Diet and Nutrition and oral health

Dr Divya Gaur
I yr PG
Dept of Pedodontics and Preventive
Dentistry
DIET AND NUTRITION

CONTENTS
 DEFINITION
 COMPONENTS OF NUTRITION
 MACRO-NUTRIENTS
 VITAMINS
 MINERALS AND OTHER MICRO-NUTRIENTS
 BALANCED DIET
 NUTRITION CONSIDERATIONS IN PEDIATRICS
 PRE-NATAL NUTRITION COUNSELLING
 NUTRITION AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF INFANT TO
ADOLESCENT
 MALNUTRITION
 DIET AND ORAL HEALTH
 NUTRITION CONSIDERATIONS IN CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL HEALTH
CARE NEEDS
 CONCLUSION
 REFERENCES

DEFINITION
 Diet and nutrition are often used interchangeably.
 However, according to the Taber’s Medical Dictionary, they have
distinctly different scientific meanings.
 Diet is defined as what you eat and drink.
 Nutrition is the internal processing of foods and beverages, such as
ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, distribution, and
elimination (i.e., metabolism).
 Nutrition, according to Dr. Nizel is a science that deals with the study of
nutrients & foods, their effects on nature & function of organism under
varied conditions of age, health & disease.
 According to WHO, “Nutrition is the science of food and its relationship
to health.”
 “Clinical” nutrition refers to macro-nutrient (protein, carbohydrate and
fats/oils) and micro-nutrient (vitamins, minerals and water) deficiencies
at a cellular and tissue (clinical) level that leads to organ/gland
dysfunctions and eventually to disease.

COMPONENTS OF DIET
 MAJOR NUTRIENTS:
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fats/lipids
 MICRO NUTRIENTS
 Vitamins
 Minerals
 TRACE NUTRIENTS

 PROTEINS
 word protein means “of prime importance”, because it mediates
most of the actions of life.
 essential for all body tissues: skin, tendons, bone matrix, cartilage,
and connective tissue.
 also forms hormones, enzymes, antibodies and acts as a chemical
messenger within the body.
 Requirements for protein vary between 40-65 g/day depending on
physical activity, stress, and growth cycles.
 Excess is stored as fat.
 The specific dynamic action (SDA) or the thermic effect of food (TEF)
for protein (29%) is much higher than that of carbohydrate and fat
(5%).
Deficiency state: Protein energy
malnutrition
(PEM) :
Kwashiorkar, Marasmus and
Marasmic
Kwashiorkar

 Amino acids:
 Building blocks of proteins.
 24 in number, 8 of them being essential amino acids which
cannot be synthesized by the human body.
 Among them, glutamine is termed as “antistress nutrient”,
and is present in largest amount in plasma.
 Tryptophan: also called
 “nature’s sleeping pill”: precursor of serotonin
 “provitamin B3: precursor of niacin (60mg tryptophan = 1mg
niacin)
 Quality of protein:
 That provides amino acid pattern close to that of tissue protein
 Breast milk and egg protein satisfy this criteria.
 Egg: called reference protein: provides all essential amino
acids.

KWASHIORKAR
 First recognized by Prof Cicely Williams in 1933 from Gold Coast.
 She observed that this was the disease of the first child when the
second was on the way displacing the first child from breast feeding.
 She named it Kwashiorkar, word taken from Ga language of Ghana,
which means the ‘red boy’ due to characteristic pigmentary changes.
 Later on, the term was interpreted as “deposed child”.
 Classic signs:
 Stunted growth
 Hepatomegaly
 Anaemia
 Oedema
Grading
Grade I- pedal oedema
Grade II- I +facial oedema
Grade III – II + paraspinal and chest oedema
Grade IV- III + ascites

MARASMUS
 Word Marasmus is derived from Greek word Marasmos, which means
“wasting”.
 Affected children exhibit extreme wasting.
 Old man appearance to jaws and skin and bones.
 Grading
 Grade I: wasting starting in axilla and groin.
 Grade II: I + wasting in thigh and buttock region
 Grade III: II+ chest and abdomen
 Grade IV: buccal pad of fat
 Wasting of brown fat occurs first.
 Marasmic Kwashiorkar: when marasmic children
develop oedema.

ORAL MANIFESTATIONS
 Bright reddening of tongue
 Loss of papillae: erythematous and smooth dorsum of tongue
 Kwashiorkar:
 Edema of tongue with scalloping around the lateral margins due to
indentation of the teeth.
 Bilateral angular cheilosis
 Fissuring of lip
 Loss of circumoral pigmentation
 Dry mouth
 Reduced caries activity due to lack of substrate carbohydrate.
 Decreased overall growth of jaws
 Delayed eruption
 Deciduous teeth may show linear hypoplasia.

 LIPIDS
 Fats insulate against the cold, cushion organs, slow digestion, carry
fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, K, and make foods taste good.
 Types :
Saturated fats
•mainly from animal foods,
such as meat, poultry, butter,
and whole milk.
•They increase the risk of
cardiovascular disease,
cancer, and obesity.
Unsaturated fats:
•Mono and polyunsaturated fats
are heart healthy fats.
• EFA: “essential fatty acids” are
Polyunsaturated fatty acids,
used to be called “queen of
vitamins” and then it was
designated as vitamin F.

Diet and Nutrition and oral health

RDA: Recommended Dietary
Allowance
 According to the American Food and Nutrition Board, RDAs
are “levels of intake of essential nutrients that on a basis of
scientific knowledge are adequate to meet the known
nutrient needs of all healthy persons.”
 Methods of calculation:
 ICMR recommendations
 Coefficient of calorie requirement:
 Given by National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad
 Assuming 2400 kcal as 1 unit of energy, RDA is expressed as a
proportion of this.
 Lower than ICMR recommendations.
 Holliday and Segar formula
 RDA is expressed as that for the age of the child and not for the
present weight.
 Weech formula
 For bedside approximation of expected weight and height
 Infant weight = (age in months + 9)/2Nutrition and child Development,3rd edition : KF Elizabeth

 VITAMINS:
 Vitamins and Minerals form the protective foods and are also
called functional foods.
 Those with RDA<100mg/day were traditionally called micro-
nutrients.
Fat soluble
•Vit A
•Vit D
•Vit E
Vit K
Water
soluble
•Vit B
complex
•Vit C

Fat soluble vitamins
•Vitamin A deficiency is a
preventable cause of blindness in
children.
•According to Vitamin A
prophylaxis programme, children
between 9 months to 3 yrs are
given 5 megadoses of vitamin A
concentrate at 6 months interval.
•Intake of 25000 IU or more during
early pregnancy can lead to
congenital malformations.
•Hypervitaminosis leads to GI
upset, pseudotumour cerebri, skin
desquamation , dry hair and
hyperostosis of tibia.Daily requirement:
1500 IU (500 µg)
Preparations:
•Aquasol A : 50,000 IU/capsule, inj
50,000 IU/ml
•Arovit : 50,000 IU/tab, drops
50,000IU/ml
•Adexolin A & D: vit A 5000 IU and vit D
400 IU

ORAL MANIFESTATIONS
 TEETH:
 Defective formation of enamel
 Odontogenic epithelium fails to undergo normal
histodifferentiation and morphodifferentiation, leading to
increased rate of cell proliferation.
 Epithelial invasion of pulpal tissue is characteristic of vitamin A
def.
 Distortion of shapes of incisors and molars.
 Enamel hypoplasia:
 enamel matrix is poorly defined.
 Calcification is disturbed.
 Atypical dentin: lacking normal tubular arrangement, and
containing vascular and cellular inclusions.
 Increased caries susceptibility.
 Delayed eruption.
 GINGIVA
 Hyperplastic gingival epithelium
 In prolonged defi: shows keratinization

Fat soluble vitamins (contd)
288 nm UV
light
Daily requirement:400 IU
(10µg)
• The active form (Calcitriol) promotes
bone resorption and mineralization and
intestinal calcium and phosphorus
absorption.
•Pre-term babies not exposed to
sunlight, babies of mothers with severe
vit D deficiency, and those with fat
malabsorption are prone to develop
deficiency.
•In preterm babies, deficiency may
manifest as early as 8 weeks of age,
leading to rickets.
•Deficiency is treated with
administration of 6lakhs IU of vitamin
D oral or IM.
•Hypervitaminosis leads to GI upset,
hypotonia, polyuria, polydypsia,
hypercalcemia, hypercalciuria,

Vitamin D (contd)
 Rickets
 Large head
 Wide open anterior fontanelle
 Frontal, parietal and occipital bossing
(hot cross bun appearance or caput quadratum)
 Pigeon chest : Pectus carinatum
 Rachitic rosaries
 Harrison’s sulcus
 Knock knee
 Lateral bowing of tibia
 Widening of wrist
 Double malleoli
Preparations:
•Calcirol sachets- 60000 IU/sachet
•Arachitol – 3lakhs and 6lakhs
IU/ml
•Alphadol tab 0.25µg
•Adexolin- A& D cap: A5000IU, D

ORAL MANIFESTATIONS
 Developmental abnormalities of dentin and
enamel.
 Delayed eruption.
 Malalignment of teeth.
 Higher caries index.
 Enamel: may be hypoplastic, mottled, yellow gray
in colour.
 Large pulp chambers.
 High pulp horns.
 Delayed closure of root apices.
 Osteoid is so soft that the teeth are displaced,
leading to malocclusion of the teeth.

OSTEOMALACIA
 Adult rickets
 Only flat bones and diaphyses of long bones are
affected.
 Commonly seen in post-menopausal women with
a H/O low dietary calcium intake and low
exposure to UV light.
 Oral manifestations:
 Severe periodontitis in some cases.

VITAMIN D RESISTANT
RICKETS
 X linked trait with some defect in reabsorption.
 Oral manifestations:
 Abnormal ,wide pulp chambers with faulty
calcifications and marked interglobular space in
dentin.
 Pulp horns are elongated and extend high often
reaching DEJ.
 Periapical involvement of a grossly normal
appearing primary or permanent tooth followed by
development of multiple gingival fistulae.
 Abnormal cementum formation.

Daily requirement: 5-15
IU (5-15mg)
•Protects cell membranes and tissues from
damage by oxidation.
•Aids in the formation of red blood cells and
the use of vitamin K.
•Promotes function of a healthy circulatory
system.
•Called “shady lady of nutrition” as more
applications are yet to be known.
•Vit E supplementation is needed in fat
malabsorption and cholestasis and in
premature infants.
•15-25IU/day is given in such cases.
•Excess may cause necrotising
enterocolitis in the newborn.
Preparations:
•Evion
•Tocofer
•E cod- 100 mg, 200mg,
400mg pearls
•Evion drops 50mg/ml

ORAL MANIFESTATIONS OF
VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY
 Loss of pigmentation
 Atrophic degenerative changes in enamel.

•Synthesized by intestinal flora
•Participates in oxidative phosphorylation.
•Increases concentration of prothrombin (II),
proconvertin (VII), plasma thromboplastin
component (IX) and stuwart-prower factor
(X).
•Naturally occuring vit K is K1
(phytomenadione)
•K2 (menaquinones) is of bacterial origin
•Deficiency leads to haemorrhagic disease
of new-born (HDN), commonly seen in
breast-fed babies due to delayed
colonisation of gut and due to lower
concentration of vit K in breast-milk (15
µg%) compared to cow’s milk (60 µg%).
•In HDN, 2-5mg vit K is given. In severe
cases, blood transfusion is needed.
Preparations:
Menadione sodium
10mg/ampoule

Water soluble vitamins
Daily requirement: 0.5-
1.5mg/day (1mg/1000cal)
•Plays important role in metabolism of
carbohydrates, alcohol and branched
chain amino acids.
•Main deficiency diseases are beri-
beri and wernicke- korsakoff
syndrome.(WKS)
•Wet beri-beri manifests as high
output cardiac failure.
•Dry beri-beri presents with neuritis.
•Infantile beri-beri presents with
aphonia and combined features of dry
and wet beri-beri.
•Responds to thiamine, 10-100 times
the requirement.
•Anaphylaxis may occur on thiamine
injection.
Also known as
“aneurin”
Discovered by
Eijkman in 1897.

Water soluble vitamins (contd)
Daily requirement:0.5-
1.5mg
•Earlier called vitamin G.
•Has a vital role in cellular oxidation.
•Deficiency manifests as angular stomatitis,
cheilosis, atrophic papillae on tongue,
nasolabial dyssebacea and neovascularisation
of cornea.
•In severe cases, tongue becomes glazed and
smooth due to complete atrophy of papillae.
•Lips: red and shiny because of epithelial
desquamation.
•Common deficiency seen
in south india, where staple
diet is polished rice.
•It is rare in milk drinking
countries.

Daily
requirement: 5-
15 mg
•Niacin : also called “Nature’s valium”
•a part of NADP co-enzymes.
•Tryptophan amino acid is the precursor, also
called “Nature’s sleeping pill”
•70mg protein intake provides 12mg of niacin.
•Deficiency state is termed PELLAGRA which
leads to photosensitive dermatitis, diarrhoea and
dementia.
•Casal’s necklace and glove and stocking type
dermatitis occurs in the exposed parts.

Daily requirement:0.5-
1.5mg
•Pyridoxal, pyridoxamine and their
phosphates have B6 activity.
•It keeps up the level of GABA, an
inhibitory neurotransmitter.
•Also beneficial in homocystinuria,
hyperoxaluria, sideroblastic anemia and
radiation sickness.
•Deficiency causes
•Neuritis
•Anemia
•Convulsions
•Oral manifestations:
•Cheilosis
•Glossitis
•Angular stomatitis
•Halitosis due to tooth decay

Was also called vitamin M.
Food sources include beans and legumes, citrus
fruits, whole-grains, dark green leafy vegetables,
poultry, pork, shell fish and liver.
Important in DNA synthesis.
Deficiency leads to megaloblastic anemia,
diarrhoea, and knuckle and periungual
pigmentation.
Preconceptional administration can prevent neural
tube defects in the baby.
Daily requirement:50-
150 µg/day

Daily requirement: 05-
1.5 µcg/day
Cyanocobalamine: Called “red vitamin”
Contains cobalt in the molecule: only vitamin that
contains a mineral.
Present only in animal foods, fish and milk.
Even though colonic bacteria synthesize it, but its
not bio-available.
Absorbed from ileum under the influence of
intrinsic factor secreted from the stomach.
Takes part in synthesis of fatty acids in myelin.
Deficiency leads to perinicious anemia, and
subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord .
Additional signs are weight loss, pallor, confusion
and hypotension.
In 2001, neurologic impairment resulting from vit B12 deficiency was reported
in 2 children breast-fed by mothers who followed vegetarian diets.
Georgia 2001, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 52 (4):61-64,2003

ORAL MANIFESTATIONS OF VIT
B12 DEFICIENCY
 Tongue:
 Sore painful tongue, glossitis and glossodynia
 Beefy red tongue
 Small shallow ulcers with atrophy of papillae with a
loss of normal muscle tone, called as Hunter’s
glossitis.

Vitamin B Complex
 Additional vitamins
 Pantothenic acid:
 Referred to as vitamin B5
 Described by Dr Gopalan.
 Deficiency causes dermatitis, hallucinations.
 Preparations:
 Neurobion
 Polybion
 Becosules
 Berocin C

Daily
requirement:
40mg/day
Converts proline to hydroxyproline, which is a
constituent of collagen.
Involved in collagen synthesis and teeth formation.
Increases iron absorption.
Acts as antioxidant due to its reducing property.
Deficiency leads to scurvy, defective bone growth,
bleeding gums and delayed wound healing.
Subperiosteal bleeding and calcification.
Scorbutic rosaries are tender and angulated.
White line of Fraenkel: a dense white line at
metaphyses due to excessive calcification.
Preparations:
Celin- 100mg,500mg
Suckcee, Limcee—
500mgchewable tab
Cecon drops-100mg/ml

ORAL MANIFESTATIONS OF VIT C
DEFICIENCY
 Occurs chiefly in gingival and periodontal region.
 Interdental and marginal gingiva is bright red,
swollen, smooth, shiny surface producing an
appearance called, “Scurvy bud”.
 In fully developed deficiency, gingiva becomes
boggy, ulcerated and bleeds easily.
 Typical fetid breath.

Minerals
 Elements present in higher concentrations in the body- >0.01%
body weight

RDA of micro-nutrients
NUTRIENT RDA
CALCIUM 500-1000mg/day
PHOSPHORUS 500-1000mg/day
SODIUM 10-15g/day
POTASSIUM 2-3mEq/kg/day
MAGNESIUM 200-300mg/day
TRACE ELEMENTS RDA
IRON 2mg/kg/day
IODINE 50-150 µg/day
COPPER 1-2 mg/day
ZINC 5-15 mg/day
COBALT Not known
CHROMIUM 10 µg/day
FLOURINE 1-5 mg/day

BALANCED DIET
 One which supplies all the nutrients in the right
quantity and proportion.
 Requirement of an adult sedentary male: 2400
kcal, ie 1 unit of energy.
PERCENTAGE IN DIET
CARBOHYDRATES 55-
60%
PROTEINS 10-15%
FATS 30-35%

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
BALANCED DIET
 Supplementation during pregnancy : 300 kilocalories extra
 During lactation: 600 kilocalories extra
 Exchanges for non-vegetarians:
 50%legumes + 1egg/30g meat or fish.
 No legume, 1 egg + 30g meat or fish
 No legume, no egg, 60g meat or fish

NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
PEDIATRICS
 NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR
 INFANT AND TODDLER (0 TO 3 YRS)
 PRESCHOOLER (3 TO 6 YRS)
 SCHOOL AGED CHILD (6 TO 12 YRS)
 ADOLESCENT (12 TO 18YRS)
 NUTRITION ASSESSMENT AND SCREENING
 NUTRITION RELATED PEDIATRIC DISORDERS
 EARLY CHILDHOOD CARIES
 FAILURE TO THRIVE
 OBESITY
 DISORDERED EATING
 DIET AND DENTAL CARIES
 LATEST AAPD GUIDELINES
 NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIAL CHILDREN
 REFERENCES
42

NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FROM INFANCY
THROUGH ADOLESCENCE
43

INFANT AND TODDLER (0 to 3 yrs)
 First six months of life: period of most rapid growth, apart from prenatal
existence.
 American academy of Pediatrics recommends human milk as the sole
source of nutrition for first six months, with continued intake for the first year,
and as long as desired thereafter.
 Breastfeeding
 Advantageous to the child
 Advantageous to the mother
 To society
44

INFANT AND TODDLER (0 to 3 yrs)
 Adequacy of milk intake:
 Assessed by voiding and stooling patterns.
 Well hydrated infant: voids 6-8 times a day
 By 5-7 days: loose yellow stools passed atleast 4 times a day.
 Most objective indicator: Rate of weight gain
 Total weight loss after birth should not exceed 7%.
 Birth weight should be regained by 10 days.
 Serum bilirubin:
 More elevated in breastfed infants than formula fed infants.
 Feeding frequency during the first 3 days of life are inversely related to the level of
bilirubin.
 Frequent feedings stimulated meconium passage and excretion of bilirubin in the
stool.
 Breast milk jaundice: (1-2 weeks)
 After first week of life, serum bilirubin is elevated due to some unknown factor in
milk that increases intestinal absorption of bilirubin.45

INFANT AND TODDLER (contd)
 Milk substitutes:
 Regular unmodified cow’s milk is not suitable:
 Insufficient source of vitamin C and iron.
 It may cause gastrointestinal bleeding.
 Its solute load is too heavy for the infant’s renal system to handle .
 Low-fat milk: should not be used,
 Insufficient energy provision.
 Lack of essential fatty acids.
 Solid diet:
 No nutritional need for introducing before 6 months of age.1
 Earlier use may contribute to development of allergies or increased risk of obesity.
 Egg yolk may be safely introduced into the weanling diet with no elevation in
plasma cholesterol level or increase in prevalence of egg allergies.3
Cases of severe nutrient deficiencies resulting in kwashiorkar and rickets have been
reported from regular consumption of non-fortified rice, soy based health food milk
alternatives.2
46

 The immature kidneys of infants cannot concentrate waste efficiently.
 As a result, infant must excrete more water than does an adult to excrete a
comparable amount of waste.
One must be on guard against dehydration, which has potentially
serious consequences.
 Supplements:
 Vitamin D, iron, and flouride : after consulting with Pediatrician.
 Iron:
 Low tissue iron levels adversely affect brain, intellectual development and
performance.
 Desirable to begin at 4 months of age, (often with ferrous sulphate) for breast fed
infants.
48

 2nd year of life/ infant to toddler:
 Reduction in appetite: NORMAL
 Dietary needs for proteins and minerals remain high.
 Brightly coloured foods are appealing.
 During first two years of life: 40-50% of energy should come from fat.
 Older than 2 years:
 Roughly 30% should come from fat, with no more than 10% from either saturated
fats or polyunsaturated fats.
 Carbohydrates: 55-60% of calorie reqmts with no more than 10% from simple
sugars.
 RDA of dietary fibre = 5 plus the age of the child.
49

DIET GUIDELINES FOR CHILDREN
OLDER THAN 2 YRS.
 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS:
 Consume 3 regular meals daily with healthful snacks (2-3/day) according to apetite, activity
and growth needs .
 Include a variety of foods with abundant vegetables and fruits.
 KEY NUTRIENTS:
 CARBOHYDRATES:
 Complex carbohydrate should provide >= 55-60% of daily calories, half of all grains should
be whole grain, high-fibre foods.
 Simple sugars should be limited to <10% daily calories.
 FATS:
 <30% of total calories should come from dietary fat.
 Saturated and polyunsaturated fats should make up for <10% total calories each.
 Monounsaturated fats should provide atleast 10% total calories.
 Encourage lean cuts of meat, fish, low-fat dairy products, vegetable oils.
 Cholesterol intake should approximate 100mg/1000kcal/day (max of 300mg/day)
 Severe fat restriction (<=15-20% of total calories) should be avoided bacause it may result
in growth failure.
50

PRESCHOOLER (3-6 YRS)
 Physical growth occurs in spurts.
 Fewer calories are required, but relatively high protein and mineral needs
remain.
 Child should be helped to lose ‘baby fat’ by increasing physical activity rather
than by severely restricting calories.
 Dental implications:
 Wholesome, nutritious, low sugar snacks can promote adequate intake of essential
nutrients without adding calories or promoting dental caries.
52

SCHOOL AGED CHILD (6- 12 YRS)
 Decline in food requirements per unit body weight.
 Because of reduction in growth rate.
 Diet counselling:
 Children should be encouraged to have breakfast.
53
In a study of fourth through sixth graders in a school with a universal school breakfast
program, Reddan and colleagues found that the majority of students believed that
eating breakfast provides benefits of increased energy and ability to pay attention in
school.
Reddan J et al. Children’s perceived benefits and barriers in relation to eating
breakfast in schools with or without Universal School Breakfast, J Nutr Educ Behav
34(1):47-52,2002
Thus, emphasis on high nutrient density : High ratio of nutrients to calories

ADOLESCENT (12 TO 18YRS)
 Nutritional requirements are influenced primarily by onset of puberty and the
final growth spurt of childhood.
 Increased needs for energy, protein, minerals and vitamins.
 Adolescent females:
 Consume less food than boys.
 Encounter significant social and peer pressure .
 “Female athlete triad” : American College of Sports Medicine (ACMS) in 1992.
 Seen among adolescent female athletes
 Disordered eating behaviours
 Amenorrhoea
 Osteoporosis
54
Gabel K. Special nutritional concerns for the female athelete. Curr Sports Med Rep S:187-191,2006
Beals K. Eating behaviours, nutritional status and menstrual function in elite female adolescent
volleyball players, J Am Diet Assoc 102(9):1293-1296,2002
Sherman R, Thompson R. Female athlete triad. J School Nurs 20 (4): 197-202,2004

NUTRITION
ASSESSMENT AND
SCREENING
56

NUTRITION SCREENING
 Should always include a brief assessment of the adequacy of usual dietary
intake.
 Food frequency questionnaires (FFQs), 24-hour recalls, and food records or
diaries are suitable methods for use with adolescents; however not all
methods are suitable for use in a single dietary screening session.
 SCREENERS:
 Short dietary assessment questionnaires that focus on specific eating
behaviors, such as consumption of savory snacks, fast foods and high-
sugar beverages, are appropriate for use during the initial nutrition
screening.
 Suitable for adolescents with limited cognitive skills or limited
comprehesion of english language.
 Can be completed rapidly.
 Useful for determining the need for more extensive dietary assessment
and nutrition counselling.
57

ANTHROPOMETRICS FOR
NUTRITION ASSESSMENT
 WEIGHT
 STATURE
 OTHERS
 HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE (<36 MONTHS)
 CHEST CIRCUMFERENCE
61

WEIGHT
 Defined as the heaviness of the body.
 Measured using a balance-beam scale.
 Indicator of both acute and chronic nutritional
status.
 Typically described with respect to age or height.
 Weight-for-age value compares the child’s weight
to a peer reference group.
 Toddlers and older children should be weighed
with minimal clothing on a standing scale to 0.1
kg.
 Special needs: may need a lift scale or wheelchair
scale.
 Rayner and Rudolf suggested that a low weight-
for-age is a marker of Failure to thrive.
62
Nutrition and Oral Health ; Laura M Romito, DDS,MSThe dental clinics of North America April 2003, volume 47 number 2
Raynor P, Rudolf MCJ. Anthropometric indices of failure to thrive. Arch Dis Child 2ooo;82:364-5

STATURE
 Under 2 yrs, stature is defined as recumbent length and is assessed using a
length board with a stationary head and adjustable foot.
 After 2 yrs of age, it is defined as height in a standing position and assessed
with a stadiometer or with the heels, buttocks and head flat against a tape
measure embedded in a wall.
 Both compare the child’s height to a peer reference group.
 Historically, a value less than 5th or 10th percentile of a peer reference group
has been used to screen for PEM.
 CDC guidelines define a height-for age value less than 5th percentile as
short stature.
64
Kuczmarski RJ, Ogden CL, Grummer-Strawn LM et al. CDC growth charts: United states Advance data
2000;314: 1-27

HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE
 At birth, the head circumference is 35 cm.
 Increases to 40 cm by 3 months.
 43 cm by 6 months.
 45 cm by 9 months.
 47 cm by 1 year.
 49 cm by 2 years.
 50 cm by 3 years.
 Approximate increase is 2 cm/month in the first 3 months, 1cm/month in the
next 3 months and 0.5 cm/month in the next 6 months.
68

CHEST CIRCUMFERENCE
 Measured at the nipple midway between inspiration and expiration.
 At birth, the head circumference is more than chest circumference, but it
equalises by 1 year.
 Thereafter, chest circumference is more than head circumference.
69

WEIGHT-FOR-HEIGHT RATIO/
BMI
 Most reflective of body fat and is calculated by dividing the weight (kg) by the
height in meters.
 Historically, the weight-for-height ratio less than 5th or 10th percentile has
been used to screen for PEM.
 Current CDC guidelines define 85th to less than 95th percentile as at risk for
overweight and define greater than the 95th percentile as overweight.
70
Kuczmarski RJ, Ogden CL, Grummer-Strawn LM et al. CDC growth charts: United states Advance data
2000;314: 1-27

NUTRITION SCREENING (contd)
 Begin with an accurate measurement of height and weight, and calculation
of BMI (body mass index).
 These data should be plotted on age and gender appropriate growth charts
to determine the appropriateness of weight for height and the presence of
potential growth disorders.
71

NUTRITION ASSESSMENT
 Key indicators of nutrition risk for adolescents can be based on:
 Food choices
 Food resources
 Physical activity
 Eating behaviours
 Weight and body image
 Growth
 Medical conditions
 Lifestyle
81
Source: Adapted from Story M, Holt K, Sofka D, eds. Bright Futures in practice: Nutrition.
Arlington, VA: National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health; 2000
(Appendix D, p. 243-255).

NUTRITION RELATED PEDIATRIC
DISORDERS
 EARLY CHILDHOOD CARIES
 FAILURE TO THRIVE
 OBESITY
 DISORDERED EATING
89

EARLY CHILDHOOD CARIES
 Defined as “ the presence of one or more decayed (noncavitated or
cavitated lesions), missing (due to caries), or filled tooth surfaces in any
primary tooth in children from birth through 71 months of age”.
 Age specific definitions have been proposed to distinguish severe ECC from
ECC.
 Severe ECC is characterized by the presence of
 One or more decayed, missing or filled smooth surfaces in children less than 36
months;
 Cavitated, filled or missing (due to caries) smooth surfaces in primary maxillary
anterior teeth;
 Or multiple decayed, missing or filled surfaces in children aged 36 to 71 months.
90
Drury TF, Horowitz AM et al. diagnosing and reporting early childhood caries for research purposes. J Public Health Dent
1999;59:192-7

ECC (contd)
 It is a preventable childhood disease affecting disproportionate numbers of
children from low income households and racial minorities. 9
 Associated with
 Self-esteem issues
 Missed school days
 Behavioural problems
 Oral pain
 Impaired eating
 Oral abscesses
 Poor growth
 Etiology: multifactorial
 Bacteria associated: Streptococcus mutans
 Genetic analysis of the bacteria found in young children suggests that the
transmission is typically from mother to the child.10
92

ECC contd
 Increased risk for ECC:
 Delayed or abnormal progression through transition stage of infant nutrition: by
increasing the quantity or frequency of carbohydrate exposure.
 Excessive reliance on beverages for nutrition.
 Delayed acceptance of solid food .
 Delivery of beverages by bottle or closed cup system.
 Continued nocturnal bottles combined with decreased saliva during sleep.
 Prolonged breast feeding 12
 Prevention:
 Early evaluation of dietary habits
 Anticipatory guidance
 Appropriate transition to table food
 Limited intake of sugared beverages
93

FAILURE TO THRIVE
 Refers to a condition when the physical growth of a child is less than expected ,
usually below the third or fifth centile, or when a child has significant loss of weight in
a short time.
 Divided into 3 categories:
 Organic FTT: (30%) with a known medical condition.
 Non-organic/ psychosocial FTT: (70%) without any known medical condition. A
majority is due to psycho-social neglect. Also called Environmental FTT because
of poverty and accidental errors.
 Mixed type FTT.
 FTT and PEM are closely related. FTT is a medical problem or a label for investigation
and PEM is the diagnosis.
 Organic causes:
 GIT
 Renal
 Neurologic
 Cardiovascular
 Respiratory
 Endocrine
 Infections
 Miscellaneous
95

 Clinical features:
 Developmental delay
 Growth retardation
 Mental changes
 Behavioural problems
 Soft neurological signs.
 Management:
 Hospitalization
 Dietary support
 Counselling
96

OBESITY
 CDC guidelines suggest refraining from using the term obesity when
working with children and prefer the terms at risk for overweight and
overweight.
 Weight-for-age values greater than 90th to the 95th percentile may be used to
screen for over weight, however weight-for-height relationship provides a
much more valuable assessment of body fat.
 Age specific weight-for-height ratio or BMI from the 85th perentile to less than
95th percentile is indicative of at risk for overweight.
 Age specific weight-for-height ratio or BMI greater than 95th percentile is
indicative of overweight.
97

DISORDERED EATING
 Psychosocial dwarfism:
 Deceleration of linear growth and characteristic behaviour disturbances
including bizarre eating patterns and sleeping habits.
 Children do not demonstrate expected growth in response to appropriate
food intake in their home environment secondary to neglect and/or severly
dysfunctional caregiver-child interactions.
 Typical presentation occurs at 18-48 months
 Rumination
 Voluntary regurgitation, chewing and reswallowing of stomach contents.
 Self-stimulatory behaviour
 Typically associated with psychosocial issues and/or mental retardation.
 Age of onset is typically 3-12 months but occurs later in individuals with
mental retardation.
 Children are at risk for enamel erosion .
98

 Pica:
 Pathologic craving for a food item or substance not commonly regarded
as food .
 Classic example: starch, ice or paint chips, dirt and paper.
 Risk of direct toxicity from the desired substance and lead poisoning from
incidental exposure.
99
DISORDERED EATING

Gustafsson et al. (1954). The Vipeholm dental
caries study. Acta Odontlogica Scandinavica
11:232-364.
104
5 yr investigation on
436 adult inmates in a
mental institution
,Vipeholm institution
in Sweden.

105
Sugar
consumed
gm per day
200
300
100
0
New
DMFT
per
year
4
3
1
0

Conclusions
 Increase in Carbs definitely increases caries activity.
 Risk of caries is greater if sugar is consumed in a form that will be
retained on the teeth.
 Risk of caries is greatest if sugar is consumed between meals.
 Increase in caries activity varies widely among individuals.
 Upon withdrawl of sugar rich foods, the caries activity rapidly
disappears.
 High concentration of sugar in solution and its prolonged retention on
tooth surfaces leads to increased caries activity.
 Clearance time of sugar correlates closely with caries activity.
106

The Dental Caries Experience of the Children
of Hopewood House
Sullivan and Harris Med J Aust, June 1953 Dental status of children between 3 and 14 yrs age residing at
Hopewood house, Bowral, New South Wales was studied longitudinally
for 10 years.
 Strict institutional diet, with the exception of occasional serving of egg
yolk, was entirely vegetable in nature and largely raw.
 Principle features:
 Absence of meat
 Rigid restriction of refined carbohydrate
 No tea
 Vitamin supplements
 Occasional serving of nuts and a sweetening agent such as honey
107

Findings
 At the end of 10 yr period,
 Average DMFT : 1.6
 Corresponding figure for general population was 10.7
 53% of children were caries free whereas only 0.4% of the 13 yrs old, state
school children were free from caries.
 Children’s oral hygiene was poor, calculus uncommon, but gingivitis was
prevalent in 75% of children.
CONCLUSION:
In institutionalized children, at least dental caries can be reduced by Spartan
diet, without the beneficial effects of flourides and in the presence of
unfavorable oral hygiene.
108

12
10
0
4
2
6
8
New Zealand Sydney Bowral
HOPEWOOD HOUSE
BOWRAL, NSW
DMFT of children
aged 3-14 yrs
Lilienthal et al Med J Aust, June 1953

111
Weiss RL, Trithart. Between meal eating habits and dental
caries experience in preschool children. American Journal
of Public Health 50:1097-1104, 1960.

CARIOGENIC FOODS
112
• Promote formation of caries
• Fermentable carbohydrates, those that can be broken down by
salivary amylase
• Result in lower mouth pH
• Include crackers, chips, pretzels, cereals, breads, fruits, sugars,
sweets, desserts

CARIOSTATIC FOODS
113
• Foods that do not contribute to decay
• Do not cause a drop in salivary pH
• Includes protein foods, eggs, fish, meat and poultry; most vegetables,
fats, sugarless gums

ANTICARIOGENIC FOODS
114
• Prevent plaque from recognizing an acidogenic food when it is eaten
first
• May increase salivation or have antimicrobial activity
• Includes xylitol (sweetener in sugarless gum) and cheese

115
AAPD DIETARY
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INFANTS,
CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

116
Frequent ingestion of sugar-sweetened medications has demonstrated a higher
incidence of caries in chronically ill children.
Kenny DJ, Somaya P. Sugar load of oral liquid medications on chronically
ill children. J Can Dent Assoc 1989;55(1):43-6.
Cases of vitamin A toxicity have been reported as a result of excessive
consumption of candy-like vitamin supplements.
Lam HS, Chow CH, Poon WT, et al. Risk of vitamin A toxicity from candy-
like chewable vitamin supplements for children. Pediatrics
2006;118(2):820-4.
Excessive consumption of fruit juice has been associated with small stature in
some children.
Dennison BA, Rockwell HL, Baker SL. Excess fruit juice consumption by
preschool-aged children is associated withshort stature and obesity.
Pediatrics 1997;99(1):15-22.
Reeves AF, Rees JM, Schiff M, Hujoel P. Total body weight and waist
circumference associated with chronic periodontitis among adolescents in the
United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2006;160(9):894-9.

AAPD DIETARY
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INFANTS,
CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
 To help the public make choices for a healthy diet, the USDA and DHHS
published Dietary Guidelines for Americans.
 Eating a variety of nutrient-dense foods and beverages.
 Balancing foods eaten with physical activity to maintain a healthy body mass index.
 Maintaining a caloric intake adequate to support normal growth and development
and to reach or maintain a healthy weight.
 Choosing a diet with plenty of vegetables, fruits, and whole grains and low in fat,
saturated (especially trans-saturated) fat, and cholesterol.
 Using sugars and salt (sodium) in moderation.
118

NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
FOR SPECIAL CHILDREN
 INTRODUCTION:
 The term "children with special health needs" refers to a subset of children who
have, or are at risk of developing, chronic conditions, mental disabilities, or health-
related problems.7
 Chronic diseases can pose increased risks to the nutritional status of infants and
children. 8
 It is estimated that as many as 40% of SHCN children are at risk for nutrition
problems. 9
 Decreased appetite:
 SHCN children often experience a decrease in appetite and food intake due to
pain, surgery, fever, infection, psychological distress, physical impediments, and
medications or treatment. 10 , 11, 12
 Frequency of food intake:
 Increased energy needs due to protein wasting and/or hypermetabolism, which
require more frequent feedings, are routinely seen in diseases such as congenital
heart disease, cystic flbrosis, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). 13, 14
121

 Parental over-indulgence:
 Parental stress: Anxiety, fear, guilt, depression, and helplessness and can
compromise effective child-rearing practices.
 overprotect and overindulge.
 Poor oral hygiene and prevention:
 Poor oral hygiene, low fluoride exposure and altered oral flora are common to most
chronic disorders.
 Infrequent brushing, reduced manual dexterity, and dependence on caregivers.
 Lower fluoride exposure can result from reduced use of toothpaste, lower water
intake, and reduced visits to the dentist.
 Altered oral flora might be associated with xerostomia.
 Long-term use of cariogenic medications:
 Children's Tylenol® Suspension contains 2 g of high fructose corn syrup per
teaspoon (5 mL).
 Amoxicillin, a common antibiotic, includes more than 5 g of sucrose in a daily dose
(15 mL).
 Digoxin syrup, containing 30% sucrose, and chlorthiazide and spironolactone,
containing approximately 20% sucrose.
122

 Xerostomia:
 Symptom of various medical conditions, a side effect of radiation to the head and
neck or a wide variety of medications that may or may not be associated with
decreased salivary gland function 15
 Most of the drugs used to manage attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder can cause
xerostomia. 16
 Xerostomia is also associated with slower clearance of foods from the oral cavity.
 This allows fermentable carbohydrates to stay in contact with plaque longer,
thereby increasing acid production and enhancing enamel demineralization. 17
123

NUTRITIONAL
RECOMMENDATIONS
126

 Oral health management:
 The American Academy of Pediatrics and the AAPD recommend establishing a
dental home by one year of age. 18
 Oral hygiene management:
 The 2-2-2 rule should be used as a guide for how to brush as soon as the teeth
erupt. A soft-nylon bristle manual or electric toothbrush should be used for 2
minutes, 2 times a day (after breakfast and before bed), with nothing entering the
mouth for 2 hours after spitting without rinsing. 19
 The caregiver should brush the child's teeth until age 7 or 8 years-old.
 ADA guidelines encourage the use of a peasized amount of fluoridated toothpaste
twice a day, beginning at 2 years-old, with careful supervision. 20
 For children younger than 2 years-old known to be at high risk for caries, a "smear“
of fluoridated toothpaste may be a necessary part of a preventive regimen.
 Tooth wipes containing the antimicrobial xylitol provide a safe and easy way to
clean a child's teeth and mouth after feeding or when brushing is inconvenient 21
 Antimicrobial products:
 Should be used to complement, not replace, mechanical plaque removal.
 Chlorhexidine can reduce caries among SHCN patients. 22
 Used as an alcohol-based or water-based mouth rinse. It can also be swabbed on
for those children who cannot rinse or spit.
127

 Xylitol is a low-calorie, naturally occurring, and diabetic safe sugar that is not
metabolized by cariogenic bacteria.
 Incorporating xylitol into the diet inhibits pH changes and reduces bacterial
attachment to teeth 23
 Gums, mints, chewable tablets, lozenges, toothpastes mouthwashes, cough
mixtures, and nutraceutical products.
 Use of xylitol gums by primary caregivers has been shown to decrease oral
bacterial load and interrupt vertical transmission. 24
 Xylitol products also stimulate salivary flow and aid in the symptomatic treatment of
xerostomia sometimes associated with chronic childhood disease. 24
 Remineralization products:
 Fluoride varnish application can slow, arrest, and possibly even reverse the
progression of caries. 25
 Amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) products, such as RecalDent'" and
Novamin®, help replace lost minerals and protect teeth from decay and erosion by
providing calcium and phosphate in a soluble form.26
 Management of pain and discomfort:
 Nonpharmacological means of addressing pain and discomfort include sipping cool
water, sucking on ice chips, or using ice pops preferably with non-sweetened
flavoring. 27128

 Management of xerostomia:
 Saliva stimulants or sialagogues.
 Frequent sipping of sugarless fluids throughout the day and sucking on ice chips
can be helpful.
 Rinsing 4 to 6 times daily with a salt and baking soda solution (half teaspoon of
each added to 1 cup of warm water) may help buffer the acidic oral environment.
 Alcohol containing mouthwashes should be avoided, as they may cause additional
drying. 28
 Flavor enhancers
129

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9. Ireys HT, Nelson RP. New federal policy for children with special health care needs:
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132

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