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Chapter 8. Theory, Research, & Evidence-Based Practice
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Which commonly accepted practice came out of the Framingham study?
1) Mammography in breast cancer screening
2) Colonoscopy in colon cancer screening
3) Pap testing in cervical cancer screening
4) Digital rectal examination in prostate cancer screening
ANS: 1
Chapter number and title: 8, Theory, Research, & Evidence-Based Practice
Chapter learning objective: List three ways in which nursing theories are used.
Chapter page reference: p. 125
Heading: The Importance of Nursing Theory and Research
Integrated Processes: Nursing Process
Client Need: Health Promotion and Maintenance
Cognitive level: Knowledge [Remembering]
Concept: Evidence-Based Practice
Difficulty: Easy
Feedback
1 One commonly accepted practice that came out of the Framingham study is the
link between mammography and breast cancer. Before the Framingham study,
mammography was considered an unreliable tool in breast cancer screening.
2 The Framingham study did not influence colon cancer screening.
3 The Framingham study did not influence cervical cancer screening.
4 The Framingham study did not influence prostate cancer screening.
PTS: 1 CON: Evidence-Based Practice
2. Which theorist developed the nursing theory known as the science of human caring?
1) Florence Nightingale
2) Patricia Benner
3) Jean Watson
4) Nola Pender
ANS: 3
Chapter learning objective: Name two prominent nurses who proposed theories of caring.
Heading: The Importance of Nursing Theory and Research
Integrated Processes: Caring
Client Need: Psychosocial Integrity
Difficulty: Easy
Feedback
1 Florence Nightingale developed the theory that stated, “A clean environment
would improve the health of patients.” By changing the care environment, she

dramatically reduced the death rate of soldiers.
2 Dr. Patricia Benner’s theory described the progression of a beginning nurse who
learns to be an expert nurse.
3 Dr. Jean Watson developed the nursing theory known as the science of human
caring. Her theory describes caring from a nursing perspective.
4 Nola Pender’s theory on health promotion became the basis for most
health-promotion teaching done by nurses.
3. After helping a client with pain, the nurse forms a mental image of pain based on personal
experience. What best describes the nurse’s mental image?
1) Phenomenon
2) Concept
3) Assumption
4) Definition
ANS: 2
Chapter learning objective: Explain how the four building blocks (components) are used in
developing a theory.
Heading: What Are the Components of a Theory?
Client Need: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care
Cognitive level: Application [Applying]
Difficulty: Moderate
Feedback
1 Phenomena are the subject matter of a discipline. They mark the boundaries of a
discipline.
2 A concept is a mental image of a phenomenon, an aspect of reality that you can
observe and experience. In this scenario, the nurse forms a mental image of pain
because of past experiences with pain.
3 An assumption is an idea that is taken for granted. In a theory, the assumption is
the idea that the researcher presumes to be true and does not intend to test with
research.
4 A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term or concept that sets forth the
concept’s characteristics or indicators.
4. What was Hildegard Peplau’s major contribution to nursing?
1) Transcultural nursing
2) Health promotion
3) Nurse–patient relationship
4) Holistic comfort
ANS: 3

Chapter learning objective: Define nursing theory.
Heading: How Do Nurses Use Theories?
Concept: Communication
Difficulty: Easy
Feedback
1 Peplau did not develop the theory of transcultural nursing.
2 Peplau did not develop a theory about health promotion.
3 Hildegard Peplau was a psychiatric nurse who showed that developing a
relationship with psychiatric patients made their treatment more effective. From
her work, she developed the theory of interpersonal relations, which focuses on
the nurse–patient relationship. This theory is in use every day in nursing.
4 Peplau did not develop a theory about holistic comfort.
PTS: 1 CON: Communication
5. The nurse and other hospital personnel strive to keep the patient care area clean. This most
directly illustrates the ideas of which nursing theorist?
1) Virginia Henderson
2) Imogene Rigdon
3) Katherine Kolcaba
4) Florence Nightingale
ANS: 4
Heading: Who Are Some Important Nurse Theorists?
Feedback
1 Virginia Henderson identified 14 basic needs that are addressed by nursing care.
2 Imogene Rigdon developed a theory about bereavement of older women after
noticing that older women handle grief in a different manner than do men and
younger women.
3 Katherine Kolcaba developed a theory of holistic comfort in nursing.
4 Florence Nightingale was instrumental in identifying the importance of a clean
patient care environment. During the Crimean War, Nightingale dramatically
reduced the death rate of soldiers by changing the healthcare environment.

6. A client who emigrated from India asks whether garlic can be administered through a
nasogastric tube that is placed to decompress the stomach. The nurse agrees to ask the
healthcare provider if this can be done. Whose nursing theory is the nurse implementing?
1) Betty Neuman
2) Dorothea Orem
3) Callista Roy
4) Madeline Leininger
ANS: 4
Heading: Who Are Some Important Nurse Theorists?
Concept: Culture
Feedback
1 Neuman did not develop a theory about culture.
2 Orem’s theory does not focus on culture.
3 Roy’s theory does not focus on culture.
4 The nurse is utilizing the theory developed by Madeline Leininger. Leininger’s
theory focuses on the values of cultural diversity. According to her theory, the
nurse must make cultural accommodations for the health benefit of the patient.
PTS: 1 CON: Culture
7. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which patient need should the nurse address first?
1) Protecting the patient against falls
2) Protecting the patient from an abusive spouse
3) Promoting rest in the critically ill patient
4) Promoting self-esteem after a body image change
ANS: 3
Chapter learning objective: Describe three non-nursing theories and their contributions to
nursing.
Heading: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Basic Human Needs
Feedback
1 Needs for safety are addressed after physiological needs are met.
2 Needs for safety are addressed after physiological needs are met.
3 According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, basic physiological needs should be
met first. They include the need for rest, food, air, water, temperature regulation,

elimination, sex, and physical activity. Therefore, the nurse should address the
critically ill patient’s need for rest first.
4 Self-esteem needs are addressed after physiological, safety, and love/belonging
needs are met.
8. A nurse researcher is designing a research project. After identifying and stating the problem,
the nurse researcher clarifies the purpose of the study. Which step in the research process
should be completed next?
1) Perform a literature review.
2) Develop a conceptual framework.
3) Formulate the hypothesis.
4) Define the study variables.
ANS: 1
Chapter learning objective: List three components of the research process, and explain their
importance.
Heading: Identify a Clinical Nursing Problem
Cognitive level: Comprehension [Understanding]
Feedback
1 After identifying and stating the problem, the nurse researcher should clarify the
purpose of the study. Next, the researcher should perform a literature search to
find out what is already known about the problem
2 After the literature review is completed, the researcher should choose a
conceptual framework.
3 After a conceptual framework is selected, the researcher should formulate the
hypothesis.
4 After the hypothesis is formulated, the researcher should define the study
variables.
9. The mother of a child participating in a research study that uses high-dose steroids wishes to
withdraw her child from the study. Despite reassurance that adverse reactions to steroids in
children are uncommon, the mother still wishes to withdraw. By withdrawing from the study,
the mother is exercising which right?
1) Not to be harmed
2) To self-determination
3) To full disclosure
4) Of confidentiality
ANS: 2

Chapter learning objective: Name three priorities in the process of protecting research
participants.
Heading: Informed Consent
Feedback
1 The right to not be harmed outlines the safety protocols of the study.
2 The mother is exercising the right to self-determination. This refers to the right
of the participant (or parent in the case of a minor) to withdraw from a research
study at any time and for any reason.
3 All research participants also have the right to full disclosure. This guarantees
the participants answers to questions, such as the purpose of the research study,
the risks and benefits, and what happens if the patient feels worse as a result of
the study.
4 Participants have the right to confidentiality. Typically that right is preserved by
giving participants an identification code rather than associating them by name.
10. After suffering an acute myocardial infarction, a patient attends cardiac rehabilitation. This
will help to gradually build his exercise tolerance. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
cardiac rehabilitation most directly addresses which need?
1) Safety and security
2) Physiological
3) Self-actualization
4) Self-esteem
ANS: 2
nursing.
Client Need: Physiological Integrity: Reduction of Risk Potential
Feedback
1 Cardiac rehabilitation does not address safety and security needs.
2 Cardiac rehabilitation most directly addresses the patient’s physiological need
for physical activity as well as for health and healing.
3 Cardiac rehabilitation does not address the client’s need for self-actualization.
4 Cardiac rehabilitation does not address the client’s need for self-esteem.

11. In his later work, Maslow identified growth needs that must be met before reaching
self-actualization. What do these needs include?
1) Cognitive and aesthetic needs
2) Love and belonging needs
3) Safety and security needs
4) Physiological and self-esteem needs
ANS: 1
nursing.
Difficulty: Easy
Feedback
1 In his later work, Maslow identified two growth needs that must be met before
reaching self-actualization. They include cognitive (to know, understand, and
explore) and aesthetic (for symmetry, order, and beauty) needs.
2 The needs Maslow identified in his earlier work included love and belonging.
3 The needs Maslow identified in his earlier work included safety and security.
4 The needs Maslow identified in his earlier work included physiological and
self-esteem needs.
12. The PICO question reads, “Is TENS effective in the management of chronic low-back pain in
adults?” Which part of this question comes from the “I” in PICO?
1) Adults
2) Management
3) Pain
4) TENS
ANS: 4
Chapter learning objective: Use the PICOT method to formulate a question for guiding a
literature search.
Heading: Formulate a Searchable Question
Difficulty: Difficult

Feedback
1 “Adults” comes from patient (P).
2 “Management” comes from the outcome (O).
3 There is no comparison intervention (C) in this PICO question.
4 TENS is the intervention (I) in the PICO system.
13. While reading a journal article, the nurse asks herself these questions: “What is this about
overall? Is it true in whole or in part? Does it matter to my practice?” What is this nurse
doing?
1) Reading the article analytically
2) Performing a literature review
3) Formulating a searchable question
4) Determining the soundness of the article
ANS: 1
Chapter learning objective: Discuss the process of analytic reading, and explain its
significance to the appraisal of research.
Heading: Analytic Reading
Feedback
1 Reading an article analytically involves questioning the article to be sure you
understand it and to determine whether it is applicable to your practice. Such
reading asks these questions: “What is this about as a whole? Is it true in whole
or in part? Does it matter to my practice?”
2 A literature review is performed by searching indexes and databases and reading
more than one article.
3 Formulating a searchable question involves creating a PICO-type statement to
guide a search of the literature.
4 The nurse would determine whether the article is a research report by looking
for the individual parts of the article to see whether they were present in the
form of research.
14. The nurse reviews Patricia Benner’s primacy of caring model for a staff presentation. Which
statement should the nurse use to explain this nursing theory?
1) Caring, in nursing, focuses on cultural competence.
2) Nursing theories describe what is and what is not nursing.
3) Caring is specific and relational for each nurse–client encounter.
4) Nursing assists a person to gain independence as quickly as possible.
ANS: 3

Heading: Patricia Benner
Integrated Processes: Teaching and Learning
Feedback
1 Leininger’s theory focuses on caring as cultural competence (using knowledge
of cultures and of nursing to provide culturally congruent and responsible care).
2 Florence Nightingale stated that nursing theories describe and explain what is
and what is not nursing.
3 Benner’s theory stresses that each person is unique, so that caring is always
specific and relational for each nurse–person encounter.
4 Henderson’s definition of nursing states that “the unique function of the nurse is
to assist the individual, sick or well, in the performance of those activities
contributing to health or its recovery (or to a peaceful death) that he would
perform unaided if he had the necessary strength, will or knowledge. And do
this in such a way as to help him gain independence as rapidly as possible.”
15. The nurse locates a research study that addresses a particular client care problem. What should
the nurse do first before implementing the suggestions in the article?
1) Apply nursing expertise.
2) Ask the manager for permission.
3) Discuss findings with the healthcare provider.
4) Locate an organizational policy to support the finding.
ANS: 1
Chapter learning objective: Discuss the significance of evidence-based nursing practice.
Heading: Integrate the Research Into Your Practice
Feedback
1 True evidence-based practice requires that after discovering and critiquing the
best available evidence, nursing expertise must be applied to see how the
recommended interventions fit into the practice setting and whether they are
compatible with patient preferences.
2 Discussing the findings with the manager may need to be done at some point;
however, this is not the first action that the nurse should take.
3 Discussing the findings with the healthcare provider may need to be done at

some point; however, this is not the first action that the nurse should take.
4 It is unlikely that the organization has a policy that supports the findings of a
particular study.
16. At the conclusion of a research study, the nurse analyzes the data. What action should the
nurse take next?
1) Use the findings
2) Select the problem
3) Define the problem
4) Select a research design
ANS: 1
Chapter learning objective: List three components of the research process, and explain their
importance.
Heading: What Are the Phases of the Research Process?
Feedback
1 After analyzing the data, the findings should be used.
2 Selecting the problem is the first step of the research process.
3 Defining the problem is a part of the first step of the research process.
4 Selecting a research design is the second step of the research process.
17. Before conducting research on a group of clients, the nurse makes an appointment with the
Institutional Review Board (IRB). Why did the nurse perform this action?
1) Ensure that the research is of value
2) Review the method to ensure confidentiality
3) Validate whom the subjects should contact with questions
4) Approve the statement that subjects can stop participating at any time
ANS: 1
Chapter learning objective: Name three priorities in the process of protecting research
participants.
Heading: What Are the Rights of Research Participants?
Cognitive level: Analysis [Analyzing]

Feedback
1 One main responsibility of the IRB is to ensure that the research is of value.
2 Confidentiality is an aspect of informed consent.
3 Full disclosure is an aspect of informed consent.
4 Self-determination is an aspect of informed consent.
18. The nurse wonders whether a dry dressing would be more beneficial for a particular type of
wound instead of using the wet-to-damp approach. Which part of the PICOT process is the
nurse defining?
1) Time
2) Outcome
3) Comparison
4) Intervention
ANS: 3
Chapter learning objective: Use the PICOT method to formulate a question for guiding a
literature search.
Heading: Formulate a Searchable Question
Feedback
1 Time determines how often, or when, the outcome will be measured.
2 Outcome is the effect the intervention will ultimately have.
3 Comparison asks what other interventions are being considered or used.
4 Intervention focuses on what might help the problem improve.
19. The nurse is reading a research article. In which section will the nurse locate information that
explains the meaning of the study?
1) Abstract
2) Purpose
3) Conclusion
4) Research design
ANS: 3
Chapter learning objective: Discuss the process of analytic reading, and explain its
significance to the appraisal of research
Heading: Research Appraisal

Feedback
1 The abstract is a brief (perhaps 500 words) summary of the study. It should be
interesting and usually describes at least the purpose, methods, sample, and
findings of the study.
2 The purpose should provide the reasons for doing the study.
3 The discussion of findings and the conclusion are the sections of a research
report that include the “what it means” section.
4 The research design indicates the plan for collecting data.
MULTIPLE RESPONSE
20. The nurse prepares an in-service session on nursing theory prior to a study being conducted on
the care area. Which phrase should the nurse use to explain nursing theory? Select all that
apply.
1) Is a statement of a fact
2) Is based on observations of facts
3) Helps to find meaning in experiences
4) Serves to organize thinking around an idea
5) Is an organized set of related concepts and ideas
ANS: 2, 3, 4, 5
Chapter learning objective: Define nursing theory.
Heading: Nursing Theories
Integrated Processes: Teaching and Learning
Feedback
1. The theory itself is not a fact.
2. A theory is based on observations of facts.
3. A theory helps to find meaning in experiences.
4. A theory helps to organize thinking around an idea.
5. A theory is an organized set of related ideas and concepts.
21. While reviewing a study in a nursing journal, the nurse wants to identify the theory used.
Which elements of a theory should the nurse identify in the document? Select all that apply.
1) Paradigm

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different content

Fig. 60.—Ross’s Rigid Pattern “Eclipse”
Microscope.
inclination. The body-tube carries eye-pieces, numbered, of the
Continental size and optical tube-length (160 mm.), for which the
object glasses are adjusted, and a draw-tube extending to eight
inches.
The fine adjustment is
independent of set screws, and
not subject to derangement. It
is extremely sensitive and direct
in action, and from its
construction is equal in
perfection of working to the
best that can be made. Its
fitting, by a new contrivance, is
completely covered at all
points, being thus preserved
from disturbance or injury by
dust.
The Eclipse is furnished with
two eye-pieces, 1′′ and ¼′′
object glasses of highest
excellence and large angular
aperture, both adjusted to a
double nose-piece, so that they
focus in the same plane; and a
swinging mirror and stage iris
diaphragm.
In “Wenham’s Radial”
Microscope the chief aim has been directed towards providing a very
considerable range of effects, both in altitude and azimuth. The
leading principle followed throughout in the construction of this form
of stand is that of facilitating the work of the microscopist and of
obtaining the maximum range of oblique illumination in all
directions. This is fairly well attained by causing all the movements

Fig. 61.—Ross’s Wenham Radial Microscope.
of inclination and rotation to radiate from the object as a common
centre. Thus it has been found possible to combine seven radial
motions, so that when the instrument is inclined backwards, as in
Fig. 61, or placed in the horizontal, as in Fig. 62 or rotated from in
the brass plate, a pencil of light from a fixed source shall always
reach the object and pass to the objective. The stage is made to
rotate completely, and its rectangular motions are effected by milled
heads acting entirely within the circumference. The sub-stage is
mounted on the Zentmayer system, with two centring screws, by
means of which the optic axis is secured. It is also provided with
rectangular and rotating motions. The coarse adjustment is that of
the Ross-Jackson form—a spiral pinion and diagonal rackwork, while
the fine is on an entirely new principle designed by Dr. H. Schrœder.
The “Ross-Zentmayer
Microscope” is a thoroughly
substantial and practical
instrument, combining
elegance of appearance with
strength and firmness.
It is a true tripod model,
consisting of a triangular base
with two pillars rising from a
cross-piece, which carries the
trunnions. The slow movement
is obtained by a second slide
close behind the first; but to
avoid the friction of rubbing
surfaces, hardened steel rollers
are inserted between them, which give a frictionless fine motion,
amenable to the slightest touch of the milled-head screw situated
conveniently at the back of the limb, through which a steel lever
passes which actuates the slow motion slide. The body of the
instrument is therefore not touched during the fine focussing, so
that all lateral movement is avoided. The mechanical stage rotates

Fig. 62.—The Ross-Wenham Radial
Microscope.
axially, and the outer edge of
the lower plate is divided into
degrees, in order to register
the angles; a simple mode of
adjustment is provided for
setting the centre of rotation
exactly coincident with the
focal point of the objective.
As the plates of the stage
have no screw or rackwork
between them (these are
placed externally), they are
brought close together, thus
affording the advantage of a thin substantial stage, and ensuring
rigidity where most required; phosphor-bronze being used in its
construction. The stage is attached to the limb by a conical stem,
with a screw and clamp nut at the back, so that it can be easily
removed for the substitution of a simple plate or other stage; by
turning the stem in the socket the stage may be tilted sideways at
any angle required. A feature in the Ross-Zentmayer stand is the
swinging sub-stage and bar carrying the mirror, having its axis of
rotation situated from an axial point in the plane of the object, which
consequently receives the light without requiring alteration of focus
in any position of the bar; by this means facilities are afforded for
the resolution of objects requiring oblique light and for the
development of their structure. Rays are thus obtained from any
angle and indicated by the graduated circle round the top of the
swing-bar, and many troublesome and expensive pieces of sub-stage
apparatus dispensed with. The value of this arrangement was long
ago recognised in Grubb’s “Sector Stand,” the movement of which
was obtained in a far less efficient manner.

Fig. 63.—The Improved Ross-Zentmayer Model.
The base or foot of the Ross-Zentmayer instrument is made in one
piece. Preference must be given to the double pillar support, as this
is firmer, and allows the sub-stage to swing free while the
microscope is in a vertical position, as in working with fluid
preparations. The sub-stage is provided with screws for centring,
and, when determined, secured by a clamping screw.
The sub-stage, with its apparatus in place, can be instantly removed,
by being drawn out sideways, so as to use the mirror alone, which is
a great convenience.

The mechanical movements of this instrument are perfect, and well
adapted to their purpose.
Messrs. Ross have other typical forms of microscopes. Their “New
Industrial” Microscope, for the use of farmers, horticulturists, textile
and other trades, for the examination of produce and raw materials,
is a surprisingly cheap one, and deserving of commendation. The
great utility of microscopical research to purposes of advanced
agriculture is fully recognised, and a less costly instrument than that
usually supplied for more complex investigations was much needed.
It is provided with a broad square stage for the purpose of receiving
a glass dish to contain liquids or manifold objects, and which may be
moved on the stage to bring the various particles under observation.
A fitting beneath the stage carries a plate with diaphragm apertures
for modifying the light, and as seeds, textile fibres, and other
opaque objects form a large portion of those to be examined, this
sub-stage plate has a space between the perforations which, when
brought into position, provides a dark ground by preventing the
passage of light from underneath. A condensing lens is, however,
provided for the better lighting of opaque objects. Here we have a
microscope which combines efficiency with stability, while its very
simplification allows of a really good and effective instrument for the
small sum of £3 3s.

Fig. 64.—Ross’s “New Industrial” Microscope.
Messrs. Beck’s Microscopes.
Messrs. Beck have adopted what may be termed a rival system of
fine adjustment in their modern microscopes. The short lever and
screw applied externally to the body tube is peculiar, I may say, to
the Ross-Jackson system, and was originally devised to allow of the
body tube being supported somewhat more firmly on the limb. This
change had its merits fully realised in the early microscopes of Smith
and Beck. To their successors, R. & J. Beck, the microscope owes
much, and very many important improvements, while all their

instruments and accessories are excellent examples of good
workmanship and finish. In their Pathological Microscope we have a
movement originally found in Tolles’ microscopes: a vertical disc, by
which the centre can be raised or depressed to correspond with the
thickness of the slide. The stage can also be brought into an
inverted position by rack and pinion. Their fine adjustment has been
greatly improved, as we shall presently see, whereby it has been
made more sensitive and delicate of adjustment. The general
construction of their microscopes as a rule possess the following
advantages: the stands are strong, firm, and yet not too light or too
heavy, the instruments cannot alter from the position in which they
are placed, as, unfortunately, will occasionally happen when joints
work loose; in every position the heavier part of the stand maintains
the centre of gravity.
Beck’s Pathological Microscope (Fig. 65) is a nearly perfect
instrument, furnished with a firm triangular foot, which ensures
great steadiness in any position. It has a well adapted joint for
placing the instrument at any angle of inclination; coarse adjustment
by spiral rack and pinion; fine adjustment by delicate lever and
micrometer screw motion; rack and pinion focussing and screw
centring sub-stage, made to carry all condensers and other sub-
stage apparatus; mechanical stage with horizontal and vertical
traversing motions. The stage is attached to the instrument by two
screws and can therefore be removed at pleasure, leaving a large
square flat glass stage for the culture-plate. It is likewise provided
with finder divisions, and as it always fits on to the same place, any
particular portion of the object can be recorded and found at any
moment. The triple nose-piece is a convenient addition, and a very
acceptable one to the student while diligently engaged in histological
research.

Fig. 65.—Beck’s Pathological Microscope, with square and
removable stage.

Fig. 66.—Beck’s Large “Continental Model” Microscope.
Beck’s Large “Continental Model” Microscope is of superior finish. It
is provided with a substantial horse-shoe foot, which gives support
to the strong, well-balanced body, jointed for giving the microscope
any angle of inclination. The body is provided with a draw-tube
which can be racked down to the Continental measurement. It has a
spiral rack and pinion coarse adjustment, and a fine adjustment of
the most perfect workmanship, which will be described in detail
presently. It has a large square stage with vulcanite top plate to
receive culture preparations. The sub-stage is of the most approved
form for centring, and carries an achromatic or Abbe condenser, iris
diaphragm, &c. The double mirror can be swung out of place for

Fig. 67.—Beck’s “New Fine Adjustment.”
direct illumination and micro-photography. Altogether, this
instrument is in every way fitted for critical or class-room work.
To return to the fine adjustment of
this, as of other forms of Messrs.
Beck’s microscopes, the applied
mechanism of which is believed to
be one of the most sensitive and
delicate character yet contrived. It
is constructed as shown in the
accompanying figure. The body of
the instrument is supported upon
the barrel D D; this barrel is
accurately and smoothly fitted to
the triangular core E E. At the top
of barrel D D is screwed the cap
G, to which is attached the rod C;
this rod passes through the centre
of the core E E and connects with
the lever arm A at B. The action of
the spring J, which is wrapped
spirally around the rod C, raises
the body of the microscope and
holds the lever arm A tightly
against the screw arm F. The
slightest motion, therefore, of the
screw F is communicated through
the lever A and the rod C to the body of the microscope.
The great delicacy of this arrangement will be appreciated when it is
noticed that the distance from I H is double the distance of I B,
therefore any motion at B is only half that at H. This adjustment is
one of the most delicate made for use with high powers.

Fig. 68.—Beck’s National Binocular Microscope.
In the construction of Beck’s Binocular National Microscope, the body
is held in a sliding fitting in the limb, and is moved up or down by
means of a rack and pinion motion. This constitutes the coarse
focussing adjustment. The fine adjustment is effected by the milled
head, which acts upon the body by means of a lever inside the limb.
The upper circular surface of the stage is made of glass, and carries
the object holder, which is provided with a ledge and spring to hold
the object by means of the pressure of an ivory-tipped screw, so
that it can be moved about readily and smoothly. The pressure of
the screw is adjusted by the milled head, which permits of more or
less pressure being made upon the edge of the object.

Fig. 69.—Beck’s Star Microscope.
When the stage is required for other purposes the object holder can
be unscrewed and removed. Beneath the stage there is a cylindrical
fitting for the reception of a diaphragm, a polariser, or other
apparatus. The mirror, besides swinging in a rotatory semi-circle, is
made to slide up or down the stem. The microscope is supported by
a firm pillar on a tripod base, and the body can be inclined at any
angle convenient for working. A sub-stage can be added at any time
for the reception of an achromatic condenser fitted with concentric
screws—a necessity for more delicate microscopical research work.
Beck’s Star Microscope is in every sense a students’ or class-room
instrument. It is firm and well made, with joint for inclination, large

square stage, sliding coarse adjustment and fine adjustment by
micrometer screw, draw-tube, iris diaphragm, double mirror on
swinging crank arm, A or B eye-piece, a one-inch and quarter-inch
objective, the magnifying power of which ranges from 38·5 to 183.
Fig. 70.—Beck’s Binocular Dissecting Microscope.
An early binocular microscope for dissecting purposes was devised
by the late Mr. R. Beck. (Fig. 70.) This took the form of a simple
instrument built up on a square mahogany base A raised about four
inches upon four brass supports B B, having a large circular stage
plate made to revolve on a second plate, on which the object is
placed and brought under the eye for dissection. On the left hand
side is a milled head rack and pinion K, which acts upon a horizontal
bar I for focussing the magnifying lens. Another bar, R, carries the
prism P and a pair of eye-pieces arranged on the principle of M.

Nachet’s binocular microscope. Mr. Beck preferred to adopt
Wenham’s method of arranging these prisms; that is, by allowing
half the cone of rays to proceed to one eye without interruption,
while the other half is intercepted by the prisms and transmitted to
the other eye. Beneath the stage is the ordinary mirror L. The
condensing lens M is supported on a separate brass holder let into
one of the supports of the stand. In practice, however, this
arrangement was found inconvenient, and the microscope has
therefore not been brought into general use.
Messrs. Watson’s Microscopes.
Among London opticians, the various microscopes manufactured by
Messrs. Watson, of Holborn, are of high finish and good
workmanship. Those specially designed for the use of students
possess merits of their own in their mechanical construction, and
also embody a provision, as indeed do all their instruments, whether
for students or more pretentious work, whereby wear and tear in
their frictional parts can be compensated for by the user himself.
This is effected in a simple but efficient manner. The fittings are
sprung, and screws set just outside the dove-tails. The very slightest
turn of the screws compresses the dove-tails, and a very large
amount of wear can in this way be prevented.
I am glad to notice that Messrs. Watson have adopted certain
standard sizes recommended some time ago by the Royal
Microscopical Society for the diameters of eye-pieces. It would be a
great advantage if the same standard became generally recognised
and brought into use, since it is a matter of much importance to
microscopists.
Watson’s Edinburgh Students’ Microscope (Fig. 71) is a thoroughly
efficient one for all practical purposes, great care having been
bestowed upon its smallest details, and it is not difficult to perceive

the reason of its popularity among students. The tripod form of foot
ensures great steadiness and firmness; the body carries the smaller
0·92 eye-piece, and with draw-tube closed is of the Continental
length. The draw-tube is graduated to millimetres, and when fully
extended the body measures 10 inches. The stage is provided with
mechanical and rotary movements; the compound sub-stage with
centring screws, rack and pinion to focus, and a means of lifting the
condenser out of the optical axis when not required for use.
Notwithstanding, none of the movements are at all cramped; a clear
distance is maintained beneath the stage, affording plenty of room
for manipulating the mirror. Both coarse and fine adjustments work
with smoothness, the latter being on Watson’s latest improved
principle—one revolution of the milled head moves the body 1⁄300 of
an inch. The stage is of extra large size, to allow of the use of large
culture-plates. No Continental stand of higher price compares with
the Edinburgh microscope. Its height when placed in the vertical
position is 11½ inches.

Fig. 71.—Watson’s Edinburgh Students’ Microscope.

Fig. 72.—Sub-stage of Edinburgh Students’ Microscope. This view
of underside of stage of students’ instrument shows the mirror set
at an angle for oblique illumination, and sub-stage turned aside.
The various sizes of oculars adopted by opticians and at present in
vogue cause considerable confusion. A standard size is specially
needed for students’ and small microscopes. The standard long used
by Continental manufacturers is 0·92 of an inch. The adoption of this
size would place the eye-piece in the same position as that of the
universal screw for the objective, formulated by the Royal
Microscopical Society many years ago. The desirability of using
standard sizes has been fully recognised by Messrs. Watson and they
are now adapted to most of their microscopes. The English diameter,
1·35 of an inch, known as the “Ross” size, is retained in all their
microscopes of large size.
Watson’s Mechanical Draw-tube.

Fig. 73.—Watson’s Mechanical Draw-tube (full-size).
An important feature in connection with the body-tube of Watson’s
Edinburgh Students’ Microscope (as, indeed, in all their fully
furnished instruments) is that they are provided with two draw-
tubes; one moved by rack-work, the other sliding inside the body-
tube. The advantage is, that the body can be made very short or
extremely long, while sufficient latitude can be given to objectives
corrected for either Continental or English tube-lengths, and to
adjusting the same for thickness of cover-glass by variation of tube
length. Should the cover-glass be thicker than that for which the
objective is corrected, a shorter tube-length is necessary; if thinner,
the body must be lengthened. This is effected by means of the
rackwork draw-tube. The length of the body when closed is 142

millimetres (55⁄8 inches), and when the two draw-tubes are
extended, 305 millimetres (12 inches), being, therefore, shorter than
the Continental and longer than the English tube lengths. Both draw-
tubes are divided into millimetres, and on the rackwork draw-tube a
double scale is engraved, reading continuously from the sliding
draw-tube when fully drawn out, or giving the body length when the
rackwork draw-tube alone is in use. The utility of this mechanical
draw-tube is that it permits of quick manipulation with perfect
results.
Fig. 74.—Watson’s Histological Microscope. Stand “A.”—Height,
when placed vertically and tube pushed home, 9½ inches.

The inside top of the draw-tube is smaller than the remainder, the
former making a fitting for the eye-piece about 1 inch long,
permitting of the tube being blackened inside up to this fitting, thus
minimising reflection. The end of the draw-tube has the universal
screw for using the apertometer, &c.
Watson’s Histological Microscope (Fig. 74) is a somewhat cheaper
form of instrument, designed for the student; although of plainer
construction it is quite as well made as the costlier model. It is
provided with spiral rack and pinion coarse adjustment, and with this
motion the greatest smoothness is preserved. There is no backlash,
the teeth of the pinion never leaving the rack; so effective is it that a
high power can be perfectly focussed by its means. It is also
furnished with their universal pattern of fine adjustment. This can be
had for £3 3s.
Fig. 75.—Watson’s Semi-Mechanical Stage.
Messrs. Watson have among other accessories of value introduced in
connection with their several microscopes a semi-mechanical stage,
whereby they are enabled to reduce the cost of manufacture. Fig. 75
is an outline sketch of the same.

Fig. 76.—New Centring Underfitting for
Microscope.
This stage is of the horse-shoe shape, with cut-out centre,
constructed of ¼-inch brass plate, and measures over all 5¼ inches
wide by 4 inches deep. Fitting on the edges of the main stage is a
frame which is actuated vertically by means of a double rack and
pinion from beneath, giving ¾-inch of movement, having controlling
heads on either side of the stage; on the edges of this mechanical
frame a sliding bar is fitted, consequently movement may be
imparted either by rackwork or by hand. The mechanical movement,
however is in one direction only; but as the bar carries the object,
the worker can easily move the object out horizontally with the
finger. The advantage of this stage is that the whole surface is
perfectly flush, and the pinion heads are below its level, so that
culture plates or continuous sections may be conveniently examined.
Another addition of
considerable value is the
centring underfitting for
students’ microscopes.
This fitting places in the hands
of student workers a means of
accurately centring the sub-
stage condenser, at a low cost.
It consists of the usual
underfitting tube, having a
flange at the top which is fitted in a box between two plates. The
centring is effected by means of two screws, which press the flange
against a spring, as in the ordinary sub-stage centring movement.
The fitting can be adapted to any form of Messrs. Watson’s and most
other makers of students’ microscopes.
Watson’s Bacteriological Improved Van Heurck’s Microscope (Fig. 77)
is in every way a superior instrument, and it at once conveys a
favourable impression to the practical worker. When set up for use
its many convenient points—its excellence of workmanship and the
precision of its movements—seem to imply its special adaptation for

the bacteriological laboratory and for other high-class work where
absolute reliance has to be placed in the results obtained. Every
detail of the instrument is carried out in the best possible manner.
The coarse adjustment is effected by means of a diagonal rack and
spiral pinion, which ensures the smoothest possible motion; while
the fine, the most important movement in the instrument, is made
with an extra long lever, a specialty of Messrs. Watson’s, and which
imparts an extremely slow action: this is now one of the most
delicate and reliable forms of fine adjustment. By its means the
entire body is raised or lowered by means of a milled head fixed to a
screw having a hardened steel point acting on a lever against a point
attached to the body slide, in a dove-tailed fitting about 2½ inches
long. Owing to the position of the controlling milled head on the
limb, it can be worked with either hand. Another feature of
importance is that, in using the fine adjustment the distance
between the eye-piece and objective remains unaltered. All the
frictional parts of the microscope have spring slots to the dove-tailed
fittings, in which compensating screws are fitted. These are some
few of the more important points, to which much thought and
attention have been given. The body permits also of the use of
objectives of any other optician, since its total length when the draw
tubes are closed up is only 143 mm.; when extended, a total length
of 320 mm. is available. By this means an ample margin is left for
the correction for cover-glass thickness, whether the objective used
be intended for the 160 mm. or 250 mm. tube length. The height of
the microscope when placed in the vertical position is 131⁄8 inches.

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