data transfers, addressing and arithmetic

Assembly Language for x86 Processors
Assembly Language for x86 Processors
7th Edition
7th Edition
Chapter 4: Data Transfers,
Addressing, and Arithmetic
(c) Pearson Education, 2015. All rights reserved. You may modify and copy this slide show for your personal use, or
for use in the classroom, as long as this copyright statement, the author's name, and the title are not changed.
Kip Irvine

Irvine, Kip R. Assembly Language for x86 Processors 7/e, 2015. 2
Chapter Overview
Chapter Overview
• Data Transfer Instructions
• Addition and Subtraction
• Data-Related Operators and Directives
• Indirect Addressing
• JMP and LOOP Instructions
• 64-Bit Programming

Data Transfer Instructions
Data Transfer Instructions
• Operand Types
• Instruction Operand Notation
• Direct Memory Operands
• MOV Instruction
• Zero & Sign Extension
• XCHG Instruction
• Direct-Offset Instructions

Operand Types
Operand Types
• Immediate – a constant integer (8, 16, or 32 bits)
• value is encoded within the instruction
• Register – the name of a register
• register name is converted to a number and encoded
within the instruction
• Memory – reference to a location in memory
• memory address is encoded within the instruction, or a
register holds the address of a memory location

Instruction Operand Notation
Instruction Operand Notation

Direct Memory Operands
Direct Memory Operands
• A direct memory operand is a named reference to
storage in memory
• The named reference (label) is automatically
dereferenced by the assembler
.data
var1 BYTE 10h
.code
mov al,var1 ; AL = 10h
mov al,[var1] ; AL = 10h
alternate format
=> A0 00010400

MOV Instruction
MOV Instruction
.data
count BYTE 100
wVal WORD 2
.code
mov bl,count
mov ax,wVal
mov count,al
mov al,wVal ; error
mov ax,count ; error
mov eax,count ; error
• Move from source to destination. Syntax:
MOV destination,source
• No more than one memory operand permitted
• CS, EIP, and IP cannot be the destination
• No immediate to segment moves

Your turn . . .
Your turn . . .
.data
bVal BYTE 100
bVal2 BYTE ?
wVal WORD 2
dVal DWORD 5
.code
mov ds,45
mov esi,wVal
mov eip,dVal
mov 25,bVal
mov bVal2,bVal
Explain why each of the following MOV statements are invalid:

Zero Extension
Zero Extension
When you copy a smaller value into a larger destination, the
MOVZX instruction fills (extends) the upper half of the destination
with zeros.
.data
val BYTE 10001111b
.code
movzx ax, val
• The destination must be a register.
• The source cannot be immediate.
Can’t use this, why?
movzx ax, 10001111b

Sign Extension
Sign Extension
The MOVSX instruction fills the upper half of the destination
with a copy of the source operand's sign bit.
mov bl,10001111b
movsx ax, bl
• The destination must be a register.
• The source cannot be immediate.
Can’t use this, why?
movsx ax, 10001111b

XCHG Instruction
XCHG Instruction
.data
var1 WORD 1000h
var2 WORD 2000h
.code
xchg ax,bx ; exchange 16-bit regs
xchg ah,al ; exchange 8-bit regs
xchg var1,bx ; exchange mem, reg
xchg eax,ebx ; exchange 32-bit regs
xchg var1,var2 ; error: two memory operands
XCHG exchanges the values of two operands. At least one
operand must be a register. No immediate operands are
permitted.

Direct-Offset Operands
.data
arrayB BYTE 10h,20h,30h,40h
.code
mov al,arrayB+1 ; AL = 20h
mov al,[arrayB+1] ; alternative notation
A constant offset is added to a data label to produce an
effective address (EA). The address is dereferenced to get the
value inside its memory location.
Q: Why doesn't arrayB+1 produce 11h?

Direct-Offset Operands (cont)
(cont)
.data
arrayW WORD 1000h,2000h,3000h
arrayD DWORD 1,2,3,4
.code
mov ax,[arrayW+2] ; AX = 2000h
mov ax,[arrayW+4] ; AX = 3000h
mov eax,[arrayD+4] ; EAX = 00000002h
A constant offset is added to a data label to produce an
effective address (EA). The address is dereferenced to get the
value inside its memory location.
; Will the following statements assemble?
mov ax,[arrayW-2] ; ??
mov eax,[arrayD+16] ; ??
What will happen when they run?

Evaluate this . . .
Evaluate this . . .
• We want to write a program that adds the following three bytes:
.data
myBytes BYTE 80h,66h,0A5h
• What is your evaluation of the following code?
mov al,myBytes
add al,[myBytes+1]
add al,[myBytes+2]
• What is your evaluation of the following code?
mov ax,myBytes
add ax,[myBytes+1]
add ax,[myBytes+2]
• Any other possibilities?

Evaluate this . . .
Evaluate this . . . (cont)
(cont)
.data
myBytes BYTE 80h,66h,0A5h
• How about the following code. Is anything missing?
movzx ax,myBytes
mov bl,[myBytes+1]
add ax,bx
mov bl,[myBytes+2]
add ax,bx ; AX = sum

What's Next
What's Next

Addition and Subtraction
Addition and Subtraction
• INC and DEC Instructions
• ADD and SUB Instructions
• NEG Instruction
• Implementing Arithmetic Expressions
• Flags Affected by Arithmetic
• Zero
• Sign
• Carry
• Overflow

INC and DEC Instructions
INC and DEC Instructions
• Add 1, subtract 1 from destination operand
• operand may be register or memory
• INC destination
• Logic: destination  destination + 1
• DEC destination
• Logic: destination  destination – 1

INC and DEC Examples
INC and DEC Examples
.data
myWord WORD 1000h
myDword DWORD 10000000h
.code
inc myWord ; 1001h
dec myWord ; 1000h
inc myDword ; 10000001h
mov ax,00FFh
inc ax ; AX = 0100h
mov ax,00FFh
inc al ; AX = 0000h
What are CF and ZF?

Your turn...
Your turn...
Show the value of the destination operand after each of the following
instructions executes:
.data
myByte BYTE 0FFh, 0
.code
mov al,myByte ;al=0FFh
mov ah,[myByte+1] ;ah=0
dec ah ;ah=0ffh
inc al ;al=00h
dec ax ;ax=0ff00
-1=FEFF

ADD and SUB Instructions
ADD and SUB Instructions
• ADD destination, source
• Logic: destination  destination + source
• SUB destination, source
• Logic: destination  destination – source
• Same operand rules as for the MOV
instruction

ADD and SUB Examples
ADD and SUB Examples
.data
var1 DWORD 10000h
var2 DWORD 20000h
.code ; ---EAX---
mov eax,var1 ; 00010000h
add eax,var2 ; 00030000h
add eax,0FFFFh ; 0003FFFFh
add eax,1 ; 00040000h
sub eax,1 ; 0004FFFFh

NEG (negate) Instruction
NEG (negate) Instruction
.data
valB BYTE -1
valW WORD +32767
.code
mov al,valB ; AL = -1
neg al ; AL = +1
neg valW ; valW = -32767
Reverses the sign of an operand. Operand can be a register or
memory operand. (Like converting to its Two’s Complement)
Suppose AX contains –32,768 and we apply NEG to it. Will
the result be valid?

NEG Instruction and the Flags
NEG Instruction and the Flags
.data
valB BYTE 1,0
valC SBYTE -128
.code
neg valB ; CF = 1, OF = 0
neg [valB + 1] ; CF = ?, OF = 0
neg valC ; CF = 1, OF = 1
The processor implements NEG using the following internal
operation:
SUB 0,operand
Any nonzero operand causes the Carry flag to be set.

Implementing Arithmetic Expressions
Implementing Arithmetic Expressions
Rval DWORD ?
Xval DWORD 26
Yval DWORD 30
Zval DWORD 40
.code
mov eax,Xval
neg eax ; EAX = -26
mov ebx,Yval
sub ebx,Zval ; EBX = -10
add eax,ebx
mov Rval,eax ; -36
HLL compilers translate mathematical expressions into
assembly language. You can do it also. For example:
Rval = -Xval + (Yval – Zval)

Your turn...
Your turn...
mov ebx,Yval
neg ebx
add ebx,Zval
mov eax,Xval
sub eax,ebx
mov Rval,eax
Translate the following expression into assembly language.
Do not permit Xval, Yval, or Zval to be modified:
Rval = Xval - (-Yval + Zval)
Assume that all values are signed doublewords.

Flags Affected by Arithmetic
Flags Affected by Arithmetic
• The ALU has a number of status flags that reflect the
outcome of arithmetic (and bitwise) operations
• based on the contents of the destination operand
• Essential flags:
• Zero flag – set when destination equals zero
• Sign flag – set when destination is negative
• Carry flag – set when unsigned value is out of range
• Overflow flag – set when signed value is out of range
• The MOV instruction never affects the flags.

Zero Flag (ZF)
Zero Flag (ZF)
mov cx,1
sub cx,1 ; CX = 0, ZF = 1
mov ax,0FFFFh
inc ax ; AX = 0, ZF = 1
inc ax ; AX = 1, ZF = 0
The Zero flag is set when the result of an operation produces
zero in the destination operand.
Remember...
• A flag is set when it equals 1.
• A flag is clear when it equals 0.

Sign Flag (SF)
Sign Flag (SF)
mov cx,0
sub cx,1 ; CX = -1, SF = 1
add cx,2 ; CX = 1, SF = 0
The Sign flag is set when the destination operand is negative.
The flag is clear when the destination is positive.
The sign flag is a copy of the destination's highest bit:
mov al,0
sub al,1 ; AL = 11111111b, SF = 1
add al,2 ; AL = 00000001b, SF = 0

Signed and Unsigned Integers
Signed and Unsigned Integers
A Hardware Viewpoint
• All CPU instructions operate exactly the same on
signed and unsigned integers
• The CPU cannot distinguish between signed and
unsigned integers
• YOU, the programmer, are solely responsible for
using the correct data type with each instruction
Added Slide. Gerald Cahill, Antelope Valley College

Overflow and Carry Flags
Overflow and Carry Flags
• How the ADD instruction affects OF and CF:
• CF = (carry out of the MSB)
• OF = (carry out of the MSB) XOR (carry into the MSB)
• How the SUB instruction affects OF and CF:
• CF = INVERT (carry out of the MSB)
• negate the source and add it to the destination
• OF = (carry out of the MSB) XOR (carry into the MSB)
MSB = Most Significant Bit (high-order bit)
XOR = eXclusive-OR operation
NEG = Negate (same as SUB 0,operand )

Carry Flag (CF)
Carry Flag (CF)
The Carry flag is set when the result of an operation generates an
unsigned value that is out of range (too big or too small for the
destination operand).
mov al,0FFh
add al,1 ; CF = 1, AL = 00
; Try to go below zero:
mov al,0
sub al,1 ; CF = 1, AL = FF
How about this, Why?
mov al,2
sub al,1 ; CF = ?, AL = ?

Your turn . . .
Your turn . . .
mov ax,00FFh
add ax,1 ;
sub ax,1 ;
add al,1 ;
mov bh,6Ch
add bh,95h ;
mov al,2
sub al,3 ;
For each of the following marked entries, show the values of
the destination operand and the Sign, Zero, and Carry flags:

Overflow Flag (OF)
Overflow Flag (OF)
The Overflow flag is set when the signed result of an operation is
invalid or out of range.
; Example 1
mov al,+127
add al,1 ; OF = 1, AL = ??
; Example 2
mov al,7Fh ; OF = 1, AL = 80h
add al,1
The two examples are identical at the binary level because 7Fh
equals +127. To determine the value of the destination operand,
it is often easier to calculate in hexadecimal.

A Rule of Thumb
A Rule of Thumb
• When adding two integers, remember that the
Overflow flag is only set when . . .
• Two positive operands are added and their sum is
negative
• Two negative operands are added and their sum is
positive
What will be the values of the Overflow flag?
mov al,80h
add al,92h ; OF =
mov al,-2
add al,+127 ; OF =
1
0
Q: How about CF? Notice: -2 is 1111 1110
(254)

Your turn . . .
Your turn . . .
mov al,-128
neg al ;
mov ax,8000h
add ax,2 ;
mov ax,0
sub ax,2 ;
mov al,-5
sub al,+125 ;
What will be the values of the given flags after each operation?

Added by Zuoliu Ding 5/e, 2007. 37
Your turn . . .
Your turn . . .
Is there any difference between these?
; 1111 1011
; 0111 1101
; al =7E, OF =1, CF =0
; 1111 1011
; 1000 0011
; bl =7E, OF =1, CF =1
mov al, -5
sub al, 125
mov bl, -5
add bl, -125
How ADD consider 1111 1011 and 1000 0011?
For unsigned,
-5 is 251

What's Next
What's Next

Data-Related Operators and Directives
Data-Related Operators and Directives
• OFFSET Operator
• PTR Operator
• TYPE Operator
• LENGTHOF Operator
• SIZEOF Operator
• LABEL Directive

OFFSET Operator
OFFSET Operator
• OFFSET returns the distance in bytes, of a label from the
beginning of its enclosing segment
• Protected mode: 32 bits
• Real mode: 16 bits
The Protected-mode programs we write use only a single
segment (flat memory model).

OFFSET Examples
OFFSET Examples
.data
bVal BYTE ?
wVal WORD ?
dVal DWORD ?
dVal2 DWORD ?
.code
mov esi,OFFSET bVal ; ESI = 00404000
mov esi,OFFSET wVal ; ESI = 00404001
mov esi,OFFSET dVal ; ESI = 00404003
mov esi,OFFSET dVal2 ; ESI = 00404007
Let's assume that the data segment begins at 00404000h:

Relating to C/C++
Relating to C/C++
// C++ version:
char array[1000];
char * p = array;
The value returned by OFFSET is a pointer. Compare the
following code written for both C++ and assembly language:
; Assembly language:
.data
array BYTE 1000 DUP(?)
.code
mov esi,OFFSET array

Irvine, Kip R. Assembly Language for Intel-Based Computers 5/e, 2007. 43
ALIGN Directive
ALIGN Directive
.data
bVal BYTE 10h ; 0000 0000
ALIGN 2
wVal WORD 20h ; 0000 0002
bVal2 BYTE 30h ; 0000 0004
ALIGN 4
dVal DWORD 50h ; 0000 0008
bVal3 BYTE 60h ; 0000 000C
ALIGN 4
dVal2 DWORD 70h ; 0000 0010
• Aligns a variable on a byte, word, dword, or paragraph
boundary
• Padding to 1, ,2, 4, or 16 bytes in data segments

PTR Operator
PTR Operator
Overrides the default type of a label (variable). Provides the
flexibility to access part of a variable.
Little endian order is used when storing data in memory
12344321h (memory 21 43 34 12)
.data
myDouble DWORD 12345678h
.code
; mov ax,myDouble ; error – why?
mov ax,WORD PTR myDouble ; loads 5678h

Little Endian Order
Little Endian Order
• Little endian order refers to the way Intel stores
integers in memory.
• Multi-byte integers are stored in reverse order, with
the least significant byte stored at the lowest address
• For example, the doubleword 12345678h would be
stored as:
When integers are loaded from
memory into registers, the bytes are
automatically re-reversed into their
correct positions.

PTR Operator Examples
PTR Operator Examples
.data
myDouble DWORD 12345678h
mov al,BYTE PTR myDouble ; AL = 78h
mov al,BYTE PTR [myDouble+1] ; AL = 56h
mov al,BYTE PTR [myDouble+2] ; AL = 34h
mov ax,WORD PTR myDouble ; AX = 5678h
mov ax,WORD PTR [myDouble+2] ; AX = 1234h

PTR Operator
PTR Operator (cont)
(cont)
.data
myBytes BYTE 12h,34h,56h,78h
.code
mov ax,WORD PTR [myBytes] ; AX = 3412h
mov ax,WORD PTR [myBytes+2] ; AX = 7856h
mov eax,DWORD PTR myBytes ; EAX = 78563412h
PTR can also be used to combine elements of a smaller data
type and move them into a larger operand. The CPU will
automatically reverse the bytes.

Your turn . . .
Your turn . . .
.data
varB BYTE 65h,31h,02h,05h
varW WORD 6543h,1202h
varD DWORD 12345678h
.code
mov ax,WORD PTR [varB+2] ;
mov bl,BYTE PTR varD ;
mov bl,BYTE PTR [varW+2] ;
mov ax,WORD PTR [varD+2] ;
mov eax,DWORD PTR varW ;
Write down the value of each destination operand:
mov ax, word ptr varD+1 ;

TYPE Operator
TYPE Operator
The TYPE operator returns the size, in bytes, of a single
element of a data declaration.
.data
var1 BYTE ?
var2 WORD ?
var3 DWORD ?
var4 QWORD ?
.code
mov eax,TYPE var1 ; 1

LENGTHOF Operator
LENGTHOF Operator
.data LENGTHOF
byte1 BYTE 10,20,30 ; 3
array1 WORD 30 DUP(?),0,0 ; 32
array2 WORD 5 DUP(3 DUP(?)) ; 15
array3 DWORD 1,2,3,4 ; 4
digitStr BYTE "12345678",0 ; 9
.code
mov ecx,LENGTHOF array1 ; 32
The LENGTHOF operator counts the number of
elements in a single data declaration.

SIZEOF Operator
SIZEOF Operator
.data SIZEOF
byte1 BYTE 10,20,30 ; 3
array1 WORD 30 DUP(?),0,0 ; 64
array2 WORD 5 DUP(3 DUP(?)) ; 30
array3 DWORD 1,2,3,4 ; 16
digitStr BYTE "12345678",0 ; 9
.code
mov ecx,SIZEOF array1 ; 64
The SIZEOF operator returns a value that is equivalent to
multiplying LENGTHOF by TYPE.

Spanning Multiple Lines
Spanning Multiple Lines (1 of 2)
(1 of 2)
.data
array WORD 10,20,
30,40,
50,60
.code
mov eax,LENGTHOF array ; 6
mov ebx,SIZEOF array ; 12
A data declaration spans multiple lines if each line (except the
last) ends with a comma. The LENGTHOF and SIZEOF
operators include all lines belonging to the declaration:

Spanning Multiple Lines
Spanning Multiple Lines (2 of 2)
(2 of 2)
.data
array WORD 10,20
WORD 30,40
WORD 50,60
.code
mov eax,LENGTHOF array ; 2
mov ebx,SIZEOF array ; 4
In the following example, array identifies only the first WORD
declaration. Compare the values returned by LENGTHOF
and SIZEOF here to those in the previous slide:

LABEL Directive
LABEL Directive
• Assigns an alternate label name and type to an
existing storage location
• LABEL does not allocate any storage of its own
• Removes the need for the PTR operator
.data
dwList LABEL DWORD
wordList LABEL WORD
intList BYTE 00h,10h,00h,20h
.code
mov eax,dwList ; 20001000h
mov cx,wordList ; 1000h
mov dl,intList ; 00h

Irvine, Kip R. Assembly Language for Intel-Based Computers 5/e, 2007. 55
Your turn . . .
Your turn . . .
.data
v16 label word
v32 DWORD 12345678h
.code
mov ax, v16 ;
mov dx, v16 +2 ;
.data
val label dword
v1 WORD 5678h
v2 WORD 1234h
.code
mov eax, val ;

What's Next
What's Next

Indirect Addressing
Indirect Addressing
• Indirect Operands
• Array Sum Example
• Indexed Operands
• Pointers

Indirect Operands
Indirect Operands (1 of 2)
(1 of 2)
.data
val1 BYTE 10h,20h,30h
.code
mov esi,OFFSET val1
mov al,[esi] ; dereference ESI (AL = 10h)
inc esi
mov al,[esi] ; AL = 20h
inc esi
mov al,[esi] ; AL = 30h
An indirect operand holds the address of a variable, usually an
array or string. It can be dereferenced (just like a pointer).

Indirect Operands
Indirect Operands (2 of 2)
(2 of 2)
.data
myCount WORD 0
.code
mov esi,OFFSET myCount
inc [esi] ; error: ambiguous
inc WORD PTR [esi] ; ok
Use PTR to clarify the size attribute of a memory operand.
Should PTR be used here?
add [esi],20
yes, because [esi] could
point to a byte, word, or
doubleword

Array Sum Example
Array Sum Example
.data
.code
mov esi,OFFSET arrayW
mov ax,[esi]
add esi,2 ; or: add esi,TYPE arrayW
add ax,[esi]
add esi,2
add ax,[esi] ; AX = sum of the array
Indirect operands are ideal for traversing an array. Note that the
register in brackets must be incremented by a value that
matches the array type.
ToDo: Modify this example for an array of doublewords.

Indexed Operands
Indexed Operands
.data
.code
mov esi,0
mov ax,[arrayW + esi] ; AX = 1000h
mov ax,arrayW[esi] ; alternate format
add esi,2
add ax,[arrayW + esi]
etc.
An indexed operand adds a constant to a register to generate
an effective address. There are two notational forms:
[label + reg] label[reg]
ToDo: Modify this example for an array of doublewords.

Pointers
Pointers
.data
ptrW DWORD arrayW
.code
mov esi,ptrW
mov ax,[esi] ; AX = 1000h
You can declare a pointer variable that contains the offset of
another variable.
Alternate format:
ptrW DWORD OFFSET arrayW

What's Next
What's Next

JMP and LOOP Instructions
JMP and LOOP Instructions
• JMP Instruction
• LOOP Instruction
• LOOP Example
• Summing an Integer Array
• Copying a String

JMP Instruction
JMP Instruction
top:
.
.
jmp top
• JMP is an unconditional jump to a label that is usually within
the same procedure.
• Syntax: JMP target
• Logic: EIP  target
• Example:

LOOP Instruction
LOOP Instruction
• The LOOP instruction creates a counting loop
• Syntax: LOOP target
• Logic:
• ECX  ECX – 1
• if ECX != 0, jump to target
• Implementation:
• The assembler calculates the distance, in bytes, between
the offset of the following instruction and the offset of the
target label. It is called the relative offset.
• The relative offset is added to EIP.

Your turn . . .
Your turn . . .
What will be the final value of AX?
mov ax,6
mov ecx,4
L1:
inc ax
loop L1
How many times will the loop
execute?
mov ecx,0
X2:
inc ax
loop X2
10
4,294,967,296

Nested Loop
Nested Loop
If you need to code a loop within a loop, you must save the
outer loop counter's ECX value. In the following example, the
outer loop executes 100 times, and the inner loop 20 times.
.data
count DWORD ?
.code
mov ecx,100 ; set outer loop count
L1:
mov count,ecx ; save outer loop count
mov ecx,20 ; set inner loop count
L2: .
.
loop L2 ; repeat the inner loop
mov ecx,count ; restore outer loop count
loop L1 ; repeat the outer loop

Summing an Integer Array
Summing an Integer Array
.data
intarray WORD 100h,200h,300h,400h
.code
mov edi,OFFSET intarray ; address of intarray
mov ecx,LENGTHOF intarray ; loop counter
mov ax,0 ; zero the accumulator
L1:
add ax,[edi] ; add an integer
add edi,TYPE intarray ; point to next integer
loop L1 ; repeat until ECX = 0
The following code calculates the sum of an array of 16-bit
integers.

Your turn . . .
Your turn . . .
What changes would you make to the
program on the previous slide if you were
summing a doubleword array?

Copying a String
Copying a String
.data
source BYTE "This is the source string",0
target BYTE SIZEOF source DUP(0)
.code
mov esi,0 ; index register
mov ecx,SIZEOF source ; loop counter
L1:
mov al,source[esi] ; get char from source
mov target[esi],al ; store it in the target
inc esi ; move to next character
loop L1 ; repeat for entire string
good use of
SIZEOF
The following code copies a string from source to target:

Your turn . . .
Your turn . . .
Rewrite the program shown in the
previous slide, using indirect addressing
rather than indexed addressing.

data transfers, addressing and arithmetic

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