Development psychology (Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood)
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This document provides an overview of physical and cognitive development in early childhood from ages 2 to 6. It discusses physical changes including growth in height, weight, brain development, motor skills, and influences on physical development like heredity, nutrition and injuries. Cognitive development is explored through Piaget's theory of the preoperational stage, including imaginary play, egocentrism and limitations in logical thinking. Research has challenged some of Piaget's views, finding that preschoolers can perform better on tasks when simplified and relevant to their lives.
Development psychology (Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood)
- 1. EARLY CHILDHOOD : TWO TO SIX YEARS NAME : NURSHAHIDATUL SHUHADA BINTI SHARIFUNIZAM ID : 1012011061024 NAME : ANGELINE A/P ROBERT ID : 1012011060102 CHAPTER 7 : Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood CHAPTER 8 : Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood
- 2. A Changing Body and Brain Influences on Physical Physical Development Growth and Health Motor Development Chapter 7 : Physical and Cognitive Piaget’s Theory : The Development in Preoperational Stage Early Childhood Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Information Processing Cognitive Development Individual Differences in Mental Development Language Development
- 3. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT A. A Changing Body and Brain Early childhood , body growth tapers off from the rapid rate of the first two years. Average, children add 2 to 3 inches in height and about 5 pounds in weight each year. Boys are slightly larger than girls as “baby fat” drops off further, children gradually become thinner, although girls retain somewhat more body fat than boys, who are slightly more muscular.
- 4. i. Skeletal Growth The skeletal changes of infancy continue throughout early childhood. Between ages 2 and 6, approximately 45 new epiphyses, or growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone, emerge in various parts of the skeleton. By the end of the preschool years, they start to lose their primary or “baby” teeth.
- 5. ii. Brain Development Between ages 2 and 6, the brain increases from 70 percent of its adult weight to 90 percent. Preschoolers improve in a wide variety of skills such as Physical Coordination, Perception, Attention, Memory, Language, Logical Thinking and Imagination. From early to middle childhood, there are rapid growth in frontal - lobe areas devoted to inhibiting impulses and planning and organizing behavior. For most children , the left cerebral hemisphere is especially active between 3 and 6 years. In contrast, spatial skills (usually located in the right hemisphere) , such as giving direction, drawing pictures, and recognizing geometric shapes, develop gradually over children and adolescence. So, the left cerebral hemisphere shows more neural activity than the right.
- 6. a) Handedness By age 6 months, infants typically display a smoother, more efficient movement when reaching with their right than their left arm. Handedness reflects an individual’s dominant cerebral hemisphere. (to carry out skilled motor action) Handedness are involves in practice. Left - handedness are associated with prenatal and birth difficulties that can result in brain damage and it can cause an early damage to the left hemisphere.
- 7. b) Other advances in Brain Development In early childhood, fibers linking the Cerebellum (a structure that aids in balance and control of body movement) to the cerebral cortex grow and myelinate to enhancing balance, motor control and support thinking. The Reticular Formation responsible to maintain alertness and consciousness. The Hippocampus is to play a vital role in memory spatial orientation. The Corpus Callosum is use to connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. It is support smooth coordination of movements on both sides of the body and integration in many aspects such as attention , memory and language.
- 8. B. Influences on Physical Growth and Health i. Heredity and Hormones Heredity influences physical growth by controlling the body production of hormones from the Pituitary Gland (at the base of brain & play a role by releasing two hormones that induce growth) 2 types of hormones : Growth Hormone (GH) and Thyroid - Stimulating Hormone (TSH). Growth Hormone is necessary for development of all body tissues except the central nervous system and the genitals. Thyroid - Stimulations Hormone prompt the thyroid gland in the neck to release thyroxine, which is necessary for brain development.
- 9. ii. Emotional Well - Being In childhood , emotional well - being can profoundly affect growth and health. An emotionally inadequate home life can lead to a disorder called Psychosocial Dwarfism. Typical Characteristics include decrease GH secretion , very short stature and immature skeletal age.
- 10. iii. Nutrition In early childhood, many children become unpredictable picky eaters. Preschoolers’ appetites decline because their growth has slowed. Though they eat less, preschoolers require a high - quality diet, including the same foods adults need, but in smaller amounts. Fats , Oil and salt should be kept to a minimum because of their link to high blood pressure and heart disease in adulthood. Repeated exposure to new foods and a positive mealtime atmosphere encourage healthy and varied eating.
- 11. iv. Infectious Disease a) Infectious disease and Malnutrition. Dietary deficiencies, especially in protein, vitamins and minerals can affect growth and disease. In the developing world, disease often contributes to malnutrition and growth stunting, especially when intestinal infections cause persistent diarrhea.
- 12. b) Immunization. Immunization rates are lower in the United States than in other industrialized nations because many economically disadvantaged children lack access to heath care. Parental stress and misconceptions about vaccine safety also contribute.
- 13. v. Childhood Injuries a) Factors related to childhood injuries These injuries occur within a complex ecological system of individual, family, community and societal influences. Because of their higher activity level and greater impulsivity and risk taking, boys are 1.5 times more likely to be injured than girls. Children with certain temperamental and personality characteristics such as inattentiveness, irritability, defiance and aggression are also at greater risk because they are intend to be protest. Single parenthood and low parental education are also strongly associated with injury. Rapid population growth, overcrowding in cities and heavy road traffic combined with weak safety measures are major causes.
- 14. b) Preventing Childhood Injuries. Laws prevent many injuries. Example by requiring car safety seats, child - resistant caps on medicine bottles, flameproof clothing and fencing around backyard swimming pools. Communities can help by modifying their physical environments. Playgrounds, a common site of injury, can be covered with protective surfaces. Windows guards can be given to families in high - rise apartment buildings to prevent falls and can easily installed. Media campaigns also can help to prevent it.
- 15. C. Motor Development • During the preschool years, children continue to integrate previously acquired skills into more complex, dynamic systems. i. Gross - Motor Development When children’s body become more streamlined and less top - heavy, their center of gravity shifts downward, toward the trunk. A s a results, balance improves greatly and paving ne way for new motor skills. Preschoolers run, jump , hop , eventually skip , throw and catch, and generally become better coordinated.
- 16. ii. Fine - Motor Development Fine - motor progress in two areas. (1) Children’s care of their own body and (2) the drawing and paintings that fill the walls at home , child care and preschool. a) Self - Help Skills When tired and in a hurry, young children often revert to eating with their fingers. They also may end up with shirt on inside out, pants on backward and left snow boot on right foot. The most complex self - help skills is shoe tying.
- 17. b) Drawing Scribbles. At first, children’s gestures rather than the resulting scribbles contain the intended representation. First representational forms. Around age 3, children scribbles start to become a pictures. More realistic drawings. About 5 and 6 years, they are more greater realism in drawings that develop gradually as perfection , language (ability to describe visual details) , memory and fine - motor capacities improve. c) Cultural Variations in development of drawing Children create elaborate drawings that reflect the conventions of their culture. Adults encourage by offering suggestions and modeling ways to draw.
- 18. d) Early Printing When preschoolers try to write, they scribble, making no distinction between writing and drawing. iii. Individual Differences in Motor Skills Body build and opportunity for physical play affect motor development. Sex differences that favor boys in skills requiring force and power and girls in skills requiring balance and fine movements are partly genetic, but environmental pressures exaggerate them. Children master the motor skills of early childhood through informal play experiences.
- 19. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT D. Piaget’s Theory : The Preoperational Stage. • Children move from the sensorimotor to the preoperational stage , which spans the years 2 to 7. • The most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational or symbolic and activity. i. Mental Representation Piaget acknowledge that language is our most flexible means of mental representation but he did not regard language as the primary ingredient in childhood cognitive change. He believed that sensorimotor activity leads to internal images of experience.
- 20. ii. Make - Believe Play Piaget believe that through pretending, young children practice and strengthen newly acquired representational schemes. Make - believe play increases in sophistication during the preschool years. a) Development of Make - Believe Younger than age 2. Play detaches from the real - life conditions associated with it. They can flexibly imagine objects and events without any support from the real world. Play becomes less self - centered, as children realize that agents and recipients of pretend actions can be independent of themselves. Play includes more complex combinations of schemes. Children combine schemes with those of peers in sociodramatic play.
- 21. b) Benefits of Make - Believe Contribute to children’s cognitive and social skills. During sociodramatic play, preschoolers reaction with start longer, show more involvement, draw more children into the activity and are more cooperative. Strengthens a wide variety of mental abilities including sustained attention, memory , logical, reasoning , language and literacy skills , imagination , creativity , understanding of emotions and the ability to reflect on one’s own thinking , behavior and take another perspective.
- 22. iii. Symbol - Real World Relations For 2 ½ years old kids, they had trouble with dual representation which means viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol. iv.Limitations of Preoperational Thought According to Piaget, young children are not capable of operations (mental actions that obey logical rules). They are limited to one aspect of a situation at a time and strongly influenced by the way things appear at the moment.
- 23. a) Egocentrism For Piaget, the most fundamental deficiency of preoperational thinking is egocentrism. Egocentrism is responsible for preoperational children’s animistic thinking (the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings and intentions) b) Inability to Conserve Piaget’s famous conservation tasks reveal a variety of deficiencies of preoperational thinking. Conservation refers to the idea that certain physical characteristic of objects remain the same, even when their outwards appearance changes. Related aspects of preoperational children’s thinking. 1) their understanding is centered, or characterized by centration (focus on 1 aspect of a situation). 2) Children are easily focus on perceptual appearance of objects. 3) irreversibility ; an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem.
- 24. c) Lack of Hierarchical Classification Preoperational children have difficulty with hierarchical classification (the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences).
- 25. v. Follow - Up Researcher on Preoperational Thought Over the past three decades, researches have challenged piglet's view of preschoolers as cognitively deficient because many Piagetian problems contain unfamiliar elements or preschoolers’ responses do not reflect their true abilities.
- 26. a) Egocentric, Animistic, and magical thinking Nonegocentric responses appear in young children’s conversations. In describing objects, children do not use such words as “big” and “little” in a rigid, egocentric fashion. They adjust their descriptions to allow for context. Preschoolers’ egocentrism as a tendency rather than an inability. Piaget also overestimated preschoolers’ animistic beliefs even young infants have begun to distinguish animate from inanimate, indicated by their developing categorical distinctions between living and nonliving things Most 3 - and 4 year - olds believe in the supernatural powers of fairies, goblins, and other enchanted creatures. They think that magic accounts for events that they cannot explain. Between ages 4 and 8,as children gain familiarity with physical events and principles, their magical beliefs decline.
- 27. b) Illogical Thought Many studies show that when preschoolers are given tasks that are simplified and relevant to their everyday lives, they do not display the illogical characteristics that Piaget saw in the preoperational stage. Preschoolers’ ability to reason about transformations is evident on other problems. They can engage in impressive reasoning by analogy about physical changes. These findings indicate that in familiar contexts, preschoolers can overcome appearances and think logically about cause and effect. Even without detailed biological knowledge, preschoolers understand that the insides of animals are responsible for cause- effect sequences.
- 28. c) Categorization Although preschoolers have difficulty with Piagetian class inclusion tasks, they organize their everyday knowledge into nested categories at an early age. By the second half of the first year, children have formed a variety of global categories such as animals, vehicles, plants .The objects go together because of their common functions of behavior. During the second and third years, and perhaps earlier children’s global categories differentiate. Preschoolers’ rapidly expanding vocabularies and general knowledge support their impressive skill at categorizing. As they learn more about their world, they devise ideas about underlying characteristics that category members share. In sum, preschoolers’ category systems are not yet very complex but they have capacity to classify hierarchically and on the basis of nonobvious properties. Preschoolers use logical, causal reasoning to identify the interrelated features that form the basis of a category and to classify new members.
- 29. d) Appearance Versus Reality Younger children’s poor performance, however, is not due to a general difficulty in distinguishing appearance from reality, as Piaget suggested. Rather they have trouble wit the language.
- 30. vi.Evaluation of The Preoperational Stage Preschoolers can be trained to perform well on Piagetian problems also supports the idea that operational thought is not absent at one point in time and present at another. Children rely on increasingly effective mental (as opposed to perceptual) approaches to solving problems. That logical operations develop gradually poses yet another challenge to Piaget’s stage concept, which assumes abrupt change toward logical reasoning around age 6 or 7. Other experts think the stage concept is valid but must be modified. They believed that Piaget’s strict stage definition must be transformed into a less tightly knit concept, one in which a related set of competencies develops over an extended time period, depending on brain development and specific experiences.
- 31. vii.Piaget and Education Three educational principles derived from Piaget’s theory continue to have a major impact on both teacher training and classroom practices, especially during early childhood : 1. Discovery learning in a Piaget’s classroom, children are encouraged to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment. Instead of presenting ready - made knowledge verbally, teachers provide a rich variety of materials designed to promote exploration such as puzzles and table games. 2. Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn that in a piagetion classroom, teachers introduce activities that build on children’s current thinking, challenging their incorrect ways of viewing the world and enabling them to practice newly discovered schemes. But, they do not try to imposing new skills. 3. Acceptance of individual differences, Piaget theory assumes that all children go through the same sequences of development but at different rates. Therefore, teachers must plan activities for individual children and small group, not just for the whole class.
- 32. E. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, stresses the social context of cognitive development. During early childhood, rapid growth of language broadens preschooler’s participation in social dialogues with more knowledgeable individuals, who encourage them to master culturally important tasks.
- 33. i. Private Speech Piaget called these utterances egocentric speech, reflecting his belief that young children have difficulty taking the perspectives of others. Vygotsky disagreed with Piaget’s conclusions because language helps children think about their mental activities and behavior and select courses of action. Vygotsky saw it as the foundation for all higher cognitive processes, including controlled attention, deliberate memorization and recall, categorization, planning, problem solving and self-reflection. In Vygotsky’s view, children speak to themselves for self - guidance because as they get older and find tasks easier, their self - directed speech is internalized as silent or inner speech (the internal verbal dialogues we carry on while thinking and acting in everyday situations). Over the past three decades, almost all studies have supported Vygotsky’s perspective. As a result, children’s self - directed speech is now called private speech instead of egocentric speech.
- 34. ii. Social Origins of Early Childhood Cognition From Chapter 5, Vygotsky’s believe that children’s learning takes place within the zone of proximal development. Which means a range of tasks that too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers. It is called scaffolding (adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child’s current level of performances). When the child has little notion of how to proceed, the adult uses direct instruction or suggesting strategies. Evidence that support Vygotsky’s ideas : 1. In several studies, children whose parents were effective scaffolders used more private speech. 2. Other research shows that although children benefit from working on tasks with same age peers, their planning and problem solving improve more when their partner is either an expert peer.
- 35. iii. Vygotsky’s and Education Both Piagetian and Vygotskian classrooms emphasize active participation and acceptance of individual differences. But a Vygotskian classroom goes beyond independent discovery to promote assisted discovery which teachers guide children’s learning. Vygotsky’s saw make - believe play as the ideal social context for fostering cognitive development in early childhood. As children create imaginary situations, they learn to follow internal ideas and social rules rather than their immediate impulses. According to Vygotsky, make - believe play is a unique, broadly influential zone of proximal development in which children try out a wide variety of challenging activities and acquire many new competencies.
- 36. iv.Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory Vygotsky’s theory underscores the vital role of teaching and help us understand the wide cultural variation in children’s cognitive skills. Vygotsky’s theory says little about how basic motor, perceptual, attention, memory and problem - solving skills.
- 37. F. Information Processing Refer to Chapter 5, information processing focuses on mental strategies that children use to transform stimuli flowing into their mental systems. It focused on children’s in early childhood ability to guide their own behavior . Its also focused on preschoolers who become more aware of their own mental life and begin to acquire academically relevant knowledge important for school success.
- 38. i. Attention a) Inhibition A major reason is a steady gain in children’s ability to inhibit impulses and keep their mind on a competing goal. Gains in inhibition are linked to development of the cerebral cortex, especially the frontal lobes. b) Planning During early childhood, children also become better at planning; thinking out a sequence o f acts ahead of time and allocating attention accordingly to reach a goal. As long as tasks are familiar and not too complex, preschoolers can generate and follow a plan.
- 39. ii. Memory Unlike infants and toddlers, preschoolers have the language skills to describe what they remember, and they can follow directions on memory tasks. As a result, memory becomes easier to study in early childhood. a) Recognition and Recall Sometimes, preschoolers with good language skills recall poorly because they are not skilled at using memory strategies, deliberate mental activities that improve our chances of remembering. Preschoolers do not yet rehearse or repeat items over and over to remember.
- 40. b) Memory for Everyday Experiences Memory for Familiar Events. Like adults. Preschoolers remember familiar, repeated events. Young children’s scripts begin as a structure of main acts. Scripts help children organize and interpret everyday experiences. Once formed, they can be used to predict what will happen in the future. Children rely on scripts in make - believe play and when listening to and telling stories. Memory for One - Time Events. In chapter 5, we considered a second type of everyday memory as autobiographical memory. As preschooler’s cognitive conversational skills improve, their descriptions of special events become better organized in time, more detailed and related to the larger context of their lives.
- 41. iii. The Young Child’s Theory of Mind As representation f the world, memory and problem solving improve, children start to reflect on their own thought processes. They begin to construct a theory of mind, or coherent set of ideas about mental activities. This understanding is also called metacognition, or “thinking about thought”.
- 42. a) Awareness of Mental Life At the end of the first year, babies view people as intentional beings who can share and influence one another’s mental states, a milestone that opens the door to new forms of communication. As they approach age 2, children display a clearer grasp of others emotions and desires, evident in their realization that people often differ from one another and from themselves. As 2 years old, vocabularies expand. By age 3, children realize that thinking takes place inside their heads and that a person can think about something without seeing, touching or talking about it. Bu 2-to-3-yeal-olds have only a beginning grasp of the distinction between mental life and behavior. Between ages 3 and 4, children increasingly refer to their own and others thoughts and belief. And from age 4, they realize that both beliefs and desire determine behavior.
- 43. b) Factors Contributing to Preschoolers’ Theory of Mind Social experiences promotes understanding of the mind. Gains in inhibition are strongly related to mastery of false belief, perhaps because to do well on false - belief tasks, children must suppress an irrelevant response. Secure attachment is also related to more elaborative parent - child narratives, including discussions of mental stress - conversations that expose preschoolers to concepts and language that help them to think about their own and others mental lives. Core knowledge theorists believe that to profit from the social experiences just described, children must be biologically prepared to develop a theory of mind.
- 44. c) Limitations of Preschoolers’ Understanding of Mental Life Preschoolers awareness of mental activities is far form complete. They just be unaware or just pay a little attention to something. Some researchers find preschoolers view of the mind as a passive container of information. Consequently, they greatly underestimate the amount of mental activity that people engage in and poor at interfering what people know or are thinking about. In contrast, older children view the mind as an active or constructive agent. (A change will consider in Chapter 9).
- 45. iv. Early Childhood Literacy Young children in industrialized nations attempt to figure out how written symbols convey meaning. Children active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through informal experiences are called emergent literacy. Eventually, preschoolers gradually revise incorrect ideas about the meaning of written symbols as their cognitive and language capacities improve, as they encounter writing in many different contexts and as adults help them with written communication. Phonological awareness is a strong predictor or emergent literacy knowledge.
- 46. v. Young Children’s Mathematical Reasoning In the second year, children have a beginning grasp of ordinality, or order relationships between quantities. Then, by age 3 ½ to 4, most children have mastered the meaning of numbers, count correctly and grasp the vital principle of cardinality, and experiment with counting strategies to solve arithmetic problems, eventually arriving at the most efficient, accurate techniques. Many occasions for counting, comparing quantities and talking about number promote mathematical knowledge.
- 47. G. Individual Differences in Mental Development By age 5 to 6, intelligence test scores are good predictors of later IQ and academic achievement. Children growing up in warm, stimulating homes with parents who make reasonable demands for mature behavior score higher than on mental tests. i. Home Environment and Mental Development HOME (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment) assesses aspects of 3 to 6 years olds home lives that support mental development. Preschoolers who develop well intellectually have homes rich in educational toys and books.
- 48. ii. Preschool , Kindergarten and Child Care Children between age 2 and 6 spend even more time away from their homes and parents than infants and toddlers do. Preschool is a program with planned educational experienced aimed at enhancing the development of 2 to 5 years old. Child care refers to a variety of arrangements for supervising children. a) Types of preschool and kindergarten Preschool and kindergarten programs include both child - centered programs, in which much learning through play, and academic programs, in which teachers train children in academic skills, often through repetition and drill. Emphasizing formal academic instruction undermines young children’s motivation and negatively influences later school achievement.
- 49. b) Early Intervention for at-risk Preschoolers Project Head Start is the largest U.S federally funded preschool program for low - income children. High - quality preschool intervension results in immediate IQ and achievement gains and long - term improvements in school adjustment. The more parents are involved in Head Start, the higher children’s year - end academic , language and social skills. c) Child Care Preschoolers exposed to substandard child care, especially for long hours, score lower in cognitive and social skills and higher in behavior problems. Psychological well-being also declines when children experiences the instability of several child-care settings. Good Child care enhances cognitive, language and social development especially for low SES children.
- 50. iii. Educational Media Beside home and preschool, young children spend much time in another learning environment : electronic media including television and computers. a) Educational Television Children pick up many cognitive skills from educational television programs. Programs with slow - paced action and easy - to - follow story lines foster more elaborate make - believe play. But heavy viewing of prime - time shows and cartoons takes children away from reading and interacting with others and is related to weaker academic skills.
- 51. b) Learning with Computers Computer word-processing programs can support preschoolers’ emergent literacy. Introducing young children to simplified computer languages fosters problem solving and metacognition.
- 52. H. Language Development i. Vocabulary Research shows that children can connect new words with their underlying concepts after only a brief encounter, process called fast - mapping. Preschoolers can even fast- map two or more new words encountered in the same situation. a) Types of Words Children in many western and non-Western language communities fast-map labels for objects especially rapidly because these refer to concepts that are easy to perceive. Children who learning Chinese , Japanese and Korean, language in which nouns are often omitted from adult sentences, while verbs are stressed, acquire verbs especially quickly. Once vocabulary and general knowledge expand, children also appreciate nonsensory comparison.
- 53. b) Strategies for Word Learning Preschoolers figure out the meanings of the words by contrasting them with words they already know. Children’s first several hundred nouns refer to objects well-organized shape and learning of nouns based on the perceptual property of shape heightens young children’s attention to the distinctive shapes of other objects. Young children also take advantage of the rich social information that adults frequently provide when they introduce new words. c) Explaining vocabulary Development Children acquire vocabulary so efficiently and accurately that some theorist believe that they are innately biased to induce word meanings using certain principles. Vocabulary growth is governed by the same cognitive strategies that children apply to nonlinguistic information.
- 54. ii. Grammar Between ages 2 and 3, English-speaking children use simple sentences that follow a subject-verb-object word order. Children learning other languages adopt the word orders of the adult speech to which they are exposed. a) Basic Rules Studies of children acquiring diverse language reveal that their first use of grammatical rules is limited to just a few verbs. As children listen for familiar verbs in adults’ speech, they expand their own utterances containing those verbs, relying on adult speech as their model. As they master grammatical rules, they sometimes overextend them in a type of error called overregularization.
- 55. b) Complex Structures Gradually, preschoolers master more complex grammatical structures, although they do make mistakes. Preschoolers’ grasp of grammar is remarkable. By age 4 to 5, they form embedded sentences, tag questions and indirect objects. c) Explaining Grammatical Development Some expert believe that grammar is a product of general cognitive development. Information-processing theorist believe that children notice which words appear in the same positions in sentences and are similarly combined with other words.
- 56. iii. Conversation Besides acquiring vocabulary and grammar, children must learn to engage in effective and appropriate communication. This practical, social side called pragmatics and preschoolers make considerable headway in mastering it. As early as age 2, children are already skilled conversationalist in face-to-face interaction. By age 4, children adapt their speech to their listeners in culturally accepted ways. iv. Supporting Language Development in Early Childhood Conversational give-and-take with more skilled speakers fosters language progress. Adults often provide explicit feedback on the clarity of children’s language and indirect feedback about grammar through recasts and expansions.