.), New
reflections on grammaticalization. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 103–120.
Hopper, P. J. (1987). ‘‘Emergent grammar’’. Berkeley Linguistics Society 13: 139–157.
Hopper, P. J. and E. C. Traugott (2003). Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jacobs, A. and A. H. Jucker (1995). ‘‘The historical perspective in pragmatics’’, in A. H. Jucker (ed.),
Historical pragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 3–33.
Koch, P. (2004). ‘‘Metonymy between pragmatics, reference, and diachrony’’. Metaphorik.de 7: 6–54.
www.metaphorik.de
Labov, W. (1994). Principles of linguistic change, internal factors. Oxford: Blackwell.
Lehmann, C. (1985). ‘‘Grammaticalization: Synchronic variation and diachronic change’’. Lingua e stile XX
(3): 303–318.
Levinson, S. C. (1995). ‘‘Three levels of meaning’’, in F. R. Palmer (ed.), Grammar and meaning. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 90–115.
Levinson, S. C. (2000). Presumptive meanings. The theory of generalized conversational implicature.
Harvard, MA: MIT Press.
Pons Borderı́a, S. (2006). ‘‘From pragmatics to semantics: esto es in formulaic expressions’’, in M.-B. M.
Hansen and K. Turner (eds.), Explorations in the semantics/pragmatics interface. Special issue of Acta
Lingvistica Hafniensia, 38: 180–206.
Schwenter, S. A. and Waltereit, R. (forthcoming). ‘‘Presupposition accommodation and language change’’, in
H. Cuyckens, K. Davidse and L. Vandelanotte (eds.), Subjectification, intersubjectification and
grammaticalization, (Topics in English linguistics). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Scollon, R. and S. W. Scollon (2001). Intercultural communication. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell.
18 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
Traugott, E. C. (1989). ‘‘On the rise of epistemic meanings in English: An example of subjectification in
semantic change’’. Language 57: 33–65.
Traugott, E. C. (1995). ‘‘Subjectification in grammaticalization’’, in D. Stein (ed.), Subjectivity and
subjectivisation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 31–54.
Traugott, E. C. (1999). ‘‘The role of pragmatics in semantic change’’, in J. Verschueren (ed.), Pragmatics in
1998: Selected Papers from the 6th International Pragmatics Conference. Vol. 2. Antwerp: International
Pragmatics Association, 93–102.
Traugott, E. C. (forthcoming). ‘‘Revisiting subjectification and intersubjectification’’, in H. Cuyckens,
K. Davidse and L. Vandelanotte (eds.), Subjectification, intersubjectification and grammaticalization,
(Topics in English linguistics). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Traugott, E. C. and R. B. Dasher (2002). Regularity in semantic change. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Visconti, J. (2005). ‘‘On the origins of scalar particles in Italian’’, in M.-B. M. Hansen and C. Rossari (eds.),
The evolution of pragmatic markers. Special issue of Journal of Historical Pragmatics, 6(2): 237–261.
Waltereit, R. (2002). ‘‘Imperatives, interruption in conversation, and the rise of discourse markers: A study of
Italian guarda’’. Linguistics 40 (5): 987–1010.
Wierzbicka, A. (1991). Cross-cultural pragmatics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Wierzbicka, A. (2006). English. Meaning and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 19
Current Trends In Diachronic Semantics And Pragmatics 1st Edition Majbritt Mosegaard Hansen
Current Trends in Diachronic Semantics and Pragmatics
Edited by Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited. All rights reserved.
2
APO: AVOID PRAGMATIC OVERLOAD
Regine Eckardt
1. CHANGE WITHOUT MYSTERIES
Much recent work in historical linguistics, notably historical pragmatics, is focused on the
mysterious moment where a new item or construction sees the day of the light. Theoretically
speaking, such a situation should have the following characteristics:
(1) There is a speaker who makes an utterance: u
u is still part of the old language stage Lold
The hearer understands: uu
uu is part of the new stage Lnew
If we really want to capture moments of change, we must assume that the hearer was not
already competent in the new language stage Lnew before s/he understood uu. The innovation is
constituted by the hearer parsing the utterance and deriving a meaning in a way that differs from
what the speaker had in mind with her utterance u.
There are several proposals in the literature about how situations of this kind can arise. One very
simple scenario really avoids all difficulties by claiming that new language stages typically come
about by innovative acts by the speaker. The speaker can decide to use language in innovative ways,
and to the extent that the hearer can make sense of an innovative utterance, and adopts the suggested
underlying pattern, the hearer confirms and adopts the new language stage. This view is already
inherent in traditional work in language history (von der Gabelentz, 1891; Paul, 1920) and it is
moreover extremely plausible, because we can observe innovative utterances on a daily basis. Yet,
when we think about the origin of the more routine parts of language – aspect forms, particles,
tenses – it is unlikely that all these have come about by witty remarks of creative speakers.
According to another scenario, innovations can enter a language because hearers are
incompetent, simply misunderstanding the intended linguistic structure of the speaker’s utterance.
Indeed, we know that an increased rate of potential misunderstandings, for example, in large L2
communities, may lead to increased speed in language change but there are interesting cases in the
histories of languages where no such driving force would be known.
In recent work, Traugott and Dasher (2002) have devised another detailed scenario which
illustrates the above type of situation. Traugott in fact was the first to point out that pragmatic
processes are a driving force in language change (König and Traugott, 1988; Traugott, 1988), and
this is explored in her theory of implicature-based language change. An utterance can mean more
than its literal meaning (implicatures). Implicated information can turn into lexically denoted
information (generalized invited inferences, GIINs). Due to this reinterpretation (by the hearer),
items and constructions can change in meaning. Again, the appeal of the analysis lies in the fact
that it rests on pragmatic processes that can be witnessed all over the place in contemporary
communication. Hence, the GIIN theory of language change adheres to the uniformitarian
principle.
In the present paper, I want to draw attention to yet another pragmatic factor that can lead to
utterance-comprehension mismatches of the type in (1), namely the presuppositions of utterance
u. A sentence u presupposes further information f if u only makes sense at all if f is known.
Definite noun phrases like ‘the king of France’ are typical textbook examples. Most sentences that
contain the NP ‘the king of France’ will only make sense – whether they be true or false – if there
is such a person in the first place. If a speaker utters a sentence with presupposed information, s/he
relies on shared knowledge between speaker and hearer. How can presuppositions give rise to
language change? Sometimes, a speaker will utter a sentence u, which presupposes information f
that the hearer actually did not know before. In this case, the hearer will frequently just tacitly
adopt f as another piece of new information that the speaker seems to believe (or else, the speaker
would not have uttered u). If the hearer feels that f is totally unwarranted, s/he can object (‘hey,
listen, there is no king of France’). In the present paper, I will investigate a further kind of
semantic accident that presuppositions can cause, one that, to my knowledge, has not received
attention in either semantics/pragmatics or historical linguistics. We find linguistic exchange
where an utterance u presupposes information f that is ‘‘hard to believe’’ not in the sense that it
would be a proposition with clear but dubitable content. Sometimes, presuppositions are ‘‘hard to
believe’’ in that it is unclear what the presupposed facts that would license an utterance could look
like at all. Hearers (or readers) of such utterances will diagnose that (i) either the speaker believes
facts about the world that are unclear and dubious or that (ii) the speaker might have used words
or phrases in a sense that were formerly unknown to the hearer. If the hearer pursues hypothesis
(ii), s/he may come to interpret the utterance in some innovative way uu that defines a new
language (micro) stage Lnew even though the speaker firmly believed that he/she was making an
utterance u in the conservative Lold. From the speaker’s perspective, all the hearer would have had
22 Regine Eckardt
to do is adopt-and-believe some presuppositions (we will use the official term accommodation
later). From the hearer’s perspective, it was harder to accommodate the presupposed information
than to believe that the utterance was really something new. The utterance created too much
pragmatic overload. This is the abstract backbone of the proposal.
I will discuss four example cases where I believe that this proposal is better in line with the
attested uses at certain phases of semantic change than either one of the accounts that I listed at the
beginning. I can not exclude that the real change came about in ways different from those that I
will devise here. However, the present proposal is an attempt to make sense of data in phases of
change, which are hard to reconcile with other analyses of change, notably those listed at the
beginning. In the next sections, I will introduce the examples and will list the open questions that
are posed. I will then offer a more detailed introduction of presuppositions and presupposition
accommodation, the core concepts of my proposal. We will then see how change arises from
pragmatic overload in each of the examples at stake.
2. IMPLICATURES ARE NOT ENOUGH
In this paper, I will be concerned with the following four items. All of them passed at least once
from one meaning to a subsequent new meaning, as listed here.
German fast (1) ‘immovably, tight’W(2) ‘very much’W(3) ‘almost’
English even (1) ‘flat, smooth’W(2) ‘exactly’W(3) scalar particle
German selbst (1) intensifying – selfW(2) ‘even’
Italian perfino (1) ‘through to the end’W(2) ‘even’
When looking at these semantic stages, one can not but wonder what kind of absent-
mindedness or creative impulse would drive a speaker – any speaker – to initiate the respective
innovation. Scalar particles notoriously have incensed researchers’ interest (for a survey, see, e.g.,
Traugott, 2006). Consider fast2 to fast3 in German. Who would use a word meaning ‘very much’
to express the concept of approximation? Take even: Who would use a word that means ‘exactly’
to express the concept of scalar extremity? In the examples below, I try to give a feeling for the
distance between old meaning – new meaning. If we were to witness a change scenario, speaker of
Lold would have utter the (a) sentence and the hearer would have to understand something like the
(b) sentence.
(2) a. speaker: ‘‘Tom is very drunk’’
b. hearer understands: ‘Tom is almost drunk’
(3) a. speaker: ‘‘Sally went exactly to the police’’
b. hearer understands: ‘Sally went even to the police’
Avoid pragmatic overload 23
It is virtually impossible to conceive of any context/content of utterance where the
(a) utterances would give rise to implicatures like those in (b). This is particularly clear for the
case of fastGerman. It has been argued that almost S entails not S (Sadock, 1981) while very S
certainly does entail S. The relevant entailments are summarized in (4).
(4) Tom is very drunk-Tom is drunk.
Tom is almost drunk-Tom is not drunk.
If (2.b) were an implicature of (2.a), we’d face a case of an utterance with a logically
contradicting implicature. This only happens when a speaker flouts the maxim of quality and
makes an ironic statement. It would be possible, of course, to use very/fastGerman in an ironic
statement. Yet, then we’d normally understand that ‘‘very much P’’, ironically, conveys that ‘‘not
P at all’’. For the other three instances of change, it is likewise hard to tell a story how
implicatures should give rise to the newer sense.
Yet, speculations are of limited value and instead of debating the possibility or impossibility of
certain types of implicatures, we should take a look at usages of the items in question that have
been found indicative for imminent or ongoing change by earlier authors. Traugott (2001, 2006)
offers a detailed discussion of data in the phase of emergence of even in the scalar sense. Among
other examples, she offers (5) as an interesting quote around the turning point from ‘exactly’ to
scalar particle.
(5) when I remembre your ffavour and your sadde loffynge delynge to me wardes, ffor south
ye make me evene veray glade and joyus in my hart; [ . . . ]
‘when I remember your beauty and sober loving behaviour toward me, truly you make
me oevenW very glad and joyous in my heart . . . ’
(1476 Private Letters of John Shillingford, II, 7 after Traugott, 2001: 10)
We will certainly agree with Traugott’s diagnosis that (5) does not show a straightforward use
of even in the then predominant sense ‘exactly, just’. However, it is not a use of the type that one
would expect in the light of the GIIN theory either. Specifically, this is not a passage where the
speaker literally utters ‘‘you make me exactly happy’’ and thereby implicates ‘‘you make me very
happy’’. As the first proposition does not implicate the second even in particular, it can’t be a
generalized invited implicature, either. Pre-theoretically speaking, (5) simply looks like a mistaken
choice of words by the writer, a Thomas Betson to his cousin Katherine Ryche (Traugott, 2001:
10). Traugott glosses the use as ‘‘emphatic’’ which is a plausible prose characterization of the
passage, but not part of an analysis of the development in terms of GIINs.
Similar ‘‘mistaken’’ uses can be found for the other three items in (1) at the turn between older
and newly emerging additional sense. Given that they don’t seem to exemplify implicature, nor
irony, nor any other known rhetorical pattern, one might want to know what was going on there.
I will elaborate the hypothesis that such examples show instances of pragmatic overload and are
24 Regine Eckardt
reinterpreted by the reader in order to Avoid Pragmatic Overload (APO). In the next section, I will
introduce the notion of presuppositions in some more detail before we turn to an illustration of the
APO reanalysis on basis of our four sample items.
3. PRESUPPOSITION IN HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
The presuppositions of a sentence S are those pieces of information that the speaker needs to
believe in order to make sense of S: S presupposes f if S can only be reasonably be uttered if f is
assumed to hold true. Notably, presuppositions need to hold independently of whether the content
of S is asserted, denied, questioned, modalized, etc. (see Geurts, 1999 for a very clear survey of
presupposition tests). A presupposition f of S is not entailed by S; negating S, or asking whether
S, also requires that the speaker believes that f. The following sentences illustrate the
phenomenon.
(6) My grandmother stopped smoking pot.
(7) My grandmother did not stop smoking pot.
(8) Has your grandmother stopped smoking pot?
Each of (6)–(8) presuppose f ¼ ‘My grandmother used to smoke pot.’
Ideally, in actual communication, speaker and hearer share information that is presupposed by
the speaker’s utterance. For the speaker, the requirement is tantamount to not making senseless
contributions. A rational speaker will only assert S if s/he believes that the presuppositions of
S hold true. An utterance like the following is incoherent.
(9) x My grandmother stopped smoking pot and I don’t believe that she ever smoked pot.
For the hearer, matters may be somewhat different. In many cases, the hearer will not have
been aware of all pieces of information that are presupposed by the speaker’s utterance. Having
spotted the presuppositions, however, the hearer will usually assume that the speaker has made a
meaningful contribution and adopt the presuppositions as part of shared common knowledge. In
technical terms, the hearer will accommodate the presuppositions of the speaker’s utterance.
(10) A: Did Granny finally stop smoking pot?
B accommodates: ‘A’s grandmother must have been smoking pot.’
Stalnaker (2002) offers an explicit modeling of presupposition accommodation in terms of
common ground update. Presupposition accommodation is exploited rhetorically, for instance
when the speaker wants to convey information without plainly asserting it. When a teacher tells
her student ‘‘I regret to inform you that you have failed the exam’’, she actually asserts ‘I regret S’
and presupposes ‘S holds true’. The student will have to accommodate S: ‘I failed the exam’ in
Avoid pragmatic overload 25
order to make sense of the teacher’s assertion ‘I regret S’. Hence, the teacher will effectively, but
not rhetorically, have informed the student about the failing. Yet, such rhetorical tricks will not
play a role in our examples.
Sometimes it may be hard to guess and accommodate the correct presuppositions that the
speaker has in mind. In such cases, the hearer can ask back. In (11), the particle also gives rise to
the presupposition that Tommy knows more persons who wear wonder bras. If Sue does not know
who that may be (Tommy himself being an unlikely option), she can ask back.
(11) Tommy: Do you also wear ‘wonder bra’?
Sue: Yes, why – who else does?
Finally, the presuppositions of the speaker’s utterance may be problematic in that they are in
conflict with general knowledge. Assume that someone utters (12) (with the indicated accent, and
the additive particle associating with you).
(12) Are you ALSO a mother of Peter Smith?
In (12), also gives rise to the presupposition f ¼ ‘the speaker knows more mothers of Peter
Smith’. Most likely, the hearer would challenge the presupposition (‘‘Peter Smith has several
mothers?’’) and reject it. Sometimes, as we will see, such unreasonable presuppositions are less easy
to express than in the case at hand. In such cases, hearers are less likely to start debating and instead
may just try to make sense of the utterance one way or other. Even in (12), the hearer could decide to
adopt an interpretation of the sentence that allows for the accommodation of the presupposition.
Specifically, the word mother could be interpreted in a way that allows for people to have several
mothers (‘‘interpret mother as one of the women who pamper Peter Smith’’). However, the more far-
fetched such interpretations get, the more semantic charity is necessary in order to do justice to the
presuppositions. This is what I call ‘‘the utterance carries a pragmatic overload’’.
4. IMPLAUSIBLE PRESUPPOSITIONS
We will now turn to our list of four items even, fast, perfino, and selbst. It turns out that the
items in their older senses likewise give rise to presuppositions, but to more subtle ones than
the examples in Section 3. We will take a closer look at each case in turn. At the time antedating
the emergence of the contemporary senses of these words, we find uses of the word in sentences
where presuppositions can not be accommodated because they contradict common world
knowledge. Let us say that little pragmatic ‘‘accidents’’ happened from time to time. Not all of
these accidents necessarily need to lead straight to the newly emerging sense of the word.
However, many of these pragmatic ‘‘accidents’’ could best be repaired by the hearer if he or she
hypothesized that the problematic item was in fact used in a new sense. In such cases, the modern
26 Regine Eckardt
reader will be able to interpret the sentence on the basis of the modern use of the word, and the
only remaining surprise would be how the contemporary reader/hearer would have been able to do
the same, given that he did not know as yet where language history would lead.
The present section illustrates pragmatic accidents for fast (German), even, perfino, and selbst.
In each case, I will briefly specify the older reading of the word, spell out the presuppositions of
that older reading, and then show examples from the crucial time of change where these
presuppositions were hard or impossible to accommodate.
4.1. fast (German)
German and English fast go back to a common adverbial root which meant ‘‘tightly, fast’’ in
the sense of both physical attachment as well as mental attachment to a cause. It is used in this
sense in the examples in (13) and (14) (all quotes from Deutsches Wörterbuch, Grimm and Grimm
(1854–1960)).
(13) sölh pflicht halt fast
‘this duty hold fast’
(1535 Schwarzenberg 139, 2, from DW 3:1348)
(14) halt fast den pfluog
‘hold the plough fast/tightly’
(1535 Schwarzenberg 140, 2, from DW 3: 1348)
Subsequently, the notion of taking a ‘good grip’ was extended to gradable properties in general.
The word became a degree modifier with the meaning of very much. Here, German and English
part ways, the English adverb adopting the notion of moving on with ‘high speed’, as laid out in
the classical study by Stern (1931). The German degree use is illustrated in (15) and (16).
(15) dis ler und trost mich fast erquickt
‘this lesson and consolation revives me very much’
(1535 Schwarzenberg 152, 2, from DW 3: 1348)
(16) wenn du gleich fast darnach ringest, so erlangestu es doch nicht.
‘even if you struggle for it hard, you will not attain it’
(1534 Luther, Sir. 11, 2, from DW 3: 1350)
The use of an adverb which reports that a property P held to a high degree carries the
presupposition that P is a gradable property in the first place. Otherwise, the combination fast P
will not make any sense.
The DW offers quotations like the following, around the time when the approximative use
emerged. The authors of the dictionary clear-sightedly comment that here, the sense of fast was
Avoid pragmatic overload 27
‘‘leaning towards the newer sense ‘almost’’’. Taking a closer look at the respective examples in
order to understand why this may be so, we note that they typically fail to combine fast with a
gradable property.
(17) weil er fast hundert ierig war
‘he was very much?/almost? hundred years old’
(1534 Luther, Röm. 4, 19, from DW 3; 1350)
(18) kamen darauff fast um zwo uren
‘(they) arrived there very much?/almost? at two o’clock/sharp?’
(c. 1576 Fischart gl. schif 185, from DW 3: 1350)
(19) Nun war gedachtes VerzeichniX so accurat eingerichtet,
daX fast nicht ein Balcken vergessen war,
‘that very much?/almost? not ONE log forgotten was’
wo er solte eingeschoben, wie er solte bekleidet oder gemahlet, wie er solte behobelt
und beschnitzet werden.
(1672, Weise erzn. eingang, from DW 3: 1350)
We will discuss this impression of ‘‘leaning towards a newer sense’’ on the basis of an
utterance like (17), rendered in the English equivalent in (17u).
(17u) He was very muchdeg 100 years old.
Be 100 years old is not usually something that one can be with more or less intensity. Either the
speaker was unaware of the problem and erroneously chose fast instead of the qualifier that
expresses what he actually had had in mind. Or the speaker indeed conceptualized the property be
100 years old as gradable; perhaps thinking of degrees of senility, or wisdom, or poise. The reader
will notice the problem: very much presupposes a gradable property, but be 100 years old isn’t
one. The required mental search for a way in which be 100 years old could possibly be conceived
of as gradable is what makes (17) hard to process: it creates the pragmatic overload for the
utterance in (17).
For completeness’ sake, note that (17) can not give rise to any implicatures or other
inference (general or particular) unless the reader finds some way to map the utterance onto
some literal content in the first place, because meaningless utterances don’t give rise to
implicatures. If this first derivation of literal content should already carry the reader to the
proposition ‘he was almost 100 years old’ then the change from very much to almost does not
arise by implicature. In principle, of course, it could be claimed that the reader computed
some other proposition q as the literal content of (17) and that this other proposition q, in that
context, implicated the newer sense ‘he was almost 100’. But then, I can’t see what q could
possibly be.
28 Regine Eckardt
4.2. even
In its earliest attested stage, once again shared by the German cognate eben, the word even
denoted ‘evenly, smoothly’ as a property of surfaces.
(20) Do past or cleye ther-upon al aboute as ytold bi-fore, caste Scalding hot honey euene
ther-upon
‘Put paste or mud thereon all around as said before cast scalding hot honey evenly
thereon’
(c. 1450 Horses, p. 113 [Helsinki], quote/translation after Traugott, 2006: 346)
This notion can also be applied in cases where two or more objects put together form an even
surface, and hence one fits the other evenly. From such uses, a somewhat later sense developed
that can be paraphrased in modern English by: ‘exactly, precisely; in (exactly) equal degree’. As to
be expected, the exact match can be one between two objects, or an object and a measure, as
illustrated in (21) (the passage describes the measures of Noah’s ark).
(21) The heght is euen thyrty Cubettys full strenght.
‘the height is exactly thirty cubits full strength’
(c. 1500 Towneley Plays, p. 21 [Helsinki], quote/translation after Traugott, 2006: 347)
The qualification that something was ‘‘exactly, just, precisely P’’ presupposes
 a topology of approximating P-hood (canonically illustrated by numbers and scales like
‘roughly 20 years old’ – ‘exactly 20 years old’)
 approximation from more than one direction
The topology need not rest on scientific scales or geometrical spaces; human concepts can rest
on more general topological spaces (e.g., Gärdenfors, 2000). The examples in (22) rest on a
topology of similarities between singing events, and report closer and loser similarities between
events where nightingales are singing and where humans are singing.
(22) She sang approximately like a nightingale
She sang exactly like a nightingale
The notion of ‘exactness’ is inapplicable
 when a property P can not be approximated (#be roughly/exactly pregnant)
 when a property P is inherently vague itself (# be roughly/exactly angry)
 when a property P is the polar end of a scale
The last restriction may come somewhat surprisingly, but can easily be verified if we consider
infelicitous examples like those in (23). The infelicity arises for all adverbials that express
Avoid pragmatic overload 29
‘‘exactness’’, and can be reproduced in other languages as well. Hence I take it that the restriction
is not one that only accidentally applies to one special adverb of contemporary English alone. It
appears to be part of the notion of an exact hit, and its opposite, the missing, that the target point
can be missed in more than one direction.
(23) a. #Tom exactly emptied the glass.
b. #The dog exactly died.
c. #Anna read the book exactly to the end.
This was the state of English even at the time when the scalar particle started to develop. The
following quotes, taken from Traugott (2001) alone, show attested uses of even around the time of
the emergence of the scalar particle. Each of them fails to satisfy one or the other aspect of the
topology that is presupposed by the notion of an exact (‘even’) match.
(24) whanne I remembre your ffavour and your sadde loffynge delynge to me wardes, ffor
south ye make me evene veray glade and joyus in my hart: and on the tothersyde agayn
whanne I remembre your yonge youthe. And seeth well that ye be none eater of your
mete, the which shuld helpe you greately in waxynge; ffor south than ye make me very
hevy again.
‘When I remember your beauty and sober loving behaviour toward me, truly you make
me really very glad and joyous in my heart, and on the other hand again, when I
remember your young age, and see clearly that you are no eater of your food, which
should help you greatly in your growing, truly then you make me very sad again.’
(1476 Private Letters of John Shillingford, II, 7, in Kingsford’s Stonor Letters and
Papers; translation after Traugott, 2001: 10)
What we see here is the combination of evene and veray glade (‘truly happy’). The latter
denotes a gradable property that has vague boundaries. There are no clear criteria from where on a
person should count as veray glade in contrast to ‘‘simply’’ glade. Against this background, evene
is supposed to contribute some qualification of J.S.’s happiness. The reader will face a conceptual
mismatch between the modifier evene and its argument veray glade, which violates the topological
properties presupposed by evene. The passage is pragmatically problematic if we assume that the
author attempted to use a word that means ‘precisely’. We could conceptualize the property veray
glade as one with clearly circumscribed extension, but it is not clear what should define the exact
boundaries of happiness. We therefore face a pragmatic overload. Traugott boldly glosses even as
‘really’, granting J.S. reasonable (though innovative) use of (Early Modern) English and thus
nicely illustrates the move of the charitable hearer. The passage is classed as ‘‘must be emphatic’’,
and indeed, emotional undertones seem to carry away the writer. It is unclear, however, whether
30 Regine Eckardt
we don’t just witness a use of the older item even ‘exactly’ with poorly justified presuppositions.1
The following quote of Traugott may show another poorly justified use of ‘exactly’.
(25) is not this he that sate and begged? Some sayde: this is he. Other sayd: he is lyke him.
But he him selfe sayde: I am even he.
‘Is not this the man that sat and begged? Some said: This is he. Others said: He is like
him. But he himself said, I am exactly (?) he.’
(1534, Tyndale, New Testament, IX, i. quoted and translated after Traugott, 2006: 349)
The protagonists are concerned with the similarity of one person to another. Taking into
consideration what the dialogue is actually about, the notion of exactness seems once again poorly
in place. To be or not to be identical to someone is, after all, a categorical property and not one
that can be approximated: ?Saulus is roughly/exactly identical to Paulus. What might have
interfered is the property of looking similar/exactly like someone. Of course, we can think of
visual similarity to ever higher degrees. But that is not what is at stake, the interlocutors do not
care whether the speaker is a twin of the man that sate and begged.
The passage in (26) shows another use of even where the presuppositions of the word in its
older sense are violated.
(26) but sayde, he had rather be sycke even vnto death then he wold breake his espousals.
‘But said he would rather be sick precisely?/even?/ø unto death than break his vows.’
(1449 Latimer, Sermons: 36 after Traugott, 2001: 11)
Once more, the use of even fails to adhere to the presuppositions of approximation. While
‘dying’ can be approximated by sicknesses of different degrees of severity, it is conceptually
impossible to ‘‘miss’’ dead and die ‘‘roughly’’ in contrast to ‘‘exactly’’. The reader at the time
faced the task to accommodate an impossible presupposition, which reads roughly like: ‘‘death is
not the polar end of the scale of sicknesses of increasing severity’’ (‘exactness’ presupposing that
the exact hit can be missed in several directions). This quotation will quite naturally lend itself to a
reanalysis in the scalar sense that is expressed by modern even.
Note that the range of attested uses of even illustrates that not all the pragmatic ‘‘accidents’’
need to receive a rescue interpretation that leads toward the modern sense of the word. In
retrospect, all we can say is that those rescue interpretations, which led to the hypothesis that even
denoted the scalar particle determined the future use of the word. Of course, it can not be proved
that the specific passage in (26) (or any other, at that) is the driving pragmatic accident. However,
it can plausibly be assumed that the crucial passages looked somewhat like (26).
1
It is certainly right to assume, as Traugott does, that J.S. may have intended to say ‘‘really very
happy‘‘, but the words chosen may not have expressed this thought even at the time.
Avoid pragmatic overload 31
Let me finally point out, again, that neither (24) nor (25) support the assumption that even in
the scalar sense emerged by generalized implicatures (GIIN analysis). In neither (24) nor (25) is
even used in its literal old sense plus giving rise to an implicature that exactly P was most
surprisingly P. The word even is not used reasonably in its old sense at all, and hence can not give
rise to implicatures. The reader’s hermeneutic activity is initiated by the very observation that the
older use of even can not be the one at stake in either example.
4.3. perfino
In its modern sense, perfino translates to English even and can be used in sentences like the one
in (27).
(27) È venuto perfino Matteo
‘Even Matteo came’
(Visconti, 2005: 238)
In its traditional sense in Old Italian, perfino literally meant ‘through until, to the end’.
A typical example, offered in Visconti (2005), is shown in (28).
(28) b. Dentro in un bosco, che’è quivi vicino,/t’ imbosca es sta perfino al mattutino.
‘In a wood, which is near here, hide yourself in the wood and stay until morning’
(–1380 La Spagna after Visconti, 2005: 243)
A word that reports that P ‘‘holds through until the end’’ presupposes a topology, which defines
betweenness and the ancillary notion of an uninterrupted state between two points. The topology
can be one in space, but also one on more abstract domains.
The reached point can be neutral (like in (28)) but also conceptualized as a polar endpoint on a
scale.
(29) In ciò ancora che perseverò in croce perfino alla morte, ci dà ammaestramento di
perfetta obbedienza e pazienza, e di perseverare nella penitenza
‘In that too, that he endured the cross until death, he provides us with an example of
perfect obedience and patience.’
(1432 Cavalca, Esp. simbolo after Visconti, 2005: 243)
The following quote around the time of emergence of the scalar use ‘even’ is taken from
Visconti (2005). It fails to warrant the presuppositions of perfino in its older sense.
(30) [ . . . ] in acqua, in neve, in grandine o pruina: a tutto il ciel s’inclina, perfino a quel
che la natura sprezza’
‘Water, snow, hail or frost: To everything bends the sky, even to that which nature
despises’
(1389–1420 S. Serdini, Rime after Visconti, 2005: 244)
32 Regine Eckardt
The use of perfino in (30) presupposes the existence of a continuum, which passes from water,
snow, hail, and frost to ‘‘that which nature despises’’. Or, is frost the thing that nature despises?
And, is there a continuum from good to ever more evil things, or isn’t it more a categorical
distinction between ‘‘the good’’ and ‘‘the bad’’? Such questions are indicative for an utterance
with a presupposition, which may or may not be plausible. In some sense, the speaker in (30) is
free to believe in continuous scales of whatever kind (mathematically, there is practically nothing
that could stop you from ordering any set whatsoever). But if the scale is too ad hoc, or too
private, the hearer will have a hard time in understanding how the speaker believes the
presuppositions of (30) satisfied. S/he has hence the choice between guessing and accommodating
the speaker’s scale ( ¼ what the speaker believes hearer will do) and accepting a presupposition
failure due to lack of a suitable scale. If the hearer decides for the latter option, s/he will next
hypothesize that the speaker actually used perfino in a different sense, and interpret the utterance
(30) in a new way – possibly and plausibly assuming that perfino was meant to mean ‘even’.
4.4. selbst
Like its English cognate, selbst is attested at an early stage as an intensifier in German. It can
still be used in this sense, in the form selbst and its variant selber, which unambiguously denotes
the intensifier. (31) shows an example.
(31) Gott selber ruht sich manchmal aus.
‘God himself takes a rest sometimes.’
The intensifier associates with a certain nominal element in the sentence. (31) shows an
adnominal use where the intensifier follows the associated element directly. As argued in
Baker 1995, Kemmer 1995, the use of selber/selbst presupposes that the associated object (here:
‘God’) is conceptualized as the center of a salient entourage (here: ‘God’ as the center of His
creation). Generally, the use of intensifying selber only makes sense if the associated referent, the
x of x-self so to speak, is understood to come with an entourage, peripheral objects or persons, in
which x constitutes a central point. I will refer to this presupposition as the entourage
presupposition; we will leave the details on focusing and accent placement aside for the ease of
exposition.
(32) shows a quotation from 1650, around the time when the scalar use emerged. We can
assume that the newer sense selbst ¼ even was not in use at the time when this passage was
written. I offer the full context, but the crucial part is the underlined sentence at the end.
(32) Man kan/es ist nicht ohn/ein blut begierig Thier
Gewöhnen daX es spiel vnd nieder knie vor dir/
Man kan/waX noch viel mehr/die starcke flut vmbkehren.
Den strömen widerstehn/den tollen wellen wehren.
Avoid pragmatic overload 33
Man dämpfft der flammen macht/man segelt gegen wind/
Man stürtz’t die felsen hin wo thäl vnd hölen sind.
‘One can, it’s not easy, a bloodthirsty animal/train so that it will play and kneel down
before you/One can, which is even more, reverse the strong flood/resist the streams,
restrain the wild waves/One damps the mighty flames, one sails against the winds/One
throws boulders where there are valleys and caverns.’
Man kan die steine selbst mit weitzenüberziehen.
‘One can the stones ‘selbst’ with wheat cover’
‘One can cover the stones ‘selbst’ (themselves/even?) with wheat.’
(1650 Leo Arm., II, 5)
In a traditional interpretation of the passage on basis of the intensifier, the reader ends with the
following ingredients for the eventual meaning of the underlined sentence:
(33) selbst ¼ intensifier, is supposed to associate with
Steine ‘stones’ to yield ‘stones themselves’
presupposition: ‘stones’ are something that has an entourage, that is the natural center
of some ontological domain.
Once again, this presupposition is not logically contradictory but still hard to satisfy or fill with
content. What could be the entourage of stones? Mentioned in the text are blutbegierig Thier
‘bloodthirsty animal’, starcke flut ‘flood’, tolle wellen ‘wild waves’, flammen ‘flames’ – but
‘stones’ are not a plausible center in this entourage of things either today or in 1650. To check
this, consider the following statement:
(34) Bloodthirsty animals, high flood, wild waves, flames: yet, stones are the worst of them all.
This assertion is as implausible today as it must have been implausible in 1650. Once again, the
reader will face a pragmatic overload when s/he tries to work out an appropriate way to
accommodate the presuppositions of (32) under the old reading of selbst. Once again, this may be
reason for the reader to wonder whether the speaker intended to use selbst in a new sense, one that
would not give rise to unaccommodatable presuppositions.
We have now seen several instances utterances with pragmatic overload, caused by items that
soon after adopted a new meaning. In the next section, I will discuss in more detail why the repair
strategies for the quoted examples could indeed lead the reader/hearer to assume that the word was
used in a new sense, and that it was plausibly the sense that we find in permanent use some decades
later. Before moving on, let me mention that another nice instance of presupposition failures in the
pre-change phase can be traced in the development of lauter, see Eckardt (2006: Chapter 7).
What is most striking about such observations, however, is that pragmatic accidents of this
kind clearly are not restricted to language use in ancient times. Instances of pragmatic overload
can be observed on a daily basis as soon as you start watching the utterances in your daily
34 Regine Eckardt
environment. It is tempting to think that repair interpretations can in some cases converge on
recognizable new stages in the use of words.
5. APO, AND THE CHARITABLE HEARER
The examples in Section 4 illustrate how an utterance can create a pragmatic overload: The
utterance under a conservative interpretation will trigger presuppositions that the hearer can not
easily accommodate or refute. The hearer has three options: S/he can (a) be uncharitable and refuse
to interpret the utterance at all, or (b) face the pragmatic overload and attempt to reconceptualize the
world such that the presupposition makes sense and is consistent, or (c) hypothesize a new meaning
for parts of the utterance, notably the item that gave rise to the problematic presupposition. Option
(c) will allow the hearer to Avoid the Pragmatic Overload. In the examples at hand, it makes indeed
sense to believe that (c) is a viable option for the reader. The hypothesized interpretations for fast,
even, perfino, and selbst which a posteriori turned out to be adopted as new meanings into the
lexicon will fit the context better than the conservative senses, and deviate from the older senses in
only minimal ways. We will take a look at each case in turn.
fast: Combining fastold with a non-gradable property P creates the problem that the degree
modifier can not contribute semantically. The repair strategy was to look for a superproperty P of
P which in turn is gradable, and where P is the polar end point. (In the case of being 100 years
old, the scale of lower ages offers itself, for example.) The semantic contribution of fast was then
taken to be relative to this gradable superproperty: The subject has a property which ranks high on
the P scale. (e.g., the subject has an age that ranks high on the 0–100 year scale; in other words,
he is almost 100 years old.)
(35) very much 100 years oldWalmost 100 years old
property P (gradable) very-P
Figure 2.1. Fast ¼ very.
(gradable) superproperty ∏ almost-P P (nongradable)
Figure 2.2. Fast ¼ almost.
Avoid pragmatic overload 35
Interestingly, the semantic contribution of fastnew remains the same as for fastold, but the
presupposed background has changed drastically. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 visualize the change.
The change implements the idea that
(36) very P ¼ almost P
Eckardt (2007) and similarly Penka (2006), offer a full semantic spell out of this idea. The
proposed semantic analysis for fastnew not only is plausible in terms of language history, but
moreover covers all possible uses that we witness in modern German and constitutes an
improvement on earlier analyses that essentially rest on Sadock (1981). In view of the appealing
simplicity of the reanalysis in question, it becomes all the more implausible to believe that the
semantic change occurred on the basis of some hitherto undetected kind of use where fast/very
much could give rise to implicatures in the sense of fast/almost.
even: In the case of even, the adjustment in the mental lexicon was again minimal. As discussed
above, even in its older sense ‘precisely’ will have required – like all other adverbs that express
the notion of an exact hit or match – that the state of affair Q in question is part of a topology of
more or less similar states of affairs surrounding it. Importantly, the notion of ‘exactness’ prohibits
topologies where Q is the polar end point of a linear topological space.2
This prohibition was
violated in examples like (26), repeated in a modern gloss in (38).
(37) exactly fatally sick
The hearer accepted that evenold was used in a situation where it applied to a polar end point. It
would, however, be void to adopt a word that lexifies what is obvious from the content of the rest
of the sentence. The underlined part would explicate the semantic contribution: The subject could
be sick to death, and this is as far as you can get. Hence, the hearer hypothesized that the scales in
question correlated with a more subjective scale of the speaker, for example, one of increased
surprise, decreased probability, (here) increased woe, etc. These subjective scales formed the
backbone of modern even in the sense exemplified in (39).
(38) sick even to death
Two points may be worth mentioning. First, these interpretive efforts on the hearer’s side might
often be at the basis of subjectification in the sense of Traugott (1995). The hearer, confronted
with (38), has to make a guess what the speaker might have wanted to express. In many cases,
there are canonical answers to this question. At least in the cases at hand, we do not face a
2
A topology, in mathematical terms, is a space with a measure function that measures the distance
between any two points in the space. See Gärdenfors (2000) for a general theory of concepts in
topological spaces.
36 Regine Eckardt
speaker-driven process. Uttering incoherent sentences and hoping that the hearer will grab your
message does not seem a rational communicative strategy.3
Second, the shift that leads from (38)
to (39) can not be described as implicatures of an interpretation of (38) on the basis of even in its
older sense. Nor can I think of any uses of even ‘exactly’ that create an implicature ‘even’, an
implicature that could then be reanalyzed as literal meaning (GIIN).4
The pragmatic overload
view on change, in contrast, can offer a plausible analysis for attested examples rather than
speculating on the existence of unconceivable unattested cases.
perfino: The shift of perfino concerns once more the kinds of scales that can be referred to.
Traditionally, perfino was restricted to scales in the world, as was shown in Visconti (2005). The
pragmatic accident happened in cases where the hearer could not make out any reasonable
conceptual scales. In (30) above, the writer lists a number of evils but does not suggest that they
are linearly ordered in any way. I repeat the example in the English version, volitionally inserting
the translation of the older sense of perfino. This is the semantic material for the (earlier Italian)
reader to start with.
(39) the sky bends ‘‘through until’’ to that which nature despises
The underlined part presupposes a scale. Lacking a more contentful continuous scale, the
reader can meet the need for a scale by interpreting the sentence against the all-purpose scale of
increased surprise/decreasing probability. The reader will hence understand that the proposition
‘the sky bends to that which nature despises’ is presented as the endpoint on that scale. Particles
that signal this kind of side information are those that correspond to ‘even’. Hence, (40) with the
surprise scale is synonymous to (41).
(40) even to that which nature despises
selbst: In the turning point examples of selbst, the hearer/reader was faced with the task to
reconstruct a core–periphery structure that is presupposed by intensifiers (-self). As shown in the
above quotation, it may not have been inconsistent, but simply implausible to adopt such a core–
periphery for the examples at hand. (42) would require us to think about stones as the core
instance of nonfertile ground (true) after a long passage that did not have to do with fertility in the
least, but rather with various kinds of attempts to fight hostile natural forces.
(41) grow wheat on [stones themselves]
3
Notwithstanding that of course, incoherent linguistic behaviour and emotional stress often go hand in
hand. But incoherence in such situations is rather taken as a metalinguistic signal by the observer, usually.
4
This does not, of course, mean that such uses do not exist. Maybe it’s just that I am not trying hard
enough. Yet, I have not so far encountered any plausible fictitious example where any sentence with a
word that means ‘exactly’ would implicate the analogous proposition with ‘even’ replacing ‘exactly’.
Avoid pragmatic overload 37
In such situations, the reader may have refused to face the pragmatic overload and instead
searched for a simpler interpretation of the sentence. While it is conceptually hard to switch from
tempests, floods, and flames to soils of different quality, it is quite easy in the given context to
understand the tasks as ordered to be more and more unfeasible. The task that can least likely be
performed is the task marked by selbst. This hypothesized semantic analysis will have several
consequences. The new item selbstnew can take sentence scope, it no longer is in focus (unlike in
the older construction; see Eckardt, 2001), focusing may be used to indicate the kind of
alternatives on the scale, and selbstnew indicates that the reported state of affairs is high on that
scale. The resulting reanalysis is the one in (43).
(42) even [grow wheat on stones]F
In the present overview, I omit the details of the meaning shifts at stake (see earlier work
for detailed semantic analyses). Case studies reveal that hearers are surprisingly
conservative, maintaining as much of earlier semantic structure as possible and making new
content fit. The present examples suggest that the concept of scale is important in human thinking
both as a new player in meaning (even, selbst, perfino) as well as a semantic part to be maintained
( fast).
Let me sum up some characteristics of language changes that arise in the attempt to
APO.5
First, they constitute instantaneous changes of language in the hearer’s competence,
resulting from the attempt to interpret one specific utterance. Whatever gradual spreads may
occur afterwards – the hearer gradually gaining faith in a new sense of a word, his surroun-
dings being gradually infected to share this new item – the initial shift is discrete. The compe-
tence of the speaker may be momentarily weak, but all in all we face competent speakers
without attempts at creativity. The witnessed lapses of tongue or pen are not beyond what we see
daily in our own environment, interacting with speakers that we hold fully competent. The
competence of the hearer likewise need not be doubted. (In some sense, s/he is still the more
competent of the two.) The reanalyzes do not fit under the label of ‘‘misunderstandings’’ of the
kind prevalent in other domains of language change, for instance contact phenomena or L2
speaker errors.
From a more general perspective, the trend to APO bears resemblance to similar trends toward
simplicity and clarity that have been postulated in syntax, specifically in language acquisition and
5
I am not claiming that all language change is instantaneous, that all language change is initiated by the
APO principle, that all language changes of a certain class – e.g., grammaticalization – are initiated by
APO. The more modest claim is simply that instantaneous change does exist. It does not rest on stupid
or creative speakers. It does not, in all likelihood, leave an impression of novelty in the hearer. It is part
of perfectly normal ordinary use of language (Hermann Paul).
38 Regine Eckardt
language change. Lightfoot (1979) is a classical reference. Lightfoot attempted to explain the
development of the modal system in English by, among other factors, the dismissal of more
complex structures in favour of simpler options. Lightfoot’s ‘‘avoid complex syntactic structure’’
principle in 1979 can be seen as the syntactic twin principle to ‘‘APO’’ on the semantic/pragmatic
side. Even though Lightfoot reshaped his ideas about the development of the modals in later years,
the idea that simpler syntactic structures replace more complex structures in developmental
processes has been retained (e.g., Lightfoot, 1991, 1999).
The APO analysis is moreover appealing in that it fully adheres to the uniformitarian principle.
The uniformitarian principle in language history states, roughly, that any analysis of language
change should rest on processes that can still be observed in contemporary language use. The
APO analysis fulfils this requirement. The proposed changes rest on communicative situations
that we frequently witness ourselves. What is still unexplored is a quantitative analysis of this type
of change. How many pragmatic accidents are necessary for change to become likely? What is the
ratio of accidents in total to accidents where reanalysis led to the item that was later adopted into
the lexicon? So far, these questions can only receive an impressionistic answer, as traditional
classifications tend to sort quotes of words by sense, not by more general categories like whether
they create pragmatic overload.
Many studies report that the point where a new item emerges is frequently preceded by a
phase of great variability in the use of the crucial word. We might understand these pre-phases as
times where a word was promoted by sociolinguistic factors (‘‘fashion words’’) or where other
priming effects led to more retrievals of the word than what would have been warranted. The
modest aim of this paper has been, to offer a new way in which we might understand what really
happens, linguistically, in some of the more puzzling ones of such variable uses at the turning
point between an older and an emerging new word sense. The appeal of this analysis consists in
that it addresses the attested quotes themselves. The attested quotes are perceived as possible
source of change. The quotes are not classed as clear instances of the new language use, ‘‘made
possible by changes that we see nowhere in the data’’. In that sense, the present approach adheres
to my slogan in Section 1: it is one more attempt to understand language change without
mysteries.
REFERENCES
Baker, C. L. (1995). ‘‘Contrast, discourse prominence, and intensification, with special reference to locally free
reflexives in British English’’. Language 71: 63–102.
Grimm, J. and W. Grimm, (eds.) (1854–1960). Deutsches Wörterbuch, S. Hirzel, Leipzig, Quellenverzeichnis
1971.
Eckardt, R. (2001). ‘‘Reanalysing ‘selbst’’’. Natural Language Semantics 9: 371–412.
Avoid pragmatic overload 39
Other documents randomly have
different content
d'Israel; storia che, scrive Renan, è una delle più belle nell'umanità;
s'inizia nell'età più remota, nè sembra chiusa ancora.
III. — L'applicazione dei principii ebraici nel
mondo dei popoli.
La storia di questo popolo si divide in tre periodi, i quali segnano lo
svolgimento graduale di questi principii, e l'applicazione di queste
idee in mezzo alle nazioni.
[pg 13] Il primo periodo l'appelleremo di Concentramento; il
secondo di Dispersione; il terzo di Fusione.
Nel primo, egli combatte per conquistarsi una patria onde
ordinarsi e costituirsi in nazione. La regione che, per tradizioni di
famiglia, come pel mandato imposto ad Israel, doveva essere la sua
sede, il punto per raccogliersi, fu la Siria o Palestina. Era questa la
terra sacra, la terra eletta o di elezione, terra, diremmo,
provvidenziale: La Siria è un istmo che, mentre è chiuso in sè, come
una fortezza, tra i monti, il deserto ed il mare, rannoda insieme i tre
continenti del mondo antico, Asia, Africa, Europa, è la meta verso cui
si sono rivolti gl'invasori da ogni parte del mondo; è la meta che
invoglia le cupidigie di ogni conquistatore, soggetta a continue
guerre e travolta in trasformazioni violente di razze, di religioni, di
imperi, che si rovesciano, si sovrappongono l'uno sull'altro; ed è pure
il punto centrale, cui il mondo antico appellò umbilicus terræ, il
punto in cui s'incontravano tutti i popoli dell'antichità, e, ad un
tempo, era punto d'appoggio, da cui, intermezzando fra tre mondi, si
può esercitare un'azione potente sopra tutti i popoli; punto di
concentramento e di espansione, che raggruppa e snoda, annoda ed
espande.
Dopo lungo periodo di guerre, Israel appena cominciò a stabilirsi
in questa regione, a consolidarsi, e prese a svolgere, applicare i suoi
principii sociali, non sì tosto divenne una forza, egli vide levarsi
contro di lui i popoli, i grandi imperi che lo circondavano, Egizî,
Assiri, Babilonesi; e dovette combattere contro tutti, a difesa della
sua nazionalità, e de' suoi principii.
Questi imperi, oltre all'interesse politico e strategico di rendersi
padroni della Siria, la quale offriva il passaggio per l'Egitto, nei vasti
imperi dell'Asia centrale, e per l'occidente, avevano pure un interesse
speciale, religioso e sociale, per combattere l'Ebreo: e s'iniziò quella
guerra contro l'Ebreo, che ora si dice antisemitismo, [pg 14] e che in
quei tempi veniva combattuta spesso dagli stessi semiti.
Le sue leggi, la sua religione, la sua costituzione sociale, era per
loro un pericolo, una minaccia, però ciascuno aveva interesse che
l'Ebreo non pervenisse a consolidarsi fortemente. La costituzione
sociale dell'Ebraismo era l'antitesi, la negazione di quella di tutti i
popoli e regni dell'antichità, e, come diremmo con parola moderna,
era una minaccia permanente contro l'ordine. Tutti i regni adoravano
una moltitudine di Numi d'ogni forma, avevano culti feroci,
voluttuosi, osceni, o Nume loro era lo stesso imperatore od il
conquistatore.
L'Ebreo, invece, opponeva un Dio solo in cielo, una legge in
terra. Quelli erano divisi in caste, in classi; e le classi privilegiate
erano tutto, il popolo o la massa nulla, l'operaio, il contadino
oppressi, calpestati, schiavi: appo l'Ebreo non esistevano classi,
l'operaio, il contadino il popolo erano tutto, e il sacerdozio stesso era
confinato, isolato all'altare, chiuso, diremmo, nel tempio, e unico re
la legge. Là era autocrazia, teocrazia, e quindi il dispotismo, l'arbitrio
che dominava; qui la legge sovrana, la uguaglianza sociale. Era la
Svizzera, l'Olanda, dell'antichità e come diceva Renan, e prima di lui
disse Michelet: fu la prima e vera democrazia dell'antichità. A quel
modo che tutti i despoti moderni, la Spagna, l'Austria, la Francia, la
Corte di Roma combattevano una lotta accanita contro l'Olanda, la
Fiandra, la Svizzera protestante e poscia contro la Rivoluzione
Francese, non altrimenti tutti i dispotismi e le teocrazie dell'antichità
mossero una guerra continua, accanita contro questo piccolo popolo
libero, e nulla fu risparmiato per ischiacciarlo, sopprimerlo.
Questa la prima e forse l'unica cagione degli odii e delle ostilità
di ogni nazione contro l'Ebreo, la origine e causa vera
dell'Antisemitismo nel mondo antico e nel moderno.
[pg 15] Egli era la condanna d'ogni dispotismo e d'ogni
superstizione, con cui e per cui regnavano, e che volevano far
prevalere pel loro interesse, in nome dell'ordine. Tutti combattevano
colla forza degli eserciti, le calunnie, le mali arti di governo contro
lui; ed egli colla sua legge, i suoi principii religiosi e politici, si levava
solo a lottare contro tutti. Inde irae.
E prima gli convenne combattere contro i potenti imperi dell'Asia
Centrale, Babilonesi, Assiri, Persiani. Essi, che invasero la Siria con
forze sterminate, ebbero facile vittoria sopra questo popolo, piccolo
di numero ed ordinato più per la pace e pel lavoro, che non per le
arti della guerra. Sionne fu espugnata, il tempio arso, il popolo
disperso e fatto schiavo. Ma, se era debole per forze materiali, era
indomito per forze morali. Questo popolo raccolse di nuovo le sue
forze, ricostituì il suo regno, si rifece nazione, potenza; e s'iniziò un
secondo periodo di concentramento: Ma allora nuove forze, altre
potenze, mosse dallo stesso antagonismo politico e religioso, si
levarono contro di lui dall'occidente.
I Seleni, i popoli Greco-Macedoni, i quali miravano specialmente
a combattere e sopprimere il suo culto, la sua legge, e imporre i loro
Numi nel tempio di Sionne; Israel combattè contro di loro una pugna
eroica; quelli furono vinti, il tempio purificato. Allora sorse contro di
loro Roma. Guidava sotto il suo stendardo tutti i popoli, associava a
sè tutte le forze del mondo, e le avventò contro il Dio Ebreo, contro il
popolo, la legge. L'Ebreo si trovò a fronte con Roma, tutto il mondo
schierato contro un pugno d'armati. Fu una guerra di nazionalità,
una resistenza delle più eroiche e grandiose che ricordino le istorie:
l'Ebreo solo, fra tutti i popoli, osava resistere a Roma8
; colla sua
resistenza ne feriva l'orgoglio: conveniva trionfare ad ogni [pg 16]
costo, sopprimerlo. Roma, dopo una lotta di oltre dieci anni, vinse,
Sionne fu espugnata, distrutto il tempio, arso, il popolo condotto in
esiglio e disperso.
E qui comincia il secondo periodo della sua storia, ed il più
tragico; quello della dispersione.
IV. — Periodo della dispersione.
A quel modo, che nei tempi nostri, dopo la reazione del 1815 e lo
smembramento d'Italia, i nostri emigrati, profughi e dispersi in ogni
parte del mondo, presero a cospirare contro l'Austria, che
rappresentava allora ogni dispotismo, e si recarono a combattere in
Spagna, in Grecia, Svizzera e nelle Americhe per la libertà, non
altrimenti gli Ebrei, dopo la caduta del tempio, schiavi o dispersi in
ogni parte del mondo antico, iniziarono una guerra sorda e tenace di
opposizione e di cospirazioni contro Cesare, come contro la
costituzione sociale del mondo pagano. Erano state spezzate nelle
loro mani le armi materiali, ma rimanevano loro invisibili,
inoppugnabili, quelle intellettuali e morali: la fierezza di un popolo, la
fede nella giustizia e nella verità. Milioni di Ebrei, tratti in cattività a
Roma e nelle grandi città, erano condannati a lavorare nei pubblici
edifizî, ad erigere in Roma il Colosseo, le Terme, il palazzo di Cesare.
Quivi si affiatavano, si associavano cogli schiavi ed operai delle
Gallie, della Germania, delle provincie italiane, uniti da un odio
comune, e da una stessa sete di vendetta contro Roma, la terribile
conquistatrice e tiranna delle genti, e contrapponevano le dottrine
religiose e sociali, uscite dal seno dell'Ebraismo, contro quelle
pagane. Così, mentre l'operaio lavorava a sollevare le Terme ed il
Colosseo, orgoglio dei Cesari, minava e scalzava dalla base l'edifizio
dello impero di Cesare e di Roma.
[pg 17] Il Cristianesimo, mentre Sionne ed il tempio erano
ancora in piedi, si era appena diffuso fuori delle sue mura, e delle
provincie Siriache; caduta Sionne, prese uno slancio subitaneo e
cominciò a propagarsi nel mondo greco-latino, nelle grandi capitali
dell'Asia Minore, ed a penetrare in Roma. Il Cristianesimo ne' suoi
primordii rispondeva agli ideali ebraici, così religiosi come sociali.
Cristo, come si vede dalle stesse epistole di S. Paolo, era per essi,
più che persona storica, un ideale, il quale, simbolo della parola dei
loro profeti, corrispondeva alle passioni ardenti e tormentose, che si
agitavano nel profondo dei loro cuori. Nella sua dottrina morale,
come nella passione e morte, trovavano, personificate, le dottrine dei
loro avi, le sofferenze, la crocifissione di tutto un popolo immolato. Al
pari dei nostri martiri patrioti, nei tempi dei Carbonari e martiri della
libertà, egli divenne il centro intorno a cui si raccoglievano tutti gli
oppressi, i sofferenti, e quanti aspiravano a libertà. La maggior parte
dei primi apostoli e martiri erano usciti dal seno degli Ebrei; essi
contrapponevano il Cristo, all'imperatore, il loro Dio, alle divinità
dell'Olimpo Greco-Romano. Voi, dicevano, nell'ardore delle loro
passioni, nell'entusiasmo della fede, voi credeste di trionfare di noi,
di soggiogarci, annientarci, e noi afferriamo uno dei più umili fra i
nostri fratelli, figlio d'un semplice operaio, nato nella piccola terra di
Betlemme, noi lo solleviamo sulle nostre braccia, invano incatenate,
lo gettiamo contro Cesare e Roma, dicendo: Questo sarà il vostro
Re, Imperatore e Dio. Rex Romanorum.
Per circa tre secoli, Cristiani ed Ebrei formarono una medesima
comunione, associati nelle stesse dottrine, rivolti ad uno scopo: La
diffusione ed il trionfo del messianismo. Avversi del pari alle
istituzioni pagane, ribelli al dominio di Cesare, perseguitati del pari,
essi si strinsero in fratellanze segrete, per modo che molti dei martiri
cui il Cristianesimo [pg 18] attribuì a se stesso e santificò, furono
Ebrei. Essi avevano comuni le scuole, come i sepolcri; e nelle recenti
scoperte, in fondo alle catacombe, dalle iscrizioni e dai simboli si
riconosce, che molti dei sepolcri e delle urne coprono le salme di
Ebrei.
La scissura dei due rami, nati dallo stesso ceppo, cominciò
veramente con Costantino, e venne vieppiù allargandosi dopo che la
Chiesa si unì e si associò all'impero.
Dante, nel poema nazionale, in una visione meravigliosa di
poesia e di verità storica, descrive e segna questo momento storico
con parole roventi.
L'aquila vidi scender giù nell'arca
del carro, e lasciar lei di sè pennuta;
. . . . . . . . .
O navicella mia, come mal se' carca9.
Il Cristianesimo primitivo fu trasformato, adulterato e sopra il carro
vide:
Seder sovr'esso una puttana sciolta:
Di costa a lei dritto un gigante
E baciavansi insieme alcuna volta10.
Fu in ogni tempo fina politica della Chiesa romana cedere,
modificarsi secondo le circostanze e le necessità dei tempi. In tal
modo la vediamo ancora nel nostro secolo, nel 1814 e 1815, essa è
a capo della Santa Alleanza, appoggia ogni sorta di despotismo.
Mutate le condizioni politiche, il Vaticano diviene repubblicano,
demagogo in Francia, socialista, antisemita a Vienna, moderato a
Berlino, a Pietroburgo, avverso ad ogni libertà costituzionale e
all'unità, in Italia.
Dopo Costantino cominciò veramente, e venne vieppiù
allargandosi, la scissura fra il Cristianesimo trasformato ed il
Giudaismo. Pullularono le eresie sempre più numerose e ribelli nel
seno del Cristianesimo; esse accusavano la [pg 19] Chiesa Romana
di essersi dilungata da quei principi che formavano la essenza del
Cristianesimo: negli ordini religiosi, esse dicevano, divenne un altro
Paganesimo; all'Uno, ineffabile, sostituì un Dio in più persone, poi il
culto delle Imagini, e dei Santi, coi quali edificò un nuovo Olimpo,
impose la Mariolatria. Sostituì tutta una gerarchia, una teocrazia
all'uguaglianza democratica della chiesa primitiva: negli ordini sociali,
altra scissione fra eletti e rejetti, sacerdoti e secolari; scissure, che si
tradussero in seguito nelle divisioni di classe, clero, nobili e plebei
che si combattevano nel seno della società; quindi alla legge
subentrò il privilegio, al principio assoluto di Giustizia, che dominava
la legge antica, contrappose la dottrina della grazia, e con essa il
mercato delle assoluzioni e delle indulgenze.
In mezzo a queste scissure e conflitti, l'Ebraismo si raccolse in
sè stesso e continuò a reggersi, inflessibile sempre, sopra i principî
antichi. Allora dalla Chiesa venne considerato, più che un'eresia,
un'empietà, un pericolo. Infatti, egli colla semplicità dei suoi riti, colle
tradizioni che personificava in sè, si levava quale un'accusa, un
rimprovero contro la Chiesa pomposa e trionfante; la sua perduranza
e tenacità creava un pericolo, per cui sarebbe stata politica avveduta
l'annientarlo, come una specie di pretendente, il quale aspirava, se
non al trono, all'altare. Ma sopprimerlo, come si fece di molte eresie
col ferro e col fuoco, riesciva impossibile, disseminati quali erano gli
Ebrei in ogni parte del mondo, in Oriente ed in Occidente, ed ove la
sua potestà non poteva raggiungerli. Adottò quindi una politica più
terribile e più fina: isolarli in mezzo alla Società, umiliarli, vituperarli.
Si predicò, che su di loro pesava l'ira e la vendetta di Dio, che
essi erano colpevoli di Deicidio: Quasi che Dio potesse morire; ogni
giorno s'inventava una calunnia per colpire la razza e gli individui; e
s'aprì l'êra delle persecuzioni più atroci e pertinaci, che rammentino
le istorie religiose.
[pg 20]
V. — Persecuzioni e Rinascenza.
Si cominciò col relegarli, come lebbrosi, in un quartiere isolato della
città, lontani dai consorzi civili; si continuò coll'esodo in massa, a
cacciarli di terra in terra, fomentare in ogni paese saccheggi ed
eccidi; infine si elevarono roghi per abbrucciarli, e, con offesa e
vitupero del vero cristianesimo, queste ecatombe umane si
appellarono atti di fede! E dopo mille anni dell'età nuova, piombò
sull'Europa un periodo di tenebre profonde; il mondo doveva finire,
ma era la civiltà, la morale, il pensiero umano che si erano smarriti e
abbuiati, e parevano eclissati per sempre.
L'umanità, come scrive con frase poetica e positiva, il sommo
storico Michelet, aveva cessato di pensare. Solo l'Ebreo sentiva, che
il termine del mondo non era vicino ancora, che i fati non erano
compiuti, ed egli, come scrive ancora Michelet, pensava per tutti e
serbava la coscienza dell'avvenire.
Egli nella Spagna, nella Francia, in Egitto, in Grecia raccoglieva i
libri dell'antichità, li chiosava, li traduceva dall'arabo, dal greco in
latino. Non si limitava a raccogliere questi libri e sepellirli nelle
biblioteche dei conventi, come i Benedettini ed altri ordini religiosi, i
quali ben meritarono dalla Civiltà, ma li diffondeva di terra in terra, li
trasmetteva dall'Asia all'Europa, ed era egli stesso libro vivente. Egli
aveva conservate le tradizioni delle scienze mediche, fisiche,
filosofiche, linguistiche, e le insegnava, le professava; era, coi
commerci, colle scienze, intermediario fra l'oriente e l'occidente, tra
gli Arabi e l'Europa cristiana.
Irruppero le Crociate; e le orde Crociate, per punire l'Ebreo
dell'opera sua riparatrice e civile, prima di recarsi in Terra Santa e
liberare il sepolcro di Cristo, si [pg 21] scagliarono contro gli Ebrei,
che avevano dato il Redentore al mondo; ed in Germania, in Francia,
in Inghilterra, fu un furore, un'orgia di incendi, di saccheggi e di
sterminio contro le comunità israelitiche.
I paladini, baroni, conti dirigevano le stragi; e le masse avide di
sangue e di preda, mettevano tutto a fuoco, a ferro e a ruba; le
passioni più feroci e brutali si scatenavano contro un popolo inerme,
pacifico e operoso.
Anche questo triste periodo, appellato dai poeti eroico, dopo
scempî di sangue e di delitti cavallereschi, tramontò, e si chiuse.
Un albore di civiltà cominciò a spuntare sull'orizzonte. Gli stessi
crociati, reduci dall'Asia, ne divennero messaggeri e ne furono
strumento efficace. I semi della civiltà latina, non mai appassiti e
spenti in Italia, si dischiusero poco a poco alla vita, e prepararono la
Rinascenza. Al Rinascimento classico, mercè lo studio della Bibbia
nei suoi testi e nella sua realtà, e per opera delle sette antipapali,
che serpeggiavano in tutta Europa sino dal medioevo, tenne dietro il
rinnovamento religioso e la Riforma.
L'antagonismo fra il Papato e la Riforma accese le guerre più
feroci, che mai abbiano insanguinata l'Europa, nei secoli decimosesto
e settimo. Le guerre di religione e gli orrori di eccidi, stragi e
perversità, che le accompagnarono, allontanarono i pensatori e i
popoli stessi dalla religione, e in molti intiepidirono il sentimento
religioso, come funesto al progresso ed alla pace, ostile e fatale
all'unione e sicurtà dei popoli.
Al secolo dei teologi, tenne dietro quello dei filosofi e della
scienza. La società aspirava a divenire laica. Uno spirito nuovo corse
sopra tutta l'Europa; un lavoro sordo, poderoso, a cui presero parte
tutte le classi sociali, dal patrizio al borghese, agli stessi monarchi
riformatori, scalzava dalle fondamenta l'edifizio del medio evo,
preparando gli elementi d'un'età novella: — E scoppiò la Rivoluzione
francese.
[pg 22]
VI. — La Rivoluzione francese e i principi
costitutivi dell'Ebraismo.
La Riforma, nata dalla Teologia, si fonda bensì sulla Bibbia, ma si
arresta alla parola, all'esteriore; la Rivoluzione, nata dalla filosofia,
dalle scienze giuridiche e sociali, ne penetra lo spirito, ne rileva il
pensiero dominante, lo spinge nella pratica sociale, lo traduce in
azione. L'Ebreo, allo scoppiare della Rivoluzione, comprese che i
principi da lei proclamati corrispondevano a quelli che egli professava
da secoli e ne costituivano la essenza religiosa e sociale. Essi erano
stati la sua forza e la sua fede durante le lotte da lui sostenute a
traverso i secoli. Questi principi, come vedemmo, si riassumevano
nella triade: Dio, Legge e Popolo, e la Rivoluzione, pur rispettando i
culti diversi, che dividono l'umanità, si alzava alla contemplazione di
un essere superiore, il Dio Uno, fattore ed anima dell'universo. Suo
culto fu la legge, la quale, a quel modo che ordina e regge
l'universo, così deve guidare il mondo dei popoli con equità e
giustizia, e, sollevandosi al disopra dei privilegi di classe, caste e
razze, mira anzitutto l'uomo coronato da' suoi diritti, e soggetto a
doveri corrispondenti.
Carattere essenziale di questi principi è la Universalità. Carattere
principale, che presentano i comandamenti promulgati dal Sinai,
poscia svolti dai legislatori e dai profeti, si è, che essi non si limitano
soltanto a riguardare una famiglia, un popolo, ma sono un
imperativo morale, sociale; si adattano ad ogni razza, ad ogni
tempo; ed un carattere identico di universalità è impresso nella
dichiarazione dei diritti dell'uomo, proclamati, prima nell'America,
poscia in Parigi, ed essi sono l'eco e l'esplicazione sempre più larga e
positiva, del Verbo mosaico.
[pg 23] Ora egli riesce facile ai retori e accademici, che stanno
leggiferando placidamente e si perdono nelle minuzie e nelle sillabe,
come i Farisei dell'antica legge, il criticare la dichiarazione dei Diritti
dell'uomo, opponendo, secondo il sofisma di De Maistre, che l'uomo
in astratto non esiste. Certo non esiste l'uomo in astratto, come non
esiste nè l'albero, nè l'animale astratto e generale; ma la mente
riassume i caratteri, le doti e qualità d'ognuno, e da questi si forma il
concetto dell'albero e dell'animale e ne determina le leggi generali.
Con un processo identico rileva i caratteri, i bisogni della parte fisica,
morale del genere umano, e procede a determinarne i diritti e
doveri, i quali abbracciano tutta la specie, e col tempo, il lavoro, il
progredire di ogni razza, d'ogni popolo verranno ad informarsi in
ciascuno, e potranno costituire per tal modo certa unità di leggi pel
genere umano.
Questi principi generali, che i codici particolari verranno
svolgendo d'età in età, di popolo in popolo per tradurli nella pratica
sociale, corrispondevano all'antico ideale ebraico e che da concetto
religioso si traduceva in legge e pratica sociale. Avvenne quindi, che
alla proclamazione dei principi della Rivoluzione, l'Ebreo acquistò più
viva la coscienza di sè stesso, vide in essi la riprova e la
confermazione di quella fede religiosa sociale, che fu la sua forza
durante i secoli e, diremmo, la ragione della sua durata.
Perciò allo scoppiare della Rivoluzione francese, noi assistiamo a
questo fatto: mentre tutte le confessioni religiose in Europa la
osteggiano e ne oppugnano i principi, le comunioni ebree, sparse in
mezzo a tutte le nazioni, l'accolgono con entusiasmo, ne acclamano i
principi; quella turba di bottegai, di mercatanti, di operai, dianzi
umiliati, negletti, rispondono all'appello della Rivoluzione, si rialzano
nella loro dignità d'uomo e di cittadino. Essi intuonano la Marsigliese,
e molti Rabbini la traducono in lingua [pg 24] ebraica, o foggiano
sopra quello altri inni patriotici per Israello. Nelle sinagoghe, all'inno
nazionale francese risponde l'antico canto patriottico Ebraico «In
exitu Israel de Ægypto» e l'antica liturgia di Francia e d'Italia
aggiunge alle benedizioni all'Eterno, a' suoi patriarchi e profeti anche
questa: «Benedetta la Rivoluzione, che proclama tutti gli uomini
fratelli».
All'êra nuova, che si leva sull'Europa e sul mondo, sino dalla
prima metà del secolo decimonono, corrisponde una vera Rinascenza
israelitica. Questo popolo, che cancellato, avvilito da duemila anni,
altri credeva chiuso nel suo sepolcro e spento, si rialzò nella forza
della sua intelligenza e attività, ajuto, stimolo di vita e di progresso
fra i suoi concittadini. Dopo quei giorni egli prende viva parte al
movimento politico, economico, letterario, sociale di ogni nazione fra
cui esso è disseminato. Soldato, egli combatte al fianco dei suoi
concittadini a difesa della libertà, non solo in Francia, ma nei campi
della Germania, della Polonia, dell'Ungheria, dell'Italia per
rivendicare la indipendenza delle nazionalità fra cui è nato.
Cospiratore, egli si affiglia alle diverse fratellanze secrete per
combattere il despotismo e la reazione che tenta imporsi all'Europa.
Nello stesso tempo, pubblicista, letterato, artista, scienziato,
industriale, economista, socialista, noi troviamo sempre e ovunque
alcuni dei suoi a combattere le battaglie della libertà e del progresso.
Questo subito risveglio di una razza, che omai si credeva esaurita ed
estinta, od almeno straniera in quest'Europa nella quale viveva, non
solo attesta la sua origine europea, meglio che il favoleggiato
Arianismo, ma è sintomo dell'energia di cui è dotato, come fosse uno
degli elementi più efficaci di progresso, ed il lievito nel mondo dei
popoli, non che la sua superiorità. Perocchè è omai principio
proclamato dalla scienza, che le specie inferiori, deboli, [pg 25] poco
adatte all'ambiente e poco conformate per sostenere la concorrenza
vitale, sono condannate a perire, quelle superiori finiscono per
vincere nel combattimento per la vita, e perdurano.
Ma egli è puranco una legge penosa, che la vile moltitudine
umana suole sempre essere invidiosa, sospettosa ed avversa ad ogni
superiorità individuale o collettiva. Il super-uomo o la super-nazione
sono per lo più invise e temute. Si colpiscono col pugnale, come
avvenne a Cesare, o si avvelenano come Socrate. L'abbiamo pur
veduto, sino dai tempi delle civiltà orientali, che l'Ebreo e l'Ebraismo,
appena divengono una forza intellettuale e morale o politica, tutti i
despotismi antichi, come le reazioni moderne, si associano e
insurgono contro di lui per opprimerlo o sopprimerlo. Nei tempi
antichi, quando l'Ebreo era ancora una forza collettiva o nazione, fu
combattuto colle armi e cogli eserciti nei campi aperti; nelle, così
dette, civiltà moderne, gli avversari non trovando intorno a sè che
individualità o personalità più o meno superiori, mutarono la tattica,
si pugnò alla spicciolata, si adottarono armi corte o avvelenate, si
sono inventate accuse mostruose e calunnie, come quelle del sangue
emunto ai bambini, si aprirono processi loschi con documenti falsi,
testimoni compri. Sopra questi dati s'imposero ai giudici sentenze
per condannare. Queste guerre aperte o velate, insidiose sempre,
secondo i tempi, le circostanze, l'indole dei popoli, assunsero forme
diverse. Ora, nel secolo decimonono, esse si appellano
antisemitismo.
VII. — Antisemitismo e Reazioni.
Questa lue, che omai da quarant'anni, infetta l'Europa, non trae
l'origine dalla scienza, come testè si volle [pg 26] insinuare11
. La
scienza è moderna, la tristizia umana è antica come la storia. La
scienza educa, eleva, unisce; la superstizione, l'ignoranza vitupera,
inacerbisce e scinde.
Tal peste serpeggia da secoli nel seno della Cristianità e per
atavismo fatale, si alimenta e si trasmette, sotto forme diverse,
dall'una in altra generazione.
Chi prende a far la diagnosi del morbo, si avvedrà, che essa si
compone di elementi complicati e multeplici. Questi si possono
ridurre a tre principali. L'elemento religioso, il politico, e l'economico.
Cominciamo dal primo:
Sino dalla prima infanzia s'insinua nel cuore del bambino l'odio
all'Ebreo, insegnando il Catechismo. Si tace come la idea del
messianismo sia sorta e fermentata nel seno di quel popolo molti
anni prima della nascita di Gesù, come quel popolo, specialmente
sotto il giogo dei Romani, [pg 27] fosse in travaglio per produrre un
redentore12
e a migliaja i suoi figli venissero crocefissi, perchè
combattevano, insorgevano per la libertà della patria e la redenzione
umana, si tace come Ebrei sono stati i primi apostoli, i primi Cristiani,
che essi furono la vanguardia, i pionieri, i quali aprirono le porte al
Cristianesimo presso i Gentili; ma s'insiste invece sulla parte incerta
e leggendaria della condanna, passione e morte di Gesù: s'insegna
che l'Ebreo fu deicida, che sopra di lui pesa per ogni secolo la
vendetta di Dio, tale è la morale ad uso delle scuole13
. Le prime
impressioni nelle tenere menti del bambino, non si cancellano, e il
bambino crede più, che alla realtà delle cose, ai racconti delle fate e
ai misteri paurosi, e pur troppo rimangono impresse nelle menti più
le parole dell'odio, che non quelle di fraternità e d'amore.
[pg 28]
Elemento politico: — Gli Ebrei, come vedemmo, sono figli della
Rivoluzione, ne abbracciarono i principî con entusiasmo quasi
religioso. I partiti retrivi si dicono figli dei Crociati: e non sarebbero
alieni, ove potessero, dal rinnovarne le scene, non quelle
magnanime, ma le insane e feroci. Però tutte le varie gradazioni dei
partiti retrivi, autocrazia, clerocrazia, plutocrazia, militarismo negli
alti gradi, si coalizzano per colpire, prima l'Ebreo, poscia il
Protestante, il liberale, abbattendo, così uno ad uno tutti gli ostacoli
per confiscare la libertà e ristaurare il regime monarchico-clericale.
Elemento economico: — È questa un'altra bottega, o altra turba
d'uomini, i quali, mossi da interessi diversi, si uniscono per
accrescere la fila degli antisemiti. Il negoziante e il bottegajo ebreo è
attivo, intraprendente, laborioso. Esso è un concorrente pericoloso,
giova quindi eliminarlo, e se non si può distruggerlo, rovinarlo; si
ricorre a pregiudizi e ribalderie antiche, si risuscitano le ire, gli odi di
classe; e si corre al saccheggio, al furto, come in Algeria, e come si
volle pure tentare in Parigi stessa e in alcune provincie della Francia,
e all'estero, come a Bukarest e altrove.
I progressi della civiltà, i principi proclamati dalla rivoluzione
avevano non solo indeboliti e paralizzati questi elementi deleteri, ma
già era cominciata, specialmente in Francia, una cotal fusione fra le
diverse classi e credenze religiose. Conveniva ai partiti retrivi in ogni
parte d'Europa interrompere, sfatare questi accordi, spargere semi di
zizzanie, e si gettò il mal seme dell'antisemitismo.
In Francia era difficile che potesse attecchire: le idee di
tolleranza, di umanità, erano penetrate e diffuse in ogni classe,
perciò conveniva immaginare un fatto o un pretesto, che eccitasse le
passioni delle masse, irritarle, accanneggiarle, spingerle all'agire. La
corda, che fa vibrare più fortemente il cuore del popolo, ne accende
le passioni, è il patriottismo, l'esercito, l'orrore per lo [pg 29]
straniero invasore. E fu escogitato il tradimento dreyfusiano, e
manipolato quel processo mostruoso, che è un oltraggio alla civiltà
del secolo.
VIII. — Il processo Dreyfus.
Noi non entreremo nei particolari di questo processo. Ma è omai
noto, a chi penetrò nel dedalo dei suoi avvolgimenti, che esso, come
già accennammo, fu immaginato e preparato nelle rettrobotteghe dei
giornali retrivi ed antisemiti; covato fra le ombre delle sacrestie e di
noti conventi; architettato da alcune autorità militari: accolto con
favore e sobillato da certi ufficiali dello Stato Maggiore, usciti dalle
scuole dei Gesuiti e che intendevano sbarazzarsi dell'Ebreo Dreyfus,
poichè lo vedevano con sdegno ed invidia avanzare nelle alte cariche
militari, fu manipolato di conserva con questi elementi da mestatori
avventurieri. Preparato nel mistero, fu condotto nel mistero con
documenti monchi o falsi, privi di ogni carattere giuridico; ma tutto
giovava al loro intento pure di accendere le passioni, eccitare lo
Chauvinisme delle masse francesi, fuorviare, deludere la giustizia, e
preparare il trionfo della reazione. Ma la giustizia, che si voleva
tradire e calpestare, vive pur sempre nel seno della Francia, scosse e
accese di nobile disdegno il cuore di pochi uomini superiori per
intelligenza, per coraggio e potenza di carattere. Essi si ribellarono a
quella cospirazione, colla quale la sciabola tentava decapitare la
giustizia.
In mezzo al silenzio dei complici, degli indifferenti e dei codardi
alle minaccie dei prepotenti, agli urli della folla ingannata,
sollevarono il grido d'allarme, pugnarono perchè si faccia intera la
luce della verità, e per salvare l'onore della Francia.
Emerge, grandeggiante, fra questi magnanimi, la figura [pg 30]
di Scheurer-Kestner, di Picard e quella dello Zola, il quale, bersaglio
ai furori, alle contumelie, agli attacchi forsennati di tutte le reazioni
più arrabbiate, si leva, e sta solo e incrollabile sulla breccia14
.
Tutta l'Europa civile rispose al grido d'allarme gettato dallo Zola
e lui acclamò campione della giustizia, paladino della verità. Il
verdetto d'Europa intera, che plaude a Zola, rispose al verdetto dei
pochi giurati ignoti o ignari, i quali, intimiditi o per consegna, ne
pronunciarono la condanna. In questo momento si entra in un
periodo di tregua, e in seguito che farà la Francia? potrà essa
vituperarsi ancora, e rifiutare la revisione del processo?15
Un tal processo ha cessato di essere un fatto personale e
accidentale. Esso ha assunto tali proporzioni in Francia ed in Europa,
da divenire l'epilogo di una lotta da gran tempo latente e offre
l'occasione ai partiti retrivi, per misurare le proprie forze e scendere
in campo per iniziare il combattimento.
[pg 31] Il condannato all'isola maledetta non è che il capro
emissario, la testa del moro, contro cui si appuntano i dardi per
colpire con lui numerosi avversari. Il primo sarà l'Ebreo, e coll'Ebreo
la Rivoluzione, la società moderna, i diritti dell'uomo, per poi
abbattere la repubblica.
Il partito liberale in Francia, come nella restante Europa, lo
comprese, si commosse e corse al riparo, si armò per la difesa. Più
di tutti si scosse, si agitò l'Ebreo. Ciascuno sentì che questa era la
causa di tutti. Res nostra agitur. Invano in Francia si credè da molti,
anche in buona fede essere questa quistione interna, che non
riguarda gli stranieri. Nessuno, risponde l'Europa civile, nessuno è
straniero al grido dell'Umanità; e con voce concorde lo proclamarono
gli Ebrei sparsi nei due mondi: La Giustizia è la nostra religione, il
nostro culto, la nostra fede, e combatteremo compatti in sua difesa.
Da oltre duemila anni essa è vilipesa, calpestata in Europa;
giorno è sorto che essa si affermi, si rialzi e combatta e trionfi. E
rispondendo al grido di allarme, gettato da tutte le intelligenze e dal
partito liberale del mondo, essi raccolsero il guanto che fu loro
gettato dai partiti retrivi, e si associarono insieme, per propugnare,
colla propria, la causa della libertà di tutti.
IX. — Sindacato e solidarietà.
Da oltre mezzo secolo l'Israelita in Francia si era cullato nella
speranza, che il periodo storico della dispersione fra i popoli e del
suo isolamento in mezzo a' suoi concittadini, fosse cessato; e salutò
con entusiasmo l'aurora che pareva aprire il terzo ed ultimo periodo
storico, quello della Fusione; e, sotto l'egida di principii religiosi più
razionali ad un tempo e più morali ed equi, di essere [pg 32] alfine
cittadino fra i cittadini, uguale fra gli uguali. Perciò era divenuto omai
indifferente, oblioso di quei principi, che a lui erano stati forza e
usbergo in mezzo ai combattimenti affrontati, alle persecuzioni
sofferte nei secoli passati, e che sperava tramontati per sempre.
L'evento Dreyfus dissipò in parte queste illusioni, e lo scosse
dall'apatia in cui era piombato. Lo fece pur troppo accorto, che gli
odi, i pregiudizi dissimulati e celati, avevano ancora radici profonde
nel cuore delle plebi umane, chè occorrono secoli per essere svelti
del tutto, che i Revenants dal sepolcro, entro cui si credevano chiusi,
e imputriditi, possono risorgere ancora e sopraffare, corrompere i
vivi. Allora sentì il dovere di correre al riparo per difendersi. Gli Ebrei
non costituirono verun sindacato, come adottando un termine di
borsa, si volle fantasticare; ma si destò più vivo in essi il sentimento,
che fu nei tempi di angoscia la loro fortezza e salute, il sentimento o
meglio il principio redentore della solidarietà. In questo sentimento si
trovarono consociati e uniti insieme tutti gli elementi, le frazioni di un
popolo.
Il gran capitalista col proletario, il banchiere col bottegajo e
merciajo, lo scienziato coll'operaio, il conservatore, il moderato col
radicale, e col socialista.
Ad essi non tardarono ad unirsi gli uomini di nobile cuore e
d'intelligenza di ogni partito e classe, che abbondano sempre in
Francia; sentirono non essere questa la causa di una setta, di una
confessione religiosa, ma causa d'umanità, ed una minaccia alla
libertà di tutti, un pericolo per la dignità della Francia, come per
l'onore dell'armata; conveniva all'uopo affrontare le contumelie, gli
insulti e violenze di una folla briaca o venduta, sagrificare sè stessi
per salvare l'onore e l'avvenire morale della nazione.
Un branco di arruffoni, intriganti, per coprire colpe proprie e
deludere la giustizia sui veri colpevoli e fuorviarla, [pg 33] si erano
insinuati, come bacilli morbosi, nell'organismo sano e forte della
Francia, per paralizzarne le libere mosse, avvelenarne il sangue,
rendersi padroni delle sue forze, guidarle a fini inconfessabili, a meta
disastrosa; ma la vera Francia saprà scoprire l'inganno, le frodi tese
contro il suo onore e la sua sicurezza: spezzare la rete, entro cui
tentarono di avvolgerla, sbattere quella turba di mestatori dalle sue
spalle titaniche, nel fango verminoso dal quale sono pullulati,
ritemprarsi di nuove forze e raggiare ancora nell'antico suo
splendore.
X. — L'Esposizione del 1900 — Missione della
Francia — L'Europa si unifica e si espande.
I giorni dell'Esposizione si appressano. La Francia sta preparandosi
materialmente; però essa non deve, non può limitarsi a celebrare
solo una festa del lavoro, o una mostra industriale. Parigi, al pari
della nobiltà antica, obbliga: essa è l'areòpago, al quale è convocata
tutta l'Europa intelligente, e Parigi deve proporre a se stesso oltre
all'industriale, uno scopo altamente civile e morale.
Il 1900 segna il centenario della grande Rivoluzione, che aprì
l'êra nuova all'umanità, fondò la società moderna, e iniziò il governo
della ragione. Essa trasformò non solo la Francia, ma l'Europa.
E se Parigi non vuol perdere il suo primato d'iniziatrice, e che
l'alto mandato si trasferisca ad altra città o nazione, essa non solo
deve riconfermare questi principi, ma condurli a più ampia e intera
applicazione negli ordini politici, giuridici, e sociali, ed elevarli come
programma del secolo ventesimo.
Vieti pregiudizi e vanità fanno sì, che molti in Francia credono
ancora di mirare intorno a sè, come ai tempi [pg 34] di Luigi XIV o
Napoleone I, un'Europa da invadere e conquistare, nè vogliono
avvedersi, che, al soffio rinnovatore della Rivoluzione, tutto in
Europa è mutato, trasformato. Appo ogni popolo molte forze,
sempre latenti, e che il dispotismo tentò invano di comprimere e
soffocare, rimbalzarono in tutta la loro energia e anelano di
svolgersi, ad agire.
L'Europa non è più scissa, come per lo passato, in regioni e
piccoli stati, facile preda alle invasioni di vicino più potente o
prepotente, ma ordinata in nazionalità compatte, fiere della loro
indipendenza e che, vuoi per simpatia, vuoi per interesse politico o
commerciale, vuoi per la reciproca difesa, si raggruppano in un
fascio di nazioni per modo che quest'Europa, già scissa in altrettanti
nazioni, ora è quasi in travaglio per costituire l'Europa una. Lavoro
misterioso, lento, ma indeclinabile, continuato, ed evidente all'occhio
dei sensi e dell'intelletto.
Un altro lavoro, ben altrimenti poderoso e fecondo, si va
facendo in questa Europa rinnovata: le Società umane, al pari delle
forze cosmiche, obbediscono alla duplice legge di concentramento e
di espansione. Come le nubolose, dopo aver concentrato le forze per
formare un mondo od un sistema planetario, si espandono, quali
germi di altri mondi, non altrimenti l'Europa, dopo essersi costituita
in nazionalità, e quindi in gruppi di nazionalità, ora, traboccante di
forze, aspira a meta più vasta.
Essa si sente ristretta entro gli angusti limiti a lei segnati dalla
geografia, quali sono il bacino mediterraneo e l'Atlantico, i
Dardanelli, i monti Urali e la Siberia; si agita per oltrepassarli.
Dispone di forze, sinora non pure sognate, per percorrerli a volo. Le
steppe sterminate della Siberia, che sinora dividevano due mondi,
ora li uniscono, gl'immedesimano insieme.
I convogli partiti dal fondo della Russia, fra pochi anni si
abbatteranno con quelli, che mossero dal nuovo mondo, [pg 35] la
Transiberiana colla Transfranciscana, e s'incontreranno sulle rive del
mar Pacifico, questo Mediterraneo dell'avvenire. L'oriente si confonde
coll'occidente, questo coll'Africa. Il vaticinio, che il Profeta Israele,
rapito nelle visioni dell'avvenire, già da tremila anni, annunziava ai
popoli diviene realtà. «Aprite, egli gridava da Sionne, aprite le
strade, adeguate i monti, togliete gli inciampi dal cammino dei
popoli, poichè deve regnare la Giustizia, si costituisce l'Umanità16
».
XI. — Internazionalismo.
È questa un'altra delle accuse, che si suole scagliare contro gli Ebrei.
Essi non hanno patria, sono cosmopoliti. Invano hanno però
dimostrato coi fatti in tutto il secolo come sono affezionati al paese
ove nacquero e hanno pugnato al fianco dei loro concittadini in
Francia, in Germania, Polonia e Italia, sia per servire i Governi
costituiti, sia per combattere le battaglie della libertà e rivendicare la
indipendenza nazionale. Devoti al paese in cui sono nati, essi mirano
tuttavia più alto e più lontano. Dopo il cittadino havvi l'uomo, dopo la
patria, l'umanità.
Questo sentimento di cosmopolismo, che favella pure nel cuore
di ogni uomo di alto sentire presso ogni nazione, è come ingenito
nella razza ebrea, tal che sembra quale un suggello impresso sulla
sua fronte, sin dalle origini dalla Provvidenza, e ne determina i
destini in mezzo ai popoli.
Essa, come fu notato da molti scrittori e da quasi tutti gli
scienziati, è la sola fra le razze umane del globo, che possa resistere
alle intemperie di ogni clima e d'ogni regione, fra i ghiacci della
Siberia, come sotto il sole rovente dei tropici, nelle Indie, come nel
clima temperato [pg 36] d'Europa, noi lo vediamo allignare,
perdurare, e lavora e prospera.
Ed anche in questa tendenza cosmopolita, egli non fece che
precedere e aprire la via ad altre civiltà più avanzate. Chi omai in
Europa, senza cessare di essere cittadino del proprio paese, non è,
in qualche modo, internazionale? nessuno può chiudersi, al pari della
chiocciola, entro il proprio guscio: tutti hanno bisogno di aria, di
spazio più vasto, per corrispondere ai nuovi bisogni, alle proprie
aspirazioni.
Tutto è divenuto o va facendosi internazionale. Dai congressi
scientifici, dalle università, agli annunzi nella quarta pagina su pei
giornali. Non parliamo della diplomazia, la quale lo è per origine e
per essenza, dei traffici, dei grandi istituti di credito, ma gli operai, i
compagnoni e proletari, sparsi nel mondo intero, tutti omai tendono
a comprendersi, e abbattendo le antiche barriere, mossi da interessi
comuni, mirano in ogni parte di Europa ad associarsi, a stringersi in
vincoli di solidarietà, e costituire una stessa famiglia. Nel passato
solo le scienze, le lettere si appellavano repubbliche universali, ora
anche le arti, le quali per indole e per essenza sono la espressione
più perfetta del particolarismo, assumono forma, colorito, idee e
aspirazioni universali; le lingue, in questo mezzo secolo, noi le
vediamo intorno a noi trasformate; dizioni eteroclite ed ibride
passano dall'una in altra nazione, sono accolte e s'immedesimano fra
loro. I puristi, ciò appellano, e non senza qualche ragione, barbarie,
ma il popolo non cura tali accuse, procede oltre, obbedisce al genio
del secolo, vede o prevede; e comincia per tal modo a formarsi una
lingua europea: come già il latino nelle età di mezzo: Ciò che
avviene nelle lingue, nelle arti, vediamo a poco a poco succedere
nelle religioni, e nei Numi. Negli ultimi secoli del Paganesimo, Roma
accoglieva nella città Urbi et Orbi tutte le divinità venute dall'Asia,
dalle Gallie, dall'Etruria; loro consentiva un [pg 37] seggio nel gran
Panteon: così accade omai nell'Europa. Però con questo divario, che
Roma antica le accoglieva tutte, ne accettava i riti, le cerimonie e
spesso credeva e adorava. L'Europa moderna invece li sottopone, al
pari del chimico, al suo crogiuolo, li esamina, li critica, li discute e
dubita. I Lari, i Penati, gli stessi Santi, che proteggevano le nostre
case, le nostre città, le nazioni vanno ecclissandosi.
Al particolarismo divino stanno per succedere idee più ampie e
comprensive; ai dommi imposti subentrano sistemi più o meno
scientifici e razionali; alle religioni, la religione, o il sentimento
religioso; ai Numi, un Divino che tutti li abbraccia e li comprende.
Chi è che potrà essere quello Iddio, che diviene?
Il naturalismo antico e le sue leggende e miti, la fenomenologia,
come l'antropomorfismo moderno, più non corrispondono ai nuovi
bisogni della società, non appagano nè il sentimento, nè il pensiero.
A tutte coteste forze, potenze, geni e spiriti, la scienza contrappone
la Unità delle forze, al dualismo antico, materia e spirito, la scienza
contrappone la sostanza unica universale. La quale, in altri termini,
sarebbe l'onnipotente, il Sadai dell'Antico Testamento, il filosofo,
l'Ente Universale, l'assoluto, l'Essere degl'Esseri. L'uomo religioso
adora l'Ente ancora, che è, fu, sarà; l'eterno, il quale, elevandosi al
disopra del tempo e dello spazio, alza la mano ai cieli e dice: «Io
sono in eterno».
XII. — La Francia e la nuova Europa.
Molte di quelle idee, che i filosofi del secolo decimoottavo,
maturavano nel silenzio del loro gabinetto, la Rivoluzione, al pari di
lava irrompendo dal cratere aperto in Parigi, propagò e diffuse sul
terreno di tutti i paesi d'Europa colla parola, cogli eserciti e le società
secrete.
[pg 38] Tutti i partiti retrivi, devoti al culto delle tradizioni
antiche, e interessate a conservare i loro privilegi e abusi, si
coalizzarono insieme per restaurare l'antico edifizio, che vedevano
sfasciarsi e crollare, e per combattere la Rivoluzione. La lotta
perdurò tutta la prima metà del nostro secolo; quando la
controrivoluzione pareva ormai prevalere, tutti i popoli d'Europa si
levarono, concordi come un solo popolo, nel 1848. L'antico edifizio
politico fu crollato dalle fondamenta e, meglio ancora che colla
violenza e le rivolte sanguinose, e colla forza, col progresso,
l'educazione, per le necessità politiche; e prevalsero le idee nuove.
Alle monarchie per diritto divino successero monarchie liberali per
diritto dei popoli, agli Stati piccoli, frazionati, le nazionalità costituite,
e i monarchi stessi ne divennero il vincolo e la personificazione
insieme colle rappresentanze sorte dal seno del popolo e dal suo
suffragio: Si procedette a larghe riforme negli ordini politici e civili;
ed, o per opera loro, o per virtù di principi provvidi, come di popoli,
noi vediamo, in questa seconda metà del secolo, elevarsi una nuova
Europa, che si va costituendo e unificandosi.
Ma la reazione non si dà per vinta.
Essa ebbe e conservò sempre fautori e partigiani potenti ed abili
in ogni contrada, e sopratutto nella Francia. Da essa partì la spinta
rivoluzionaria, e quindi convenne sopra tutto concentrare contro di
lei tutte le forze per incatenarla e comprimerla. Durante tutto il
secolo fu una vicenda continuata di rivoluzioni e controrivoluzioni. La
controrivoluzione ha elementi ordinati, numerosi e potenti, sparsi
nelle diverse classi sociali: clero, militarismo, aristocrazia,
plutocrazia, capitalisti. È guidata da mani abili il cui centro fu sempre
e tuttora è Roma. Le ramificazioni si stendono in ogni città, in ogni
luogo; parocchie, conventi, sacristie e monasteri della Francia, non
ristanno dal cospirare nel mistero, prepararsi nel silenzio, per [pg 39]
prorompere, quando l'occasione si presenti, a guerra aperta. Tre
volte affrontò questa battaglia nella prima metà del secolo, e tre
volte fu vinta: col colpo di Stato dei Borboni nel luglio 1830, poscia
colla resistenza degli Orléans nel 1848, infine colla catastrofe del
1870. Finchè il popolo francese, stanco degli esperimenti monarchici,
proclamò la repubblica. Ed i reazionari continuarono a cospirare
sotto la repubblica, si fecero alla loro volta demagoghi, repubblicani,
socialisti, profittando della libertà per istrozzare la libertà. Vinta la
rivoluzione nel suo focolare, a Parigi, sperano di ottenere facile
vittoria sui principi da lei proclamati, in tutta l'Europa, per modo che
il centro della rivoluzione possa divenire centro della reazione.
La Francia, Parigi si dibattono, da oltre venti anni, entro una
rete d'intrighi, di cospirazioni, di tentativi, che invano abortiscono,
sono sfatati; si rinnovano senza posa ricorrendo sempre a nuovi
intrighi, a mezzi diversi; a mendacie, calunnie, pregiudizi vieti e
risuscitati, si afferrano ad ogni mezzo pur di trarre a sè le forze della
Francia, rendersene padroni, e dominare. Ci riesciranno?
Noi non possiamo, non vogliamo crederlo. La Francia, Parigi,
non possono smentire sè stessi, abdicare al mandato della civiltà
Europea. La Francia ha subìto un Sedan militare, ma lo seppe
riparare in pochi anni e si rialzò nella sua grandezza. Ma non così
accadrebbe se andasse incontro ad un Sedan morale, stamperebbe
sulla sua fronte un suggello d'obbrobrio, che non si potrebbe più
cancellare e che segnerebbe la sua decadenza.
XIII. — Il programma politico-morale del
Secolo ventesimo.
La Francia, secondo la felice espressione di Ernesto Lavisse, fu la
prima a fondare il Governo della ragione.
[pg 40] I popoli d'Europa concorsero con materiali diversi, ma
sopra le stesse basi, ad innalzare l'edifizio delle Società moderne; ora
spetta alla Francia ancora, l'audace iniziatrice, l'onore, il dovere di
secondare gli sforzi dell'Europa liberale e cooperare seco a condurre
l'edifizio all'anelata altezza.
La Rivoluzione, elevandosi al disopra degli interessi particolari,
delle tradizioni storiche, delle credenze, partendo da principi generali
di moralità e giustizia, proclamò il diritto comune per tutti gli uomini.
Questi principi allignarono sopra il suolo d'Europa e gettarono larghe
radici. Conviene da essi dedurre le conseguenze, tradurli nella
pratica, formulare i diritti generali e individuali, che derivano dalla
celebre triade. In altri termini, svolgere, ridurre in legge i principi di
libertà, di uguaglianza, fraternità o solidarietà, per modo che si
possa formulare e sancire una specie di codice del genere umano.
Il secolo decimonono è stato essenzialmente politico; ha svolto,
applicato abbastanza largamente il principio di libertà, di nazionalità;
il secolo ventesimo sarà sopratutto sociale: si apre infatti col nome e
la bandiera del Socialismo. Questo è il nome, la tendenza, ma è
lontano dall'essere un programma, un sistema: diviene, più che non
è. Esso è ancora in formazione. È un concetto, che non ha ancora
acquistata intera e chiara la coscienza di sè stesso. Accade quindi del
Socialismo, come di tutti gli esseri in formazione, essi hanno dei loro
intenti un'intuizione vaga, non si affermano, ma cercano a tentoni fra
meandri e sentieri diversi, aperti innanzi a loro, quale di essi potrà
condurli a meta sicura.
Le teorie più diverse e contraddicenti si agitano, si confondono
nel suo seno, e creano le perturbazioni presenti. Ora esso parla di
libertà e fantastica il collettivismo, la Statolatria, che condurrebbe al
despotismo, a favoritismi, a privilegi e arbitrii più violenti, che non
quelli che si vollero [pg 41] distruggere. Ora parla d'ordine sociale, e
predica, erige in sistema l'anarchia: ora predica la fratellanza, e
bandisce l'odio, l'invidia, la guerra di classe; affetta di essere una
alta aspirazione, una speranza, e diviene una minaccia: si presenta
alla società turbata, come un'àncora di salvezza, e diviene un
pericolo, parla di sicurtà, di pacificazione, e spinge alla guerra e al
saccheggio. Nell'individuo, come nella società, egli non vede che gli
appetiti animali, gli interessi materiali. L'uomo per lui non avrebbe,
che uno scopo sulla terra, il benessere materiale, e godere: ogni
grande ideale sparisce. Cancella nell'umanità quanto in sè accoglie di
divino.
L'uomo, secondo la tradizione biblica, fu bensì tratto dal fango e,
secondo la scienza, la quale, con forme e linguaggio diverso,
corrisponde al concetto dell'antica tradizione, è derivato
dall'animalità per una lenta evoluzione. Però la Bibbia, e la scienza,
l'una coll'alito del divino che passò sopra di lui, l'altra colle teorie del
progresso, accennano, che all'individuo, come alla società si aprono
orizzonti più sublimi e puri, e gli sono assegnati destini più elevati.
L'uomo è il Centauro, il quale dalla cintola in giù è animale, dal
fianco in su, col collo erto, la fronte spaziosa, le mosse irrequiete, le
narici dilatate, sente passare sopra di sè lo spirito dell'universo, e
tende all'infinito.
Anche il socialismo è, per alcune sue tendenze, tuttora
sommerso nell'animalità: lo spirito non è passato ancora sopra di lui.
Invece di elevare le plebi, le abbrutisce, invece di educare, vitupera,
invece di associare, come significa il suo nome, scinde e dissocia.
Nella società si preoccupa anzi tutto dei salari, capitale e lavoro:
nell'individuo conosce un organo solo, il ventre.
Ora il socialismo deve abbracciare l'individuo, ed i consorzi
sociali nelle varietà delle loro attitudini e manifestazioni. Non
intendiamo, che si ritorni al dualismo [pg 42] medioevale, che scinde
l'individuo in due parti, carne e spirito in continuo contrasto fra loro,
e divide la società in due campi del pari ostili, l'uno per signoreggiare
e sottomettere l'altro, come eletti e reietti, clero e laico, spirituale e
temporale, od il dualismo anche più funesto bandito da alcuni
socialisti, i quali scindono la società, in sfruttati e sfruttatori.
Il vero socialismo e, speriamo, il socialismo dell'avvenire, ha per
uffizio e scopo principale di unire, non dividere, procede ad un lento
e continuato miglioramento del proletario e del borghese, individuale
e sociale. Non conosce differenza tra l'idea e la realtà, considera
l'uomo come un'unità.
Esso diverrà una specie di religione. Non la religione che rilega,
incatena ed assoggetta individuo e società, e che predica una fede
imposta; ma sarà un'associazione libera, una dedizione spontanea, la
quale, mercè riforme progressive, stringe le diverse classi sociali in
una comunione d'interessi e d'idee. È la religione del giusto, del bello
e del vero: fede ad essa non sarà più un misticismo oscuro, ma la
scienza ed i suoi trovati, il sentimento e le sue aspirazioni; culto, la
moralità e la giustizia; scopo, il miglioramento fisico, morale
intellettuale dell'individuo e della specie.
Nel passato, la morale religiosa venne riassunta nel precetto:
ama il prossimo come te stesso. L'Etica sociale dirà invece: opera per
ottenere il miglioramento altrui, e così assicuri il bene proprio. Non
vivi solo in te, e per te, ma per la Società. Ciascuno è solidario per
tutti: tutti per ciascuno.
XIV. — Il Clou morale dell'Esposizione nel
1900.
Uno spirito innovatore e luminoso aleggia, sovrasta sopra l'umanità e
la guida a meta indeclinabile. Le barriere cadono, e tutto tende a
compenetrarsi, a comprendersi, [pg 43] armonizzarsi, conformandosi
col gran tutto. La materia segue la legge dello spirito e dell'intelletto,
il quale lo domina e guida; le energie materiali l'immedesimano collo
spirito. All'unità scientifica dovrà seguire, compenetrandosi assieme,
l'unità sociale.
Tutto procede verso la unificazione, nel dominio ideale, come
negli ordinamenti sociali, preparando e promuovendo pure una certa
equivalenza ed unità di condizioni, la quale possa assicurare a tutti,
per mezzo del diritto comune, il massimo del benessere compatibile
colle condizioni umane. In tal modo, per vie diverse, si va formando
la unità morale, economica, giuridica, sorgente inesauribile di verità,
di giustizia, di forza e pacificazione.
Di questa unificazione negli ordini materiali e nel lavoro, si
solleverà in breve, simbolo vivente, la Esposizione di Parigi, nel 1900.
Essa deve inaugurare il secolo ventesimo e celebrare il
Centenario della grande Rivoluzione. Però sinora la Mostra non
accenna a rappresentare se non che il lato industriale, economico,
materiale. Per celebrare degnamente l'evento mondiale e storico,
che aprì il secolo decimonono, dovrebbe in certo modo completarsi
col concetto morale e sociale, il solo veramente fecondo e duraturo.
La Esposizione di Chicago offrì ai popoli uno spettacolo
veramente meraviglioso dei progressi ottenuti durante questo secolo,
nelle industrie, nelle meccaniche, nelle arti, nel dominio dell'uomo
sulla materia.
Ora di cotesto sfoggio d'industrie, di manufatti, di tesori d'arte e
di gemme, che cosa rimane ancora? Il monumento grandioso per
scienza architettonica, per arti, lusso, per la mole immane, cadde
demolito, distrutto, le merci, le ricchezze andarono disperse. Pure in
questo naufragio di tutta la parte materiale, sopranuota tuttavia
un'idea, che ne fu il coronamento, la parola vivente: il Congresso
delle religioni.
[pg 44] Nello stesso modo, la parte che appellerei teatrale della
Esposizione francese, è destinata a sparire, come quella americana,
se non che la prima intende ora di rappresentare alcunchè di più che
non una mostra industriale ed un interesse materiali, questa è
simbolo, testimonianza d'un alto concetto politico, sociale e morale.
È il centenario della Rivoluzione, che aprì un'êra nuova nella vita dei
popoli. Deve quindi, non solo rappresentarla materialmente, sibbene
continuarne, completarne le idee, esserne come il coronamento. La
Rivoluzione nel suo concetto agitò, mercè i suoi precursori come in
seguito nell'apostolato dei suoi allievi, e continuatori, tutti i più
grandi problemi che preoccuparono l'umanità.
Alcuni di questi problemi, discussi a lungo, negli ordini politici,
economici, vanno semplificandosi e sono in via di sciogliersi; per altri
abbondano i materiali, ma, timidi, o scettici, pochi osano o curano
affrontarli apertamente.
Uno dei più poderosi, e che in sè riassume quasi una civiltà, e
più secoli, è il problema religioso, il quale è pur sempre, malgrado
tutti gli scettici e gl'indifferenti, il nodo del problema sociale.
Le religioni, che nel passato avrebbero dovuto rilegare,
associare insieme gli uomini, non fecero che dividere; furono un
pomo di discordia, anzi che anello d'unione, furono arma di guerre,
anzi che parola pacificatrice. Fu questa necessità dei tempi, delle
condizioni politiche e sociali, di fantasie e passioni umane. Per lo più,
esse furono larve, anzi che idee, simboli che coprivano,
dissimulavano il vero; le religioni, anzi che relegare, allentavano e
spesso spezzavano i vincoli sociali, tra famiglie e famiglie, popolo e
popolo; si creavano Chiese non Templi, sacerdozi, uffizianti per i
diversi culti, non un sacerdozio pel divino e per l'umanità.
Ora invano tentiamo sottrarci al problema religioso; esso
s'impone, si presenta del pari, in nome delle [pg 45] tradizioni, in
forza dei bisogni, delle aspirazioni e passioni umane, come della
scienza: il Congresso delle religioni fu il coronamento, l'idea, che
perdura sopra le rovine della Mostra di Chicago; esso si proponeva di
sostituire alle religioni, la ragione, ai culti moltipli contrapporre il
culto del vero, del pensiero, della scienza; alle religioni, alle sette,
l'aspirazione umana, il consenso religioso, morale di tutti, o quello
che, diremo con parola italica, l'intelletto d'amore. Queste idee sono
pure in gran parte il postulato, l'applicazione di dottrine e principi
proclamati dai sommi precursori della Rivoluzione, non solo in
Francia, ma in Inghilterra, in Germania, nella stessa Italia. Queste
idee potrebbero presentarsi come il clou intellettuale e sociale della
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.
More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge
connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.
Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and
personal growth every day!
ebookbell.com

More Related Content

PDF
Current Trends in Diachronic Semantics and Pragmatics Maj
PDF
Grammaticalization And Pragmatics Facts Approaches Theoretical Issues Corinne...
PDF
Current Trends In Contrastive Linguistics Functional And Cognitive Perspectiv...
PDF
Procedural Meaning Problems And Perspectives Victoria Escandellvidal Editor M...
PDF
The Functional Perspective On Language And Discourse Applications And Implica...
PDF
Research Trends In Intercultural Pragmatics Istvan Kecskes Editor Jess Romero...
PDF
Diachronic And Comparative Syntax Ian Roberts
PDF
Introducing Pragmatics In Use 2nd Edition Anne Okeeffe Brian Clancy
Current Trends in Diachronic Semantics and Pragmatics Maj
Grammaticalization And Pragmatics Facts Approaches Theoretical Issues Corinne...
Current Trends In Contrastive Linguistics Functional And Cognitive Perspectiv...
Procedural Meaning Problems And Perspectives Victoria Escandellvidal Editor M...
The Functional Perspective On Language And Discourse Applications And Implica...
Research Trends In Intercultural Pragmatics Istvan Kecskes Editor Jess Romero...
Diachronic And Comparative Syntax Ian Roberts
Introducing Pragmatics In Use 2nd Edition Anne Okeeffe Brian Clancy

Similar to Current Trends In Diachronic Semantics And Pragmatics 1st Edition Majbritt Mosegaard Hansen (20)

PDF
Wordorder Change As A Source Of Grammaticalisation Susann Fischer
PDF
Phases Of Interpretation Mara Frascarelli
PDF
Aspectuality And Temporality Descriptive And Theoretical Issues Zlatka Guentchva
PDF
Regularity In Semantic Change Elizabeth Closs Traugott Richard B Dasher
PDF
Variation And Change Pragmatic Perspectives Mirjam Fried Janola Ostman Jef Ve...
PDF
Linguistic Profiles Going From Form To Meaning Via Statistics Julia Kuznetsova
PDF
Microchange And Macrochange In Diachronic Syntax First Edition Eric Mathieu
PDF
The Grammar Of Expressivity Daniel Gutzmann
PDF
The Grammar Of Expressivity Daniel Gutzmann
PDF
Documenting Endangered Languages Achievements And Perspectives Geoffrey Lj Ha...
PDF
Newest Trends In The Study Of Grammaticalization And Lexicalization In Chines...
PDF
The Typology Of Semantic Alignment Mark Donohue Soren Wichmann
PDF
Case In Russian A Signoriented Approach 1st Edition Alexandra Beytenbrat
PDF
Diachronic And Typological Perspectives On Verbs Folke Josephson
PDF
Diachronic And Typological Perspectives On Verbs Folke Josephson
PDF
Objects And Other Subjects Grammatical Functions Functional Categories And Co...
PDF
Patterns Meaningful Units And Specialized Discourses Ute Romer Rainer Schulze
PDF
Crosslinguistic Semantics Of Tense Aspect And Modality Lotte Hogeweg Helen De...
PDF
The Dynamics Of Language Use Functional And Contrastive Perspectives Christop...
PDF
New Directions In Grammaticalization Research Andrew Dm Smith
Wordorder Change As A Source Of Grammaticalisation Susann Fischer
Phases Of Interpretation Mara Frascarelli
Aspectuality And Temporality Descriptive And Theoretical Issues Zlatka Guentchva
Regularity In Semantic Change Elizabeth Closs Traugott Richard B Dasher
Variation And Change Pragmatic Perspectives Mirjam Fried Janola Ostman Jef Ve...
Linguistic Profiles Going From Form To Meaning Via Statistics Julia Kuznetsova
Microchange And Macrochange In Diachronic Syntax First Edition Eric Mathieu
The Grammar Of Expressivity Daniel Gutzmann
The Grammar Of Expressivity Daniel Gutzmann
Documenting Endangered Languages Achievements And Perspectives Geoffrey Lj Ha...
Newest Trends In The Study Of Grammaticalization And Lexicalization In Chines...
The Typology Of Semantic Alignment Mark Donohue Soren Wichmann
Case In Russian A Signoriented Approach 1st Edition Alexandra Beytenbrat
Diachronic And Typological Perspectives On Verbs Folke Josephson
Diachronic And Typological Perspectives On Verbs Folke Josephson
Objects And Other Subjects Grammatical Functions Functional Categories And Co...
Patterns Meaningful Units And Specialized Discourses Ute Romer Rainer Schulze
Crosslinguistic Semantics Of Tense Aspect And Modality Lotte Hogeweg Helen De...
The Dynamics Of Language Use Functional And Contrastive Perspectives Christop...
New Directions In Grammaticalization Research Andrew Dm Smith
Ad

Recently uploaded (20)

PPTX
Macbeth play - analysis .pptx english lit
PPTX
Power Point PR B.Inggris 12 Ed. 2019.pptx
PDF
0520_Scheme_of_Work_(for_examination_from_2021).pdf
PPTX
4. Diagnosis and treatment planning in RPD.pptx
PPTX
BSCE 2 NIGHT (CHAPTER 2) just cases.pptx
PDF
LIFE & LIVING TRILOGY - PART - (2) THE PURPOSE OF LIFE.pdf
PDF
faiz-khans about Radiotherapy Physics-02.pdf
PDF
Journal of Dental Science - UDMY (2022).pdf
PDF
Solved Past paper of Pediatric Health Nursing PHN BS Nursing 5th Semester
PDF
Nurlina - Urban Planner Portfolio (english ver)
PDF
Myanmar Dental Journal, The Journal of the Myanmar Dental Association (2013).pdf
PDF
Health aspects of bilberry: A review on its general benefits
PDF
Hospital Case Study .architecture design
PPTX
Climate Change and Its Global Impact.pptx
PDF
African Communication Research: A review
PDF
Lecture on Viruses: Structure, Classification, Replication, Effects on Cells,...
PDF
The TKT Course. Modules 1, 2, 3.for self study
PDF
Chevening Scholarship Application and Interview Preparation Guide
PDF
fundamentals-of-heat-and-mass-transfer-6th-edition_incropera.pdf
PPTX
Case Study on mbsa education to learn ok
Macbeth play - analysis .pptx english lit
Power Point PR B.Inggris 12 Ed. 2019.pptx
0520_Scheme_of_Work_(for_examination_from_2021).pdf
4. Diagnosis and treatment planning in RPD.pptx
BSCE 2 NIGHT (CHAPTER 2) just cases.pptx
LIFE & LIVING TRILOGY - PART - (2) THE PURPOSE OF LIFE.pdf
faiz-khans about Radiotherapy Physics-02.pdf
Journal of Dental Science - UDMY (2022).pdf
Solved Past paper of Pediatric Health Nursing PHN BS Nursing 5th Semester
Nurlina - Urban Planner Portfolio (english ver)
Myanmar Dental Journal, The Journal of the Myanmar Dental Association (2013).pdf
Health aspects of bilberry: A review on its general benefits
Hospital Case Study .architecture design
Climate Change and Its Global Impact.pptx
African Communication Research: A review
Lecture on Viruses: Structure, Classification, Replication, Effects on Cells,...
The TKT Course. Modules 1, 2, 3.for self study
Chevening Scholarship Application and Interview Preparation Guide
fundamentals-of-heat-and-mass-transfer-6th-edition_incropera.pdf
Case Study on mbsa education to learn ok
Ad

Current Trends In Diachronic Semantics And Pragmatics 1st Edition Majbritt Mosegaard Hansen

  • 1. Current Trends In Diachronic Semantics And Pragmatics 1st Edition Majbritt Mosegaard Hansen download https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-diachronic- semantics-and-pragmatics-1st-edition-majbritt-mosegaard- hansen-2517034 Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com
  • 2. Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be interested in. You can click the link to download. Current Trends In Analysis Its Applications And Computation Proceedings Of The 12th Isaac Congress Aveiro Portugal 2019 Paula Cerejeiras https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-analysis-its- applications-and-computation-proceedings-of-the-12th-isaac-congress- aveiro-portugal-2019-paula-cerejeiras-46494974 Current Trends In Web Engineering Icwe 2022 International Workshops Becs Sweet And Wals Bari Italy July 58 2022 Revised Selected Papers Giuseppe Agapito https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-web-engineering- icwe-2022-international-workshops-becs-sweet-and-wals-bari-italy- july-58-2022-revised-selected-papers-giuseppe-agapito-49113510 Current Trends In The Identification And Development Of Antimicrobial Agents M Aminul Mannan https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-the-identification- and-development-of-antimicrobial-agents-m-aminul-mannan-49608938 Current Trends In Archaeological Heritage Preservation National And International Perspectives Proceedings Of The International Conference Iai Romania November 610 2013 Tefan Caliniuc Editor https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-archaeological- heritage-preservation-national-and-international-perspectives- proceedings-of-the-international-conference-iai-romania- november-610-2013-tefan-caliniuc-editor-49990258
  • 3. Current Trends In Slavery Studies In Brazil Stephan Conermann https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-slavery-studies-in- brazil-stephan-conermann-50318972 Current Trends In Economics Business And Sustainability Proceedings Of The International Conference On Economics Business And Sustainability Icebs 2023 J Aloysius Edward https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-economics-business- and-sustainability-proceedings-of-the-international-conference-on- economics-business-and-sustainability-icebs-2023-j-aloysius- edward-50584512 Current Trends In Computational Modeling For Drug Discovery Supratik Kar https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-computational- modeling-for-drug-discovery-supratik-kar-50710344 Current Trends In The Development And Teaching Of The Four Language Skills Esther Usjuan Editor Alicia Martnezflor Editor https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-the-development-and- teaching-of-the-four-language-skills-esther-usjuan-editor-alicia- martnezflor-editor-50958986 Current Trends In Narratology Greta Olson Editor https://ebookbell.com/product/current-trends-in-narratology-greta- olson-editor-50993260
  • 6. CURRENT TRENDS IN DIACHRONIC SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS
  • 7. STUDIES IN PRAGMATICS Series Editors: Bruce Fraser, Kerstin Fischer, Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen The Studies in Pragmatics series is dedicated to publishing innovative, authoritative monographs and edited collections from all micro-, macro-, and meta-pragmatic linguistic perspectives. Rooted in the interdisciplinary spirit of the Journal of Pragmatics, it welcomes not only book proposals from linguistics proper but also pragmatically oriented proposals from neighboring disciplines such as interactional sociology, language philosophy, communication science, social psychology, cognitive science, and information science. The goal of the series is to provide a widely read and respected international forum for high-quality theoretical, analytical, and applied pragmatic studies of all types. By publishing leading-edge work on natural language practice, it seeks to extend our growing knowledge of the forms, functions, and foundations of human interaction. Other titles in this series: FISCHER Approaches to Discourse Particles AIJMER & SIMON- VANDENBERGEN Pragmatic Markers in Contrast FETZER & FISCHER Lexical Markers of Common Grounds CAFFI Mitigation ROSSARI, RICCI & SPIRIDON Grammaticalization and Pragmatics: Facts, Approaches, Theoretical Issues FRASER & TURNER Language in Life, and a Life in Language: Jacob Mey – A Festschrift Proposals for the series are welcome. Please contact the Series Editor, Bruce Fraser: [email protected]
  • 8. CURRENT TRENDS IN DIACHRONIC SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS EDITED BY MAJ-BRITT MOSEGAARD HANSEN The University of Manchester, UK JACQUELINE VISCONTI University of Genova, Italy United Kingdom – North America – Japan India – Malaysia – China
  • 9. Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2009 Copyright r 2009 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permission service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the text, illustrations or advertisements. The opinions expressed in these chapters are not necessarily those of the Editor or the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84950-677-9 ISSN: 1750-368X (Series) Awarded in recognition of Emerald’s production department’s adherence to quality systems and processes when preparing scholarly journals for print
  • 10. Studies in Pragmatics (SiP) Series Editors Bruce Fraser Boston University, USA Kerstin Fischer University of Southern Denmark Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen University of Manchester, UK Consulting Editor Jacob L. Mey University of Southern Denmark Editorial Board Diane Blakemore, University of Salford, UK Shoshana Blum-Kulka, Hebrew University, Israel Laurel Brinton, University of British Columbia, Canada Claudia Caffi, University of Genoa, Italy Alessandro Duranti, UCLA, USA Anita Fetzer, University of Lueneburg, Germany Marjorie Goodwin, UCLA, USA Hartmut Haberland, University of Roskilde, Denmark William F. Hanks, University of California, USA Sachiko Ide, Tokyo Women’s University, Japan Kasia Jaszczolt, University of Cambridge, UK Elizabeth Keating, University of Texas, USA Sotaro Kita, University of Bristol, UK Ron Kuzar, University of Haifa, Israel Lorenzo Mondada, University of Lyon 2, France Henning Nølke, University of Aarhus, Denmark Etsuko Oishi, Fuji Women’s University, Japan Srikant Sarangi, Cardiff University, UK Marina Sbisà, University of Trieste, Italy
  • 12. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Current Trends in Diachronic Semantics and Pragmatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti APO: Avoid Pragmatic Overload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Regine Eckardt Diachronic Pathways and Pragmatic Strategies: Different Types of Pragmatic Particles from a Diachronic Point of View. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Ulrich Detges and Richard Waltereit Context Sensitive Changes: The Development of the Affirmative Markers godt ‘good’ and vel ‘well’ in Danish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Eva Skafte Jensen Procatalepsis and the Etymology of Hedging and Boosting Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Kate Beeching Central/Peripheral Functions of allora and ‘Overall Pragmatic Configuration’: A Diachronic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Carla Bazzanella and Johanna Miecznikowski The Importance of Paradigms in Grammaticalisation: Spanish Digressive Markers por cierto and a propósito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Maria Estellés The Multiple Origin of es que in Modern Spanish: Diachronic Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Magdalena Romera From Aspect/Mood Marker to Discourse Particle: Reconstructing Syntactic and Semantic Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Bethwyn Evans
  • 13. The Grammaticalization Channels of Evidentials and Modal Particles in German: Integration in Textual Structures as a Common Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Gabriele Diewald, Marijana Kresic and Elena Smirnova Evidentiality, Epistemicity, and their Diachronic Connections to Non-Factuality . . . . . . . . 211 Mario Squartini The Grammaticalization of Negative Reinforcers in Old and Middle French: A Discourse–Functional Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen A Roots Journey of a French Preposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Silvia Adler and Maria Asnes The Grammaticalization of Privative Adjectives: The Case of Mere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Elke Gehweiler The Origin of Semantic Change in Discourse Tradition: A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Katerina Stathi viii Table of Contents
  • 14. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Silvia Adler, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel Maria Asnes, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel Carla Bazzanella, Università degli Studi, Turin, Italy Kate Beeching, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK Ulrich Detges, Institute for Romance Philology, University of Munich, Germany Gabriele Diewald, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany Regine Eckardt, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany Maria Estellés, Universidad de Valencia, Spain Bethwyn Evans, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany Elke Gehweiler, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen, The University of Manchester, UK Eva Skafte Jensen, Roskilde University, Roskilde, Denmark Marijana Kresic, University of Zadar, Croatia Johanna Miecznikowski, Università della Svizzera italiana, Lugano, Switzerland Magdalena Romera, Universidad de las Islas Baleares, Palma de Mallorca, Baleares, Spain Elena Smirnova, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany Mario Squartini, Università di Torino, Torino, Italy Katerina Stathi, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany Jacqueline Visconti, University of Genova, Italy Richard Waltereit, Newcastle University, UK
  • 16. Current Trends in Diachronic Semantics and Pragmatics Edited by Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited. All rights reserved. 1 CURRENT TRENDS IN DIACHRONIC SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti 1. THE ROLE OF PRAGMATIC INFERENCING IN MEANING CHANGE Research on semantic change has gained considerable momentum from the idea that pragmatic factors are a driving force in the process. The idea, first suggested by Grice (1989 [1975]: 39), that ‘‘it may not be impossible for what starts life, so to speak, as a conversational implicature to become conventionalized’’, was systematized in Traugott’s Invited Inferencing Theory of Semantic Change (IITSC) (Traugott, 1999; Traugott and Dasher, 2002). More precisely, semantic change is seen as ‘‘arising out of the pragmatic uses to which speakers or writers and addressees or readers put language, and most especially out of the preferred strategies that speakers/writers use in communicating with addressees’’ (Traugott and Dasher, 2002: xi). The model, which is based on Levinson’s theory of generalized conversational implicature (GCIs) (Levinson, 2000), in particular on the distinction between ‘‘coded’’, ‘‘utterance-type’’ and ‘‘utterance-token’’ levels of meaning (Levinson, 1995), is represented in Figure 1.1 (from Traugott and Dasher, 2002: 38). In this model, assuming that the meaning M1 of a lexeme L is linked to the conceptual structure Ca at stage I, innovation may be produced by speakers/writers employing L in a particular, ‘‘utterance-token’’, use. Should such a use spread to more contexts and become salient in the community, it acquires the status of a ‘‘generalized invited inference’’ and may eventually become semanticized as a new coded meaning M2 for L at stage II. The IITSC arose in the context of reflection on replicated cross-linguistic regularities in semantic change, which the theory explained by assuming that they are the outcome of similar cognitive and communicative processes across languages. This has a number of consequences,
  • 17. salient among which is the idea that meanings can be predicted to become increasingly pragmatic, procedural, and metatextual. More specifically, a significant number of observed meaning changes appear to instantiate the following clines, referred to as ‘‘semantic–pragmatic tendencies’’: (i) truth-conditionalWnon-truth-conditional; (ii) contentWcontent/proceduralWprocedural; (iii) scope-within-propositionWscope-over-propositionWscope-over-discourse; (iv) non-subjectiveWsubjectiveWintersubjective (Traugott and Dasher, 2002: 40).1 Figure 1.1. Model of the Invited Inferencing Theory of Semantic Change (IITSC; Traugott, 1999: 96) (M ¼ coded meaning; C ¼ conceptual structure) from Traugott and Dasher (2002: 38). 1 These clines represent a revision of three, by now very well known, tendencies posited in Traugott (1989: 34–35), viz. (I) Meanings based in the external described situation W meanings based in the internal (evaluative/perceptual/cognitive) described situation; (II) Meanings based in the external or internal described situation W meanings based in the textual and metalinguistic situation; (III) Meanings tend to become increasingly based in the speaker’s subjective belief state/attitude toward the proposition. 2 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
  • 18. Most recent discussions in the fields of diachronic semantics and pragmatics revolve, as far as we can tell, around refining this paradigm. In particular, alternative proposals center on four key issues, which we shall elaborate on in the remainder of this introduction, highlighting the contribution made by the present volume. 1.1. What pragmatic entities are involved? The first issue concerns the nature and likely sequence of the pragmatic entities involved in the model, for example, the role of generalized versus particularized conversational implicatures (PCIs) in language change and their relationship to the issues of propagation and actualization. In fact, reflection on diachronic models for change has led to renewed discussion of the characteristics of key pragmatic notions, such as that of implicature. Thus, the three-stage model outlined in the IITSC, whereby semantic change would proceed from PCI via GCI to coded meaning, has been criticized, for instance, by Hansen and Waltereit (2006: 248), in whose opinion: in formulating their model of semantic change, Levinson (1995, 2000) as well as Traugott and Dasher (2002) redefine the notion of GCIs. From being a purely pragmatic phenomenon, GCIs, as understood in connection with the macro-sequence under review, become something more akin to the phenomena of either propagation or actualization of specific linguistic changes. The authors present an alternative proposal, grounded in the assumption that PCIs are ‘‘prototypically in the communicative foreground of messages, whereas generalized conversa- tional implicatures are prototypically backgrounded’’ (Hansen and Waltereit, 2006: 235). The sequence PCI-GCI-coded meaning is argued to be rare, most cases of semantic change being either instances of a PCI semanticizing directly (PCI-coded meaning) or of a GCI semanticizing, but only after having being foregrounded as a PCI (GCI-PCI-coded meaning). Indeed, the necessity of an intermediate GCI stage would seem to simply preclude semantic change based on metaphor, for the latter relies, in the Gricean view, on ostensive flouting of the quality maxim, a maxim which according to Levinson (2000: 74) cannot generate GCIs at all. In those cases where a PCI does turn into a GCI, it is, in fact, likely that it will not become fully semanticized (PCI- CGI-*coded meaning). In other words, the role of the different types of implicature in meaning change is a good deal more nuanced than the IITSC model would suggest. The issue of the nature of the pragmatic entities involved in change is addressed from a different angle by Schwenter and Waltereit (forthcoming). These authors provide an outline of the evolution of the additive particle too and some of its counterparts in Spanish and German, to show how counter-argumentative uses of the particle in novel discourse contexts can override the additive presupposition normally associated with such particles. Accommodating that Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 3
  • 19. presupposition becomes too costly and leads to reanalyzing the too element as a new form- function pairing. The initial diachronic examples in bridging contexts are plausibly interpretable as conveying the additive meaning of too, but the adversative properties of the dialogal discourse context appear to have led hearers to understand too as expressing a new, rhetorically strategic meaning with strong counter-argumentative force. In a similar vein, Eckardt (this volume) proposes that language change may be triggered, not just by implicatures, but also by unwarranted presuppositions. She shows that, antedating the emergence of the contemporary senses of certain words, one finds uses of those words in which their presuppositions are violated, in the sense that they contradict common world knowledge. Eckardt refers to such instances as ‘‘little pragmatic accidents’’. Many such ‘‘accidents’’ may best be repaired by a listener who hypothesizes that the problematic item is in fact being used in a new sense. According to this author, such utterances create a pragmatic overload: under a conservative interpretation, they will trigger presuppositions that the listener cannot accommodate because they do not make sense. Thus, the listener can either (a) be uncharitable and refuse to interpret the utterance at all, (b) face the pragmatic overload and attempt to reconceptualize the world such that the presupposition is consistent, or (c) hypothesize a new meaning for parts of the utterance, including the item that gave rise to the problematic presupposition. Proposals such as these raise the further issue of the role and scope of the Uniformitarian Principle in diachronic semantics and pragmatics. Within the field of linguistics, the Uniformitarian Principle consists in the assumption that the processes underlying instances of language change in the past were essentially the same as those that can be seen to operate today (e.g., Labov, 1994: 21). Among the contributors to the present volume, Eckardt explicitly argues that a virtue of her analysis is its conformity with the Uniformitarian Principle, and many of the remaining contributors tacitly rely on that principle in their analyses. However, while the principle can probably be uncontroversially applied in the study of phonological change, for instance, given that the physiological properties of speech have not changed, it becomes more problematic in the analysis of meaning change; for, as a number of scholars have argued, speech acts and events, norms of politeness, principles of text structure, and conversational routines are by no means directly comparable neither across contemporary cultures nor across different historical stages of a given culture or society (e.g., Wierzbicka, 1991, 2006; Jacobs and Jucker, 1995; Arnovick, 1999; Scollon and Scollon, 2001). To the extent that this is true, how can we be justified in assuming that patterns of inference, and hence the fundamental pragmatic entities underlying them, such as presuppositions and implicatures, were similar to those that we take to be operative in contemporary Western discourse? In those cases where the nature of both an older ‘‘source’’ meaning and a newer ‘‘target’’ meaning of a given linguistic item or construction is well established, it seems legitimate to suppose that the motivations for and mechanisms of extension/change which would most plausibly get us from source to target according to contemporary patterns of inference are likely to have been likewise instrumental in 4 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
  • 20. bringing about the change in the past.2 As soon as reconstruction is involved to a more significant extent, we are on shakier ground, however. For this reason, as current theorizing about diachronic semantics and pragmatics, as exemplified by the contributions to this volume, develops and is refined, there can be little doubt that the field would benefit from being informed to a greater extent by insights from ‘‘pragmaphilology’’ (Jacobs and Jucker, 1995) or ‘‘historical discourse analysis proper’’ (Brinton, 2001), that is, the synchronic study of discourse–pragmatic structures and functions and their corresponding means of expression in older texts. At present, however, there appears to be relatively little overlap among practitioners of the two disciplines. 1.2. What are the respective roles of the speaker and the hearer? A second major issue in diachronic semantics and pragmatics concerns the redefinition of the respective roles of speakers/writers and addressees/readers in the process of innovation. In particular, a set of proposals criticizes the speaker-based nature of the IITSC approach. As noted by Traugott (1999: 95): Although it recognizes the importance of guiding addresses to an interpretation [ . . . ] nevertheless the assumption of IITSC is that the speaker/writer does most of the work of innovation, not the hearer/reader. The idea is that the speaker/writer tries out a new use exploiting available implicatures. If the innovative use succeeds, the hearer/reader will interpret the intention correctly, and possibly experiment in similar ways in producing speech/writing. But rarely does the act of interpretation itself lead directly to innovation. Although this is to some extent a classic chicken-and-egg problem, Traugott’s assumption has been challenged by several scholars, among whom the authors of the two parallel studies already mentioned above, both proposing a model of semantic change based on the diachronically less used notion of presupposition. In the view of both Schwenter and Waltereit (forthcoming) and Eckardt (this volume), hearers who are unable or unwilling to accommodate presuppositions assume a novel interpretation of a former presupposition trigger and eventually pass this new interpretation on to other people, thereby changing the language. According to Schwenter and Waltereit, a hearer who is confronted with an utterance and assigns an interpretation to it that deviates from that utterance’s literal meaning has, in principle, two options: (i) assume that regular pragmatic operations, such as 2 Even this cannot be taken for granted, however: when scholars rely on their semantic–pragmatic intuitions, competing mechanisms may sometimes be invoked with equal probability to account for one and the same instance of change. Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 5
  • 21. conversational inference and the accommodation of presuppositions, mediate between the literal meaning and the chosen nonliteral interpretation; (ii) assume a novel conventional meaning for some element of that utterance. In that case, fewer pragmatic computations, and/or less costly ones, may be required, since there is no need anymore for them to mediate between the chosen interpretation and the traditional (previous) conventional meaning. If a hearer chooses (ii) and uses the novel form-meaning pairing in his/her own discourse, the language will have changed. Assuming that interpretive efforts by the listener are at the heart of ‘‘Avoid-Pragmatic- Overload’’-induced changes, Eckardt (this volume) moreover suggests a hearer-driven conception of the trend toward subjectification. Earlier approaches, she argues, leave open the question whether the subjective element is pressed into an utterance as a kind of Sprachnot phenomenon by the speaker or enters the meaning of words by an interpretive effort of the listener. Eckardt suggests that, in at least some cases, the subjective element enters the language via the interpretive efforts of the listener, not because listeners are constantly searching to see the speaker’s soul through his utterances, but because in the case of a truly senseless utterance the charitable listener will try to make at least some sense of that utterance. It is much more implausible to perceive subjectification as a speaker-driven process. Uttering incoherent sentences and hoping that the listener will grab your message does not seem a rational communicative strategy (Eckardt, this volume). Hansen (2008: 76) likewise argues that the reanalyses performed by hearers may be unintended by speakers, and that they may even, on some occasions, result from clear misunderstandings on the hearer’s part. In particular, theories that attribute a central role to the metonymical processes cannot afford to ignore this possibility, in so far as literal and metonymical meanings will often be mutually compatible. To take a simple example, if the change from Latin TESTIMONIUM (testimony) W French témoin (witness) came about as suggested by Koch (2004: 16f ), namely via the (necessary) metonymical link between the existence of testimony and that of a witness, in contexts where utterances such as (1) would be produced, then it is unlikely that it would have been speaker driven: (1) [Judge:] Audiamus testimonium proximum! ‘Let’s hear the next piece of testimony!’ Even more obviously, while the change responsible for the two currently competing meanings of the Danish noun bjørnetjeneste (literally ‘bear favor’), ‘a favor that has unintended negative results’ W ‘a really big favor’, can be attributed to the non-transparency of that noun, and hence its potential ambiguity in contexts such as (2), it is highly implausible that speakers familiar with the original, negatively loaded, meaning could be held responsible for the rise of the innovative, positively loaded, interpretation. In this case, there can be little doubt that the process must have 6 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
  • 22. been driven by hearers who were unfamiliar with the intended meaning and who were therefore forced to make conjectures: (2) Peter overtalte chefen til at give mig opgaven. Det var sørme en bjørnetjeneste! Literally: ‘Peter persuaded the boss to give me the task. That was really a bear-favor!’ 1.3. In what types of context does semantic–pragmatic change take place? The third rapidly evolving area of discussion concerns the characterization of the contexts in which inferencing takes place. Invited inferencing and context-induced reinterpretation both assume pragmatic polysemy and ambiguity. In this respect a set of proposals have been advanced in the literature about such ambiguous contexts. Heine (2002: 86), for instance, proposes a series of four stages in semasiological change, and sees the pivotal stage as constituted by what he refers to as ‘‘bridging contexts’’, that is, contexts where the use of a given expression allows, in addition to its conventional meaning, an inference to an innovative meaning (see also Evans and Wilkins, 2000: 549; Enfield, 2005: 318).3 Putting more emphasis on structural constraints, Diewald (2002, 2006) proposes that ambiguity and structural factors accumulate in one context, which she calls a ‘‘critical context’’. An innovative element in the reflection on this topic has been the increasing awareness of the importance of taking interactional factors into account when defining the contexts for change, for instance, dialogic and contesting contexts evoking multiple viewpoints, turn-taking, and other interactional moves. The refinement of context characterization is a main thread throughout the papers in this volume. Such a refinement is operated at multiple levels: from linguistic features (co-text) to cognitive and/or interactional properties (context) to features of specific genres influencing semantic change (discourse tradition). At the linguistic level, Evans’, Jensen’s, and Romera’s papers offer fine-grained analyses of the formal and functional co-textual variables to which changes can be attributed. Thus, a detailed reconstruction of the change from aspect/mood marker to discourse particle in Morovo is related by Evans to the morphosyntactic and semantic characteristics of the construction. In Jensen’s paper, the semantics of predicates is shown to interact with properties of specific slots in a topological model of Danish sentences, thereby affecting the development of the affirmative markers godt and vel; while in Romera’s contribution, a set of formal and functional variables are shown to contribute to the evolution of Spanish es que. 3 Whereas Heine (2002) assumes that the innovative (target) meaning is the intended one, Hansen (2008: 63) proposes that it is still backgrounded at this stage, and only foregrounded when the subsequent ‘‘switch-context’’ stage is reached. Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 7
  • 23. The second level, that of cognition and interaction, which is not always given prominence in diachronic semantics and pragmatics studies, is central to many papers in the present volume: Hansen draws attention to what she calls ‘‘Janus-faced contexts’’, that is, contexts in which the cognitive contents of a negated clause are oriented simultaneously to previous and to upcoming discourse, and proposes that such contexts are crucial to the grammaticalization of bipartite sentence negation in French. Paradigmatic associations (also treated by Diewald et al. and Jensen) are argued to have predictive value by Estellès, who shows how paradigmatic pressures can lead to change. Bazzanella and Miecznikowski analyze how Italian allora has evolved from expressing referential (temporal) meaning to fulfilling a range of inferential functions, and argue that the driving forces in these changes should be sought among properties of spoken language in interaction (e.g., planning, recipient designed, discourse structuring) as well as among properties of co-constructed argumentational discourse (e.g., recurrent schemas of reasoning; the need to attribute conclusions and premises to participants and to monitor the degree of sharedness/ expectedness of standpoints at any moment of their negotiation; the direct relevance of dialogical reasoning to decisions about future actions). Similarly, Detges and Waltereit argue that discourse markers arise as the result of argumentational procedures in the negotiation in discourse, marking, for example, a change of activity or disagreement, while the polyphonic component in modal particles arises as the conventionalization of disputing the validity of a given proposition in dialogic exchanges. Finally, Beeching highlights the crucial role of concessive contexts in pragmaticalization processes such as the evolution of hedging and boosting particles in a variety of languages. At a more general level, Stathi’s study of the development of the German verb gehören (literally ‘belong to’) shows how discourse traditions (in this case, administrative and judicial texts) may influence change, an aspect previously discussed by Pons Borderı́a (2006). 1.4. What is the precise nature of and relationship among the observed tendencies of semantic–pragmatic change? The fourth issue revolves around both refining the clines (i) to (iv) identified above and understanding the relationship between such tendencies: for instance, the relationship between grammaticalization, scope, and subjectification (Company Company, 2006a,b; Traugott, forth- coming), or the issue of whether to define the evolution of pragmatic markers as an instance of grammaticalization (Brinton and Traugott, 2005; Diewald et al., this volume) or of pragmaticalization (Erman and Kotsinas, 1993; Dostie, 2004; Hansen, 2008: Chapter 3). With respect to the latter, those who argue that pragmatic markers are grammaticalized focus on the fact that the evolution of pragmatic markers will typically feature the decategorialization of the source item, some degree of phonological reduction of that source item, as well as subjectification and increased ‘‘procedurality’’ of its content. 8 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
  • 24. Those scholars who prefer to describe pragmatic markers as ‘‘pragmaticalized’’, on the other hand, do so on the basis of Lehmann’s (1985) six classic parameters of grammaticalization, viz. phonological and/or semantic attrition, paradigmatization, obligatorification, scope reduction, syntagmatic coalescence, and syntagmatic fixation. According to Lehmann’s model, grammati- calized items will exhibit a high degree of several of these characteristics. As noted by Waltereit (2002: 1005), Eckardt (2003: 42), and Hansen (2008: 57f ), pragmatic markers as a class tend not to fulfill Lehmann’s criteria to any great extent. Rather, they typically exhibit scope increase, greater syntactic freedom, optionality, and strengthening of their pragmatic import. The former problem has to do with whether subjectification is necessarily part of, and unique to, the grammaticalization process, which, if true, raises questions about the scope of grammaticalized items. According to Traugott (1995) and Brinton and Traugott (2005), subjectification is at the very least a strong tendency in grammaticalization, particularly in its early stages (Traugott, 1995: 47), but it is nevertheless an independent process (Brinton and Traugott, 2005: 109; Traugott, forthcoming). Company Company (2006a) argues that subjectification is not just a semantic–pragmatic phenomenon, but actually constitutes a specific type of syntactic change as well, namely one that is characterized by scope increase and syntactic isolation, and she conceives of subjectification as a subtype of grammaticalization. It seems to us that what this author calls subjectification would largely be equivalent to what others describe as pragmaticalization, were it not for the fact that she deems the syntactic changes mentioned criterial, as opposed to just typical, of subjectification. However, the existence of items like the so- called modal particles that are a salient feature of the Continental Germanic languages appears to provide a strong argument against such a view, for while modal particles are indubitably subjectified as compared to their source items and also exhibit scope increase, they are nevertheless syntactically highly constrained. This debate raises the issue of the exact understanding of what is implied by notions such as grammaticalization and pragmaticalization: are these labels for specific processes of change, in which case they have independent theoretical status, or are they largely just convenient shorthands for the cumulative results of sets of frequently converging, but essentially independent, changes that linguistic items and constructions can undergo? If the former, we would expect there to be a rather strict separation between grammaticalized and pragmaticalized items. If the latter, we should not be surprised to find cases where either or both label(s) might seem appropriate. This would appear to be the case, for instance, with the Germanic modal particles mentioned above, which are characterized by scope increase, optionality, and pragmatic strengthening, but also – unlike discourse markers, for instance – by paradigmatization and syntagmatic fixation. The issues surrounding grammaticalization, pragmaticalization, and processes, such as subjectification which may be prominently associated with either, are highlighted in many of the papers in the present volume, which analyze the evolution of procedural meanings of various kinds. Thus, several papers feature different types of pragmatic markers as their object of study Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 9
  • 25. (Bazzanella and Miecznikowski, Beeching, Detges and Waltereit, Eckardt, Estellès, Evans, Gehweiler, Jensen, Romera), while others are concerned with items and constructions expressing modality (Stathi), evidentiality (Diewald et al., Squartini), negation (Hansen), and relational meanings (Adler and Asnes). Saliently, Diewald at al. refine the grammaticalization model as the reinterpretation and abstraction of a relational semantic template from (i) referential to (ii) text- integrative/connective to (iii) indexical-grammatical function, exemplified by the evolution of evidentials and modal particles in German, while Detges and Waltereit’s tackle the thorny issue of the categorization of discourse markers versus modal particles, which the authors claim arise from different mechanisms of change. Their paper proposes a fine-tuning of the subjectification model by showing how and why different types of procedural meanings arise. 1.5. Concluding remarks We suggest that, in a number of ways, the present volume constitutes an important contribution to our current understanding of historical semantics and pragmatics: First, several papers in this collection revisit, in a diachronic perspective, key theoretical notions that are typically confined to the synchronic perspective, such as presuppositions (Eckardt), paradigms (Estellès), word order (Jensen), and discourse status (Hansen). This allows the authors to test and refine current models of semantic change and to provide innovative accounts of causes and motivations for linguistic changes. Second, the semantic domains covered by the case studies are ones that are generally considered central (spatiality, temporality, negation, modality, evidentiality, subjectivity, scalarity, intensification, and concession). Third, the volume commends itself not only by virtue of the variety of approaches to meaning that are represented here, from prototype theory (Bazzanella and Miecznikowski) to monosemy (Adler and Asnes), but also very much by the range of data adduced from languages other than English (several Romance languages, German, Danish, and Oceanic languages). 2. SUMMARIES OF THE INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS The papers collected in this volume originate in a workshop on Diachronic Semantics and Pragmatics, organized by the volume editors at the 18th International Conference on Historical Linguistics (Montreal, August 2007). In her article, ‘‘Avoid Pragmatic Overload,’’ Regine Eckardt suggests that the role of pragmatics in language change might not be restricted to implicature, but that presupposition (failure) is equally a driving force in meaning change. It is well known that utterances may carry 10 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
  • 26. presuppositions which, if new to the hearer, will have to be accommodated. This is unproblematic in all those cases where the accommodated information is plausible and uncontroversial. Problems arise, however, when the speaker relies on presuppositions which are implausible, controversial, or hard to reconcile with other pieces of knowledge. Eckardt proposes that when faced with the option of accommodating the impossible, hearers may instead prefer to reanalyze the meaning of parts of the utterance. Thus, hearers avoid pragmatic overload (problematic presuppositions) and hypothesize new meanings instead. The proposed analysis is supported by several attested cases of semantic change to which it can be fruitfully applied. Among others, the author discusses the reanalysis of German intensifying selbst (-self ) as a focus particle (even), and of German fast (immovably tight) as an approximative (almost), as well as the development of English even from a level adjective to a focus marker, and she takes a brief look at the case of Italian perfino which likewise develops an ‘even’-like reading from its earlier sense ‘through, to the end’ (Visconti, 2005). For each item, it can be argued that the turning point of the development is characterized by the appearance of uses where the presuppositions of the sentence, if spelled out, are tantamount to contradictory, or at least highly implausible, information. The proposal confirms the vital role of pragmatics in language change and identifies yet another type of pragmatic enrichment of utterances that has, so far, not been widely explored in diachronic linguistics. In their paper, ‘‘Diachronic Pathways and Pragmatic Strategies: Different Types of Pragmatic Particles from a Diachronic Point of View’’, Ulrich Detges and Richard Waltereit address one of the main concerns of research on discourse markers, modal particles, and related elements, namely the problem of a neat categorical delimitation between these items, by considering whether the synchronic difference between discourse markers and modal particles can be accounted for in diachronic terms. Do discourse markers and modal particles arise from different mechanisms of change? Their cases are the cognate French and Spanish particles bien, both of which originate in adverbs meaning ‘well’. French bien functions, among other things, as a modal particle. By contrast, Spanish bien is a discourse marker. It is widely accepted that discourse markers serve the purpose of coordinating the joint construal of discourse, and according to Detges and Waltereit, this is directly reflected in their diachronic evolution: thus, the Spanish DM bien is the routinized residue of negotiations about the next move in conversation. Moreover, their analysis suggests that discourse markers are a subset of a much wider range of routines that human beings have at their disposal for the coordination of joint activities. Thus, it is not surprising that the diachronic evolution of a discourse marker should follow the same pathways as do such routines. By contrast, modal particles function at the speech-act level and typically make reference to the hearer’s attitudes concerning the validity of the speech act. More broadly, the results presented in this paper imply that there are levels of generalization about semantic change below the overarching tendencies of subjectification. At the same time, they provide very specific justification for these levels of generalization, and ultimately for subjectification itself. Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 11
  • 27. Eva Skafte Jensen’s article, ‘‘Context Sensitive Changes: The Development of the Affirmative Markers ‘godt’(good) and ‘vel’ (well) in Danish’’, gives a detailed account of how these Danish adverbials (meaning, respectively, ‘good’ and ‘well’) came to be used as markers of affirmation. Special interest is paid to the role played by the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic context of the lexical items in question. One influential factor is the semantics of the predicates of the sentences in which the items occur. Predicates conveying subjective meanings and meanings of modal possibility (e.g., modal verbs, verbs such as føle ‘feel’, vide ‘know’, etc.) seem to provide good conditions for the development of the affirmative function of the adverbials in question. Another, less frequently discussed, contextual factor is provided by the rules of word order (topology) in Danish. Jensen argues that the properties of specific slots and places in the topological model of a Danish sentence have direct bearing not only on the synchronic interpretation of the adverbials in question, but also on their possible diachronic reinterpretation as markers of affirmation. A third contextual factor is of a pragmatic nature, as it is argued that the developments of godt and vel may be described as ‘‘the conventionalization of a conversational implicature’’. Thus, these adverbials often occur in utterances where there might be some doubt as to the validity of the positive value of the propositional contents, thus giving rise to the implicature that ‘someone might think that the State-of-Affairs is not the case’. As a result of this, affirmative godt and vel enter into a small paradigm of polarity alongside negation and zero. The cross-linguistic implications of this account are evaluated, as some languages seem to prefer having adverbials meaning ‘good’ and ‘well’ develop into markers of affirmation or similar (e.g., Detges and Waltereit, this volume). ‘‘Procatalepsis and the Etymology of Hedging and Boosting Particles’’ by Kate Beeching sets out to explore a cognitive basis for procatalepsis, ‘a figure by which an opponent’s objections are anticipated and answered’, and to argue that the evolution of hedging/boosting particles in a number of languages may be explained by reference to it. While the role of metaphor and metonymy in language change is well documented, other classical figures such as synecdoche and procatalepsis and their relationship with cognition and semantic–pragmatic change have been less thoroughly investigated. By conceding certain arguments, speakers can strengthen their position and make it easier to defend, while at the same time exhibiting a sense of fair play. In a similar manner, a procataleptically derived particle simultaneously hedges and boosts the assertion associated with it. Beeching’s paper argues that the metonymic contiguity of terms like though with contexts relating to the negotiation of meaning and the ‘‘Cardinal Concessive frame’’ (X – statement, Xu – concession, Y – potential refutation) (Couper-Kuhlen and Thompson, 2000) so commonly invoked in everyday interaction has led them to be used in situations where X and Xu are unexpressed. Though thus retains a concessive sense, but functions simultaneously as a hedge and as a booster. What is more, this procataleptic tendency is a cross-linguistic phenomenon which affects similar adversative and concessive conjunctions and adverbs in different languages, such as French quand meme, Glasgow but and German aber. While the etymologies, the 12 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
  • 28. polysemies, and the position in the clause of these various adverbs differ, the fundamental cognitive reflex depending on the Cardinal Concessive, which is part of our everyday conceptualization of events, is very similar in all of them. This suggests that the underlying motivation for the recruitment of such usages is universal, arising from social interactional exigencies related to questions of face. The study by Carla Bazzanella and Johanna Miecznikowski, ‘‘Central/Peripheral Functions of ‘allora’ and ‘Overall Pragmatic Configuration,’’’ suggests that Italian allora (‘so’, ‘then’) has considerably expanded its functional spectrum from the 13th century up to the present day. Starting out from temporal functions (simultaneity and consecution), the following functions have been added (in order of diachronic appearance): (i) functions in the domain of causality, (ii) inferential-evidential functions, and (iii) text and interaction structuring functions. Functional expansion has been accompanied by semantic shifts, among others a deictic shift (distal W proximal), as well as by syntactic shifts (in particular, ana-/cataphorical adverb W connective at utterance margins W iconic segment-initial connective). In this development, the use of allora in hypothetical constructions – which in themselves are polyfunctional and often potentially ambiguous – seems to have played an important role. To explain allora’s semantic-functional expansion, it is useful to posit (a) a basic relational semantics of the lexeme, which is quite stable over time and (b) general semantic/cognitive principles that account for the relative proximity of certain semantic domains, and therefore the probability of a (metaphorical) shift from one domain of meaning to the other. However, (a) and (b) merely delineate potential paths of development; in the explanation of change, they have to be integrated with specific hypotheses about the driving forces of change. Bazzanella and Miecznikowski strongly emphasize the importance of pragmatic factors as driving forces, that is, functional pressures arising in recurrent situations of use. In the case of allora, strongly argumentational dialogue types seem to have played a key role. In the analysis offered, the shifts mentioned above are related to both general properties of spoken language in interaction and more specific properties of co-construed argumentational discourse. The action of these factors as driving forces can be accounted for if one assumes that the semantic and functional potential of a linguistic item corresponds to a prototypically organized set of features which, in language use, is actualized as an ‘overall pragmatic configuration’, in which some potential features become more relevant than others, in congruence with contextual parameters, and are thus strengthened by recurrent use in certain constructions and situation types. Unlike routinization (Hopper, 1987) and context (Hopper and Traugott, 1993 [2003]), both traditionally regarded as triggers of grammaticalization, a factor such as paradigmatic relations has mainly been seen as responsible for the spread of change, not as the locus where changes take place. Against this background, Maria Estelles’ article on ‘‘The Importance of Paradigms in Grammaticalization: Spanish Digressive Markers ‘por cierto’ and ‘a propósito’’’ highlights their role as a possible cause of grammaticalization processes. The importance of paradigms is illustrated by tracing back the history of the two most frequent markers of digression in Spanish, Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 13
  • 29. namely por cierto and a propósito (by the way). These particles, despite rather different origins and evolutions, seem, in the course of the 19th century, to become integrated into a paradigm of digression. Since then, the use of por cierto, formerly restricted to the intra-sentential level, has been extended to the textual level, already reached by a propósito. In turn, a propósito came to be used in appositions, an environment that was previously specific to por cierto. Magdalena Romera’s ‘‘The Multiple Origin of ‘es que’ in Modern Spanish: Diachronic Evidence’’ considers how an expression such as es que (it is that), originally part of a structure that expresses existential meaning, ends up being used by itself as a functional unit to introduce elaboration–reinterpretation values. Her proposal is that constructions with es que initially express existential meaning and a more elaborated clarification of the content of a previous segment, but later the elaboration allows for a more subjective interpretation in terms of the speaker’s interpretation, which in turn could be understood as an explanation for what was just said. At the same time, es que constructions lose their subject due to a process of loss of referentiality in the elements placed in that position. Initially, subjects are highly referential and can be related anaphorically to the previous content, but later on they are simply elements that anticipate the focalized content expressed in the subordinate clause. Chronologically, these two processes go together. From Early Spanish (1200–1300) up to the 16th century, es que constructions are existential and elaborative structures. The first cases of interpretative uses are found in 1500 and generalize in the 17th century. The same can be said of the path from integrated constructions (i.e., es que constructions with a subject) to nonintegrated ones (i.e., es que constructions without a subject). No cases of subjectless constructions are found in Early Spanish and only a few cases in 1400. The first uses of es que structures as we know them in Modern Spanish appear in 1500 in monologues and at the end of that century in dialogues. The subject position is allowed to be left empty in the 16th century. Bethwyn Evans’ paper, ‘‘From Aspect/Mood Marker to Discourse Particle: Reconstructing Syntactic and Semantic Change,’’ examines the reanalysis of an aspect/mood marker as a discourse connective particle from the perspectives of both syntactic and semantic change. Evidence of the change is found in the system of subject marking in Marovo, an Oceanic language of the Solomon Islands. Marovo has preverbal markers which indicate the person and number of the subject argument and which occur primarily in only two types of constructions: negative verbal declarative clauses and verbal clauses with an initial discourse connective particle. These unusual conditions on the presence of subject marking in Marovo are shown to reflect its historical development. Through comparison of Marovo with other closely related Oceanic languages, it is demonstrated that subject marking in negative clauses is archaic, reflecting original constructions in which subject markers occurred within the verb complex alongside preverbal markers of aspect/ mood and negation. The use of subject markers with discourse connective particles reflects the same original construction, but in this case the reanalysis of an aspect/mood marker as a discourse connective particle has resulted in the subsequent extension of subject markers to use with 14 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
  • 30. discourse connective particles in general. A detailed reconstruction of the change, informed by accepted models of syntactic and semantic reanalysis, suggests that it was motivated by both the morphosyntactic and semantic characteristics of the construction. While the reanalysis appears to have been triggered by structural ambiguity resulting from a chance homophony of forms, semantic and pragmatic aspects of the construction also facilitated the change. In ‘‘The Grammaticalization Channels of Evidentials and Modal Particles in German: Integration in Textual Structures as a Common Feature’’, Gabriele Diewald, Marijana Kresic, and Elena Smirnova are concerned with the grammaticalization of German evidential constructions and modal particles. In present day German, these items serve as linguistic means for expressing different grammatical contents, and, at first sight, do not seem to have anything in common beyond being two evolving grammatical categories. The authors’ first concern in this paper is to argue that both German evidential periphrases and modal particles serve as grammatical markers. As such, they meet two criteria that are proposed as definitional of grammatical signs: (a) indexical potential and (b) paradigmatic integration. The second aim of the paper is to reconstruct a diachronic developmental path for each category. Thus, the grammaticalization processes of individual elements are summarized in a unified grammaticalization channel for each category. The third goal of the paper is to show that there are common developmental tendencies in the grammaticalization of even such different linguistic elements as evidentials and modal particles. The intention behind this is to propose that these common features may be powerful indicators of grammaticalization in general. The starting point is the assumption that, in their development, these elements follow general tendencies and clines established in grammaticaliza- tion theory, and the authors show (i) that German evidentials and modal particles develop by reinterpretation of, and abstraction from, a relational semantic template and (ii) that this development results in the indexical-grammatical interpretation of that template, which is reached via an intermediate stage of text-integrative/connective interpretation. By way of generalization, the authors assume that their model of three successive stages in grammaticalization (which describe the following semiotic-functional changes in a sign: (i) referential function W (ii) text- integrative/connective function W (iii) indexical-grammatical function) is applicable to all grammaticalization processes. Moreover, they emphasize the particular importance of the second stage in grammaticalization processes – the integration of a sign in specific text structures whereby the sign comes to serve text-connective functions. In his article, ‘‘Evidentiality, Epistemicity and Their Diachronic Connections to Nonfac- tuality,’’ Mario Squartini investigates the diachronic relationship between evidentiality and epistemicity in the pragmatic and semantic evolution of some Romance forms, including seem- verbs, hearsay markers such as the American Spanish dizque ‘allegedly, supposedly’, and inflectional verb forms having epistemic meanings or being used as evidential strategies (the Romance synthetic futures and conditionals). Despite their diverse origins, all these forms evolve in similar diachronic directions, demonstrating the crucial role of nonfactuality in the evolution of Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 15
  • 31. the evidential meaning connected to hearsay and reportive markers. Nonfactuality, on the other hand, turns out to be negatively correlated with the diachronic evolution of conjectural and inferential markers, a fact which raises empirical questions with respect to the much-debated interpretation of inferentiality as an intermediate area in the crucial boundary between epistemicity and evidentiality. Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen’s paper on ‘‘The Grammaticalization of Negative Reinforcers in Old and Middle French: A Discourse-Functional Approach’’ presents evidence that key stages in the diachronic evolution of clausal negation in French should be understood as governed by discourse-functional constraints on the flow of information. Specifically, concerning the synchronic properties of Old and Middle French negation, she argues that clauses negated by ne . . . mie/pas were constrained to be discourse-old, as defined by Birner (2006), and that, while the proposition expressed by such clauses need not be believed, it should be such that the speaker could assume that it was either already activated in the short-term memory of the hearer or accessible to activation based on other propositions thus activated. This analysis presents the advantage of being compatible with what is known about the uses of different forms of negation in a number of contemporary Romance vernaculars where variation is still maintained between simple preverbal negators and reinforced expressions which in several cases are etymologically identical to the French forms. The author suggests, further, a diachronic scenario capable of explaining the subsequent unmarking of reinforced negation in French, her proposal being that so-called Janus-faced contexts, that is, contexts that are at one and the same time backwards and forwards oriented in terms of the flow of information in discourse, constituted the key bridging contexts that allowed for the reanalysis of the reinforced negators. The advantages of the proposed scenario are that it not only relies on precisely those discourse-functional constraints that were argued to govern the use of negative reinforcers at the stage where they were still conceptually and textually marked, but it is also more precise than existing pragmatically based explanations. Silvia Adler and Maria Asnes, in their ‘‘A Roots Journey of a French Preposition,’’ propose a diachronic investigation of the French preposition jusqu’à (meaning ‘until’, ‘up to’, ‘to’). Their study reveals that all the present usages of jusqu’à – spatial, temporal, scalar, and quantificational – already coexist at the early stages of French, which supports the hypothesis of the monosemicity of this preposition. Thus, all the possible readings of PPs headed by jusqu’à share one semantic primitive which has to do with the notions of a path and of a culminating point (representing the limit of the path). It is the nature of the limit provided by the context which accounts for the different readings of jusqu’à. This suggests, in other words, that the spatiotemporal value cannot be considered as the core meaning of this preposition: in the case of jusqu’à, there is no real evolution from spatial to nonspatial, from concrete to abstract, but rather one core sense, in itself abstract, which is applicable to various domains, such as space, time, and scalarity. All of these conserve the idea of an axis, a continuum, and an oriented scale. 16 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
  • 32. Elke Gehweiler’s ‘‘The Grammaticalization of Privative Adjectives: The Case of ‘mere’’’ argues that the present-day English adjectival intensifier/downtoner mere evolved from a privative adjective with the meaning ‘pure, unmixed’ through a process of grammaticalization and subjectification. The paper first discusses the synchronic status of mere, showing that mere is a peripheral member of the word class adjective and is restricted to only a very limited number of patterns in PDE. In the second part of the paper, the diachronic development of mere from privative adjective to downtoner is discussed on the basis of diachronic corpus data. Most importantly, it is argued that the ambiguity of mere in attributive position in certain uses triggered a reanalysis of mere as intensifier, which was followed by the lexicalization of its new meaning. The paper suggests that the case of mere is not unique and that other privative adjectives have developed more grammatical and more subjective meanings in a similar way. Katerina Stathi’s ‘‘The Origin of Semantic Change in Discourse Tradition: A Case Study’’ shows how the textual context or discourse tradition in which semantic change of a lexical item originates may be reflected in the meaning of that item. The German verb gehören (literally ‘belong to’) expresses necessity and obligation in a construction with the passive participle. Diachronic evidence reveals that this meaning arose in contexts of law and administration via pragmatic inference. A synchronic corpus study shows that a significant proportion of the participles in this construction refers to ‘‘negative’’ actions (which can be subsumed under the notion of punishment) on the patient. It is claimed that the dominant meaning of the participles reflects the original context in which gehören developed the meaning of necessity and obligation. This is described as an instance of persistence. REFERENCES Arnovick, L. K. (1999). Diachronic pragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Birner, B. J. (2006). ‘‘Semantic and pragmatic contributions to information status’’, in M.-B. M. Hansen and K. Turner (eds.), Explorations in the semantics/pragmatics interface. Special issue of Acta Lingvistica Hafniensia, 38: 14–32. Brinton, L. J. (2001). ‘‘Historical discourse analysis’’, in D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen and H. E. Hamilton (eds.), Handbook of discourse analysis. Oxford: Blackwell, 138–160. Brinton, L. J. and E. T. Traugott (2005). Lexicalization and language change, (research surveys in linguistics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Company Company, C. (2006). ‘‘Subjectification of verbs into discourse markers: Semantic–pragmatic change only?’’. Belgian Journal of Linguistics 20: 97–121. Company Company, C. (2006). ‘‘Zero in syntax, ten in pragmatics: Subjectification as syntactic cancellation’’, in A. Athanasiadou, C. Canakis and B. Cornillie (eds.), Subjectification: Various paths to subjectivity, (cognitive linguistics research 31). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 375–397. Couper-Kuhlen, E. and S. A. Thompson (2000). ‘‘Concessive patterns in conversation’’, in E. Couper-Kuhlen and B. Kortmann (eds.), Cause–condition–concession–contrast: Cognitive and discourse perspectives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 381–410. Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 17
  • 33. Diewald, G. (2002). ‘‘A model for relevant types of contexts in grammaticalization’’, in I. Wischer and G. Diewald (eds.), New reflections on grammaticalization. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 103–120. Diewald, G. (2006). ‘‘Context types in grammaticalization as constructions’’, Constructions, SV1-9. http:// www.constructions-online.de/ Dostie, G. (2004). Pragmaticalisation et marqueurs discursifs. Analyse sémantique et traitement lexicologique. Brussels: De Boeck/Duculot. Eckardt, R. (2003). The structure of change. Meaning change under reanalysis. Habilitation thesis, Berlin: Humboldt Universität (Revised version published in 2006 by Oxford University Press). Enfield, N. J. (2005). ‘‘Micro- and macro-dimensions in linguistic systems’’, in S. Marmaridou, K. Nikiforidou and E. Antonopoulou (eds.), Reviewing linguistic thought: Converging trends for the 21st century (Trends in linguistics. Studies and monographs, Vol. 161). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 313–325. Erman, B. and U.-B. Kotsinas (1993). ‘‘Pragmaticalization: The case of ba’ and you know’’. Studier i modern språkvetenskap 10: 76–93. Evans, N. and D. Wilkins (2000). ‘‘In the mind’s ear: The semantic extensions of perception verbs in Australian languages’’. Language 76: 546–592. Grice, H. P. (1989[1975]). ‘‘Logic and conversation’’, in his studies in the way of words. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 22–40. Hansen, M.-B. M. (2008), Particles at the semantics/pragmatics interface: Synchronic and diachronic issues. A study with special reference to the French phasal adverbs, (Current research in the semantics– pragmatics interface, Vol. 19). Oxford/Bingley: Elsevier/Emerald. Hansen, M.-B. M. and R. Waltereit (2006). ‘‘GCI theory and language change’’, in M.-B. M. Hansen and K. Turner (eds.), Explorations in the semantics/pragmatics interface. Special issue of Acta Lingvistica Hafniensia, 38: 235–268. Heine, B. (2002). ‘‘On the role of context in grammaticalization’’, in I. Wischer and G. Diewald (eds.), New reflections on grammaticalization. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 103–120. Hopper, P. J. (1987). ‘‘Emergent grammar’’. Berkeley Linguistics Society 13: 139–157. Hopper, P. J. and E. C. Traugott (2003). Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jacobs, A. and A. H. Jucker (1995). ‘‘The historical perspective in pragmatics’’, in A. H. Jucker (ed.), Historical pragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 3–33. Koch, P. (2004). ‘‘Metonymy between pragmatics, reference, and diachrony’’. Metaphorik.de 7: 6–54. www.metaphorik.de Labov, W. (1994). Principles of linguistic change, internal factors. Oxford: Blackwell. Lehmann, C. (1985). ‘‘Grammaticalization: Synchronic variation and diachronic change’’. Lingua e stile XX (3): 303–318. Levinson, S. C. (1995). ‘‘Three levels of meaning’’, in F. R. Palmer (ed.), Grammar and meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 90–115. Levinson, S. C. (2000). Presumptive meanings. The theory of generalized conversational implicature. Harvard, MA: MIT Press. Pons Borderı́a, S. (2006). ‘‘From pragmatics to semantics: esto es in formulaic expressions’’, in M.-B. M. Hansen and K. Turner (eds.), Explorations in the semantics/pragmatics interface. Special issue of Acta Lingvistica Hafniensia, 38: 180–206. Schwenter, S. A. and Waltereit, R. (forthcoming). ‘‘Presupposition accommodation and language change’’, in H. Cuyckens, K. Davidse and L. Vandelanotte (eds.), Subjectification, intersubjectification and grammaticalization, (Topics in English linguistics). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Scollon, R. and S. W. Scollon (2001). Intercultural communication. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell. 18 Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti
  • 34. Traugott, E. C. (1989). ‘‘On the rise of epistemic meanings in English: An example of subjectification in semantic change’’. Language 57: 33–65. Traugott, E. C. (1995). ‘‘Subjectification in grammaticalization’’, in D. Stein (ed.), Subjectivity and subjectivisation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 31–54. Traugott, E. C. (1999). ‘‘The role of pragmatics in semantic change’’, in J. Verschueren (ed.), Pragmatics in 1998: Selected Papers from the 6th International Pragmatics Conference. Vol. 2. Antwerp: International Pragmatics Association, 93–102. Traugott, E. C. (forthcoming). ‘‘Revisiting subjectification and intersubjectification’’, in H. Cuyckens, K. Davidse and L. Vandelanotte (eds.), Subjectification, intersubjectification and grammaticalization, (Topics in English linguistics). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Traugott, E. C. and R. B. Dasher (2002). Regularity in semantic change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Visconti, J. (2005). ‘‘On the origins of scalar particles in Italian’’, in M.-B. M. Hansen and C. Rossari (eds.), The evolution of pragmatic markers. Special issue of Journal of Historical Pragmatics, 6(2): 237–261. Waltereit, R. (2002). ‘‘Imperatives, interruption in conversation, and the rise of discourse markers: A study of Italian guarda’’. Linguistics 40 (5): 987–1010. Wierzbicka, A. (1991). Cross-cultural pragmatics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Wierzbicka, A. (2006). English. Meaning and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Current trends in diachronic semantics and pragmatics 19
  • 36. Current Trends in Diachronic Semantics and Pragmatics Edited by Maj-Britt Mosegaard Hansen and Jacqueline Visconti r 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited. All rights reserved. 2 APO: AVOID PRAGMATIC OVERLOAD Regine Eckardt 1. CHANGE WITHOUT MYSTERIES Much recent work in historical linguistics, notably historical pragmatics, is focused on the mysterious moment where a new item or construction sees the day of the light. Theoretically speaking, such a situation should have the following characteristics: (1) There is a speaker who makes an utterance: u u is still part of the old language stage Lold The hearer understands: uu uu is part of the new stage Lnew If we really want to capture moments of change, we must assume that the hearer was not already competent in the new language stage Lnew before s/he understood uu. The innovation is constituted by the hearer parsing the utterance and deriving a meaning in a way that differs from what the speaker had in mind with her utterance u. There are several proposals in the literature about how situations of this kind can arise. One very simple scenario really avoids all difficulties by claiming that new language stages typically come about by innovative acts by the speaker. The speaker can decide to use language in innovative ways, and to the extent that the hearer can make sense of an innovative utterance, and adopts the suggested underlying pattern, the hearer confirms and adopts the new language stage. This view is already inherent in traditional work in language history (von der Gabelentz, 1891; Paul, 1920) and it is moreover extremely plausible, because we can observe innovative utterances on a daily basis. Yet, when we think about the origin of the more routine parts of language – aspect forms, particles, tenses – it is unlikely that all these have come about by witty remarks of creative speakers.
  • 37. According to another scenario, innovations can enter a language because hearers are incompetent, simply misunderstanding the intended linguistic structure of the speaker’s utterance. Indeed, we know that an increased rate of potential misunderstandings, for example, in large L2 communities, may lead to increased speed in language change but there are interesting cases in the histories of languages where no such driving force would be known. In recent work, Traugott and Dasher (2002) have devised another detailed scenario which illustrates the above type of situation. Traugott in fact was the first to point out that pragmatic processes are a driving force in language change (König and Traugott, 1988; Traugott, 1988), and this is explored in her theory of implicature-based language change. An utterance can mean more than its literal meaning (implicatures). Implicated information can turn into lexically denoted information (generalized invited inferences, GIINs). Due to this reinterpretation (by the hearer), items and constructions can change in meaning. Again, the appeal of the analysis lies in the fact that it rests on pragmatic processes that can be witnessed all over the place in contemporary communication. Hence, the GIIN theory of language change adheres to the uniformitarian principle. In the present paper, I want to draw attention to yet another pragmatic factor that can lead to utterance-comprehension mismatches of the type in (1), namely the presuppositions of utterance u. A sentence u presupposes further information f if u only makes sense at all if f is known. Definite noun phrases like ‘the king of France’ are typical textbook examples. Most sentences that contain the NP ‘the king of France’ will only make sense – whether they be true or false – if there is such a person in the first place. If a speaker utters a sentence with presupposed information, s/he relies on shared knowledge between speaker and hearer. How can presuppositions give rise to language change? Sometimes, a speaker will utter a sentence u, which presupposes information f that the hearer actually did not know before. In this case, the hearer will frequently just tacitly adopt f as another piece of new information that the speaker seems to believe (or else, the speaker would not have uttered u). If the hearer feels that f is totally unwarranted, s/he can object (‘hey, listen, there is no king of France’). In the present paper, I will investigate a further kind of semantic accident that presuppositions can cause, one that, to my knowledge, has not received attention in either semantics/pragmatics or historical linguistics. We find linguistic exchange where an utterance u presupposes information f that is ‘‘hard to believe’’ not in the sense that it would be a proposition with clear but dubitable content. Sometimes, presuppositions are ‘‘hard to believe’’ in that it is unclear what the presupposed facts that would license an utterance could look like at all. Hearers (or readers) of such utterances will diagnose that (i) either the speaker believes facts about the world that are unclear and dubious or that (ii) the speaker might have used words or phrases in a sense that were formerly unknown to the hearer. If the hearer pursues hypothesis (ii), s/he may come to interpret the utterance in some innovative way uu that defines a new language (micro) stage Lnew even though the speaker firmly believed that he/she was making an utterance u in the conservative Lold. From the speaker’s perspective, all the hearer would have had 22 Regine Eckardt
  • 38. to do is adopt-and-believe some presuppositions (we will use the official term accommodation later). From the hearer’s perspective, it was harder to accommodate the presupposed information than to believe that the utterance was really something new. The utterance created too much pragmatic overload. This is the abstract backbone of the proposal. I will discuss four example cases where I believe that this proposal is better in line with the attested uses at certain phases of semantic change than either one of the accounts that I listed at the beginning. I can not exclude that the real change came about in ways different from those that I will devise here. However, the present proposal is an attempt to make sense of data in phases of change, which are hard to reconcile with other analyses of change, notably those listed at the beginning. In the next sections, I will introduce the examples and will list the open questions that are posed. I will then offer a more detailed introduction of presuppositions and presupposition accommodation, the core concepts of my proposal. We will then see how change arises from pragmatic overload in each of the examples at stake. 2. IMPLICATURES ARE NOT ENOUGH In this paper, I will be concerned with the following four items. All of them passed at least once from one meaning to a subsequent new meaning, as listed here. German fast (1) ‘immovably, tight’W(2) ‘very much’W(3) ‘almost’ English even (1) ‘flat, smooth’W(2) ‘exactly’W(3) scalar particle German selbst (1) intensifying – selfW(2) ‘even’ Italian perfino (1) ‘through to the end’W(2) ‘even’ When looking at these semantic stages, one can not but wonder what kind of absent- mindedness or creative impulse would drive a speaker – any speaker – to initiate the respective innovation. Scalar particles notoriously have incensed researchers’ interest (for a survey, see, e.g., Traugott, 2006). Consider fast2 to fast3 in German. Who would use a word meaning ‘very much’ to express the concept of approximation? Take even: Who would use a word that means ‘exactly’ to express the concept of scalar extremity? In the examples below, I try to give a feeling for the distance between old meaning – new meaning. If we were to witness a change scenario, speaker of Lold would have utter the (a) sentence and the hearer would have to understand something like the (b) sentence. (2) a. speaker: ‘‘Tom is very drunk’’ b. hearer understands: ‘Tom is almost drunk’ (3) a. speaker: ‘‘Sally went exactly to the police’’ b. hearer understands: ‘Sally went even to the police’ Avoid pragmatic overload 23
  • 39. It is virtually impossible to conceive of any context/content of utterance where the (a) utterances would give rise to implicatures like those in (b). This is particularly clear for the case of fastGerman. It has been argued that almost S entails not S (Sadock, 1981) while very S certainly does entail S. The relevant entailments are summarized in (4). (4) Tom is very drunk-Tom is drunk. Tom is almost drunk-Tom is not drunk. If (2.b) were an implicature of (2.a), we’d face a case of an utterance with a logically contradicting implicature. This only happens when a speaker flouts the maxim of quality and makes an ironic statement. It would be possible, of course, to use very/fastGerman in an ironic statement. Yet, then we’d normally understand that ‘‘very much P’’, ironically, conveys that ‘‘not P at all’’. For the other three instances of change, it is likewise hard to tell a story how implicatures should give rise to the newer sense. Yet, speculations are of limited value and instead of debating the possibility or impossibility of certain types of implicatures, we should take a look at usages of the items in question that have been found indicative for imminent or ongoing change by earlier authors. Traugott (2001, 2006) offers a detailed discussion of data in the phase of emergence of even in the scalar sense. Among other examples, she offers (5) as an interesting quote around the turning point from ‘exactly’ to scalar particle. (5) when I remembre your ffavour and your sadde loffynge delynge to me wardes, ffor south ye make me evene veray glade and joyus in my hart; [ . . . ] ‘when I remember your beauty and sober loving behaviour toward me, truly you make me oevenW very glad and joyous in my heart . . . ’ (1476 Private Letters of John Shillingford, II, 7 after Traugott, 2001: 10) We will certainly agree with Traugott’s diagnosis that (5) does not show a straightforward use of even in the then predominant sense ‘exactly, just’. However, it is not a use of the type that one would expect in the light of the GIIN theory either. Specifically, this is not a passage where the speaker literally utters ‘‘you make me exactly happy’’ and thereby implicates ‘‘you make me very happy’’. As the first proposition does not implicate the second even in particular, it can’t be a generalized invited implicature, either. Pre-theoretically speaking, (5) simply looks like a mistaken choice of words by the writer, a Thomas Betson to his cousin Katherine Ryche (Traugott, 2001: 10). Traugott glosses the use as ‘‘emphatic’’ which is a plausible prose characterization of the passage, but not part of an analysis of the development in terms of GIINs. Similar ‘‘mistaken’’ uses can be found for the other three items in (1) at the turn between older and newly emerging additional sense. Given that they don’t seem to exemplify implicature, nor irony, nor any other known rhetorical pattern, one might want to know what was going on there. I will elaborate the hypothesis that such examples show instances of pragmatic overload and are 24 Regine Eckardt
  • 40. reinterpreted by the reader in order to Avoid Pragmatic Overload (APO). In the next section, I will introduce the notion of presuppositions in some more detail before we turn to an illustration of the APO reanalysis on basis of our four sample items. 3. PRESUPPOSITION IN HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS The presuppositions of a sentence S are those pieces of information that the speaker needs to believe in order to make sense of S: S presupposes f if S can only be reasonably be uttered if f is assumed to hold true. Notably, presuppositions need to hold independently of whether the content of S is asserted, denied, questioned, modalized, etc. (see Geurts, 1999 for a very clear survey of presupposition tests). A presupposition f of S is not entailed by S; negating S, or asking whether S, also requires that the speaker believes that f. The following sentences illustrate the phenomenon. (6) My grandmother stopped smoking pot. (7) My grandmother did not stop smoking pot. (8) Has your grandmother stopped smoking pot? Each of (6)–(8) presuppose f ¼ ‘My grandmother used to smoke pot.’ Ideally, in actual communication, speaker and hearer share information that is presupposed by the speaker’s utterance. For the speaker, the requirement is tantamount to not making senseless contributions. A rational speaker will only assert S if s/he believes that the presuppositions of S hold true. An utterance like the following is incoherent. (9) x My grandmother stopped smoking pot and I don’t believe that she ever smoked pot. For the hearer, matters may be somewhat different. In many cases, the hearer will not have been aware of all pieces of information that are presupposed by the speaker’s utterance. Having spotted the presuppositions, however, the hearer will usually assume that the speaker has made a meaningful contribution and adopt the presuppositions as part of shared common knowledge. In technical terms, the hearer will accommodate the presuppositions of the speaker’s utterance. (10) A: Did Granny finally stop smoking pot? B accommodates: ‘A’s grandmother must have been smoking pot.’ Stalnaker (2002) offers an explicit modeling of presupposition accommodation in terms of common ground update. Presupposition accommodation is exploited rhetorically, for instance when the speaker wants to convey information without plainly asserting it. When a teacher tells her student ‘‘I regret to inform you that you have failed the exam’’, she actually asserts ‘I regret S’ and presupposes ‘S holds true’. The student will have to accommodate S: ‘I failed the exam’ in Avoid pragmatic overload 25
  • 41. order to make sense of the teacher’s assertion ‘I regret S’. Hence, the teacher will effectively, but not rhetorically, have informed the student about the failing. Yet, such rhetorical tricks will not play a role in our examples. Sometimes it may be hard to guess and accommodate the correct presuppositions that the speaker has in mind. In such cases, the hearer can ask back. In (11), the particle also gives rise to the presupposition that Tommy knows more persons who wear wonder bras. If Sue does not know who that may be (Tommy himself being an unlikely option), she can ask back. (11) Tommy: Do you also wear ‘wonder bra’? Sue: Yes, why – who else does? Finally, the presuppositions of the speaker’s utterance may be problematic in that they are in conflict with general knowledge. Assume that someone utters (12) (with the indicated accent, and the additive particle associating with you). (12) Are you ALSO a mother of Peter Smith? In (12), also gives rise to the presupposition f ¼ ‘the speaker knows more mothers of Peter Smith’. Most likely, the hearer would challenge the presupposition (‘‘Peter Smith has several mothers?’’) and reject it. Sometimes, as we will see, such unreasonable presuppositions are less easy to express than in the case at hand. In such cases, hearers are less likely to start debating and instead may just try to make sense of the utterance one way or other. Even in (12), the hearer could decide to adopt an interpretation of the sentence that allows for the accommodation of the presupposition. Specifically, the word mother could be interpreted in a way that allows for people to have several mothers (‘‘interpret mother as one of the women who pamper Peter Smith’’). However, the more far- fetched such interpretations get, the more semantic charity is necessary in order to do justice to the presuppositions. This is what I call ‘‘the utterance carries a pragmatic overload’’. 4. IMPLAUSIBLE PRESUPPOSITIONS We will now turn to our list of four items even, fast, perfino, and selbst. It turns out that the items in their older senses likewise give rise to presuppositions, but to more subtle ones than the examples in Section 3. We will take a closer look at each case in turn. At the time antedating the emergence of the contemporary senses of these words, we find uses of the word in sentences where presuppositions can not be accommodated because they contradict common world knowledge. Let us say that little pragmatic ‘‘accidents’’ happened from time to time. Not all of these accidents necessarily need to lead straight to the newly emerging sense of the word. However, many of these pragmatic ‘‘accidents’’ could best be repaired by the hearer if he or she hypothesized that the problematic item was in fact used in a new sense. In such cases, the modern 26 Regine Eckardt
  • 42. reader will be able to interpret the sentence on the basis of the modern use of the word, and the only remaining surprise would be how the contemporary reader/hearer would have been able to do the same, given that he did not know as yet where language history would lead. The present section illustrates pragmatic accidents for fast (German), even, perfino, and selbst. In each case, I will briefly specify the older reading of the word, spell out the presuppositions of that older reading, and then show examples from the crucial time of change where these presuppositions were hard or impossible to accommodate. 4.1. fast (German) German and English fast go back to a common adverbial root which meant ‘‘tightly, fast’’ in the sense of both physical attachment as well as mental attachment to a cause. It is used in this sense in the examples in (13) and (14) (all quotes from Deutsches Wörterbuch, Grimm and Grimm (1854–1960)). (13) sölh pflicht halt fast ‘this duty hold fast’ (1535 Schwarzenberg 139, 2, from DW 3:1348) (14) halt fast den pfluog ‘hold the plough fast/tightly’ (1535 Schwarzenberg 140, 2, from DW 3: 1348) Subsequently, the notion of taking a ‘good grip’ was extended to gradable properties in general. The word became a degree modifier with the meaning of very much. Here, German and English part ways, the English adverb adopting the notion of moving on with ‘high speed’, as laid out in the classical study by Stern (1931). The German degree use is illustrated in (15) and (16). (15) dis ler und trost mich fast erquickt ‘this lesson and consolation revives me very much’ (1535 Schwarzenberg 152, 2, from DW 3: 1348) (16) wenn du gleich fast darnach ringest, so erlangestu es doch nicht. ‘even if you struggle for it hard, you will not attain it’ (1534 Luther, Sir. 11, 2, from DW 3: 1350) The use of an adverb which reports that a property P held to a high degree carries the presupposition that P is a gradable property in the first place. Otherwise, the combination fast P will not make any sense. The DW offers quotations like the following, around the time when the approximative use emerged. The authors of the dictionary clear-sightedly comment that here, the sense of fast was Avoid pragmatic overload 27
  • 43. ‘‘leaning towards the newer sense ‘almost’’’. Taking a closer look at the respective examples in order to understand why this may be so, we note that they typically fail to combine fast with a gradable property. (17) weil er fast hundert ierig war ‘he was very much?/almost? hundred years old’ (1534 Luther, Röm. 4, 19, from DW 3; 1350) (18) kamen darauff fast um zwo uren ‘(they) arrived there very much?/almost? at two o’clock/sharp?’ (c. 1576 Fischart gl. schif 185, from DW 3: 1350) (19) Nun war gedachtes VerzeichniX so accurat eingerichtet, daX fast nicht ein Balcken vergessen war, ‘that very much?/almost? not ONE log forgotten was’ wo er solte eingeschoben, wie er solte bekleidet oder gemahlet, wie er solte behobelt und beschnitzet werden. (1672, Weise erzn. eingang, from DW 3: 1350) We will discuss this impression of ‘‘leaning towards a newer sense’’ on the basis of an utterance like (17), rendered in the English equivalent in (17u). (17u) He was very muchdeg 100 years old. Be 100 years old is not usually something that one can be with more or less intensity. Either the speaker was unaware of the problem and erroneously chose fast instead of the qualifier that expresses what he actually had had in mind. Or the speaker indeed conceptualized the property be 100 years old as gradable; perhaps thinking of degrees of senility, or wisdom, or poise. The reader will notice the problem: very much presupposes a gradable property, but be 100 years old isn’t one. The required mental search for a way in which be 100 years old could possibly be conceived of as gradable is what makes (17) hard to process: it creates the pragmatic overload for the utterance in (17). For completeness’ sake, note that (17) can not give rise to any implicatures or other inference (general or particular) unless the reader finds some way to map the utterance onto some literal content in the first place, because meaningless utterances don’t give rise to implicatures. If this first derivation of literal content should already carry the reader to the proposition ‘he was almost 100 years old’ then the change from very much to almost does not arise by implicature. In principle, of course, it could be claimed that the reader computed some other proposition q as the literal content of (17) and that this other proposition q, in that context, implicated the newer sense ‘he was almost 100’. But then, I can’t see what q could possibly be. 28 Regine Eckardt
  • 44. 4.2. even In its earliest attested stage, once again shared by the German cognate eben, the word even denoted ‘evenly, smoothly’ as a property of surfaces. (20) Do past or cleye ther-upon al aboute as ytold bi-fore, caste Scalding hot honey euene ther-upon ‘Put paste or mud thereon all around as said before cast scalding hot honey evenly thereon’ (c. 1450 Horses, p. 113 [Helsinki], quote/translation after Traugott, 2006: 346) This notion can also be applied in cases where two or more objects put together form an even surface, and hence one fits the other evenly. From such uses, a somewhat later sense developed that can be paraphrased in modern English by: ‘exactly, precisely; in (exactly) equal degree’. As to be expected, the exact match can be one between two objects, or an object and a measure, as illustrated in (21) (the passage describes the measures of Noah’s ark). (21) The heght is euen thyrty Cubettys full strenght. ‘the height is exactly thirty cubits full strength’ (c. 1500 Towneley Plays, p. 21 [Helsinki], quote/translation after Traugott, 2006: 347) The qualification that something was ‘‘exactly, just, precisely P’’ presupposes a topology of approximating P-hood (canonically illustrated by numbers and scales like ‘roughly 20 years old’ – ‘exactly 20 years old’) approximation from more than one direction The topology need not rest on scientific scales or geometrical spaces; human concepts can rest on more general topological spaces (e.g., Gärdenfors, 2000). The examples in (22) rest on a topology of similarities between singing events, and report closer and loser similarities between events where nightingales are singing and where humans are singing. (22) She sang approximately like a nightingale She sang exactly like a nightingale The notion of ‘exactness’ is inapplicable when a property P can not be approximated (#be roughly/exactly pregnant) when a property P is inherently vague itself (# be roughly/exactly angry) when a property P is the polar end of a scale The last restriction may come somewhat surprisingly, but can easily be verified if we consider infelicitous examples like those in (23). The infelicity arises for all adverbials that express Avoid pragmatic overload 29
  • 45. ‘‘exactness’’, and can be reproduced in other languages as well. Hence I take it that the restriction is not one that only accidentally applies to one special adverb of contemporary English alone. It appears to be part of the notion of an exact hit, and its opposite, the missing, that the target point can be missed in more than one direction. (23) a. #Tom exactly emptied the glass. b. #The dog exactly died. c. #Anna read the book exactly to the end. This was the state of English even at the time when the scalar particle started to develop. The following quotes, taken from Traugott (2001) alone, show attested uses of even around the time of the emergence of the scalar particle. Each of them fails to satisfy one or the other aspect of the topology that is presupposed by the notion of an exact (‘even’) match. (24) whanne I remembre your ffavour and your sadde loffynge delynge to me wardes, ffor south ye make me evene veray glade and joyus in my hart: and on the tothersyde agayn whanne I remembre your yonge youthe. And seeth well that ye be none eater of your mete, the which shuld helpe you greately in waxynge; ffor south than ye make me very hevy again. ‘When I remember your beauty and sober loving behaviour toward me, truly you make me really very glad and joyous in my heart, and on the other hand again, when I remember your young age, and see clearly that you are no eater of your food, which should help you greatly in your growing, truly then you make me very sad again.’ (1476 Private Letters of John Shillingford, II, 7, in Kingsford’s Stonor Letters and Papers; translation after Traugott, 2001: 10) What we see here is the combination of evene and veray glade (‘truly happy’). The latter denotes a gradable property that has vague boundaries. There are no clear criteria from where on a person should count as veray glade in contrast to ‘‘simply’’ glade. Against this background, evene is supposed to contribute some qualification of J.S.’s happiness. The reader will face a conceptual mismatch between the modifier evene and its argument veray glade, which violates the topological properties presupposed by evene. The passage is pragmatically problematic if we assume that the author attempted to use a word that means ‘precisely’. We could conceptualize the property veray glade as one with clearly circumscribed extension, but it is not clear what should define the exact boundaries of happiness. We therefore face a pragmatic overload. Traugott boldly glosses even as ‘really’, granting J.S. reasonable (though innovative) use of (Early Modern) English and thus nicely illustrates the move of the charitable hearer. The passage is classed as ‘‘must be emphatic’’, and indeed, emotional undertones seem to carry away the writer. It is unclear, however, whether 30 Regine Eckardt
  • 46. we don’t just witness a use of the older item even ‘exactly’ with poorly justified presuppositions.1 The following quote of Traugott may show another poorly justified use of ‘exactly’. (25) is not this he that sate and begged? Some sayde: this is he. Other sayd: he is lyke him. But he him selfe sayde: I am even he. ‘Is not this the man that sat and begged? Some said: This is he. Others said: He is like him. But he himself said, I am exactly (?) he.’ (1534, Tyndale, New Testament, IX, i. quoted and translated after Traugott, 2006: 349) The protagonists are concerned with the similarity of one person to another. Taking into consideration what the dialogue is actually about, the notion of exactness seems once again poorly in place. To be or not to be identical to someone is, after all, a categorical property and not one that can be approximated: ?Saulus is roughly/exactly identical to Paulus. What might have interfered is the property of looking similar/exactly like someone. Of course, we can think of visual similarity to ever higher degrees. But that is not what is at stake, the interlocutors do not care whether the speaker is a twin of the man that sate and begged. The passage in (26) shows another use of even where the presuppositions of the word in its older sense are violated. (26) but sayde, he had rather be sycke even vnto death then he wold breake his espousals. ‘But said he would rather be sick precisely?/even?/ø unto death than break his vows.’ (1449 Latimer, Sermons: 36 after Traugott, 2001: 11) Once more, the use of even fails to adhere to the presuppositions of approximation. While ‘dying’ can be approximated by sicknesses of different degrees of severity, it is conceptually impossible to ‘‘miss’’ dead and die ‘‘roughly’’ in contrast to ‘‘exactly’’. The reader at the time faced the task to accommodate an impossible presupposition, which reads roughly like: ‘‘death is not the polar end of the scale of sicknesses of increasing severity’’ (‘exactness’ presupposing that the exact hit can be missed in several directions). This quotation will quite naturally lend itself to a reanalysis in the scalar sense that is expressed by modern even. Note that the range of attested uses of even illustrates that not all the pragmatic ‘‘accidents’’ need to receive a rescue interpretation that leads toward the modern sense of the word. In retrospect, all we can say is that those rescue interpretations, which led to the hypothesis that even denoted the scalar particle determined the future use of the word. Of course, it can not be proved that the specific passage in (26) (or any other, at that) is the driving pragmatic accident. However, it can plausibly be assumed that the crucial passages looked somewhat like (26). 1 It is certainly right to assume, as Traugott does, that J.S. may have intended to say ‘‘really very happy‘‘, but the words chosen may not have expressed this thought even at the time. Avoid pragmatic overload 31
  • 47. Let me finally point out, again, that neither (24) nor (25) support the assumption that even in the scalar sense emerged by generalized implicatures (GIIN analysis). In neither (24) nor (25) is even used in its literal old sense plus giving rise to an implicature that exactly P was most surprisingly P. The word even is not used reasonably in its old sense at all, and hence can not give rise to implicatures. The reader’s hermeneutic activity is initiated by the very observation that the older use of even can not be the one at stake in either example. 4.3. perfino In its modern sense, perfino translates to English even and can be used in sentences like the one in (27). (27) È venuto perfino Matteo ‘Even Matteo came’ (Visconti, 2005: 238) In its traditional sense in Old Italian, perfino literally meant ‘through until, to the end’. A typical example, offered in Visconti (2005), is shown in (28). (28) b. Dentro in un bosco, che’è quivi vicino,/t’ imbosca es sta perfino al mattutino. ‘In a wood, which is near here, hide yourself in the wood and stay until morning’ (–1380 La Spagna after Visconti, 2005: 243) A word that reports that P ‘‘holds through until the end’’ presupposes a topology, which defines betweenness and the ancillary notion of an uninterrupted state between two points. The topology can be one in space, but also one on more abstract domains. The reached point can be neutral (like in (28)) but also conceptualized as a polar endpoint on a scale. (29) In ciò ancora che perseverò in croce perfino alla morte, ci dà ammaestramento di perfetta obbedienza e pazienza, e di perseverare nella penitenza ‘In that too, that he endured the cross until death, he provides us with an example of perfect obedience and patience.’ (1432 Cavalca, Esp. simbolo after Visconti, 2005: 243) The following quote around the time of emergence of the scalar use ‘even’ is taken from Visconti (2005). It fails to warrant the presuppositions of perfino in its older sense. (30) [ . . . ] in acqua, in neve, in grandine o pruina: a tutto il ciel s’inclina, perfino a quel che la natura sprezza’ ‘Water, snow, hail or frost: To everything bends the sky, even to that which nature despises’ (1389–1420 S. Serdini, Rime after Visconti, 2005: 244) 32 Regine Eckardt
  • 48. The use of perfino in (30) presupposes the existence of a continuum, which passes from water, snow, hail, and frost to ‘‘that which nature despises’’. Or, is frost the thing that nature despises? And, is there a continuum from good to ever more evil things, or isn’t it more a categorical distinction between ‘‘the good’’ and ‘‘the bad’’? Such questions are indicative for an utterance with a presupposition, which may or may not be plausible. In some sense, the speaker in (30) is free to believe in continuous scales of whatever kind (mathematically, there is practically nothing that could stop you from ordering any set whatsoever). But if the scale is too ad hoc, or too private, the hearer will have a hard time in understanding how the speaker believes the presuppositions of (30) satisfied. S/he has hence the choice between guessing and accommodating the speaker’s scale ( ¼ what the speaker believes hearer will do) and accepting a presupposition failure due to lack of a suitable scale. If the hearer decides for the latter option, s/he will next hypothesize that the speaker actually used perfino in a different sense, and interpret the utterance (30) in a new way – possibly and plausibly assuming that perfino was meant to mean ‘even’. 4.4. selbst Like its English cognate, selbst is attested at an early stage as an intensifier in German. It can still be used in this sense, in the form selbst and its variant selber, which unambiguously denotes the intensifier. (31) shows an example. (31) Gott selber ruht sich manchmal aus. ‘God himself takes a rest sometimes.’ The intensifier associates with a certain nominal element in the sentence. (31) shows an adnominal use where the intensifier follows the associated element directly. As argued in Baker 1995, Kemmer 1995, the use of selber/selbst presupposes that the associated object (here: ‘God’) is conceptualized as the center of a salient entourage (here: ‘God’ as the center of His creation). Generally, the use of intensifying selber only makes sense if the associated referent, the x of x-self so to speak, is understood to come with an entourage, peripheral objects or persons, in which x constitutes a central point. I will refer to this presupposition as the entourage presupposition; we will leave the details on focusing and accent placement aside for the ease of exposition. (32) shows a quotation from 1650, around the time when the scalar use emerged. We can assume that the newer sense selbst ¼ even was not in use at the time when this passage was written. I offer the full context, but the crucial part is the underlined sentence at the end. (32) Man kan/es ist nicht ohn/ein blut begierig Thier Gewöhnen daX es spiel vnd nieder knie vor dir/ Man kan/waX noch viel mehr/die starcke flut vmbkehren. Den strömen widerstehn/den tollen wellen wehren. Avoid pragmatic overload 33
  • 49. Man dämpfft der flammen macht/man segelt gegen wind/ Man stürtz’t die felsen hin wo thäl vnd hölen sind. ‘One can, it’s not easy, a bloodthirsty animal/train so that it will play and kneel down before you/One can, which is even more, reverse the strong flood/resist the streams, restrain the wild waves/One damps the mighty flames, one sails against the winds/One throws boulders where there are valleys and caverns.’ Man kan die steine selbst mit weitzenüberziehen. ‘One can the stones ‘selbst’ with wheat cover’ ‘One can cover the stones ‘selbst’ (themselves/even?) with wheat.’ (1650 Leo Arm., II, 5) In a traditional interpretation of the passage on basis of the intensifier, the reader ends with the following ingredients for the eventual meaning of the underlined sentence: (33) selbst ¼ intensifier, is supposed to associate with Steine ‘stones’ to yield ‘stones themselves’ presupposition: ‘stones’ are something that has an entourage, that is the natural center of some ontological domain. Once again, this presupposition is not logically contradictory but still hard to satisfy or fill with content. What could be the entourage of stones? Mentioned in the text are blutbegierig Thier ‘bloodthirsty animal’, starcke flut ‘flood’, tolle wellen ‘wild waves’, flammen ‘flames’ – but ‘stones’ are not a plausible center in this entourage of things either today or in 1650. To check this, consider the following statement: (34) Bloodthirsty animals, high flood, wild waves, flames: yet, stones are the worst of them all. This assertion is as implausible today as it must have been implausible in 1650. Once again, the reader will face a pragmatic overload when s/he tries to work out an appropriate way to accommodate the presuppositions of (32) under the old reading of selbst. Once again, this may be reason for the reader to wonder whether the speaker intended to use selbst in a new sense, one that would not give rise to unaccommodatable presuppositions. We have now seen several instances utterances with pragmatic overload, caused by items that soon after adopted a new meaning. In the next section, I will discuss in more detail why the repair strategies for the quoted examples could indeed lead the reader/hearer to assume that the word was used in a new sense, and that it was plausibly the sense that we find in permanent use some decades later. Before moving on, let me mention that another nice instance of presupposition failures in the pre-change phase can be traced in the development of lauter, see Eckardt (2006: Chapter 7). What is most striking about such observations, however, is that pragmatic accidents of this kind clearly are not restricted to language use in ancient times. Instances of pragmatic overload can be observed on a daily basis as soon as you start watching the utterances in your daily 34 Regine Eckardt
  • 50. environment. It is tempting to think that repair interpretations can in some cases converge on recognizable new stages in the use of words. 5. APO, AND THE CHARITABLE HEARER The examples in Section 4 illustrate how an utterance can create a pragmatic overload: The utterance under a conservative interpretation will trigger presuppositions that the hearer can not easily accommodate or refute. The hearer has three options: S/he can (a) be uncharitable and refuse to interpret the utterance at all, or (b) face the pragmatic overload and attempt to reconceptualize the world such that the presupposition makes sense and is consistent, or (c) hypothesize a new meaning for parts of the utterance, notably the item that gave rise to the problematic presupposition. Option (c) will allow the hearer to Avoid the Pragmatic Overload. In the examples at hand, it makes indeed sense to believe that (c) is a viable option for the reader. The hypothesized interpretations for fast, even, perfino, and selbst which a posteriori turned out to be adopted as new meanings into the lexicon will fit the context better than the conservative senses, and deviate from the older senses in only minimal ways. We will take a look at each case in turn. fast: Combining fastold with a non-gradable property P creates the problem that the degree modifier can not contribute semantically. The repair strategy was to look for a superproperty P of P which in turn is gradable, and where P is the polar end point. (In the case of being 100 years old, the scale of lower ages offers itself, for example.) The semantic contribution of fast was then taken to be relative to this gradable superproperty: The subject has a property which ranks high on the P scale. (e.g., the subject has an age that ranks high on the 0–100 year scale; in other words, he is almost 100 years old.) (35) very much 100 years oldWalmost 100 years old property P (gradable) very-P Figure 2.1. Fast ¼ very. (gradable) superproperty ∏ almost-P P (nongradable) Figure 2.2. Fast ¼ almost. Avoid pragmatic overload 35
  • 51. Interestingly, the semantic contribution of fastnew remains the same as for fastold, but the presupposed background has changed drastically. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 visualize the change. The change implements the idea that (36) very P ¼ almost P Eckardt (2007) and similarly Penka (2006), offer a full semantic spell out of this idea. The proposed semantic analysis for fastnew not only is plausible in terms of language history, but moreover covers all possible uses that we witness in modern German and constitutes an improvement on earlier analyses that essentially rest on Sadock (1981). In view of the appealing simplicity of the reanalysis in question, it becomes all the more implausible to believe that the semantic change occurred on the basis of some hitherto undetected kind of use where fast/very much could give rise to implicatures in the sense of fast/almost. even: In the case of even, the adjustment in the mental lexicon was again minimal. As discussed above, even in its older sense ‘precisely’ will have required – like all other adverbs that express the notion of an exact hit or match – that the state of affair Q in question is part of a topology of more or less similar states of affairs surrounding it. Importantly, the notion of ‘exactness’ prohibits topologies where Q is the polar end point of a linear topological space.2 This prohibition was violated in examples like (26), repeated in a modern gloss in (38). (37) exactly fatally sick The hearer accepted that evenold was used in a situation where it applied to a polar end point. It would, however, be void to adopt a word that lexifies what is obvious from the content of the rest of the sentence. The underlined part would explicate the semantic contribution: The subject could be sick to death, and this is as far as you can get. Hence, the hearer hypothesized that the scales in question correlated with a more subjective scale of the speaker, for example, one of increased surprise, decreased probability, (here) increased woe, etc. These subjective scales formed the backbone of modern even in the sense exemplified in (39). (38) sick even to death Two points may be worth mentioning. First, these interpretive efforts on the hearer’s side might often be at the basis of subjectification in the sense of Traugott (1995). The hearer, confronted with (38), has to make a guess what the speaker might have wanted to express. In many cases, there are canonical answers to this question. At least in the cases at hand, we do not face a 2 A topology, in mathematical terms, is a space with a measure function that measures the distance between any two points in the space. See Gärdenfors (2000) for a general theory of concepts in topological spaces. 36 Regine Eckardt
  • 52. speaker-driven process. Uttering incoherent sentences and hoping that the hearer will grab your message does not seem a rational communicative strategy.3 Second, the shift that leads from (38) to (39) can not be described as implicatures of an interpretation of (38) on the basis of even in its older sense. Nor can I think of any uses of even ‘exactly’ that create an implicature ‘even’, an implicature that could then be reanalyzed as literal meaning (GIIN).4 The pragmatic overload view on change, in contrast, can offer a plausible analysis for attested examples rather than speculating on the existence of unconceivable unattested cases. perfino: The shift of perfino concerns once more the kinds of scales that can be referred to. Traditionally, perfino was restricted to scales in the world, as was shown in Visconti (2005). The pragmatic accident happened in cases where the hearer could not make out any reasonable conceptual scales. In (30) above, the writer lists a number of evils but does not suggest that they are linearly ordered in any way. I repeat the example in the English version, volitionally inserting the translation of the older sense of perfino. This is the semantic material for the (earlier Italian) reader to start with. (39) the sky bends ‘‘through until’’ to that which nature despises The underlined part presupposes a scale. Lacking a more contentful continuous scale, the reader can meet the need for a scale by interpreting the sentence against the all-purpose scale of increased surprise/decreasing probability. The reader will hence understand that the proposition ‘the sky bends to that which nature despises’ is presented as the endpoint on that scale. Particles that signal this kind of side information are those that correspond to ‘even’. Hence, (40) with the surprise scale is synonymous to (41). (40) even to that which nature despises selbst: In the turning point examples of selbst, the hearer/reader was faced with the task to reconstruct a core–periphery structure that is presupposed by intensifiers (-self). As shown in the above quotation, it may not have been inconsistent, but simply implausible to adopt such a core– periphery for the examples at hand. (42) would require us to think about stones as the core instance of nonfertile ground (true) after a long passage that did not have to do with fertility in the least, but rather with various kinds of attempts to fight hostile natural forces. (41) grow wheat on [stones themselves] 3 Notwithstanding that of course, incoherent linguistic behaviour and emotional stress often go hand in hand. But incoherence in such situations is rather taken as a metalinguistic signal by the observer, usually. 4 This does not, of course, mean that such uses do not exist. Maybe it’s just that I am not trying hard enough. Yet, I have not so far encountered any plausible fictitious example where any sentence with a word that means ‘exactly’ would implicate the analogous proposition with ‘even’ replacing ‘exactly’. Avoid pragmatic overload 37
  • 53. In such situations, the reader may have refused to face the pragmatic overload and instead searched for a simpler interpretation of the sentence. While it is conceptually hard to switch from tempests, floods, and flames to soils of different quality, it is quite easy in the given context to understand the tasks as ordered to be more and more unfeasible. The task that can least likely be performed is the task marked by selbst. This hypothesized semantic analysis will have several consequences. The new item selbstnew can take sentence scope, it no longer is in focus (unlike in the older construction; see Eckardt, 2001), focusing may be used to indicate the kind of alternatives on the scale, and selbstnew indicates that the reported state of affairs is high on that scale. The resulting reanalysis is the one in (43). (42) even [grow wheat on stones]F In the present overview, I omit the details of the meaning shifts at stake (see earlier work for detailed semantic analyses). Case studies reveal that hearers are surprisingly conservative, maintaining as much of earlier semantic structure as possible and making new content fit. The present examples suggest that the concept of scale is important in human thinking both as a new player in meaning (even, selbst, perfino) as well as a semantic part to be maintained ( fast). Let me sum up some characteristics of language changes that arise in the attempt to APO.5 First, they constitute instantaneous changes of language in the hearer’s competence, resulting from the attempt to interpret one specific utterance. Whatever gradual spreads may occur afterwards – the hearer gradually gaining faith in a new sense of a word, his surroun- dings being gradually infected to share this new item – the initial shift is discrete. The compe- tence of the speaker may be momentarily weak, but all in all we face competent speakers without attempts at creativity. The witnessed lapses of tongue or pen are not beyond what we see daily in our own environment, interacting with speakers that we hold fully competent. The competence of the hearer likewise need not be doubted. (In some sense, s/he is still the more competent of the two.) The reanalyzes do not fit under the label of ‘‘misunderstandings’’ of the kind prevalent in other domains of language change, for instance contact phenomena or L2 speaker errors. From a more general perspective, the trend to APO bears resemblance to similar trends toward simplicity and clarity that have been postulated in syntax, specifically in language acquisition and 5 I am not claiming that all language change is instantaneous, that all language change is initiated by the APO principle, that all language changes of a certain class – e.g., grammaticalization – are initiated by APO. The more modest claim is simply that instantaneous change does exist. It does not rest on stupid or creative speakers. It does not, in all likelihood, leave an impression of novelty in the hearer. It is part of perfectly normal ordinary use of language (Hermann Paul). 38 Regine Eckardt
  • 54. language change. Lightfoot (1979) is a classical reference. Lightfoot attempted to explain the development of the modal system in English by, among other factors, the dismissal of more complex structures in favour of simpler options. Lightfoot’s ‘‘avoid complex syntactic structure’’ principle in 1979 can be seen as the syntactic twin principle to ‘‘APO’’ on the semantic/pragmatic side. Even though Lightfoot reshaped his ideas about the development of the modals in later years, the idea that simpler syntactic structures replace more complex structures in developmental processes has been retained (e.g., Lightfoot, 1991, 1999). The APO analysis is moreover appealing in that it fully adheres to the uniformitarian principle. The uniformitarian principle in language history states, roughly, that any analysis of language change should rest on processes that can still be observed in contemporary language use. The APO analysis fulfils this requirement. The proposed changes rest on communicative situations that we frequently witness ourselves. What is still unexplored is a quantitative analysis of this type of change. How many pragmatic accidents are necessary for change to become likely? What is the ratio of accidents in total to accidents where reanalysis led to the item that was later adopted into the lexicon? So far, these questions can only receive an impressionistic answer, as traditional classifications tend to sort quotes of words by sense, not by more general categories like whether they create pragmatic overload. Many studies report that the point where a new item emerges is frequently preceded by a phase of great variability in the use of the crucial word. We might understand these pre-phases as times where a word was promoted by sociolinguistic factors (‘‘fashion words’’) or where other priming effects led to more retrievals of the word than what would have been warranted. The modest aim of this paper has been, to offer a new way in which we might understand what really happens, linguistically, in some of the more puzzling ones of such variable uses at the turning point between an older and an emerging new word sense. The appeal of this analysis consists in that it addresses the attested quotes themselves. The attested quotes are perceived as possible source of change. The quotes are not classed as clear instances of the new language use, ‘‘made possible by changes that we see nowhere in the data’’. In that sense, the present approach adheres to my slogan in Section 1: it is one more attempt to understand language change without mysteries. REFERENCES Baker, C. L. (1995). ‘‘Contrast, discourse prominence, and intensification, with special reference to locally free reflexives in British English’’. Language 71: 63–102. Grimm, J. and W. Grimm, (eds.) (1854–1960). Deutsches Wörterbuch, S. Hirzel, Leipzig, Quellenverzeichnis 1971. Eckardt, R. (2001). ‘‘Reanalysing ‘selbst’’’. Natural Language Semantics 9: 371–412. Avoid pragmatic overload 39
  • 55. Other documents randomly have different content
  • 56. d'Israel; storia che, scrive Renan, è una delle più belle nell'umanità; s'inizia nell'età più remota, nè sembra chiusa ancora. III. — L'applicazione dei principii ebraici nel mondo dei popoli. La storia di questo popolo si divide in tre periodi, i quali segnano lo svolgimento graduale di questi principii, e l'applicazione di queste idee in mezzo alle nazioni. [pg 13] Il primo periodo l'appelleremo di Concentramento; il secondo di Dispersione; il terzo di Fusione. Nel primo, egli combatte per conquistarsi una patria onde ordinarsi e costituirsi in nazione. La regione che, per tradizioni di famiglia, come pel mandato imposto ad Israel, doveva essere la sua sede, il punto per raccogliersi, fu la Siria o Palestina. Era questa la terra sacra, la terra eletta o di elezione, terra, diremmo, provvidenziale: La Siria è un istmo che, mentre è chiuso in sè, come una fortezza, tra i monti, il deserto ed il mare, rannoda insieme i tre continenti del mondo antico, Asia, Africa, Europa, è la meta verso cui si sono rivolti gl'invasori da ogni parte del mondo; è la meta che invoglia le cupidigie di ogni conquistatore, soggetta a continue guerre e travolta in trasformazioni violente di razze, di religioni, di imperi, che si rovesciano, si sovrappongono l'uno sull'altro; ed è pure il punto centrale, cui il mondo antico appellò umbilicus terræ, il punto in cui s'incontravano tutti i popoli dell'antichità, e, ad un tempo, era punto d'appoggio, da cui, intermezzando fra tre mondi, si può esercitare un'azione potente sopra tutti i popoli; punto di
  • 57. concentramento e di espansione, che raggruppa e snoda, annoda ed espande. Dopo lungo periodo di guerre, Israel appena cominciò a stabilirsi in questa regione, a consolidarsi, e prese a svolgere, applicare i suoi principii sociali, non sì tosto divenne una forza, egli vide levarsi contro di lui i popoli, i grandi imperi che lo circondavano, Egizî, Assiri, Babilonesi; e dovette combattere contro tutti, a difesa della sua nazionalità, e de' suoi principii. Questi imperi, oltre all'interesse politico e strategico di rendersi padroni della Siria, la quale offriva il passaggio per l'Egitto, nei vasti imperi dell'Asia centrale, e per l'occidente, avevano pure un interesse speciale, religioso e sociale, per combattere l'Ebreo: e s'iniziò quella guerra contro l'Ebreo, che ora si dice antisemitismo, [pg 14] e che in quei tempi veniva combattuta spesso dagli stessi semiti. Le sue leggi, la sua religione, la sua costituzione sociale, era per loro un pericolo, una minaccia, però ciascuno aveva interesse che l'Ebreo non pervenisse a consolidarsi fortemente. La costituzione sociale dell'Ebraismo era l'antitesi, la negazione di quella di tutti i popoli e regni dell'antichità, e, come diremmo con parola moderna, era una minaccia permanente contro l'ordine. Tutti i regni adoravano una moltitudine di Numi d'ogni forma, avevano culti feroci, voluttuosi, osceni, o Nume loro era lo stesso imperatore od il conquistatore. L'Ebreo, invece, opponeva un Dio solo in cielo, una legge in terra. Quelli erano divisi in caste, in classi; e le classi privilegiate erano tutto, il popolo o la massa nulla, l'operaio, il contadino oppressi, calpestati, schiavi: appo l'Ebreo non esistevano classi, l'operaio, il contadino il popolo erano tutto, e il sacerdozio stesso era
  • 58. confinato, isolato all'altare, chiuso, diremmo, nel tempio, e unico re la legge. Là era autocrazia, teocrazia, e quindi il dispotismo, l'arbitrio che dominava; qui la legge sovrana, la uguaglianza sociale. Era la Svizzera, l'Olanda, dell'antichità e come diceva Renan, e prima di lui disse Michelet: fu la prima e vera democrazia dell'antichità. A quel modo che tutti i despoti moderni, la Spagna, l'Austria, la Francia, la Corte di Roma combattevano una lotta accanita contro l'Olanda, la Fiandra, la Svizzera protestante e poscia contro la Rivoluzione Francese, non altrimenti tutti i dispotismi e le teocrazie dell'antichità mossero una guerra continua, accanita contro questo piccolo popolo libero, e nulla fu risparmiato per ischiacciarlo, sopprimerlo. Questa la prima e forse l'unica cagione degli odii e delle ostilità di ogni nazione contro l'Ebreo, la origine e causa vera dell'Antisemitismo nel mondo antico e nel moderno. [pg 15] Egli era la condanna d'ogni dispotismo e d'ogni superstizione, con cui e per cui regnavano, e che volevano far prevalere pel loro interesse, in nome dell'ordine. Tutti combattevano colla forza degli eserciti, le calunnie, le mali arti di governo contro lui; ed egli colla sua legge, i suoi principii religiosi e politici, si levava solo a lottare contro tutti. Inde irae. E prima gli convenne combattere contro i potenti imperi dell'Asia Centrale, Babilonesi, Assiri, Persiani. Essi, che invasero la Siria con forze sterminate, ebbero facile vittoria sopra questo popolo, piccolo di numero ed ordinato più per la pace e pel lavoro, che non per le arti della guerra. Sionne fu espugnata, il tempio arso, il popolo disperso e fatto schiavo. Ma, se era debole per forze materiali, era indomito per forze morali. Questo popolo raccolse di nuovo le sue forze, ricostituì il suo regno, si rifece nazione, potenza; e s'iniziò un
  • 59. secondo periodo di concentramento: Ma allora nuove forze, altre potenze, mosse dallo stesso antagonismo politico e religioso, si levarono contro di lui dall'occidente. I Seleni, i popoli Greco-Macedoni, i quali miravano specialmente a combattere e sopprimere il suo culto, la sua legge, e imporre i loro Numi nel tempio di Sionne; Israel combattè contro di loro una pugna eroica; quelli furono vinti, il tempio purificato. Allora sorse contro di loro Roma. Guidava sotto il suo stendardo tutti i popoli, associava a sè tutte le forze del mondo, e le avventò contro il Dio Ebreo, contro il popolo, la legge. L'Ebreo si trovò a fronte con Roma, tutto il mondo schierato contro un pugno d'armati. Fu una guerra di nazionalità, una resistenza delle più eroiche e grandiose che ricordino le istorie: l'Ebreo solo, fra tutti i popoli, osava resistere a Roma8 ; colla sua resistenza ne feriva l'orgoglio: conveniva trionfare ad ogni [pg 16] costo, sopprimerlo. Roma, dopo una lotta di oltre dieci anni, vinse, Sionne fu espugnata, distrutto il tempio, arso, il popolo condotto in esiglio e disperso. E qui comincia il secondo periodo della sua storia, ed il più tragico; quello della dispersione. IV. — Periodo della dispersione. A quel modo, che nei tempi nostri, dopo la reazione del 1815 e lo smembramento d'Italia, i nostri emigrati, profughi e dispersi in ogni parte del mondo, presero a cospirare contro l'Austria, che rappresentava allora ogni dispotismo, e si recarono a combattere in Spagna, in Grecia, Svizzera e nelle Americhe per la libertà, non
  • 60. altrimenti gli Ebrei, dopo la caduta del tempio, schiavi o dispersi in ogni parte del mondo antico, iniziarono una guerra sorda e tenace di opposizione e di cospirazioni contro Cesare, come contro la costituzione sociale del mondo pagano. Erano state spezzate nelle loro mani le armi materiali, ma rimanevano loro invisibili, inoppugnabili, quelle intellettuali e morali: la fierezza di un popolo, la fede nella giustizia e nella verità. Milioni di Ebrei, tratti in cattività a Roma e nelle grandi città, erano condannati a lavorare nei pubblici edifizî, ad erigere in Roma il Colosseo, le Terme, il palazzo di Cesare. Quivi si affiatavano, si associavano cogli schiavi ed operai delle Gallie, della Germania, delle provincie italiane, uniti da un odio comune, e da una stessa sete di vendetta contro Roma, la terribile conquistatrice e tiranna delle genti, e contrapponevano le dottrine religiose e sociali, uscite dal seno dell'Ebraismo, contro quelle pagane. Così, mentre l'operaio lavorava a sollevare le Terme ed il Colosseo, orgoglio dei Cesari, minava e scalzava dalla base l'edifizio dello impero di Cesare e di Roma. [pg 17] Il Cristianesimo, mentre Sionne ed il tempio erano ancora in piedi, si era appena diffuso fuori delle sue mura, e delle provincie Siriache; caduta Sionne, prese uno slancio subitaneo e cominciò a propagarsi nel mondo greco-latino, nelle grandi capitali dell'Asia Minore, ed a penetrare in Roma. Il Cristianesimo ne' suoi primordii rispondeva agli ideali ebraici, così religiosi come sociali. Cristo, come si vede dalle stesse epistole di S. Paolo, era per essi, più che persona storica, un ideale, il quale, simbolo della parola dei loro profeti, corrispondeva alle passioni ardenti e tormentose, che si agitavano nel profondo dei loro cuori. Nella sua dottrina morale, come nella passione e morte, trovavano, personificate, le dottrine dei
  • 61. loro avi, le sofferenze, la crocifissione di tutto un popolo immolato. Al pari dei nostri martiri patrioti, nei tempi dei Carbonari e martiri della libertà, egli divenne il centro intorno a cui si raccoglievano tutti gli oppressi, i sofferenti, e quanti aspiravano a libertà. La maggior parte dei primi apostoli e martiri erano usciti dal seno degli Ebrei; essi contrapponevano il Cristo, all'imperatore, il loro Dio, alle divinità dell'Olimpo Greco-Romano. Voi, dicevano, nell'ardore delle loro passioni, nell'entusiasmo della fede, voi credeste di trionfare di noi, di soggiogarci, annientarci, e noi afferriamo uno dei più umili fra i nostri fratelli, figlio d'un semplice operaio, nato nella piccola terra di Betlemme, noi lo solleviamo sulle nostre braccia, invano incatenate, lo gettiamo contro Cesare e Roma, dicendo: Questo sarà il vostro Re, Imperatore e Dio. Rex Romanorum. Per circa tre secoli, Cristiani ed Ebrei formarono una medesima comunione, associati nelle stesse dottrine, rivolti ad uno scopo: La diffusione ed il trionfo del messianismo. Avversi del pari alle istituzioni pagane, ribelli al dominio di Cesare, perseguitati del pari, essi si strinsero in fratellanze segrete, per modo che molti dei martiri cui il Cristianesimo [pg 18] attribuì a se stesso e santificò, furono Ebrei. Essi avevano comuni le scuole, come i sepolcri; e nelle recenti scoperte, in fondo alle catacombe, dalle iscrizioni e dai simboli si riconosce, che molti dei sepolcri e delle urne coprono le salme di Ebrei. La scissura dei due rami, nati dallo stesso ceppo, cominciò veramente con Costantino, e venne vieppiù allargandosi dopo che la Chiesa si unì e si associò all'impero. Dante, nel poema nazionale, in una visione meravigliosa di poesia e di verità storica, descrive e segna questo momento storico
  • 62. con parole roventi. L'aquila vidi scender giù nell'arca del carro, e lasciar lei di sè pennuta; . . . . . . . . . O navicella mia, come mal se' carca9. Il Cristianesimo primitivo fu trasformato, adulterato e sopra il carro vide: Seder sovr'esso una puttana sciolta: Di costa a lei dritto un gigante E baciavansi insieme alcuna volta10. Fu in ogni tempo fina politica della Chiesa romana cedere, modificarsi secondo le circostanze e le necessità dei tempi. In tal modo la vediamo ancora nel nostro secolo, nel 1814 e 1815, essa è a capo della Santa Alleanza, appoggia ogni sorta di despotismo. Mutate le condizioni politiche, il Vaticano diviene repubblicano, demagogo in Francia, socialista, antisemita a Vienna, moderato a Berlino, a Pietroburgo, avverso ad ogni libertà costituzionale e all'unità, in Italia. Dopo Costantino cominciò veramente, e venne vieppiù allargandosi, la scissura fra il Cristianesimo trasformato ed il Giudaismo. Pullularono le eresie sempre più numerose e ribelli nel seno del Cristianesimo; esse accusavano la [pg 19] Chiesa Romana di essersi dilungata da quei principi che formavano la essenza del Cristianesimo: negli ordini religiosi, esse dicevano, divenne un altro
  • 63. Paganesimo; all'Uno, ineffabile, sostituì un Dio in più persone, poi il culto delle Imagini, e dei Santi, coi quali edificò un nuovo Olimpo, impose la Mariolatria. Sostituì tutta una gerarchia, una teocrazia all'uguaglianza democratica della chiesa primitiva: negli ordini sociali, altra scissione fra eletti e rejetti, sacerdoti e secolari; scissure, che si tradussero in seguito nelle divisioni di classe, clero, nobili e plebei che si combattevano nel seno della società; quindi alla legge subentrò il privilegio, al principio assoluto di Giustizia, che dominava la legge antica, contrappose la dottrina della grazia, e con essa il mercato delle assoluzioni e delle indulgenze. In mezzo a queste scissure e conflitti, l'Ebraismo si raccolse in sè stesso e continuò a reggersi, inflessibile sempre, sopra i principî antichi. Allora dalla Chiesa venne considerato, più che un'eresia, un'empietà, un pericolo. Infatti, egli colla semplicità dei suoi riti, colle tradizioni che personificava in sè, si levava quale un'accusa, un rimprovero contro la Chiesa pomposa e trionfante; la sua perduranza e tenacità creava un pericolo, per cui sarebbe stata politica avveduta l'annientarlo, come una specie di pretendente, il quale aspirava, se non al trono, all'altare. Ma sopprimerlo, come si fece di molte eresie col ferro e col fuoco, riesciva impossibile, disseminati quali erano gli Ebrei in ogni parte del mondo, in Oriente ed in Occidente, ed ove la sua potestà non poteva raggiungerli. Adottò quindi una politica più terribile e più fina: isolarli in mezzo alla Società, umiliarli, vituperarli. Si predicò, che su di loro pesava l'ira e la vendetta di Dio, che essi erano colpevoli di Deicidio: Quasi che Dio potesse morire; ogni giorno s'inventava una calunnia per colpire la razza e gli individui; e s'aprì l'êra delle persecuzioni più atroci e pertinaci, che rammentino le istorie religiose.
  • 64. [pg 20] V. — Persecuzioni e Rinascenza. Si cominciò col relegarli, come lebbrosi, in un quartiere isolato della città, lontani dai consorzi civili; si continuò coll'esodo in massa, a cacciarli di terra in terra, fomentare in ogni paese saccheggi ed eccidi; infine si elevarono roghi per abbrucciarli, e, con offesa e vitupero del vero cristianesimo, queste ecatombe umane si appellarono atti di fede! E dopo mille anni dell'età nuova, piombò sull'Europa un periodo di tenebre profonde; il mondo doveva finire, ma era la civiltà, la morale, il pensiero umano che si erano smarriti e abbuiati, e parevano eclissati per sempre. L'umanità, come scrive con frase poetica e positiva, il sommo storico Michelet, aveva cessato di pensare. Solo l'Ebreo sentiva, che il termine del mondo non era vicino ancora, che i fati non erano compiuti, ed egli, come scrive ancora Michelet, pensava per tutti e serbava la coscienza dell'avvenire. Egli nella Spagna, nella Francia, in Egitto, in Grecia raccoglieva i libri dell'antichità, li chiosava, li traduceva dall'arabo, dal greco in latino. Non si limitava a raccogliere questi libri e sepellirli nelle biblioteche dei conventi, come i Benedettini ed altri ordini religiosi, i quali ben meritarono dalla Civiltà, ma li diffondeva di terra in terra, li trasmetteva dall'Asia all'Europa, ed era egli stesso libro vivente. Egli aveva conservate le tradizioni delle scienze mediche, fisiche, filosofiche, linguistiche, e le insegnava, le professava; era, coi
  • 65. commerci, colle scienze, intermediario fra l'oriente e l'occidente, tra gli Arabi e l'Europa cristiana. Irruppero le Crociate; e le orde Crociate, per punire l'Ebreo dell'opera sua riparatrice e civile, prima di recarsi in Terra Santa e liberare il sepolcro di Cristo, si [pg 21] scagliarono contro gli Ebrei, che avevano dato il Redentore al mondo; ed in Germania, in Francia, in Inghilterra, fu un furore, un'orgia di incendi, di saccheggi e di sterminio contro le comunità israelitiche. I paladini, baroni, conti dirigevano le stragi; e le masse avide di sangue e di preda, mettevano tutto a fuoco, a ferro e a ruba; le passioni più feroci e brutali si scatenavano contro un popolo inerme, pacifico e operoso. Anche questo triste periodo, appellato dai poeti eroico, dopo scempî di sangue e di delitti cavallereschi, tramontò, e si chiuse. Un albore di civiltà cominciò a spuntare sull'orizzonte. Gli stessi crociati, reduci dall'Asia, ne divennero messaggeri e ne furono strumento efficace. I semi della civiltà latina, non mai appassiti e spenti in Italia, si dischiusero poco a poco alla vita, e prepararono la Rinascenza. Al Rinascimento classico, mercè lo studio della Bibbia nei suoi testi e nella sua realtà, e per opera delle sette antipapali, che serpeggiavano in tutta Europa sino dal medioevo, tenne dietro il rinnovamento religioso e la Riforma. L'antagonismo fra il Papato e la Riforma accese le guerre più feroci, che mai abbiano insanguinata l'Europa, nei secoli decimosesto e settimo. Le guerre di religione e gli orrori di eccidi, stragi e perversità, che le accompagnarono, allontanarono i pensatori e i popoli stessi dalla religione, e in molti intiepidirono il sentimento
  • 66. religioso, come funesto al progresso ed alla pace, ostile e fatale all'unione e sicurtà dei popoli. Al secolo dei teologi, tenne dietro quello dei filosofi e della scienza. La società aspirava a divenire laica. Uno spirito nuovo corse sopra tutta l'Europa; un lavoro sordo, poderoso, a cui presero parte tutte le classi sociali, dal patrizio al borghese, agli stessi monarchi riformatori, scalzava dalle fondamenta l'edifizio del medio evo, preparando gli elementi d'un'età novella: — E scoppiò la Rivoluzione francese. [pg 22] VI. — La Rivoluzione francese e i principi costitutivi dell'Ebraismo. La Riforma, nata dalla Teologia, si fonda bensì sulla Bibbia, ma si arresta alla parola, all'esteriore; la Rivoluzione, nata dalla filosofia, dalle scienze giuridiche e sociali, ne penetra lo spirito, ne rileva il pensiero dominante, lo spinge nella pratica sociale, lo traduce in azione. L'Ebreo, allo scoppiare della Rivoluzione, comprese che i principi da lei proclamati corrispondevano a quelli che egli professava da secoli e ne costituivano la essenza religiosa e sociale. Essi erano stati la sua forza e la sua fede durante le lotte da lui sostenute a traverso i secoli. Questi principi, come vedemmo, si riassumevano nella triade: Dio, Legge e Popolo, e la Rivoluzione, pur rispettando i culti diversi, che dividono l'umanità, si alzava alla contemplazione di un essere superiore, il Dio Uno, fattore ed anima dell'universo. Suo culto fu la legge, la quale, a quel modo che ordina e regge
  • 67. l'universo, così deve guidare il mondo dei popoli con equità e giustizia, e, sollevandosi al disopra dei privilegi di classe, caste e razze, mira anzitutto l'uomo coronato da' suoi diritti, e soggetto a doveri corrispondenti. Carattere essenziale di questi principi è la Universalità. Carattere principale, che presentano i comandamenti promulgati dal Sinai, poscia svolti dai legislatori e dai profeti, si è, che essi non si limitano soltanto a riguardare una famiglia, un popolo, ma sono un imperativo morale, sociale; si adattano ad ogni razza, ad ogni tempo; ed un carattere identico di universalità è impresso nella dichiarazione dei diritti dell'uomo, proclamati, prima nell'America, poscia in Parigi, ed essi sono l'eco e l'esplicazione sempre più larga e positiva, del Verbo mosaico. [pg 23] Ora egli riesce facile ai retori e accademici, che stanno leggiferando placidamente e si perdono nelle minuzie e nelle sillabe, come i Farisei dell'antica legge, il criticare la dichiarazione dei Diritti dell'uomo, opponendo, secondo il sofisma di De Maistre, che l'uomo in astratto non esiste. Certo non esiste l'uomo in astratto, come non esiste nè l'albero, nè l'animale astratto e generale; ma la mente riassume i caratteri, le doti e qualità d'ognuno, e da questi si forma il concetto dell'albero e dell'animale e ne determina le leggi generali. Con un processo identico rileva i caratteri, i bisogni della parte fisica, morale del genere umano, e procede a determinarne i diritti e doveri, i quali abbracciano tutta la specie, e col tempo, il lavoro, il progredire di ogni razza, d'ogni popolo verranno ad informarsi in ciascuno, e potranno costituire per tal modo certa unità di leggi pel genere umano.
  • 68. Questi principi generali, che i codici particolari verranno svolgendo d'età in età, di popolo in popolo per tradurli nella pratica sociale, corrispondevano all'antico ideale ebraico e che da concetto religioso si traduceva in legge e pratica sociale. Avvenne quindi, che alla proclamazione dei principi della Rivoluzione, l'Ebreo acquistò più viva la coscienza di sè stesso, vide in essi la riprova e la confermazione di quella fede religiosa sociale, che fu la sua forza durante i secoli e, diremmo, la ragione della sua durata. Perciò allo scoppiare della Rivoluzione francese, noi assistiamo a questo fatto: mentre tutte le confessioni religiose in Europa la osteggiano e ne oppugnano i principi, le comunioni ebree, sparse in mezzo a tutte le nazioni, l'accolgono con entusiasmo, ne acclamano i principi; quella turba di bottegai, di mercatanti, di operai, dianzi umiliati, negletti, rispondono all'appello della Rivoluzione, si rialzano nella loro dignità d'uomo e di cittadino. Essi intuonano la Marsigliese, e molti Rabbini la traducono in lingua [pg 24] ebraica, o foggiano sopra quello altri inni patriotici per Israello. Nelle sinagoghe, all'inno nazionale francese risponde l'antico canto patriottico Ebraico «In exitu Israel de Ægypto» e l'antica liturgia di Francia e d'Italia aggiunge alle benedizioni all'Eterno, a' suoi patriarchi e profeti anche questa: «Benedetta la Rivoluzione, che proclama tutti gli uomini fratelli». All'êra nuova, che si leva sull'Europa e sul mondo, sino dalla prima metà del secolo decimonono, corrisponde una vera Rinascenza israelitica. Questo popolo, che cancellato, avvilito da duemila anni, altri credeva chiuso nel suo sepolcro e spento, si rialzò nella forza della sua intelligenza e attività, ajuto, stimolo di vita e di progresso fra i suoi concittadini. Dopo quei giorni egli prende viva parte al
  • 69. movimento politico, economico, letterario, sociale di ogni nazione fra cui esso è disseminato. Soldato, egli combatte al fianco dei suoi concittadini a difesa della libertà, non solo in Francia, ma nei campi della Germania, della Polonia, dell'Ungheria, dell'Italia per rivendicare la indipendenza delle nazionalità fra cui è nato. Cospiratore, egli si affiglia alle diverse fratellanze secrete per combattere il despotismo e la reazione che tenta imporsi all'Europa. Nello stesso tempo, pubblicista, letterato, artista, scienziato, industriale, economista, socialista, noi troviamo sempre e ovunque alcuni dei suoi a combattere le battaglie della libertà e del progresso. Questo subito risveglio di una razza, che omai si credeva esaurita ed estinta, od almeno straniera in quest'Europa nella quale viveva, non solo attesta la sua origine europea, meglio che il favoleggiato Arianismo, ma è sintomo dell'energia di cui è dotato, come fosse uno degli elementi più efficaci di progresso, ed il lievito nel mondo dei popoli, non che la sua superiorità. Perocchè è omai principio proclamato dalla scienza, che le specie inferiori, deboli, [pg 25] poco adatte all'ambiente e poco conformate per sostenere la concorrenza vitale, sono condannate a perire, quelle superiori finiscono per vincere nel combattimento per la vita, e perdurano. Ma egli è puranco una legge penosa, che la vile moltitudine umana suole sempre essere invidiosa, sospettosa ed avversa ad ogni superiorità individuale o collettiva. Il super-uomo o la super-nazione sono per lo più invise e temute. Si colpiscono col pugnale, come avvenne a Cesare, o si avvelenano come Socrate. L'abbiamo pur veduto, sino dai tempi delle civiltà orientali, che l'Ebreo e l'Ebraismo, appena divengono una forza intellettuale e morale o politica, tutti i despotismi antichi, come le reazioni moderne, si associano e
  • 70. insurgono contro di lui per opprimerlo o sopprimerlo. Nei tempi antichi, quando l'Ebreo era ancora una forza collettiva o nazione, fu combattuto colle armi e cogli eserciti nei campi aperti; nelle, così dette, civiltà moderne, gli avversari non trovando intorno a sè che individualità o personalità più o meno superiori, mutarono la tattica, si pugnò alla spicciolata, si adottarono armi corte o avvelenate, si sono inventate accuse mostruose e calunnie, come quelle del sangue emunto ai bambini, si aprirono processi loschi con documenti falsi, testimoni compri. Sopra questi dati s'imposero ai giudici sentenze per condannare. Queste guerre aperte o velate, insidiose sempre, secondo i tempi, le circostanze, l'indole dei popoli, assunsero forme diverse. Ora, nel secolo decimonono, esse si appellano antisemitismo. VII. — Antisemitismo e Reazioni. Questa lue, che omai da quarant'anni, infetta l'Europa, non trae l'origine dalla scienza, come testè si volle [pg 26] insinuare11 . La scienza è moderna, la tristizia umana è antica come la storia. La scienza educa, eleva, unisce; la superstizione, l'ignoranza vitupera, inacerbisce e scinde. Tal peste serpeggia da secoli nel seno della Cristianità e per atavismo fatale, si alimenta e si trasmette, sotto forme diverse, dall'una in altra generazione. Chi prende a far la diagnosi del morbo, si avvedrà, che essa si compone di elementi complicati e multeplici. Questi si possono ridurre a tre principali. L'elemento religioso, il politico, e l'economico.
  • 71. Cominciamo dal primo: Sino dalla prima infanzia s'insinua nel cuore del bambino l'odio all'Ebreo, insegnando il Catechismo. Si tace come la idea del messianismo sia sorta e fermentata nel seno di quel popolo molti anni prima della nascita di Gesù, come quel popolo, specialmente sotto il giogo dei Romani, [pg 27] fosse in travaglio per produrre un redentore12 e a migliaja i suoi figli venissero crocefissi, perchè combattevano, insorgevano per la libertà della patria e la redenzione umana, si tace come Ebrei sono stati i primi apostoli, i primi Cristiani, che essi furono la vanguardia, i pionieri, i quali aprirono le porte al Cristianesimo presso i Gentili; ma s'insiste invece sulla parte incerta e leggendaria della condanna, passione e morte di Gesù: s'insegna che l'Ebreo fu deicida, che sopra di lui pesa per ogni secolo la vendetta di Dio, tale è la morale ad uso delle scuole13 . Le prime impressioni nelle tenere menti del bambino, non si cancellano, e il bambino crede più, che alla realtà delle cose, ai racconti delle fate e ai misteri paurosi, e pur troppo rimangono impresse nelle menti più le parole dell'odio, che non quelle di fraternità e d'amore. [pg 28] Elemento politico: — Gli Ebrei, come vedemmo, sono figli della Rivoluzione, ne abbracciarono i principî con entusiasmo quasi religioso. I partiti retrivi si dicono figli dei Crociati: e non sarebbero alieni, ove potessero, dal rinnovarne le scene, non quelle magnanime, ma le insane e feroci. Però tutte le varie gradazioni dei partiti retrivi, autocrazia, clerocrazia, plutocrazia, militarismo negli alti gradi, si coalizzano per colpire, prima l'Ebreo, poscia il Protestante, il liberale, abbattendo, così uno ad uno tutti gli ostacoli per confiscare la libertà e ristaurare il regime monarchico-clericale.
  • 72. Elemento economico: — È questa un'altra bottega, o altra turba d'uomini, i quali, mossi da interessi diversi, si uniscono per accrescere la fila degli antisemiti. Il negoziante e il bottegajo ebreo è attivo, intraprendente, laborioso. Esso è un concorrente pericoloso, giova quindi eliminarlo, e se non si può distruggerlo, rovinarlo; si ricorre a pregiudizi e ribalderie antiche, si risuscitano le ire, gli odi di classe; e si corre al saccheggio, al furto, come in Algeria, e come si volle pure tentare in Parigi stessa e in alcune provincie della Francia, e all'estero, come a Bukarest e altrove. I progressi della civiltà, i principi proclamati dalla rivoluzione avevano non solo indeboliti e paralizzati questi elementi deleteri, ma già era cominciata, specialmente in Francia, una cotal fusione fra le diverse classi e credenze religiose. Conveniva ai partiti retrivi in ogni parte d'Europa interrompere, sfatare questi accordi, spargere semi di zizzanie, e si gettò il mal seme dell'antisemitismo. In Francia era difficile che potesse attecchire: le idee di tolleranza, di umanità, erano penetrate e diffuse in ogni classe, perciò conveniva immaginare un fatto o un pretesto, che eccitasse le passioni delle masse, irritarle, accanneggiarle, spingerle all'agire. La corda, che fa vibrare più fortemente il cuore del popolo, ne accende le passioni, è il patriottismo, l'esercito, l'orrore per lo [pg 29] straniero invasore. E fu escogitato il tradimento dreyfusiano, e manipolato quel processo mostruoso, che è un oltraggio alla civiltà del secolo.
  • 73. VIII. — Il processo Dreyfus. Noi non entreremo nei particolari di questo processo. Ma è omai noto, a chi penetrò nel dedalo dei suoi avvolgimenti, che esso, come già accennammo, fu immaginato e preparato nelle rettrobotteghe dei giornali retrivi ed antisemiti; covato fra le ombre delle sacrestie e di noti conventi; architettato da alcune autorità militari: accolto con favore e sobillato da certi ufficiali dello Stato Maggiore, usciti dalle scuole dei Gesuiti e che intendevano sbarazzarsi dell'Ebreo Dreyfus, poichè lo vedevano con sdegno ed invidia avanzare nelle alte cariche militari, fu manipolato di conserva con questi elementi da mestatori avventurieri. Preparato nel mistero, fu condotto nel mistero con documenti monchi o falsi, privi di ogni carattere giuridico; ma tutto giovava al loro intento pure di accendere le passioni, eccitare lo Chauvinisme delle masse francesi, fuorviare, deludere la giustizia, e preparare il trionfo della reazione. Ma la giustizia, che si voleva tradire e calpestare, vive pur sempre nel seno della Francia, scosse e accese di nobile disdegno il cuore di pochi uomini superiori per intelligenza, per coraggio e potenza di carattere. Essi si ribellarono a quella cospirazione, colla quale la sciabola tentava decapitare la giustizia. In mezzo al silenzio dei complici, degli indifferenti e dei codardi alle minaccie dei prepotenti, agli urli della folla ingannata, sollevarono il grido d'allarme, pugnarono perchè si faccia intera la luce della verità, e per salvare l'onore della Francia. Emerge, grandeggiante, fra questi magnanimi, la figura [pg 30] di Scheurer-Kestner, di Picard e quella dello Zola, il quale, bersaglio
  • 74. ai furori, alle contumelie, agli attacchi forsennati di tutte le reazioni più arrabbiate, si leva, e sta solo e incrollabile sulla breccia14 . Tutta l'Europa civile rispose al grido d'allarme gettato dallo Zola e lui acclamò campione della giustizia, paladino della verità. Il verdetto d'Europa intera, che plaude a Zola, rispose al verdetto dei pochi giurati ignoti o ignari, i quali, intimiditi o per consegna, ne pronunciarono la condanna. In questo momento si entra in un periodo di tregua, e in seguito che farà la Francia? potrà essa vituperarsi ancora, e rifiutare la revisione del processo?15 Un tal processo ha cessato di essere un fatto personale e accidentale. Esso ha assunto tali proporzioni in Francia ed in Europa, da divenire l'epilogo di una lotta da gran tempo latente e offre l'occasione ai partiti retrivi, per misurare le proprie forze e scendere in campo per iniziare il combattimento. [pg 31] Il condannato all'isola maledetta non è che il capro emissario, la testa del moro, contro cui si appuntano i dardi per colpire con lui numerosi avversari. Il primo sarà l'Ebreo, e coll'Ebreo la Rivoluzione, la società moderna, i diritti dell'uomo, per poi abbattere la repubblica. Il partito liberale in Francia, come nella restante Europa, lo comprese, si commosse e corse al riparo, si armò per la difesa. Più di tutti si scosse, si agitò l'Ebreo. Ciascuno sentì che questa era la causa di tutti. Res nostra agitur. Invano in Francia si credè da molti, anche in buona fede essere questa quistione interna, che non riguarda gli stranieri. Nessuno, risponde l'Europa civile, nessuno è straniero al grido dell'Umanità; e con voce concorde lo proclamarono gli Ebrei sparsi nei due mondi: La Giustizia è la nostra religione, il nostro culto, la nostra fede, e combatteremo compatti in sua difesa.
  • 75. Da oltre duemila anni essa è vilipesa, calpestata in Europa; giorno è sorto che essa si affermi, si rialzi e combatta e trionfi. E rispondendo al grido di allarme, gettato da tutte le intelligenze e dal partito liberale del mondo, essi raccolsero il guanto che fu loro gettato dai partiti retrivi, e si associarono insieme, per propugnare, colla propria, la causa della libertà di tutti. IX. — Sindacato e solidarietà. Da oltre mezzo secolo l'Israelita in Francia si era cullato nella speranza, che il periodo storico della dispersione fra i popoli e del suo isolamento in mezzo a' suoi concittadini, fosse cessato; e salutò con entusiasmo l'aurora che pareva aprire il terzo ed ultimo periodo storico, quello della Fusione; e, sotto l'egida di principii religiosi più razionali ad un tempo e più morali ed equi, di essere [pg 32] alfine cittadino fra i cittadini, uguale fra gli uguali. Perciò era divenuto omai indifferente, oblioso di quei principi, che a lui erano stati forza e usbergo in mezzo ai combattimenti affrontati, alle persecuzioni sofferte nei secoli passati, e che sperava tramontati per sempre. L'evento Dreyfus dissipò in parte queste illusioni, e lo scosse dall'apatia in cui era piombato. Lo fece pur troppo accorto, che gli odi, i pregiudizi dissimulati e celati, avevano ancora radici profonde nel cuore delle plebi umane, chè occorrono secoli per essere svelti del tutto, che i Revenants dal sepolcro, entro cui si credevano chiusi, e imputriditi, possono risorgere ancora e sopraffare, corrompere i vivi. Allora sentì il dovere di correre al riparo per difendersi. Gli Ebrei non costituirono verun sindacato, come adottando un termine di
  • 76. borsa, si volle fantasticare; ma si destò più vivo in essi il sentimento, che fu nei tempi di angoscia la loro fortezza e salute, il sentimento o meglio il principio redentore della solidarietà. In questo sentimento si trovarono consociati e uniti insieme tutti gli elementi, le frazioni di un popolo. Il gran capitalista col proletario, il banchiere col bottegajo e merciajo, lo scienziato coll'operaio, il conservatore, il moderato col radicale, e col socialista. Ad essi non tardarono ad unirsi gli uomini di nobile cuore e d'intelligenza di ogni partito e classe, che abbondano sempre in Francia; sentirono non essere questa la causa di una setta, di una confessione religiosa, ma causa d'umanità, ed una minaccia alla libertà di tutti, un pericolo per la dignità della Francia, come per l'onore dell'armata; conveniva all'uopo affrontare le contumelie, gli insulti e violenze di una folla briaca o venduta, sagrificare sè stessi per salvare l'onore e l'avvenire morale della nazione. Un branco di arruffoni, intriganti, per coprire colpe proprie e deludere la giustizia sui veri colpevoli e fuorviarla, [pg 33] si erano insinuati, come bacilli morbosi, nell'organismo sano e forte della Francia, per paralizzarne le libere mosse, avvelenarne il sangue, rendersi padroni delle sue forze, guidarle a fini inconfessabili, a meta disastrosa; ma la vera Francia saprà scoprire l'inganno, le frodi tese contro il suo onore e la sua sicurezza: spezzare la rete, entro cui tentarono di avvolgerla, sbattere quella turba di mestatori dalle sue spalle titaniche, nel fango verminoso dal quale sono pullulati, ritemprarsi di nuove forze e raggiare ancora nell'antico suo splendore.
  • 77. X. — L'Esposizione del 1900 — Missione della Francia — L'Europa si unifica e si espande. I giorni dell'Esposizione si appressano. La Francia sta preparandosi materialmente; però essa non deve, non può limitarsi a celebrare solo una festa del lavoro, o una mostra industriale. Parigi, al pari della nobiltà antica, obbliga: essa è l'areòpago, al quale è convocata tutta l'Europa intelligente, e Parigi deve proporre a se stesso oltre all'industriale, uno scopo altamente civile e morale. Il 1900 segna il centenario della grande Rivoluzione, che aprì l'êra nuova all'umanità, fondò la società moderna, e iniziò il governo della ragione. Essa trasformò non solo la Francia, ma l'Europa. E se Parigi non vuol perdere il suo primato d'iniziatrice, e che l'alto mandato si trasferisca ad altra città o nazione, essa non solo deve riconfermare questi principi, ma condurli a più ampia e intera applicazione negli ordini politici, giuridici, e sociali, ed elevarli come programma del secolo ventesimo. Vieti pregiudizi e vanità fanno sì, che molti in Francia credono ancora di mirare intorno a sè, come ai tempi [pg 34] di Luigi XIV o Napoleone I, un'Europa da invadere e conquistare, nè vogliono avvedersi, che, al soffio rinnovatore della Rivoluzione, tutto in Europa è mutato, trasformato. Appo ogni popolo molte forze, sempre latenti, e che il dispotismo tentò invano di comprimere e soffocare, rimbalzarono in tutta la loro energia e anelano di svolgersi, ad agire. L'Europa non è più scissa, come per lo passato, in regioni e piccoli stati, facile preda alle invasioni di vicino più potente o prepotente, ma ordinata in nazionalità compatte, fiere della loro
  • 78. indipendenza e che, vuoi per simpatia, vuoi per interesse politico o commerciale, vuoi per la reciproca difesa, si raggruppano in un fascio di nazioni per modo che quest'Europa, già scissa in altrettanti nazioni, ora è quasi in travaglio per costituire l'Europa una. Lavoro misterioso, lento, ma indeclinabile, continuato, ed evidente all'occhio dei sensi e dell'intelletto. Un altro lavoro, ben altrimenti poderoso e fecondo, si va facendo in questa Europa rinnovata: le Società umane, al pari delle forze cosmiche, obbediscono alla duplice legge di concentramento e di espansione. Come le nubolose, dopo aver concentrato le forze per formare un mondo od un sistema planetario, si espandono, quali germi di altri mondi, non altrimenti l'Europa, dopo essersi costituita in nazionalità, e quindi in gruppi di nazionalità, ora, traboccante di forze, aspira a meta più vasta. Essa si sente ristretta entro gli angusti limiti a lei segnati dalla geografia, quali sono il bacino mediterraneo e l'Atlantico, i Dardanelli, i monti Urali e la Siberia; si agita per oltrepassarli. Dispone di forze, sinora non pure sognate, per percorrerli a volo. Le steppe sterminate della Siberia, che sinora dividevano due mondi, ora li uniscono, gl'immedesimano insieme. I convogli partiti dal fondo della Russia, fra pochi anni si abbatteranno con quelli, che mossero dal nuovo mondo, [pg 35] la Transiberiana colla Transfranciscana, e s'incontreranno sulle rive del mar Pacifico, questo Mediterraneo dell'avvenire. L'oriente si confonde coll'occidente, questo coll'Africa. Il vaticinio, che il Profeta Israele, rapito nelle visioni dell'avvenire, già da tremila anni, annunziava ai popoli diviene realtà. «Aprite, egli gridava da Sionne, aprite le
  • 79. strade, adeguate i monti, togliete gli inciampi dal cammino dei popoli, poichè deve regnare la Giustizia, si costituisce l'Umanità16 ». XI. — Internazionalismo. È questa un'altra delle accuse, che si suole scagliare contro gli Ebrei. Essi non hanno patria, sono cosmopoliti. Invano hanno però dimostrato coi fatti in tutto il secolo come sono affezionati al paese ove nacquero e hanno pugnato al fianco dei loro concittadini in Francia, in Germania, Polonia e Italia, sia per servire i Governi costituiti, sia per combattere le battaglie della libertà e rivendicare la indipendenza nazionale. Devoti al paese in cui sono nati, essi mirano tuttavia più alto e più lontano. Dopo il cittadino havvi l'uomo, dopo la patria, l'umanità. Questo sentimento di cosmopolismo, che favella pure nel cuore di ogni uomo di alto sentire presso ogni nazione, è come ingenito nella razza ebrea, tal che sembra quale un suggello impresso sulla sua fronte, sin dalle origini dalla Provvidenza, e ne determina i destini in mezzo ai popoli. Essa, come fu notato da molti scrittori e da quasi tutti gli scienziati, è la sola fra le razze umane del globo, che possa resistere alle intemperie di ogni clima e d'ogni regione, fra i ghiacci della Siberia, come sotto il sole rovente dei tropici, nelle Indie, come nel clima temperato [pg 36] d'Europa, noi lo vediamo allignare, perdurare, e lavora e prospera. Ed anche in questa tendenza cosmopolita, egli non fece che precedere e aprire la via ad altre civiltà più avanzate. Chi omai in
  • 80. Europa, senza cessare di essere cittadino del proprio paese, non è, in qualche modo, internazionale? nessuno può chiudersi, al pari della chiocciola, entro il proprio guscio: tutti hanno bisogno di aria, di spazio più vasto, per corrispondere ai nuovi bisogni, alle proprie aspirazioni. Tutto è divenuto o va facendosi internazionale. Dai congressi scientifici, dalle università, agli annunzi nella quarta pagina su pei giornali. Non parliamo della diplomazia, la quale lo è per origine e per essenza, dei traffici, dei grandi istituti di credito, ma gli operai, i compagnoni e proletari, sparsi nel mondo intero, tutti omai tendono a comprendersi, e abbattendo le antiche barriere, mossi da interessi comuni, mirano in ogni parte di Europa ad associarsi, a stringersi in vincoli di solidarietà, e costituire una stessa famiglia. Nel passato solo le scienze, le lettere si appellavano repubbliche universali, ora anche le arti, le quali per indole e per essenza sono la espressione più perfetta del particolarismo, assumono forma, colorito, idee e aspirazioni universali; le lingue, in questo mezzo secolo, noi le vediamo intorno a noi trasformate; dizioni eteroclite ed ibride passano dall'una in altra nazione, sono accolte e s'immedesimano fra loro. I puristi, ciò appellano, e non senza qualche ragione, barbarie, ma il popolo non cura tali accuse, procede oltre, obbedisce al genio del secolo, vede o prevede; e comincia per tal modo a formarsi una lingua europea: come già il latino nelle età di mezzo: Ciò che avviene nelle lingue, nelle arti, vediamo a poco a poco succedere nelle religioni, e nei Numi. Negli ultimi secoli del Paganesimo, Roma accoglieva nella città Urbi et Orbi tutte le divinità venute dall'Asia, dalle Gallie, dall'Etruria; loro consentiva un [pg 37] seggio nel gran Panteon: così accade omai nell'Europa. Però con questo divario, che
  • 81. Roma antica le accoglieva tutte, ne accettava i riti, le cerimonie e spesso credeva e adorava. L'Europa moderna invece li sottopone, al pari del chimico, al suo crogiuolo, li esamina, li critica, li discute e dubita. I Lari, i Penati, gli stessi Santi, che proteggevano le nostre case, le nostre città, le nazioni vanno ecclissandosi. Al particolarismo divino stanno per succedere idee più ampie e comprensive; ai dommi imposti subentrano sistemi più o meno scientifici e razionali; alle religioni, la religione, o il sentimento religioso; ai Numi, un Divino che tutti li abbraccia e li comprende. Chi è che potrà essere quello Iddio, che diviene? Il naturalismo antico e le sue leggende e miti, la fenomenologia, come l'antropomorfismo moderno, più non corrispondono ai nuovi bisogni della società, non appagano nè il sentimento, nè il pensiero. A tutte coteste forze, potenze, geni e spiriti, la scienza contrappone la Unità delle forze, al dualismo antico, materia e spirito, la scienza contrappone la sostanza unica universale. La quale, in altri termini, sarebbe l'onnipotente, il Sadai dell'Antico Testamento, il filosofo, l'Ente Universale, l'assoluto, l'Essere degl'Esseri. L'uomo religioso adora l'Ente ancora, che è, fu, sarà; l'eterno, il quale, elevandosi al disopra del tempo e dello spazio, alza la mano ai cieli e dice: «Io sono in eterno». XII. — La Francia e la nuova Europa. Molte di quelle idee, che i filosofi del secolo decimoottavo, maturavano nel silenzio del loro gabinetto, la Rivoluzione, al pari di lava irrompendo dal cratere aperto in Parigi, propagò e diffuse sul
  • 82. terreno di tutti i paesi d'Europa colla parola, cogli eserciti e le società secrete. [pg 38] Tutti i partiti retrivi, devoti al culto delle tradizioni antiche, e interessate a conservare i loro privilegi e abusi, si coalizzarono insieme per restaurare l'antico edifizio, che vedevano sfasciarsi e crollare, e per combattere la Rivoluzione. La lotta perdurò tutta la prima metà del nostro secolo; quando la controrivoluzione pareva ormai prevalere, tutti i popoli d'Europa si levarono, concordi come un solo popolo, nel 1848. L'antico edifizio politico fu crollato dalle fondamenta e, meglio ancora che colla violenza e le rivolte sanguinose, e colla forza, col progresso, l'educazione, per le necessità politiche; e prevalsero le idee nuove. Alle monarchie per diritto divino successero monarchie liberali per diritto dei popoli, agli Stati piccoli, frazionati, le nazionalità costituite, e i monarchi stessi ne divennero il vincolo e la personificazione insieme colle rappresentanze sorte dal seno del popolo e dal suo suffragio: Si procedette a larghe riforme negli ordini politici e civili; ed, o per opera loro, o per virtù di principi provvidi, come di popoli, noi vediamo, in questa seconda metà del secolo, elevarsi una nuova Europa, che si va costituendo e unificandosi. Ma la reazione non si dà per vinta. Essa ebbe e conservò sempre fautori e partigiani potenti ed abili in ogni contrada, e sopratutto nella Francia. Da essa partì la spinta rivoluzionaria, e quindi convenne sopra tutto concentrare contro di lei tutte le forze per incatenarla e comprimerla. Durante tutto il secolo fu una vicenda continuata di rivoluzioni e controrivoluzioni. La controrivoluzione ha elementi ordinati, numerosi e potenti, sparsi nelle diverse classi sociali: clero, militarismo, aristocrazia,
  • 83. plutocrazia, capitalisti. È guidata da mani abili il cui centro fu sempre e tuttora è Roma. Le ramificazioni si stendono in ogni città, in ogni luogo; parocchie, conventi, sacristie e monasteri della Francia, non ristanno dal cospirare nel mistero, prepararsi nel silenzio, per [pg 39] prorompere, quando l'occasione si presenti, a guerra aperta. Tre volte affrontò questa battaglia nella prima metà del secolo, e tre volte fu vinta: col colpo di Stato dei Borboni nel luglio 1830, poscia colla resistenza degli Orléans nel 1848, infine colla catastrofe del 1870. Finchè il popolo francese, stanco degli esperimenti monarchici, proclamò la repubblica. Ed i reazionari continuarono a cospirare sotto la repubblica, si fecero alla loro volta demagoghi, repubblicani, socialisti, profittando della libertà per istrozzare la libertà. Vinta la rivoluzione nel suo focolare, a Parigi, sperano di ottenere facile vittoria sui principi da lei proclamati, in tutta l'Europa, per modo che il centro della rivoluzione possa divenire centro della reazione. La Francia, Parigi si dibattono, da oltre venti anni, entro una rete d'intrighi, di cospirazioni, di tentativi, che invano abortiscono, sono sfatati; si rinnovano senza posa ricorrendo sempre a nuovi intrighi, a mezzi diversi; a mendacie, calunnie, pregiudizi vieti e risuscitati, si afferrano ad ogni mezzo pur di trarre a sè le forze della Francia, rendersene padroni, e dominare. Ci riesciranno? Noi non possiamo, non vogliamo crederlo. La Francia, Parigi, non possono smentire sè stessi, abdicare al mandato della civiltà Europea. La Francia ha subìto un Sedan militare, ma lo seppe riparare in pochi anni e si rialzò nella sua grandezza. Ma non così accadrebbe se andasse incontro ad un Sedan morale, stamperebbe sulla sua fronte un suggello d'obbrobrio, che non si potrebbe più cancellare e che segnerebbe la sua decadenza.
  • 84. XIII. — Il programma politico-morale del Secolo ventesimo. La Francia, secondo la felice espressione di Ernesto Lavisse, fu la prima a fondare il Governo della ragione. [pg 40] I popoli d'Europa concorsero con materiali diversi, ma sopra le stesse basi, ad innalzare l'edifizio delle Società moderne; ora spetta alla Francia ancora, l'audace iniziatrice, l'onore, il dovere di secondare gli sforzi dell'Europa liberale e cooperare seco a condurre l'edifizio all'anelata altezza. La Rivoluzione, elevandosi al disopra degli interessi particolari, delle tradizioni storiche, delle credenze, partendo da principi generali di moralità e giustizia, proclamò il diritto comune per tutti gli uomini. Questi principi allignarono sopra il suolo d'Europa e gettarono larghe radici. Conviene da essi dedurre le conseguenze, tradurli nella pratica, formulare i diritti generali e individuali, che derivano dalla celebre triade. In altri termini, svolgere, ridurre in legge i principi di libertà, di uguaglianza, fraternità o solidarietà, per modo che si possa formulare e sancire una specie di codice del genere umano. Il secolo decimonono è stato essenzialmente politico; ha svolto, applicato abbastanza largamente il principio di libertà, di nazionalità; il secolo ventesimo sarà sopratutto sociale: si apre infatti col nome e la bandiera del Socialismo. Questo è il nome, la tendenza, ma è lontano dall'essere un programma, un sistema: diviene, più che non è. Esso è ancora in formazione. È un concetto, che non ha ancora acquistata intera e chiara la coscienza di sè stesso. Accade quindi del Socialismo, come di tutti gli esseri in formazione, essi hanno dei loro intenti un'intuizione vaga, non si affermano, ma cercano a tentoni fra
  • 85. meandri e sentieri diversi, aperti innanzi a loro, quale di essi potrà condurli a meta sicura. Le teorie più diverse e contraddicenti si agitano, si confondono nel suo seno, e creano le perturbazioni presenti. Ora esso parla di libertà e fantastica il collettivismo, la Statolatria, che condurrebbe al despotismo, a favoritismi, a privilegi e arbitrii più violenti, che non quelli che si vollero [pg 41] distruggere. Ora parla d'ordine sociale, e predica, erige in sistema l'anarchia: ora predica la fratellanza, e bandisce l'odio, l'invidia, la guerra di classe; affetta di essere una alta aspirazione, una speranza, e diviene una minaccia: si presenta alla società turbata, come un'àncora di salvezza, e diviene un pericolo, parla di sicurtà, di pacificazione, e spinge alla guerra e al saccheggio. Nell'individuo, come nella società, egli non vede che gli appetiti animali, gli interessi materiali. L'uomo per lui non avrebbe, che uno scopo sulla terra, il benessere materiale, e godere: ogni grande ideale sparisce. Cancella nell'umanità quanto in sè accoglie di divino. L'uomo, secondo la tradizione biblica, fu bensì tratto dal fango e, secondo la scienza, la quale, con forme e linguaggio diverso, corrisponde al concetto dell'antica tradizione, è derivato dall'animalità per una lenta evoluzione. Però la Bibbia, e la scienza, l'una coll'alito del divino che passò sopra di lui, l'altra colle teorie del progresso, accennano, che all'individuo, come alla società si aprono orizzonti più sublimi e puri, e gli sono assegnati destini più elevati. L'uomo è il Centauro, il quale dalla cintola in giù è animale, dal fianco in su, col collo erto, la fronte spaziosa, le mosse irrequiete, le narici dilatate, sente passare sopra di sè lo spirito dell'universo, e tende all'infinito.
  • 86. Anche il socialismo è, per alcune sue tendenze, tuttora sommerso nell'animalità: lo spirito non è passato ancora sopra di lui. Invece di elevare le plebi, le abbrutisce, invece di educare, vitupera, invece di associare, come significa il suo nome, scinde e dissocia. Nella società si preoccupa anzi tutto dei salari, capitale e lavoro: nell'individuo conosce un organo solo, il ventre. Ora il socialismo deve abbracciare l'individuo, ed i consorzi sociali nelle varietà delle loro attitudini e manifestazioni. Non intendiamo, che si ritorni al dualismo [pg 42] medioevale, che scinde l'individuo in due parti, carne e spirito in continuo contrasto fra loro, e divide la società in due campi del pari ostili, l'uno per signoreggiare e sottomettere l'altro, come eletti e reietti, clero e laico, spirituale e temporale, od il dualismo anche più funesto bandito da alcuni socialisti, i quali scindono la società, in sfruttati e sfruttatori. Il vero socialismo e, speriamo, il socialismo dell'avvenire, ha per uffizio e scopo principale di unire, non dividere, procede ad un lento e continuato miglioramento del proletario e del borghese, individuale e sociale. Non conosce differenza tra l'idea e la realtà, considera l'uomo come un'unità. Esso diverrà una specie di religione. Non la religione che rilega, incatena ed assoggetta individuo e società, e che predica una fede imposta; ma sarà un'associazione libera, una dedizione spontanea, la quale, mercè riforme progressive, stringe le diverse classi sociali in una comunione d'interessi e d'idee. È la religione del giusto, del bello e del vero: fede ad essa non sarà più un misticismo oscuro, ma la scienza ed i suoi trovati, il sentimento e le sue aspirazioni; culto, la moralità e la giustizia; scopo, il miglioramento fisico, morale intellettuale dell'individuo e della specie.
  • 87. Nel passato, la morale religiosa venne riassunta nel precetto: ama il prossimo come te stesso. L'Etica sociale dirà invece: opera per ottenere il miglioramento altrui, e così assicuri il bene proprio. Non vivi solo in te, e per te, ma per la Società. Ciascuno è solidario per tutti: tutti per ciascuno. XIV. — Il Clou morale dell'Esposizione nel 1900. Uno spirito innovatore e luminoso aleggia, sovrasta sopra l'umanità e la guida a meta indeclinabile. Le barriere cadono, e tutto tende a compenetrarsi, a comprendersi, [pg 43] armonizzarsi, conformandosi col gran tutto. La materia segue la legge dello spirito e dell'intelletto, il quale lo domina e guida; le energie materiali l'immedesimano collo spirito. All'unità scientifica dovrà seguire, compenetrandosi assieme, l'unità sociale. Tutto procede verso la unificazione, nel dominio ideale, come negli ordinamenti sociali, preparando e promuovendo pure una certa equivalenza ed unità di condizioni, la quale possa assicurare a tutti, per mezzo del diritto comune, il massimo del benessere compatibile colle condizioni umane. In tal modo, per vie diverse, si va formando la unità morale, economica, giuridica, sorgente inesauribile di verità, di giustizia, di forza e pacificazione. Di questa unificazione negli ordini materiali e nel lavoro, si solleverà in breve, simbolo vivente, la Esposizione di Parigi, nel 1900. Essa deve inaugurare il secolo ventesimo e celebrare il Centenario della grande Rivoluzione. Però sinora la Mostra non
  • 88. accenna a rappresentare se non che il lato industriale, economico, materiale. Per celebrare degnamente l'evento mondiale e storico, che aprì il secolo decimonono, dovrebbe in certo modo completarsi col concetto morale e sociale, il solo veramente fecondo e duraturo. La Esposizione di Chicago offrì ai popoli uno spettacolo veramente meraviglioso dei progressi ottenuti durante questo secolo, nelle industrie, nelle meccaniche, nelle arti, nel dominio dell'uomo sulla materia. Ora di cotesto sfoggio d'industrie, di manufatti, di tesori d'arte e di gemme, che cosa rimane ancora? Il monumento grandioso per scienza architettonica, per arti, lusso, per la mole immane, cadde demolito, distrutto, le merci, le ricchezze andarono disperse. Pure in questo naufragio di tutta la parte materiale, sopranuota tuttavia un'idea, che ne fu il coronamento, la parola vivente: il Congresso delle religioni. [pg 44] Nello stesso modo, la parte che appellerei teatrale della Esposizione francese, è destinata a sparire, come quella americana, se non che la prima intende ora di rappresentare alcunchè di più che non una mostra industriale ed un interesse materiali, questa è simbolo, testimonianza d'un alto concetto politico, sociale e morale. È il centenario della Rivoluzione, che aprì un'êra nuova nella vita dei popoli. Deve quindi, non solo rappresentarla materialmente, sibbene continuarne, completarne le idee, esserne come il coronamento. La Rivoluzione nel suo concetto agitò, mercè i suoi precursori come in seguito nell'apostolato dei suoi allievi, e continuatori, tutti i più grandi problemi che preoccuparono l'umanità. Alcuni di questi problemi, discussi a lungo, negli ordini politici, economici, vanno semplificandosi e sono in via di sciogliersi; per altri
  • 89. abbondano i materiali, ma, timidi, o scettici, pochi osano o curano affrontarli apertamente. Uno dei più poderosi, e che in sè riassume quasi una civiltà, e più secoli, è il problema religioso, il quale è pur sempre, malgrado tutti gli scettici e gl'indifferenti, il nodo del problema sociale. Le religioni, che nel passato avrebbero dovuto rilegare, associare insieme gli uomini, non fecero che dividere; furono un pomo di discordia, anzi che anello d'unione, furono arma di guerre, anzi che parola pacificatrice. Fu questa necessità dei tempi, delle condizioni politiche e sociali, di fantasie e passioni umane. Per lo più, esse furono larve, anzi che idee, simboli che coprivano, dissimulavano il vero; le religioni, anzi che relegare, allentavano e spesso spezzavano i vincoli sociali, tra famiglie e famiglie, popolo e popolo; si creavano Chiese non Templi, sacerdozi, uffizianti per i diversi culti, non un sacerdozio pel divino e per l'umanità. Ora invano tentiamo sottrarci al problema religioso; esso s'impone, si presenta del pari, in nome delle [pg 45] tradizioni, in forza dei bisogni, delle aspirazioni e passioni umane, come della scienza: il Congresso delle religioni fu il coronamento, l'idea, che perdura sopra le rovine della Mostra di Chicago; esso si proponeva di sostituire alle religioni, la ragione, ai culti moltipli contrapporre il culto del vero, del pensiero, della scienza; alle religioni, alle sette, l'aspirazione umana, il consenso religioso, morale di tutti, o quello che, diremo con parola italica, l'intelletto d'amore. Queste idee sono pure in gran parte il postulato, l'applicazione di dottrine e principi proclamati dai sommi precursori della Rivoluzione, non solo in Francia, ma in Inghilterra, in Germania, nella stessa Italia. Queste idee potrebbero presentarsi come il clou intellettuale e sociale della
  • 90. Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world, offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth. That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to self-development guides and children's books. More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading. Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and personal growth every day! ebookbell.com