Dry cargo refers to goods that are not in liquid or gaseous form and are transported in bulk or packaged form. It includes a wide range of commodities, from raw materials like coal and grain to manufactured goods like steel and timber.

Cargo Handling Equipment
What is the Shipboard Lifting Gear
Shipboard lifting gear is the equipment onboard the ship, which is designated to lift cargo from shore,
and land it in the ship’s holds and vice versa.
How many types of lifting gear onboard dry cargo ships?
There are four main types of lifting gear on Dry Cargo ships:
1- Union Purchase
2- Single Swinging Derrick
3- Cranes, Deck cranes both level-luffing
4- Shipboard Gantry System

Union Purchase
The Union Purchase rig consist of two derricks, One derrick, called the 'ship derrick' is
positioned over the hatch-opening (hatchway) and the other, called the 'off-shore
derrick' is positioned clear of the rail to allow of discharge to the berth or lighter
(barge).

Single Swinging Derrick (Conventional heavy lift boom)
Swinging derrick rig consist of one derrick placed in the centre of the vessel, it was
named swinging because the derrick swing back and forth between the hatchway
and the dockside (or lighter) during Loading/Discharging.

Cranes, Deck Cranes Both Level-Luffing.
Electro-hydraulic single deck cranes have
hoisting
capacities of 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20, 25, 40 tons.
Twin cranes “Both Level-Luffing” are designed to have
hoisting capacities of 2 x 12; 2 x 20; 2 x 25; 2 x 40
tons, but they can operate either singly or in
concert.
Heavier hoisting capacities are also available for
specialized ships and cargoes; they reached the
staggering hoisting capacity of 400 tons.
These crane types are suitable for relatively fast
moving general, bulk and container cargoes.
The positioning of deck cranes is a matter of
importance. The sitting of deck cranes on mountings
along a mid-transverse position between double
hatch openings greatly assists both speed and
radius of operation.
Cranes is mounted on a vertical pillar structure, from
the deck. Visibility and line of vision is important, if
not vital, to crane operators.

Gantry
Other crane design is the gantry crane, similar to shore based container gantry crane.
This design is not wide spread onboard vessels as the traditional one.
The ship is equipped with two rails near the bulwark running the full length of the main
deck from under the forecastle up to the superstructure, this enable to position the
gantry crane exactly on top of the cargo.
This design achieved very good loading/discharging rate with light homogeneous cargo,
capacity of these cranes varies but the most common is between 20 to 30 Ton.

The load must be adequately secured by the sling.
The sling must be adequately attached to the lifting appliance.
The load must be slung so that it will not collapse or change form when it is lifted.
The load must not damage the sling, perhaps causing it to part.
The load must not be damaged by the sling e.g., wire rope slings may rip paper,
score
timber, distort steel, etc.; fiber rope slings can rupture paper sacks
Types of Cargo Slings
1Rope sling: This is formed by joining the ends of a piece of 25-30 mm rope about 10-12
metres in length with a short splice. The sling is in very common use. Bags, baled goods,
barrels and cases may all be slung with this.
2Canvas sling: This is formed by sewing a piece of canvas between the parts of a
rope sling. It is used for bagged grain, rice, coffee and similar cargoes where the
contents of the bag are small. Any spillage is retained in the canvas and is not wasted.
The stress on the outside bags is spread more evenly and thus the chance of splitting is
reduced.
3- Board sling: Is similar to the canvas sling but wood is used in place of the canvas.
This is used for slinging fragile cargo such as bags of cement.
Basics of safe slinging

4Snotter: May be made of either rope or wire by forming an eye at each end of a If. 20mm
wire or 50~60 mm rope 4~6 metres in length. It is used for slinging cases, bales, wet
hides and timber.
5Chain sling: Consists of a length of chain with a large ring at one end and a hook HI
smaller ring at the other end. It is used for lifting heavy logs, bundles of iron and most
steelwork. Care must always be taken that no kinks are allowed to form in the chain
when goods are being lifted.
6- Plate clamps: There are various types of plate clamp, but the principle is that the
plate is gripped when the weight is taken, so that there is no chance of the plate slipping
c n could do if a chain sling was used.
7- Can hooks: The hook slips under the lip of the drum or barrel. There are frequently four or five sets
of hooks on a ring, which enable drums and barrels to be handled very rapidly. They are not to be
recommended for handling heavy barrels as there is a possibility that the staves will be pulled out.

8- Trays: May be square, rectangular or round. They are
slung by short pieces of rope, called legs, attached to the
corners. Used for small cases and drums.
9- Boxes: Similar to the tray but a wooden side is fixed
around it. Used for handling explosives.
10- Nets: Used for handling small packages and mails, A wooden
board is sometimes placed in the net if there is a risk of the packages
being crushed. A canvas net sling is sometimes used for slinging
frozen meat.
11- Car slings: There are many types of these. All are designed for
the rapid handling of cars and Lorries. It is essential that spreaders
should be fitted otherwise there is a possibility that the bodywork of
the vehicle will be damaged (cave in). When heavy Lorries and buses
or big chassis are to be slung, wire slings are usually attached direct to
the ends of the axles.

12- Heavy Lift Slings: Are used for the handling of locomotives and similar cargo. A
large beam is employed to separate the slings which are of large gauge wire. The slings
are attached to the ends of the beam.

Seamanship has been defined as the application of common sense and experience
in the marine environment.
Common sense = Safe job =
Employing
Possessing
Wearing
Using
Operated
by
Applying
Working in
With
Having
the right number of
people the right skills
the right
protection the
right tools
the right methods
the right
procedures the
right place
the right access
the right
environment
Safety of personnel
Before commencing cargo operation, any opening or gape between cargos with a
depth of over one meter should be temporary fenced by ropes.
Do not cover any unfenced hatches, openings or gaps between cargos with
tarpaulins, this will give a false safe feeling and will cause persons to fall.
Don’t allow workers to use portable ladders located in the hatch opening during cargo
operation.
No body is allowed to walk on the hatch coaming.
No body is allowed to walk or linger under a moving load; slings can part, cargo
can slip through nets or fall off pallets.
Ensure that everybody left the cargo hold before closing the hatch-cover.

Safety clothing
The OOW should always ensure that all personnel
employed on the ship wear clothing and other relevant
protection which is suitable for the job they are
performing, and the location in which they are working.
Everyone on deck should wear:-
Hard hat
Safety shoes with steel toecaps
Gloves should be worn which offer sufficient protection
appropriate to the materials being handled (e.g., leather
gloves for handling wires).
Suitable dust mask (If Cargo of a dusty nature)
When appropriate, workers should wear eye, face and
hand protection.
Specialised protection is sometimes provided when
certain hazardous cargoes are carried, which must be
used in the event of a spillage.
Hearing protection should be worn if there are high
noise levels around an activity.
Studded boots or none-slip shoes should be worn by
personnel working on timber deck cargoes.
High visibility clothing or markings should be worn
by all
personnel on Ro-Ro ships and Car Carriers.

Safety precautions during Opening and Closing Hatch Covers
The OOW must personally supervise all stages of opening and closing hatches.
Track-ways should be clear of obstructions, and all personnel should
stand well clear.
Secure hatch covers after opening.
No-one is permitted to stand on a hatch cover whilst it is moving.
Secure Hatch Cover after opening.
Guards must be erected around all openings, however temporary.
Safe operation of cargo-handling equipment
It is the OOW responsible to ensure that the ship's cargo-handling equipment is in safe condition
for the stevedores to use, in addition to the followsing.
All equipment must be clearly marked with its Safe Working Load (SWL).
All equipment must be in good condition; there must be no signs of excessive wear.
All wires should be free from barbs, broken strands, flattened areas and kinks, and be well
lubricated.
All blocks and other moving parts must be free, and should be kept well lubricated.
All operating controls should be clearly marked, tested regularly, and switched off when the
equipment is not in use.
All trips, cut-outs, limit switches, over-load devices, slack wire detectors and all other safety and fail-
safe features must be functioning, and they should be tested regularly; and must not be over-ridden
or switched off, except under specific permitted circumstances; over-ride keys should not be given out
to stevedores..
Vents used to provide cooling air to the lifting equipment’s motors must be open.
Sufficient power must be available at all times.
Winch-Brakes should be examined and tested regularly.
Lubricating and hydraulic oil levels must be checked before operating and topped up as required.
Crane’s windows should be cleaned regularly.
If the OOW detects any faults in the ship's equipment, he shall immediately suspend using the faulty
gear and inform the Chief Officer.

Safety during cargo operation
The operation should be conducted with due care, and without undue haste.
The safe working load of the equipment must not be exceeded.
The OOW should check not only the weight of items of cargo but also the weight of mobile cargo-
handling equipment, such as fork lifts and bulldozers, which is to be lifted by the ship's gear. Often
such equipment has a detachable counterweight to avoid overstressing the lifting gear.
The OOW must be sure that all parts of the system are operating within their designed limits.
Use appropriate slings to the type of and packing of cargo
The equipment must be operated by a skilled and experienced person.
If the operator cannot see the entire operation (e.g., from the quay to the bottom of the
hold) then a signalman must be positioned to cover his blind area.
Controls must never be left unattended, unless switched off.
Equipment should be operated smoothly, without any jerking; in particular the load should
be taken up gradually, as snatching produces excessive strains and stresses in the equipment.
The load must not be left suspended, but should be rested on deck, or some other
adequate support, if there is an unexpected delay. This does NOT apply to very heavy lifts,
which should be returned to their original position if delays arise.
Appropriate communication must be used, with all signals clearly understood by all
concerned.
Slack wires should be avoided, and any slack turns on a barrel must be removed as soon as
they are noticed, as there is a danger they may pull out suddenly under load, and maybe cause
an accident.
Cargo should not be dragged over other cargo or allowed to collide with parts of the ship's
structure or fittings.
Employ any specialised equipment available for that type of cargo.
Handling-instruction labels on the cargo must be obeyed.
Operations such as changing the gearing, or twinning two systems, must only be performed
under the direct supervision of the OOW, who should check the manuals or consult the Chief
Officer if he is not sure of the procedures or operational requirements.

Other Safety precautions
No smoking on-deck or in the holds.
The OOW must ensure that the Cargo holds has been
adequately ventilated before any person is permitted to enter.
Depending on the nature of cargo and stowing equipment
used, the OOW should operate and check ventilation system
regularly, in order to maintain safe atmosphere in the holds.
Lighting must always be switched on before entering
darkened cargo holds.
Portable ladders shall be in good condition and must always
be adequately lashed.
Nails should be removed from old dunnage.
The gangway must be used for all access between the ship
and shore; no-one should be allowed to step between the deck
and the quay when these are almost level.
Stevedores often throw twist-locks and other container fittings
onto the deck when discharging containers. This can cause
damage to the ship's structure, securing equipments and
severe injury to personnel below.
Some cargoes can create dust or emit flammable gases which
create a danger of explosion.
Cargo light (portable light) must never be hanged from the
electric cable, cargo-light must be positioned away from any
cargo specially flammable cargo, heat from the cargo light may
cause fire.
During rain use only waterproof cargo-light, rain can cause
electric short circuit, sudden cooling by the rain to the light
bulbs may cause them to explode.

CHECK the cargo runner if it needs
replacing before cargo operation
How to check the cargo runner if it
need replacing ?
You can tested by taking length
from the wire
= 8 x (Diameter in cm.).
IF the no. of cut WIRES OF ALL
STRANDS more than 10% from
total no. Of strands IT WILL
NOT BE USE
Exmp. If Dia. of winch runner
=20
mm. Construction (24 x6)
strands.
No. of wires =24 x 6=144 wires
- 10%
= 14 wires
then the length to be checked
=(8 x
20)=160 mm = 16 cm
So if the number of cut w.=14
or more IT WILL NOT BE
USED.

Communication
Lack of Effective Ship/Shore Communication
The lack of effective ship/shore communication may increase
the risk of unintentional overloading of the ship's structure. It
is important that there is an agreed procedure between the
ship's officers and the terminal operators to STOP cargo
operations. The communication link established between the
ship and the terminal should be maintained throughout the
cargo operation.
Ship/Shore Communication Prior to the Commencement of
Cargo Operations
Effective means of communication are to be established
between the ship's deck officers and the cargo terminal
which shall remain effective throughout the cargo operation.
This communication link should establish the following:
An agreed procedure to STOP cargo operations
Personnel responsible for terminal cargo operations
The ship's officer responsible for the cargo
loading/unloading plan and the officer in-charge responsible
for the on deck cargo operation
Confirmation of information received in advance
An agreed procedure for the terminal to provide the officer
in charge with the loaded cargo weight, at frequent intervals
and at the end of each pour
An agreed procedure for draught checking
The reporting of any damage to the ship from the cargo
operations
The ship's officers should be familiar with the IMO Ship/Shore
Safety Checklist.

Ventilation and hold
smell.
After discharge cargo and complete hold
cleaning , washing, it required to clearing any
smell inside the hold may be causing
damage for next cargo to be load subject to
reject vessel specially reefer vessels if the
discharged cargo was fish and next beef or
butter , it may be allow to using some
approved sprays to clear such smells and
keep hold sufficiently ready to load.
Dunnage.
It is cheap kind of wood, light, swift and
flexible with lot of and different sizes
according to kind of cargo , the common size
is 1in.x 6in.x 16 fee. The required quantity
for using on board independent on nature of
cargo and position inside the vessel and
other elements .
The weight of the dunnage should be
consider with ships tonnage , and ordered
through stevedore by cubic meter or ton.

Dunnage may serve the following purpose :
1. To protect cargo from contact with water from the
bilges, leakage from other cargo, form ship’s side
or from double bottom tank.
2. To protect cargo from moisture or sweat which
condenses on the ship’s sides, frames,
bulkheads,etc, and run down into the bilges.
3. To protect cargo from contact with
condensed
moisture, which is collected and retained on
side
stringers, bulkhead brackets,etc.
4. To provide air courses for the heated moisture
laden air to travel to the sides and bulkheads
along which it ascends towards the uptakes, etc
5. To prevent chafe as well as to chock off and
secure
cargo by filling in broken stowage,
6. To evenly spread the compression load for deep
stowage
7. To provide working levels and protection for
the
cargo on which labour can operate and serve as
a form of separation.
8. Provide access for cooled air round or through
the
cargo for temperature controlled requirements.

Types of Dunnage
1- Permanent Dunnage :

a) Side Battens:
 Spar Ceiling or Cargo Batten consists of
timber of about 150mm x 50mm fitted over
the ship’s side frame.
 Purpose to prevent packages of cargo
protruding beyond the inner edges of
the frames and so becoming
damaged by moisture-
IMPROVE Ventilation.
b) Permanent wooden hold floors : Some ships
are fitted with wooden floors for her holds
2) Temporary dunnage :
Temporary Dunnage may be used depending
upon the nature of cargo carried :
 Matting (Bamboo etc)
 Battens
 Hardwood, chipboards
 Air filled Dunnage Bags
 Boards
 Bundles of sticks
 Coir
 Paper
 Disposable paper bags with plastic linings

Reasons and Importance for Hold Inspection
Cargo Hold must be inspected by the Cargo Officer (Chief
Officer) before commencing loading operation to ensure that
the hold is suitable for the next cargo, and to eliminate the
possibility of cargo damage due to contamination, ensure
that all fittings are in good order (Bilge, Ventilation, Lighting,
Fire and Hatch covers)
Items to be inspected
General cleanliness (No Rust or loose rust).
Spar ceiling.
Tween Deck draining holes.
Bilge system (Bilge well, strum box & non-return
valve). Sounding Pipes (Bilge & Double Bottom
Tanks).
Air Vent. Pipes.
Electric cables, Lighting and connections.
General condition of side shell, bulkheads, frames
and beams.
Double Bottom Tanks
manholes Ventilation ducts.
Fire detection and fixed fire
extinguishing systems.
Hatch cover, check for water tightness (any damaged rubber
must be changed) (grease all moving parts including wheels,
hinges and cleats).
Fixed hold ladders (Repair as necessary or place temporary

Hold Cleaning
Reasons and Importance for cleaning holds
Generally speaking, it is the ship’s responsibility to
deliver the cargo (at the Port of discharge) as
received (at the Port of loading), cargo damage
claim is one of the main concerns of the
shipping companies, shipping
companies entrust the cargo care to the
ship’s Master and crew.
Cargo damage can be caused by contamination
from the previous cargo, so it is a must to clean the
hold thoroughly (from top to bottom) after every
cargo.
It is a common practice with some types of cargo
(expensive and delicate cargo) to hire a surveyor to
inspect the ship’s holds before commencing
loading, unclean holds will result in refusing to load
till it is cleaned or re-cleaned; time lost will be on
the owner account.

Hold cleaning procedure
Cleaning: The amount of cleaning with a cargo space will depend upon the nature
of the cargo which has been discharged and that which is to be loaded; hold which is
ready to receive cargo should be clean and dry, well ventilated and free from any odour.
When discharging is finished, Collect and stack all serviceable dunnage.
Unsuitable dunnage must be sent up on deck to be disposed of. It is a common
practice in two deck vessels to shift a quantity of the lower hold dunnage up to the
tween deck, to be passed down again as required in the lower hold. This saves
unnecessary shifting of dunnage when stowing the lower hold.
The hold is then thoroughly swept down and all rubbish is sent up on deck.
The Bilge covers are lifted and the bilges thoroughly cleaned out.
Particularly, attention must be given to the rose boxes and it is most important to see
that all the holes in the boxes are clear.
If necessary, the bilges may be cement or lime washed or coated with bitumastic; this
tends to prevent corrosion and also disinfects them.
Before the Bilge covers are replaced, bilge suction must be tested.
T
o clean a hold from which a coal cargo (Or any dusty bulk cargo) has just been
discharged it is necessary first to sweep it down and then to wash it down with a hose.
The bilge suctions and/or rose boxes must be attended to so that the water can be
pumped away. Hold must be wiped down (washed) with fresh water to remove any salt
residues.
Ventilate the hold by mechanical ventilation (leaving the hatch cover opened will help
accelerate dryness.). Sawdust sprinkled on all ironwork and on the tank top (or
ceiling) will help to absorb the damp and may be swept up after a short interval.

Bilges or (drain
wells)
The bilges (bilge well) are small collecting
space for any water in the hold, there are two
bilges in each hold located in the aft end of
the hold, one to the port side and one to the
starboard
Any water accidentally enters the hold or as a
result of sweat, will drain to the bilges
carrying with it dust, cargo residues and
cargo odour.
Over time (in the long run) dust and cargo
residues will form solid mass blocking bilge
suction pipes, so piping out bilge water will be
impossible, over flow of the bilge water will
occur contaminating the cargo.
The cargo residue especially if it was
Hygroscopic Cargo in contact with water will
start decomposing (rotting-decay) giving
terrible odour (smell); this smell will be
transferred to odour contracting cargo such
as coffee, resulting in contaminated cargo
which will be refused by the receiver resulting
on cargo damage claim on the vessel.
Some examples for the cargoes which taint
easily are tea, flour, tobacco and coffee.

1 Dry cargos:
Are the cargos which could not damage the other cargos by liquids but could be
damaged by liquids. (sugar-paper-cartons-etc.)
2 Wet cargos:
Are the cargos which could damage the other cargos by leaking liquids. (all canned
liquids-oil drums-jerkins)
3 Odor cargos:
Are the cargos which could damage the other cargos by evolving strong smells.
(kerosene- fish meal- animal food-etc.)
4 Delicate cargos:
Are the cargos which could not damage the other cargos by odors but could be damaged by
odors. (tea, flour, tobacco and coffee)
5 Fragile cargos:
Are the cargos which could easily be broken during handling .
6 Clean cargos:
Are the cargos which could not damage the other cargos by contamination but could be
damaged by contamination. (sugar-paper-cartons-etc.)
7 Dirty cargos:
Are the cargos which could damage the other cargos by contamination. (coal-cement-
sulphar-etc.)
8 Hygroscopic cargos:
Are the cargos able to evolve moisture and can damage the other cargos by
condensation and causing ship's sweat. (new collected seeds-rice- timber logs-etc.)
9 Nonhygroscopic cargos:
Are the cargos which could not damage the other cargos by condensation but could be
damaged by condensation and causing cargo sweat (steel sheets-
All large metal surfaces)

Reference
IMO produced the “IMO Code of Safe Practice for cargo stowage and securing”, all
officers must be familiar with this code and refer to it for cargo stowing regulations and
guidance.
Definitions
THE SPACE AVAILABLE FOR CARGO
May be given by either the vessel's deadweight or her cubic capacity, the latter is
given as
bale or grain.
DEAD WEIGHT CARGO
Is the cargo on which freight is usually charged on its weight, although there is no fixed
rule in use, cargo stowing at less than 1.2 m3/tonne (40 cu.ft./ton) is likely to be regarded
as deadweight cargo.
MEASUREMENT CARGO
Is the cargo on which freight is usually charged on the volume occupied by the
cargo; this cargo is usually light and bulky stowing at more than 1.2 m3/tonne (40
cu.ft./ton) but may also be heavy castings of an awkward shape where a lot of space is
occupied.
BALE CAPACITY:
Cubic capacity of a vessel’s cargo holds to carry packaged dry cargo such as bales/pallets.
The cubic capacity of a cargo hold measured from the inside of the cargo battens,
frames, bulkhead stiffeners or spar ceilings, i.e. the spaces between the frames are not
filled; the bale capacity is generally less than the hold's grain capacity.
GRAIN CAPACITY
Cubic capacity of a vessel’s cargo holds, when the length, breadth and depth are
measured right up to the plating; in this case, the cargo is free-flowing and is capable of

STOWAGE FACTOR “SF in short”
Cubic space occupied by one tonne of cargo.
It is the volume occupied by unit weight of cargo, usually expressed as cubic metres per
tonnes (m3/tonne) or cubic feet per ton (cu.ft./ton)
It is the volume of space in cubic feet/meter required for stowing one ton of a
named
commodity; includes dunnage and packing spaces as well as broken stowage.
BROKEN STOWAGE
Space lost between boxes, between vehicles, around obstructions and over (above)
cargo/vehicles due to irregular shapes/configuration, separation requirements and fire
lanes, and is expressed as percentage of the total volume of the hold.
The percentage that has to be allowed varies with the type of cargo and with the
shape of
the hold. It is greatest when large cases have to be stowed in an end hold.
DISPLACEMENT (also known as Full Displacement)
It is a term used to measure the weight of the water displaced by the ship when she is
fully loaded with all her crew, bunkers, fresh water, stores, equipment and cargo.
LIGHT DISPLACEMENT (also known as “lightweight – lightship”)
The weight of a ship complete with outfit and propulsion machinery, and ready for
sea but
without fuel, fresh water, stores, provisions, crew or cargo on board.
DEADWEIGHT “DWT
Total weight of cargo, stores, fuel and water needed to submerge a ship from her light
draught to her maximum permitted draught (summer load line draught); the difference
between the Full displacement and Light displacement is the ship's deadweight.

GROSS TONS “GT
Previously known as Gross Registered Tons,
is a common measurement of the total
internal volume of a ship, less the volume of
certain exempted spaces which provide
comfort to the crew and ship's safety; One
ton equals 100 cubic feet or 2.83 cubic meter
Port and Pilotage dues are based on
Gross
Tonnage.
NET TONNAGE “NT
Previously known as Net Registered Tons,
equals gross tonnage minus deductions for
space occupied by crew accommodations,
machinery, navigation equipment and
bunkers, it represents space available for
cargo (and passengers). Canal tolls are
based on Net Tonnage.
CANALS TONNAGE
Suez and Panama Canal authorities each
have its own calculation method to obtain
the Gross & Net tonnage; and they are
named after them:
 Suez Canal Gross Tonnage
 Suez Canal Net Tonnage
 Panama Canal Gross Tonnage
 Panama Canal Net Tonnage

Stowing
Cargo information
Before accepting a cargo for shipment, the ship-
owner should obtain all necessary information
about the cargo and ensure that:
The different commodities to be carried are
compatible with each other or suitably separated;
The cargo is suitable for the ship;
The ship is suitable for the cargo;
The cargo can be safely stowed and secured
onboard the ship and transported under all
expected conditions during the intended voyage.
Basics of cargo stowage
“Stowing the cargo” is an expression which means
the planning to where to load the cargo so that
the vessel will load maximum amount without
damaging the ship or the cargo with maximum
dispatch; normally the stowing plan is prepared by
the chief officer, but in some liner service this is
done by the supercargo “shore based experienced
Master”.
In order to achieve the above there are
some
consideration

Stowage Plan
Initial Stowage Plan (Loading Plan)
Chief Officer will formulate initial stowage plan after he receives the cargo booking list;
putting in his consideration the factors as per section
He will hand a copy of this initial stowage plan to the stevedores to start loading and a
copy to the OOW oversee the proper execution of the plan
OOW must bring any discrepancies immediately to the attention of the Chief Officer.
The OOW will enter the data of cargo loaded in a working copy of the final stowage
plan (Loaded Plan)
Normally the actual loading is always differs from the planned, due to the following
reasons:-
Cargo measurement differs than what was stated in the “Cargo booking list”.
Cancellation of some cargo.
The effect of the unavailability of specific cargo handling equipment.
Therefore after loading completion Chief Officer will prepare Final Stowage Plan
(Loaded Plan).

Factors to be considered in the preparation of stowage plan
Stability
Structural limitations:
Port rotation and cargo distribution:
Cargo handling equipments
Lifting gear
Draught (Draft)
Deck Cargoes.
Cargo Securing
Protect the cargo
Cargo Separation and Segregation
Ventilation
Discharge efficiently:
Loading/Discharging time:
Recommendations and Advice

CARGO DOCUMENTS
Booking List
Is the list of cargo intended to be loaded onboard the ship
Mate’s Receipt
It’s a receipt signed by C/O of the vessel and handed to the shipper acknowledging
receiving certain cargo on board ; on this document , remark can be made as to the
quantity and condition of the cargo.
The shipper will hand over the MATE’s RECIPT to the shipping line or his agent in
exchange for the bill of lading.
The mate receipt will include the following particulars
Vessel name
Shipper
Port of loading & Port of discharging
Shipper’s description of goods
Number and kind of packages
Gross weight (ton)
Measurement (m3 )
Data ship on board
Where loaded on board
Remark on the quantity and condition of cargo
Functions of the Mate’s Receipt:
1.A receipt issued by the ship to the shipper for goods received for transportation.
2.Evidence of the quantity and condition of the cargo.
3.Evidence of the loading
date 4.Evidence of receiving
cargo
The Mate’s Receipt can’t be

Boat Note :
When vessel receive the goods partly by trucks or
barges C/O gave the shipper the BOAT NOTE as
receipt for receiving part of goods and when all
cargo
received the C/O take the boat note & replaced
by
MATE’S RECEIPT.
Functions of BOAT NOTE:
1.Receipt for receiving part of cargo
As a promise to replace it by mate’s receipt
Bill of Lading
Definitions:-
 The person sending the goods is the "shipper“.
The company or agent transporting the goods
is the "carrier“.
The person for whom the goods are destined is
the "consignee".
Functions of the B/L:
It’s evidence for receipt of goods on board at
certain data/place and in a certain condition.
It is evidence of the contract of carriage between
carrier and holder.
It is a document of title to the goods shipped .
The of
the B/L entitled to the delivery of the cargo .The
B/L is a negotiable document, which can be

The bill of lading will include the
following particulars:-
1.Vessel name
2.Shipper
3.Consignee
4.Notify Party/Address
5.Port & Country of
loading
6.Port & Country of discharge
7.Shipper's description of
goods. 8.Number and kind of
packages. 9.Gross weight , kg.
10.Measurement,m
3. 11- Identifying
marks.
12 Date shipped on
board.
13 Where loaded
on board(on
deck or under
deck)
14 Cargo condition
and remarks.
15Number of original Bills of
loading 16- Freight
17- Fright payment terms

Types of Bill of
Loading:
Clean bill of lading
A "clean“ Bill of loading is one which describes the cargo as being in "apparent good
order and condition", without containing adverse remarks as far as would be
apparent from the type of inspection which a reasonable carrier could be expected to
make.
Claused bills of lading
When the cargo is not in apparent good order and condition, the carrier is entitled
to insist
of the bill of loading being claused.
Letters of indemnity(LOI)
A letter of indemnity is issued by a person who declares that he is taking full
financial responsibility for certain circumstances . it claims that the person signing the
letter will bear any costs resulting from the Master complying with his request (A
clean bill of loading)
The shipper may offer a letter of indemnity to the Master in return for a clean bill
of loading when the Master wishes to add clauses about the condition of the cargo .
To issue a clean bill in these circumstances is considered fraud , and such a letter of
indemnity is unenforceable.
Cargo Manifest
The 'cargo manifest' is used in all forms of transport and include the particulars of the
all cargo (goods) loaded in a particular ship.
Through Cargo Manifest
It is the cargo manifest which includes the particulars of all cargoes which will not be
discharged in this port

The cargo manifest will include
the following particulars:-
1.Vessel name
2.Port of loading
3.Port of
discharge
4.Bills of loading
numbers 5.Shippers
6.Consignee
7.Shipper's description of
goods. 8.Number and kind of
packages. 9.Gross weight , kg.
10.Measurement,m
3. 11.Freight
The completed manifest is handed
into customs at the port of
departure and at the port of
arrival .

CARGO CALCULATIONS
There are only two simple rules used in cargo calculation
Deadweight = Full displacement – light displacement Cargo Volume = Cargo weight x
Stowage Factor

Hold breadth = 8.5 - 0.25 = 8.25 m
Hold depth = 4.2 - 0.20 = 4.00 m.
Hold length = 10 m.
Hold capacity = 10 x 8.25 x 4 = 330 m3
Volume of lead box = 0.35 x 0.15 x 0.10 = 0.00525 m3
Volume of total lead boxes = 0.00525 x 10000 = 52.5 m3
Volume of barrel = 3.14 x 0.15 x 0.15 x 0.55 = 0.0388 m3
Volume of barrels = 0.0388x 4000 = 155.43 m3
Barrels broken stowage = 155.43 x .0.05 = 7.77 m3
Hold capacity occupied by
cargoes and broken Stowage
= 52.5 + 155.43 + 7.77 = 215.7 m3
Hold remaining volume = 330 - 215.7 = 114.3 m3
Mass of cases require to load = 114.3 / 2 = 57 tones
Number of cases = 57 x 4 = 228 case
Example (1)
Cargo hold 10 x 8.5 x 4.2 m having dunnage spread regularly over the floor of the
hold at a
height of 20 cm. and the side battens are at 12.5 cm. from the shell plating on each side.
The hold was loaded with 10000 boxes of lead each measuring 35 x 1 5 x 10 cm, and it
was also loaded with 4000 barrels of paint each of 55 cm high and 30cm diameter; if the
broken stowage for the barrels of paint in the hold was 5% of the barrels volume.
Calculate the remaining hold volume and the number of cases knowing that S.F. of cases
is 2 m3/ton and each 4 cases weigh one tonne, “Assuming that there in no broken
stowage for the box of lead”.
Answer (1)

General
General cargo ships are normally constructed so that
one ton of cargo occupies about 1.39-1.67 cubic meters
of space when loaded to full bale cubic and deadweight
capacity.
Loading Methods:-
There are two
ways
Mechanical
loading, by very
specialized
equipment
By ships crane
using rope slings,
and then cargo is
stowed
using man power
and specially fitted
forklifts.
Stowage
methods:-
There are three
stowage methods
choosing which
method
of cargo and amount of
ventilation
depends on type
required.
Full bag method.
Half bag method.
Cross tier
method.

Cotton
Cotton Cargo shipped in tightly pressed bales is a
cargo which is accompanied by fire risk. The
preparation of a hold or compartment for this cargo
is primarily directed towards minimizing the risk of
fire. This cargo is liable to produce heat and is also
subject to spontaneous combustion. Outside
elements which may cause extra fire risks must be
considered.
Strapping is essential to maintain compression of the
bales during transport. If the strapping is damaged
or broken, compression is diminished, which at the
same time results in an increased supply of oxygen
to the inside of the bales (spontaneous heating)self
ignetion. This in turn increases the risk of
combustion or feeds a fire which has already started.
Bursting or chafing of the steel straps and wires may
lead to sparking and external ignition.
 Bales vary in size and weight between 100 and
330
kg depending on country of origin.
 It is necessary that Cargo hold in which cotton is
to be stowed, should be perfectly dry, well aired,
and absolutely free from any oily or greasy stains.
The previous cargo will determine the amount of
Cotto
n
Cotton
wet

Precautions Necessary when Loading Cotton
1) All bales should be perfectly dry, clean and free from any stains particularly those of an oily
or greasy nature.
2) Dampness in bales of cotton is not readily apparent, because the climate of those countries
from which cotton is shipped causes quick drying of the outside of the bales. The lower
layers of cotton may be wet, perhaps from tropical rain squalls. Considerable vigilance is
necessary in this direction, particularly with transhipment cargo and that loaded from
lighters.
3) Reject any bales suspected under any of the above conditions.
4) Reject any loosely packed bales or any with broken bands.
5) Such bales permit air circulation between the fibres and are more easily fired.
6) Do not load cotton into any space which has recently been painted.
7) The heat produced by the cotton might possibly cause ignition of the paint vapours.
8) Strict rules must be enforced against smoking in the Cargo Holds and around Ship’s
Deck; all fire fighting equipment must be ready for immediate use.
9) All previous wooden dunnage should be sent up on deck and only that dunnage which is
absolutely clean;, dry and free from any stains, retained for use with the cotton. This
selection also applies to any mats and separation cloths. Fresh dunnage should be well
seasoned and clean to the above standard.
10) Closing Hatch cover after completion of loading, restricts fire spreading
11) All ventilator cowls (Inlets) must be covered with a thickness of wire gauze (Spark arrestor).
12) Hatch covers to all decks should be in good condition and ready for immediate closing in
case of rain.
13) Inspect and operate all fire detection and extinguishing apparatuses before loading.
14) Ensure that the port marks of the bales are not obliterated. With large consignments,
obliteration results in considerable delay to consignees apart from hindering discharge.

Rice
Types of rice:-
Paddy rice: unprepared rice which is still firmly enclosed in its glumes.
Brown rice: rice which has had its glumes removed but is otherwise unprepared. The glumes are
removed in the exporting countries by hulling. The majority of the silver skin is still attached to the
hulled rice grain. Brown rice is shipped only in small batches.
White or polished rice: prepared rice which has had the silver skin and seed coat beneath it removed
by polishing. An unbalanced diet consisting of hulled and polished rice, from which the protein- and
vitamin-rich silver skin enclosing the grains has been removed may lead to beriberi (Vitamin B1
deficiency).
Cargo rice: rice which is provided for maritime transport and consists of 80% white rice and 20%
paddy rice. Due to this mixing ratio, the rice remains drier and harder during maritime transport,
because the coarse-hulled paddy grains cause loosening and thus better airing of the rice batches. For
this reason, cargo rice is the least susceptible to damage. Rice Cargo calls for a very elaborate and
efficient system of ventilation, for the following reasons:-
In rice, metabolic processes continue even after harvesting. The rice grains absorb oxygen and
excrete carbon dioxide (CO2) (TLV: 0.49 vol. %).
Rice moisture content, at the beginning of the season particularly, leads to the sweating of the hold.
Condensation will therefore drip on the cargo from certain points, unless adequate precautions are
taken.
Rice cargo is liable to heat fairly quickly, and this fact, associated with loss of moisture, explains the
losses of weight in transit varying from 1 ~ 3 per cent, The heating causes an increased risk of
germination (premature sprouting) and considerable depreciation of the product.

Precaution Necessary when Loading Rice
1. Rice bags are filled with a mixture of rice (80 per cent)
and paddy (rice with husks) (20 per cent). The latter
prevents the rice grains forming an aggregate which is
impervious to ventilation air currents.
2. One of the leading causes of damage is the chewing
damage caused by the cereal pests; A certificate of origin
and health should be required from the shipper, as a
rule, rice is fumigated with methyl bromide.
3. Rice is highly odour-sensitive, segregation from all odour
omitting cargos (such as rubber) is essential
4. Using hooks for stowing, may result in damage
(tears) to the bags and thus to losses of volume. Plate or
bag hooks, which, due to their shape, distribute the load
and reduce the risk of damage, should thus be used.
5. The floor of the hold should be covered with 7.5 cm x
7.5 cm battens, laid athwart-ship, and 30 cm x 4 cm
boards fore and aft, laid with a space of 10 cm between
boards. This will ensure efficient air passages without
causing the bottom bags to split, a result which would
certainly occur if the boards were spaced too far apart.
6. Spar ceiling should be covered with bamboos, arranged
either vertically or in criss-cross fashion, and all other
ironwork covered with bamboo mats. The whole of the
bottom dunnage should also be covered with bamboo
mats.

7. Temporary vertical and horizontal box ventilators are
fitted in position as follows:
 One at each corner of the hatchway and
one at the middle of the hatch-coaming on each
side, making six in all for the hatchway.
 Two are fitted at each end of the hold, one to
port and one to starboard, the last mentioned
leading to permanent ventilator shafts (see
diagram).
 Two or three tiers of bags are laid to cover the
bottom of the hold, followed by a system of box
frame wooden ventilators laid in positions with a
five bag horizontal interspaces.
 These are arranged so as to interconnect and
also lead the air current into the vertical
ventilators.
 The system of box frame ventilators is repeated
with every three tier of bags. (See diagram of Box
Frame Ventilator).
8. This type of cargo requires continuous mechanical
ventilation during the voyage to prevent
condensation during the long voyages.
9. During short voyages, natural ventilation and opening

General
Fresh agriculture products are transported in specialised refrigerated cargo ships
known as 'reefer ships'; the cargo may be chilled or frozen, and carried loose, in cartons
or palletised.
Refer ships fleet is shrinking, most shippers prefer refer containers.
Refrigeratio
n Basics
Refrigeratio
n is
preservatio
n.
Foodstuffs decays in time due to the activities of micro-organisms. These activities are
considerably reduced by the lowering the surrounding temperature.
Fresh fruits and vegetables are living organism which produce heat, and emit gases;
both of
these must be removed if the cargo is to be transported without harming itself.
In order to preserve the cargo, temperature and the atmosphere of the refer holds
must be controlled.
Refrigeration system
In modern reefers, air is blown over successive rows of pipes containing a coolant. The air
is then channelled into the cargo compartment through the delivery fans and series of
ducts, circulating throughout the cargo, and is then exhausted via the exhaust fan.
Modern machinery is designed to

Air Circulation
To achieve adequate circulation of cooled air; ventilation
channels must be available around the cargo, this is achieved
by:
Hold and cooling design
Constructed using dunnage
Gaps between cargos
Specially constructed ventilation
channels. Temperature control
Each type of cargo has its own recommended temperature,
called on the refer ships “The carriage temperature”
Reefer ships can provide a range of carriage temperatures
from - 25°C to +12C, which can be controlled to within 1°C.
In order to deliver the refrigerated cargo in sound quality,
temperature should be kept constant and as near as possible
to the carriage temperature, big temperature variations
during the voyage is very harmful to the cargo.
The temperature difference between the exhaust air and the
delivery air is the indicator of the effectiveness of the cooling
process:
Small
difference Big
difference
=
=
Good cooling process
There is something
wrong
It is important to remember that the ship’s refrigeration
machinery is designed to maintain the temperature of the
cargo not to reduce it; so the cargo should be loaded onboard
pre-cooled and near the carriage temperature.
Chilled cargoes can be damaged by low temperature; the
critical temperature is the freezing point of its watery
contents

Atmosphere control Through ventilation
Fresh fruits and vegetables are loaded in cartons which have holes to permit through
ventilation, these cartons must be stowed so that their holes are aligned vertically and
horizontally so that the air can flow freely throughout the stow.
Air changes Efficiency of the ship’s refrigeration system depends on the ventilation
capacity of the system and it is measured by number of air changes per hour, based on empty
hold (one air change means that fans can pump in air equal to the total volume of the
hold).Modern systems can provide up to thirty air change per hour.
Humidity Humidity control is
vital Excess moisture (High
humidity) Micro-organisms will
be active.
Excess moisture will
condensate (as ice) on the
cooling pipes, which have to
be defrosted
regularly
Dry atmosphere (Low
humidity)
Dry atmosphere will damage the cargo by causing a loss of both moisture and weight
'freezer burn'. Gases (CO2 and ethylene)
All living cargo produces CO2 and ethylene.
Ship Refrigeration system is like air conditioning systems at homes or cars, it is more
efficient (temperature wise) when you circulate air, but with major disadvantage, any harmful
gases will be circulated with the air, so a detect balance should be maintained.
It is common/recommended practice to switch to partly fresh air once the exhaust air
temperature is about 2°C above the delivery air temperature.

Hold
preparation
In addition to the procedures mentioned in sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.3, the following hold
preparations are made:-
The cargo compartments must be scrupulously clean and free from taint. This also
applies to all dunnage to be used.
 Tainted dunnage must be jettisoned.
 Tainted air can be sweetened using an ozonator.
 Tainted structure must be washed with a suitable cleanser.
1. The refrigeration system must be tested and logged, test will include:-
 Compressors
 Expansion valve and cooling coil
 Delivery and exhaust fans
 Temperature and humidity sensors
 Humidity control
2. Inspect and repair as necessary all insulations including ducts.
3. Ensure that all dunnage is clean, dry and odour free.
4. Portable thermometers (the pulp thermometers) which is used by the OOW to check
the temperature of the cargo during loading must be tested
5. If frozen cargo is to be loaded, all scuppers in the cargo holds have to be sealed
with brine; to prevent contamination between holds and acts as insulation.
6. Pre-cool the holds that will be loaded at the next port to a temperature lower than
the carriage temperature of the intended cargo; this will compensate for the
temperature rise due to opening the hold for loading.
7. Pre-loading inspection (pre-loading survey) is to be carried out to verify that the cargo
compartments are clean, dry, free from taint, and at the correct temperature.
8. In some loading ports (pre-loading survey) will include a complete test on the
refrigeration

Loading procedures
1. High temperature alarms (in the cargo/refer control room and in the bridge) should
be set to the correct temperature according to the cargo being loaded.
2. Log the temperature of each cargo hold when first opened, and regularly throughout
the operations.
3. The condition of the cargo should be carefully monitored, reject any cargo which is:-
 Has higher pulp temperature than that declared
 (The pulp temperature is the internal temperature of the product)
 Wet, dirty or tainted
 Damaged or disfigured
 Opened or unwrapped
4. Separation and Segregation should be strictly observed according to type of cargo
being
loaded, shipper instructions and to the ship's cargo manual (don’t hesitate to seek advise).
5. Monitor the stevedores to ensure that: no damage is being done during loading
operation to:
 No damage to the ship's side insulation
 No damage to the previous cargo or the cargo being loaded
 Ventilation channels are free around the cargo
 Delivery and exhaust air are well clear of cargo (not blocked)
 Access doors are kept clear.
6. Any spills should be cleaned immediately to prevent contamination
7. Any cargo securing should not interfere with the free flow of cooling air.
8. If the cargo operation is (or will be) suspended for an extended period for any reason
(meal break, waiting for cargo, etc…), close hatch-covers and start the refrigeration
system as necessary to maintain the carriage temperature.
9. Use insulated tarpaulins to cover already loaded cargo, to prevent it from defrosting.
10. Immediately upon loading completion, close the hatch-cover and seal doors and access

Reasons for RoRo
1) Port congestion
2) Flexibility in choice of ports
3) Flexibility in choice of trade routes
4) Flexibility in accepting cargo
5)Avoid direct competition with
the major container carriers
Disadvantages with RoRo
6) No liquid tanks, reefer
chambers or space for bulk
cargoes
7) No handling to/from lighters
or rail cars
8) Difficult to handle long length
pipes and steel cargo
9) Dependent on good drivers
10)Labour intensive; shore
planning
11)Ports with bollards, bridges
etc.
Slewed Ramp
aft
Elephant
foot

Timber
The term timber means sawn wood or lumber,
cants, logs, poles, pulpwood and all other type of
timber in loose or packaged forms. The term
does not include wood pulp or similar cargo.
Timber deck cargo:
Timber deck cargoes are defined as cargoes of
timber, including logs, and sawn timber whether
loose or packaged, which are carried on an
uncovered part of a freeboard or superstructure
deck.
Timber load line:
A special load line assigned to ships complying
with certain conditions related to their
construction set out in the International
Convention on Load Lines and used when the
cargo complies with the stowage and securing
conditions of this Code.

Precautions of Timber Deck:
1. The bundle should be well lashed as a one unit.
2. Putting transferable hard dunnage on the deck to distribute tonnage on the hull and
to allow
drainage of sea water, wire cable should be fasted on deck and laying out of board.
3. Bundles of cargo are stowed precisely without spaces in between, deployed wire cables
over the cargo from side to side and well tight using bottles screw. Avoid slacking of
cables according to the lashing recommendation of international conventions.
4. To avoid strain of timber weight over bulwark, a steel bars fixed vertically with heights
stand over cargo , the bottom side of which fixed on the surface squares, and the middle
on the bulwark, where the spaces between them should not exceed 3 meters to avoid
cargo movement during voyage.
5. It is preferable to make stowage longitudinally in the direction (fore-aft) to realize the best
and width lashing.
6. It is not preferable to load bundles of different lengths on the deck.
7. Cargo must not effect on safe navigation, lights, or measuring pipes, vents and cargo
derricks.
8. To protect crew who are moving over the deck and cargo, it is possible to make a bridge
of one
meter breadth and height, each crew member moving on the deck should use safety belt.
9. Precise lashing, each wire cable should fixed in deck point and shortening bottle screw.
10. The deck timber cargo height depends on its weight, effects on body, loading line,
season and it must not exceed the one third of the ship width during sailing in winter
area.
11. Timber weight can be increasing on the deck during voyage due to absorbing nature
of water and moisture.
12. Consummation of fresh water and fuel should be as possible from one tank to
avoid free

Lashing of timber on deck as per
marine safety convention:
1. Hog wire between the two
layers 2, 3 manually tightened,
lashing tightly more by the
upper layers weight between
right and left steel bars.
2. Lashing wire cable passing over
the cargo completely rounded
on the upper layer and
tightened from side to side.
lash
the
3. Zigzag wire
cable to
cargo passing on
the
carg
o
continuously within a group of
open cargo blocks fasted in deck
side. The cable end joining to
the cargo winch for mechanical
tight.
4. A chain passing over the cargo
and lashed with large eyes in the
end of cargo joining by bottle
screw. moisture

Ventilation and Control of
Sweat

Hold ventilation and Control of Sweat:
Purpose of ventilation:
The task of captain does not restricted in leading the
ship and transporting cargo from one port to another ,
but he should handover these cargo in good condition,
this requires to know the technical aspects of metrology ,
procedures of cargo and sailing, the most important
points of ventilation are:
1. Temperature degree inside the holds should equal to
the temperature outside it.
2. Keeping away gases arise from some cargo outside
the holds.
The ship is responsible for all damages and injuries
resulted from bad ventilation or insufficiency.
Ship's and Cargo Sweat:
Ship's sweat: resulted from condensation, it occurs
when the hold dew degree more than the ship body
temperature which and when the ship passes from hot
to cold climate or at the sudden temperature drop, this
normally occurs with damp cargos – (moisture
absorbent) such as wheat – flour – cotton – cigarette
and other agricultural products.
Cargo sweat: resulted by the direct condensation for
cargo
, when the ship passes from hot to cold climate,
normally with the non-damp cargos (non-moisture
absorbent) such as the stiff metal products such as steel
and different equipment that can be damaged as a result

Ventilation systems:
Ventilation system dependant on the control of entering pure air with driving away vapor
and gases and quick exhaust of harmful air out of the hold and substitute with pure air.
Natural ventilation:
To obtain the high level efficiency of air circulation inside the holds ( in the dry cold air and
many circulations in one hour, some deck fans can be directed to allow entering air "lee vent"
and some of which are directed to exit air " weather vent".
Whenever the inlet and outlet ventilators increase in one hold, the ventilation circulation and
air renewal will increase also.
The pure air temperature is less than the outlet air temperature.
The pure air enters through the ventilators to inside the holds passing the sides &
cargo until
reaching the bottom via the ventilation passages among cargo which allow low degree
temperature
, and the temperature exchange takes place between the cargo and the surrounding air,
but the productive air is hot bearing vapor and gases.
Mechanical ventilation:
There are large fans inside the hold ventilators to push the air and increasing the air
circulation and outlet gases, in some ships there is a dryer with the electric ventilators to
keep the enter air free from water vapor.
Factors affecting the temperature degree during trip which lead to sweat.
1. Type of cargo
2. A season of the year
3. Current weather
4. Ship speed.
5. State of weather at the time of the departure.
6. State of weather at the time of arrival.
7. Navigation system (great circle – merkitor) and water temperature, the daily change
average reaching 2-3 degrees as a result of a change in the relative humidity and water

Ventilation Rules:
(1) Hygroscopic Cargo:
(1) From cold to hot area:
Ventilation is not very essential, and when the hold opened in the arrival port, simple
condensation will occur on the cargo surface, and will dry during discharge.
From hot to cold area:
Ventilation is essential to be operated as soon as possible in the first stage, but at
final, the
external dew point will be very low, in this case the ship needs sufficient number of
ventilators.
(2) Non Hygroscopic Cargo:
From cold to hot area:
Ventilation is less important, because there is no sweat as a result of moisture leakage
with the air entering to the cold compartment.
From hot to cold area:
The ship will sweat, but cargo will not be affected unless the sweat condensed on the
accumulated cargo. In this case it is essential to put protective canvas on the goods.

Deck cargoes are defined as any type of which
are carried on an uncovered part of a freeboard
or superstructure deck, exposed to weather and
sea Deck Cargo Types
Ship-owners use deck space to increase ship’s
revenue, but the general requirement of all deck
cargo is that the cargo itself or the cargo packing
is weather proof.
Types of deck-cargoes are:
1. Any cargo which will not be damaged by
the weather.
2. Cargo with extreme length or breadth which
can not pass through cargo hatch
3. Cargo with extreme height which can not
fit
inside the cargo hold
4. Cargo which is un-stackable (loaders,
bulldozers, etc…) which if loaded under
deck will cause huge loss of hold space
(broken stowage).
5. Cargo which may damage other cargoes
if
loaded under-deck
6. Dangerous goods if the IMDG code – states
that it must be stowed on deck, (see section
15.1.5)
7. Cargoes which can be shipped on deck

Deck-Cargo General precautions
1. The stowage of deck cargoes should take account of the
requirements for safe access for the crew around the
vessel’s deck; this will include
 Access to the working areas of the ship such as (the
engine-room, steering flat and the mooring
stations)
 The pilot boarding area
 Ventilators, sounding pipes, air pipes, tank valves,
etc. a
 Access to the safety equipment
 This is achieved by leaving a walkway around the deck
or by constructing a catwalk on top of deck cargo.
2. Stability: In order for the Vessel to be seaworthy, it must
retain proper stability the whole voyage “that includes
loading, sea voyage and discharging”.
 Transverse stability “Suitable GM”
 Transverse stability “No list”
 Longitudinal stability “Suitable trim”
 Any special requirements are met; such as
”Timber
cargo stability requirements”
3. Allowable deck load (Deck Strength) “normally expressed
in t/m2 - Tones per Square metre”; on container vessels
the expression “Container stack weight per slot” is used;
it must not be assumed that all decks has the same Deck

4. The watertight integrity of the ship must not be impaired.
5. Ventilators and air pipes must be adequately protected.
6. The height of the cargo must not interfere with the ship's navigation. Consideration
must be given to limiting the blind area forward of the bows which is not visible from
the bridge. Vessels with limited visibility may have to employ extra pilots in some
ports and canals.
7. The height of the deck cargo should be restricted so that:
 Adequate visibility for safe navigation is assured, always considering blind
sectors.
 Navigation lights shall not be obstructed by Deck cargo.
8. Nothing must obstruct safe access around the vessel.
A suitable walkway must be constructed over the cargo if necessary.
9. The stow should be as solid and compact as practicable to:
 Produce a self-binding effect
 In order to reduce its permeability for seawater
 To aid lashing and to prevent them from becoming slack.
Extra precautions for loading on Hatch cover
10. Hatch cover should be closed properly
11. Secure hatch cover by:
 Cleats
 Wedges (Stopper between panels)
12. Never exceed allowable deck load (Deck Strength) and do not assume that hatch
cover strength is equal to the weather deck strength, practically hatch covers has
lower deck strength than the main deck.
13. Check that hatch cover is watertight before loading.

Containerization
History
In 1930, Malcolm McLean thought up a shipping container innovation which
revolutionized freight handling. Rather than manually loading and unloading goods
from a truck onto a ship or vice versa, McLean thought it would be much more
convenient to simply load the container itself. Hence a new form of time saving cargo
container was born, one which was stackable for transport by sea yet could also be
loaded onto a truck or a railroad car.
Since first introduced in the 1950s, containers have revolutionized the carriage of
general cargoes which presented great advantages both in ease and speed of handling,
cargo security, and together with other factors have transformed both ships and ports.

Container
Container is steel box with measurement 8 X 8 x 20 feet or 8 X 8 X 40 feet, with a
watertight door from one side edge, there are also some sizes i,e.10,20,48 feet.
Each container has special numbers on the four sides in addition to the top of container
(for the crane operator) , there are many types of containers specified for certain types
of cargo such as the reefer , chemicals containers and gases inside a cylinder that
found in an empty container frame , also there open top container or open side
containers , each of them has specific sites for loading from the bottom side through
two holes to be raised by forklift, also in the upper four corners there are places
specified for lifting the container by the cranes equipments on board or discharging
to the shore, moreover the containers are shipped inside modern ships designed
for certain types of cargo, these ships designed by crew accommodation in aft side or
in the third of the aft part and the enlarged hatch cover and the ship deck represent
transfer passages that the ship can be divided to areas same as the container
dimensions longitudinally and horizontally to be able to load the largest number of
containers , these containers are going to be arranged on each other as lines up to
the ship deck then the hatch cover will be closed and we can load over the hatch cover
in different heights (reaching 6 tier in some ships) according to the ship size and her
capability’s of stability. These ships called (cells ships) where each container has a
specified place that can be exceeded. The ship size can be measured by number of
containers loads, more of these ships have no cranes and if one container dropped in
the water, it can be floated because it is watertight, in addition to that the cargo will be
stowed inside the container and tied to avoid movement. The ship size is specified by
the number of containers 20 feet that can load – twenty equal unit (TEU), or forty
equal unit (FEU).

Advantages of containers
1. The handling of the goods between seller and buyer
is reduced, leading to less damage.
2. Containers can be handled rapidly with modern high-
speed equipment, leading to a reduction in port turn-
round time of the ships, and hence better vessel
utilisation, and increased efficiency.
3. Pilferage has been reduced by 90% though hijacking
of complete container loads is not unknown.
4. Standardisation has led to a rationalisation of the
number and type of cargo-handling equipment
required.
5. Goods are protected against the weather at all stages
of their handling, and are protected in the stow by
the container body, rather than be over stowed
directly by all manner of other goods.
The 1972 Convention for Safe Containers has two goals.
To maintain a high level of safety of human life in the
transport and handling of containers by providing
generally acceptable test procedures and related
strength requirements.
To facilitate the international transport of containers by
providing uniform international safety regulations,
equally applicable to all modes of surface transport. In
this way, the spreading of conflicting national safety

Types of Container
Cargo containers come in all different shapes to accommodate an individual’s cargo
needs.
According to ISO 4346 of January 1996, a
distinction may be drawn between the following
types:
1. General purpose containers
2. Dry bulk containers/bulk containers
3. Named cargo containers
4. Thermal containers
5. Open-top container
6. Platform containers
7. Tank containers
8. Air/surface containers
Further distinctions are drawn within these
groups depending on design and principal
characteristics.

Loading and discharge in container terminals:
Providing the stowage plan according to the
loading and discharge ports and arranged
without any contradiction, The ship will be
discharged from the coming containers through
gantry cranes which can be extended from the
quay side over the ship until reaching the
ultimate width of the ship, the movable crane
operator cockpit joining with lifting device
(spreader) design to lift up the container from
ship then moving widely toward the quay side
and lowering down on the shore position or, in
the specific vehicles and so on.
They may be more than one crane according to
the ship size and a group of vehicles, trucks,
trolleys, forklifts and cranes on the quay to re-
stow and arrange containers, some of cranes
used for containers on quay is "straddle carriers
golothry cranes".
After discharge, the loading begins according
to the stowage plan, and after positioning each
container in place, the number of which will be
written in the specific cell mentioned in stowage
plan.
Sometimes, loading and discharge can be done
in

Shipping and discharge precautions:
1. Taking care to the ships trim and list during
loading or discharging and its negative effects
during.
2. Calculate the expected stresses on the ship deck
and in an allowable average to avoid deformation
in the deck.
3. Taking care to the risks when stowing containers
in the highest tiers and the effect of heavy
load over light cargo, and stability condition also
container and their effects in the case of high sea
and strong wind.
4. It is essential to separate the dangerous cargo in
specified places along with posting the IMO code
and taking the necessary precautions.
5. Taking precautions of shipping regarding stowage
obstacles on deck such as navigation lights,
cranes, wheel house and crew passing through

Securing Containers on deck in normal ships:
Stowage:
1. The containers are shipped longitudinally either on deck
or on the hatch covers in conditioned that should no exceed
the ship side.
2. Stowage and lashing does not cause any extra stresses to the
ship, and allow safe passing for ships crew.
3. Lower tiers of containers that does not extend on the
container fittings, must be put on thick wood to distribute
the load and friction in case of charging in non container
carrier. a
4. When loading containers on deck, it is essential to use the
international lashing material between containers such as
bridge fittings, twist lock and cones.
5. Take in consideration fitness of lashing points, containers
weight and expected weather condition.
Lashing:
6. Protect containers against sliding and capsize during
pitching or
rolling, so require well lashing.
2. Using one of the three ways explained in the figures (25), (26)
using the same wire cables, chains, locks sufficient for
assigned weight and tight force.
3. The dunnage supporter should not exceed 2 meters and
the
bottle screw in the same tight force along the voyage.
4. Bottles screw and clasps should be greased to prevent rust

Other than grain
When charging dry bulk cargo , it should be guided with IMO regulation ,which called
Solid Bulk (Cargoes Code (B.C.Code). it consists of ten chapters and six annexed , some
definitions have explained which must be usage during Bulk Cargo as well as
precautions during handling such cargo also safety of individuals and cargo as well as
Cargo which may liquefy , its tests , and conversions tables of stowage
factor ,procedures and precautions during bulk cargo and entering of enclosed spaces.
Bulk Cargo

Definitions:
Angle of Repose
It is an angle from horizontal level which the
cargo surface may repose to lower side
during ship listing or heeling.
Cargo which may liquefy
It is the raw cargo which purified from grays;
it is soft and absorbable with moisture
highly, therefore, if allowed moisture rate
increased during transporting, the cargo will
liquefy (means from solid state to liquid
state) and that leads to its slipping to one of
sides so the ship listing that cause negative
stability or defect on ship hull.
Flow Moisture Point
It is the rate of moisture inside substance to
clarify flow state of substance ample during
its testing.
Flow state
The flow state happens when mass of cargo
satisfies ‫ع‬
‫ب‬
‫ت‬
‫ت‬
‫ش‬ with liquid to degree of affecting
if it is under external force as vibrating and
ship movement which causes loosing of
macular holding and behavior as liquids.

Transportation moisture limit (TML)
The cargo which may liquefy is the maximum degree of current moisture inside
substance and the cargo during that, considered sufficient for shipment and good
condition with no need to take special precautions, we can get these information from
specific table with flow moisture point or any test approved by port authorities and it is
about 90% of flow moisture point.

Required Arrangements before bulk cargo:
1. It should prepare ship holds to receive cargo, to be clear, clean, and dry and also
bilges.
2. Remove side battens in holds and store it in proper place, then coverage with
canvas.
3. Check the pipe measuring and ventilators inside the holds to be fit as well as
bilge and drainage pipes to be working in satisfaction condition.
4. Covering bilge with canvas and fix it with wood frame, covering it with cement to
prevent leakage of cargo inside.
5. Check the hatch covers to ensure of it water tightness as well as securing devices
when
closing.
6. Ensuring of non skip of dust to accommodation, machineries, deck arrangements
and navigation equipments also electro/electronic equipments by closing all
openings and outside vents.
7. Shout down the external air-condition during shipping and operate it interiorly
8. Tack all necessarily and proper precautions to prevent shifting boards of cargo.
9. Testing fire fighting equipments to be ready and sufficient for cargo type which
shipping.
10. Guiding with existing information inside B.C. code in currying and any other
precautions.
11. Getting surveying attestation and ship acceptance for loading the cargo from
approved surveyor.

Required precautions during charging and after in Bulk carrier.
1. Avoid all stress efforts on the hull by distributing cargo on all holds.
2. the detailed information must provide on cargo with high density , if not
provide, it should take the following general precautions in order to get private
precautions:
 Disturbing cargo inside the hold to be in same level fore and aft to avoid
stress.
 The maximum weight in each hold not exceed of 0.9x height x breadth x
draught at
summer load line and result with ton.
 If the cargo was trimmed inside the hold, it may increase loading with rate of
20%.
 If the cargo surface not trimmed the top will not increase than 1.1 x
summer load line draught x stowage factor m/ ton
3. It should calculate ship stability considering suspected bad weather conditions
during
trip.
4. It should avoid stiff stability condition means GM big with cargo distributing
vertically on lower cargo holds.
5. It should arrange holds with suitable trim and avoid stress and calculate it
precisely.
6. If the shipping made with grabs, it should be down so closely to inside bottom
during cargo beginning.
7. Cargo should be trimming step by step to avoid stress on the hold flooring.
8. If the ballast tanks pumping out during cargo considering stability and stress

Separation of bulk cargo from each other:
1. When loading different kind of bulk cargo inside
the ship, it should be separate by distributing in
different holds or in same hold by canvas if
necessary.
2. It should not allowable to load bulk cargo with
general in one hold.
3. It should not load dangerous cargo in the hold
has
dry bulk cargo
Risks of dry bulk cargo on individuals and ship:
It should be taken all possible precautions during
loading of raw material and delivering and
transporting according to international rules, and
use first aid book , including dangerous cases may
happen during loading as :
Poisoning & asphyxiate hazards:
Some cargoes during its loading and storing
emitted with asphyxiated gases as coal which
including Methane gas or some oxide materials
reduce of oxygen ratio in closed places and other
execrate poisoning gases as ammonia nitrates
during analyzing it, the consume happened for
oxygen because of rot in vegetables and fruits ,
wood and grins, so it should be taken all precautions
to enter enclosed places before entering to holds

2- Heath Hazards due to dust
The resulted dust of loading and
discharging causes hazard for persons
during dust inhalation or during
swallowing as Barium Nitrates which
causes poising and causes allergy for
person through touching and falling
on eyes and skin.
Water contact
In some raw materials when it is
contacting with water whether rains or
sweat may cause increasing in
temperature and emitting poisoning
gases as Ammonium raw so it should
to befor
e
refer to marine
guidelines shipment.
Flammable Atmosphere
Dust of some cargo
may
cause
exclusion of flaming hazard especially
during loading, discharging and
cleaning as phosphate raw or increase
of interior temperature which may
result self- ignition, so it should
ensure of incorrect
due to
or
non
lack of
cargo
read
instructio
n
ventilation
informatio
n

Coal cargo
Hazards resulted of coal cargo:
1. Coal temperature raises
because
of
oxygen
keeping if it is ventilate with acetated ventilation.
2. The Methane gas emitting from coal which
causing explosion during its mixing with
oxygen if it is ratio in air reach from 5% to 15%
with existing of any flam.
3. To avoid fire happening with coal cargo it should
regard the following:
4. It should keep cargo always cool (away from
worm bulkheads as machinery spaces or heavy
fuel tanks.
5. It should not storage cargo in pyramid shape in
middle of holds to prevent air pockets among
part.
6. Keeping away of acetated ventilation which
increase temperature and causes flaming.
7. The surface ventilation is made by ventilator in
the forward part of the compartment to push air
and other at aft part compartment to outlet air
and in fine weather open hatch’s to increase
surface ventilation and existing gases, both
ventilators for each surface separately.

Preparing and precautions during coal cargo:
1. The holds are prepared to receive Bulk cargo from cleaning, drying and check the
bilge,
covering by canvas and measuring pipes, ventilators.
2. Collecting of Side battens in one corner, store and cover with canvas.
3. It should to cover all sectional beams used for small coal cargoes with carton
paper or canvas to avoid air passing through it and causing acetated ventilation.
4. Disconnect electricity and extended portable lights inside the holds and using
approved
batteries light.
5. For each surface separated ventilators during storage in each lower compartment
and in middle and to be surfaced.
6. The surfaced ventilation made for each compartment continuously for five days
in the beginning of trip to exit accumulated gases because of cargo movement.
7. Operating lower compartment ventilators about 6 hours every two days to existing
gases
and temperature.
8. Taking all proper precautions with covering the dunnage on upper surface and
providing it with water spray to reduce sun temperature effect.
9. Measuring temperature for different parts among cargo regularly through
extended pipes inside the cargo.
10. Forbidding painting or hammering, scratching operation during trip as well as
smoking.
11. Prohibit leakage any oils or polluted clothes with oil inside compartments.
12. Keeping the surface coldly and should consider 25 temperature the critical degree
for coal mass, the self–ignition occurs by reaching it to 38 temperature if the gases

Dangerous cargo in Packages:
International marine
organization
issued many conventions for safety and
marine
environment such as 1974 SOLAS , and also 78/73 MARBOL , also issued rules for
the ships loaded by Dangerous cargo to ensure the ship safety , persons and cargo, all
these information included in a manual called "international marine dangerous good's
code.
1. This manual includes the basic rules and practical precautions to maintain goods.
2. The Dangerous cargo are classified into group, each group in specific number ,
similar group in particulars, type , risks and packing as per the system from 1-9
known in all marine books.
3. This manual divided into six volumes, the first one contains general introduction of
information, but the other five parts contains a list of all dangerous cargo
transported by sea, beginning from class 1 and ends in class 9, and well ordered
alphabetically in each class by scientific name.
4. It is important to explain the goods type, description, packing, distinguishing mark,
color and precautions of shipping, discharge, availability on the ship, stowage sites
to avoid risks and fire.
5. Putting certain labels as per the international maritime dangerous good's code
(IMDG)
on each dangerous pack in order to take care at transport, shipping and discharge
(15).
6. When shipping dangerous materials, the duty officer must have all the information
about the cargo type, quantity, packing, shipper’s names, consignee and their
scientific name. For stowage, you have to take the name from IMDG, and taking all
the precautions such as the packing type, safety equipment, and fire equipment.
7. If the cargos are dangerous for the maritime environment, the distinguishing

Class 1: Explosives
Division 1.1: substances and articles which have a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.2: substances and articles which have a projection hazard but not a mass
explosion hazard
Division 1.3: substances and articles which have a fire hazard and either a minor blast
hazard or a minor projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.4: substances and articles which present no significant hazard
Division 1.5: very insensitive substances which have a mass explosion
hazard
Division 1.6: extremely insensitive articles which do not have a mass
explosion hazard
Class 2: Gases
Class 2.1: flammable gases
Class 2.2: non-flammable, non-toxic
gases Class 2.3: toxic gases
Class 3: Flammable liquids
Class 4: Flammable solids;
substances liable to spontaneous
combustion; substances
which, in contact with water, emit
flammable gases
Class 4.1: flammable solids, self-reactive substances and desensitized
explosives Class 4.2: substances liable to spontaneous combustion
Class 4.3: substances which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases
Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
Class 5.1: oxidizing substances
Class 5.2: organic peroxides
Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances

IMDG book for shipping risky goods has a
supplement contains:
1. Emergency procedure, which includes the
safety precautions, safety personal, protective
cloths or respiratory equipment as per each
class of dangerous cargo, in addition
discussing leakage, repacking and fire fighting.
2. Medical first aid guide: to explain the
dangerous
cargo and to make the first aid for all body.
Dangerous cargo stowage conditions:
3. For safe stowage should be stow the same
types with each others as per IMDG code.
4. Explosive material (except ammunition) can
be
put in a well-closed store.
3. Cargos arises risky vapor are put on deck or in
ventilated places.
4. Precautions taken in ships bearing liquids or
flammable gases.
5. It is not allowed to transport materials of auto-
inflammation, unless there are suitable
precautions to control fire.
6. Taking precautions when transporting
dangerous cargo, such the medical
precautions as per the supplement (EMS) , and

Packing:
1. Good packing for dangerous cargo, and
avoidance of any friction between the
internal belts leading to risks.
2. The packing filling material of liquid cargo
must be able to alleviate risks.
3. Should be distributed to prevent
movement, and in sufficient quantity to
suck liquids in the case of broken
container.
4. There should be spaces between
containers bearing risky liquids due to
increasing of temperature during voyag.
5. Cylinders and containers bearing pressed
gasses should be of high quality
manufacturing, investigation,
maintenance and correctly filled, in order
to avoid explosion.
6. Empty containers used for risky goods are
treated same as the dangerous cargo,
unless cleaned and dried.
7. In case of doubt in packing of dangerous
cargo, the duty officer should notify the
captain and the first officer immediately to
take the necessary procedures.

Precautions required during loading and discharging of explosives class 1:
Providing immediate fire fighting and detection equipment.
Ship should not be supplying by fuel during cargo handling or emit wireless signals and
Radar wave.
Responsible officer to check the area around & internal the ship during the handling.
Posted signboard warning (no smoking) inside the ship and near it on the berth, and raising
B flag or red light at night.
Testing of the hold bilge and check ventilators.
Avoidance of spark from funnel, check spark mash, keep engines ready in operational
condition.
Do not use the forklift in handling of cargo and handling boxes carefully, follow guidelines
marked on packages.
It is not allowed to ship any defective or broken boxes, counting the boxes with no spaces.
Closing stores after completion of cargo, and pouring water on deck at daily in worm areas.
Storing in places with wooden ceil, and fixing with copper nails to avoid friction with the
boxes pelt,
away from machinery spaces, this procedure as per the marine instruction manuals.
It is not allowed to ship in a holds with flammable vapors.
Pulling out the operation cord and segregated from dangerous cargo, switch of the electric
current passing inside the holds.
The ventilators have two layers flame resistant.
The duty officer must have the full knowledge about the dangerous materials stowage,
along with the distance of the other dangerous cargo to avoid accidents.
When an accident occurred at the shipping of risky goods, it is important to notify the
stevedore, captain and port authority to take the necessary precautions.
Taking the necessary precautions as per the marine instruction manuals in fighting fire.
Operating the fire detection equipment, no smoking signing, and providing towing rope fore
and aft ship to withdraw at emergency.
It is not allowed to use the high temperature portable light, only using the safe 24 volts

Dangerous cargo shipping
terminology:
IMDG Code has some introductions
for stowage and goods separation
inside the ship such as:
1. On deck only.
2. On deck or under deck.
3. Away from. When shipping type
of cargo should be separated
from any other cargo three
meters horizontally distance.
4. Separated from. These cargo are
shipped in a separated
compartment, if the shipping on
deck, the horizontal distance
should not less than 6 meters.
5. Separated by a complete
compartment of Hold From.
These goods must be segregate
in separated compartment or
on the deck, and the horizontal
distance not less than 12 M.
6. Separated by longitudinally
complete compartment of hold
from all sides or a horizontal
distance of 24 M.

A) CARGO SEGREGATION
Reason for segregation
The reasons for segregation are that one type of cargo will damage other cargos if
stowed in the same compartment.
Examples for the need to segregate cargo:-
1.Segregation between the incompatible classes of dangerous goods is shown in the
IMDG Code segregation table.
2.Segregation between cargo emitting strong odour and other cargo sensitive to
these
odours.
3.Segregation between clean cargo (food) and dusty cargo (cement).
4.Segregation between cargo require ventilation and other cargo damaged by
ventilation. 5.Segregation between heavy cargo and fragile cargo.

Segregation is obtained by maintaining certain distances between incompatible
hazardous materials or by requiring the presence of one or more steel bulkheads or
decks between them or a combination thereof.
Intervening spaces between such sensitive or hazardous materials may be filled with
other cargo which is not incompatible with the sensitive or hazardous materials.
Segregation is achieved by:-
Under-deck: Cargo can be segregate d by stowing different types in
different
compartments.
On Deck: cargo can be segregated by separating different types with at least 12
meters of horizontal distance.

B) CARGO SEPARATIONS
Reason for separation
An efficient system of
cargo separation is
necessary to
prevent mix-up of
different
shipments.
Examples for the need to
separate cargo:-
1.Different grade of goods (identical packing for different quality of goods such as
Cotton). 2.Different receivers. (same cargo for two receivers)
3.Different destinations (same cargo for two
ports). Chief Officer and officers shall always
consider that:-
The stevedores in some discharge ports may be
illiterate.
Separations are made to aid discharge, so that cargo for different ports, or different
consignees, can be readily identified.
At the discharge port, the OOW should ensure that the stevedores take note of the
separations, and do not mix the cargoes, as this could lead to expensive resorting
ashore.

Separation is achieved by:-
Marking one shipment with distinctive mark.
Using coloured separation nets.
Ropes (different colours are available).
Marking with paint (water-soluble if it may damage the cargo—e.g.,
timber)
Using layers of dunnage (flatboard or plywood).
Using tarpaulins (canvas).
Using coloured adhesive tape or paint.
Leaving horizontal distance between different shipments.
Natural separation (cargo of different form, shape, or packing).

Dry cargo refers to goods that are not in liquid or gaseous form and are transported in bulk or packaged form. It includes a wide range of commodities, from raw materials like coal and grain to manufactured goods like steel and timber.

More Related Content

Similar to Dry cargo refers to goods that are not in liquid or gaseous form and are transported in bulk or packaged form. It includes a wide range of commodities, from raw materials like coal and grain to manufactured goods like steel and timber. (20)

More from DrWaheedSamiAbuShana (8)

Recently uploaded (20)

Dry cargo refers to goods that are not in liquid or gaseous form and are transported in bulk or packaged form. It includes a wide range of commodities, from raw materials like coal and grain to manufactured goods like steel and timber.