Discourse analysis

Discourse Analysis
(An Introduction)
Level-7

What is Discourse analysis?
*(1) Discourse Analysis is a general term for a number of approaches
to analyzing written, spoken, signed language use or any significant
semiotic event.
McCarthy, M (2000): *(2) Discourse analysis is concerned with the
study of the relationship between language and the context in which
it is used. It focuses on language in use: written texts of all kinds, and
spoken data, from conversation to highly institutionalized forms of
talk.
Stubbs. M (1983): *(3) Discourse analysis is also concerned with
language use in social contexts, and in particular with interaction or
dialogue between speakers. Discourse analysis is sometimes defined
as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'.

Discourse Analysis is an increasingly popular and important area of
language study. It discusses not only about language itself but also
how it relates with society, culture, and thought. It is used to describe
activities in several disciplines, such as linguistics, sociolinguistics and
psycholinguistics.
Examples:
I am not feeling well. ( Linguistic meaning) Locutionary
I want to rest now (Intention) Illocutionary
Yes Sir, you may take the class next week. (result) Perlocutionary

Discourse analysis has been taken up in a variety of
disciplines in the humanities and social sciences,
including linguistics education, sociology, anthropology,
social work, cognitive psychology, social psychology,
cultural studies, international relations, human
geography, communication studies and translation
studies, each of which is subject to its own assumptions,
dimensions of analysis and methodologies.

Discourse and discourse analysis
Discourse
 Discourse is language above the sentence level.
 Discourse is more than just language use.
 Discourse constitutes the social; distinguished-knowledge, social relations, and
social identity.
Discourse Analysis
 Discourse analysis aims at revealing socio-psychological characteristics of a
person/persons rather than text structure.
 The analysis of discourse is the analysis of language in use.
 Language as an instrument of communication, whose expression is discourse.
 The analysis of the functions of language can be referred to as discourse
analysis.

A Brief Historical Overview
• Discourse analysis grew out of work in different disciplines in the 1960s and
early 1970s, including linguistics, semiotics, psychology, anthropology and
sociology.
• Although the ancient Greeks (among others) had much to say on discourse,
some scholars consider Austria-born Leo Spitzer's Stilstudien (Style Studies) of
1928 the earliest example of discourse analysis (DA). It was translated into
French by Michel Foucault.
• However, the term first came into general use following the publication of a
series of papers by Zellig Harris in 1952 reporting on work from which he
developed transformational grammar in the late 1930s.

• Zellig Harris published a paper with the title ‘Discourse analysis’ in
1952. He was interested in the distribution of linguistic elements in
extended texts, and the links between the text and its social
situation, though his paper is a far cry from the discourse analysis
we are used to nowadays.
• Also important in the early years was the emergence of semiotics in
the 1960s, Dell Hymes provided a sociological perspective with the
study of speech in its social setting. The linguistic philosophers such
as Austin (1962), Searl (1969) and Grice (1975) were also influential
in the study of language as social action, reflected in speech-act
theory and the formulation of conversational maxims, alongside the
emergence of pragmatics, which is the study of meaning in context.

Scope of Discourse analysis
 Discourse analysis is influenced by other disciplines and influences them as well.
 Discourse analysis examines spoken and written texts from all sorts of different
areas.

Discourse analysis is not only concerned with the description and
analysis of spoken interaction. In addition to all our verbal
encounters we daily consume hundreds of written and printed
words: newspaper articles, letters, stories, recipes, instructions,
notices, comics, billboards, leaflets pushed through the door, and so
on.
We usually expect them to be coherent, meaningful communications
in which the words and/or sentences are linked to one another in a
fashion that corresponds to conventional formulae, just as we do
with speech; therefore discourse analysts are equally interested in
the organization of written interaction.

Difference between Discourse and Text
• Discourse Analysis focuses on the structure of naturally
spoken language as found in conversation interviews,
commentaries and speeches.
• Text analysis focuses on the structure of written language, as
found in such text as essays, notices, road signs and
chapters. (Crystal. 1987)
• Some scholars talk about ‘spoken or written discourse’ other
about ‘spoken or written text’ (Crystal. 1987)

It means discourse and text can be used almost
synonymously. But a distinction is always there and that
in discourse has some social purpose while text fulfills
the function of communication of some meaning only.
As suggested by Michel Stubbs (1983) who treats text
and discourse as more or less synonymous.

• Hawthorn (1992) says text may be non-interactive where as a
discourse is interactive. Means to say text is non-interactive
that’s it only fulfills the function of conveying some meaning.
But discourse is always involved in two ways responses in
some formal or informal conversation and dialogues etc.
• Hawthorn (1992) further says ‘discourse is a linguistic
communication seen as a transaction between speaker and
hearer. While text is also a linguistics communication (either
spoken or written) seen simply as a message coded in its
auditory or visual medium’.

• To conclude we can say discourse and text have something in common as both
use the medium of language whether in sign language. Both have some meaning
that they try to convey.
• But text has a limited scope as compare with discourse. In other words we can
say discourse is somewhat broad category in the system of language. And text
deals with the written from of language.
• Discourse has different forms as Discourse of Advertising, Discourse of Racism,
Discourse of Medical etc. But text has no such forms. Discourse can be found
with in text. And not vice versa.
• Text has its maximum interpretation in its own self but discourse has a lot of
things above the language level.

Discourse types
• Discourse types, also known as rhetorical modes, are types of
speaking and writing.
• There are five main types of discourse:
1) Narrative
2) Descriptive
3) Persuasive
4) Argumentative
5) Expository

1- Narrative
Narrative writing involves telling a story (narrating). Narration
involves several features, such as:
 Point of view (first person or third person)
 Characters
 Setting
 Plot
 Conflict
 Resolution

2- Descriptive
• Descriptive writing features descriptive words/phrases
and sensory images.
• An effective piece of descriptive writing should make
the reader feel as if he or she is experiencing what is
being described.

3- Persuasive
The purpose of Persuasive writing/speaking is to convince the
readers/listeners to change their mode of thinking or to
persuade them to take a specific action.
Persuasive techniques are often used in:
 Advertisements
 Argumentative writing
 Political campaigns
 Persuasion often appeals to emotion

4- Argumentative
• Argumentative writing/speaking is similar to Persuasive
writing/speaking. However, the argument is put forward
in a logical manner and is often supported by facts.
• Persuasive techniques are often used in Argument.

5-Expository
The purpose of Expository writing, or Exposition, is to
deliver information about an issue, subject, method,
or idea.
Types of Expository Writing include:
 Analogy
 Analysis
 Cause and Effect
 Classification

Identifying Discourse Types
• To identify a Discourse Type, you must pay attention
to:
 The writer’s/speaker’s purpose
 The main idea of the speech/passage
 The type of language used
 The way the information is organized

Differences between oral and written discourse
• Discourse is a term used to explain the transfer of
information from one person to another. It implies the
use of words and sentences in context for the purpose
of conveying meaning. Discourse can happen either
orally — through spoken language — or in written
format.

Oral/Spoken discourse
Oral discourse is just as it sounds. *It is communication or
transfer of information using words that are spoken. For oral
discourse to happen, someone must be speaking either in
conversation or through oral delivery of information, such as in a
lecture or presentation. Oral discourse lends itself to the use
of speech acts, which are functions of communication that might
include congratulating, ordering, demanding, promising, hinting,
warning, or greeting. Oral discourse often also
contains discourse markers, such as words that create pause or
separation of ideas (such as ''well,'' ''so,'' ''anyway,'' or ''you
know.'')

Characteristics of Oral/Spoken discourse
Positive Characteristics
• Meaning is supported by nonverbal communication and other factors such as tone, intonation, etc.
• Can be done spur of the moment.
• Audience is known to the one delivering the message.
• Pace of communication is generally determined by the speaker.
• More personable and involves a shared situation between speaker and listener.
Negative Characteristics
• Sometimes not as reliable as words are often not given as much consideration before they are spoken
(except in cases of carefully planned speeches or lectures).
• Often is less planned and contains less structure.
• Tendency to use words with fewer syllables and less complex sentences.
• Once delivered, it cannot be changed or taken back.
• The receiver of information must listen to the whole speech or presentation at once in order to get full
meaning.
• Oral information is only permanent if it is continuously passed from one person to the next.

Written discourse
Written discourse is also the transfer of information, but, as
its name suggests, it involves the written word. To be
successful, the writer and the receiver must have the
necessary skills for delivery of information; *the writer must
be able to write, and the reader must be able to read.
Written discourse is often tied with genre, or the type
and/or structure of language used to imply purpose and
context within a specific subject matter, especially when
looking at literature.

Characteristics of written discourse
Positive Characteristics
• More precise as words can be thought through and carefully chosen.
• Once written, words can still be changed or rearranged in order to make communication more precise.
• Tendency to use larger words and more complex sentences to make the message more interesting.
• Writing can happen over a period of time with much consideration given to the message and its delivery.
• The receiver can spread reading out over a period of time so as to give full attention to meaning.
• Writing is a permanent record of information.
Negative Characteristics
• Pace of communication is determined by the reader or receiver of information.
• Audience for written discourse is not always known.
• Meaning might be supported by visual graphics, but there are no nonverbal communication cues to read.
• Less personable and can be very one-sided. (Rarely do the writer and reader share in the situation
together.)
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Discourse analysis

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Discourse analysis