Effect of Raj Yoga Meditation on Affective & Cognitive Functions

International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) 38
Vol.3; Issue: 2; February 2013
International Journal of Health Sciences and Research
www.ijhsr.org ISSN: 2249-9571
Original Research Article
Effect of Raj Yoga Meditation on Affective & Cognitive Functions
Nishi Misra*@
, Arunima Gupta**
, Sarika Alreja***
, Om Prakash****
*
Scientist „E‟, **
Scientist „F‟, ***
Ph.D Clinical Psychology, ****
M.Phil Medical & Social Psychology
Defence Institute of Psychological Research (DIPR), Defence Research and
Development Organization, Lucknow Road, Timarpur, Delhi-110054.
@
Correspondence Email: nishi.nishi067@gmail.com
Received: 21/01//2013 Revised: 21/02/2013 Accepted: 22/02/2013
ABSTRACT
Context: Raj Yoga is the supreme or the highest yoga that empowers the self to rule the mind,
sense-organs and the body. There are several psychological benefits incurred by raj-yoga which
have not been highlighted due to scarcity of scientific studies. Aims: The present study
examined the effect of duration of Raj Yoga Meditation practice on affective & cognitive
functions in terms of attention/concentration, memory, visual processing, neuroticism, hope and
happiness. Materials and Methods: Sixty- four healthy volunteers practicing Raj yoga from 1
month to more than 10 years were segregated into two groups of beginners and practitioners and
their psychological and affective functions assessed using standard measures at a Raj Yoga
Centre in Delhi, India. Results and Conclusions: Results suggest that the group practicing Raj
Yoga for longer duration had significantly less neurotic symptoms, scored higher on hope and
happiness and higher on cognitive functions in comparison to the group practicing Raj Yoga for
shorter duration. These results may be due to personality development, self-actualization and
better attention and concentration achieved due to training in Raj Yoga.
Key-words: Raj Yoga, Affective & Cognitive Functions
INTRODUCTION
The word „Raj‟ means the king,
sovereign or the supreme. Raj Yoga is the
supreme or the highest yoga that empowers
the self to rule the mind, sense-organs and
the body. Raj-Yoga also implies that even a
person who is a king and who is very busy
can practice it, as this practice does not
involve any acts of austerities or penances or
renouncing one‟s household. Raj-Yoga
meditation is different from all other forms
of meditation; although contemplation,
reflection, imagination, concentration, etc.
are employed in its practice.
Raj-Yoga is based on the
understanding that every person has two
aspects of personality – body (outer sheath)
and a conscient entity which is a
metaphysical or spiritual being or soul. It is

this which thinks, understands, reflects and
has emotions. Brain is one of its
mechanisms and its switchboard or control
apparatus. However, in the course of time,
certain factors have led the conscient entity
to identify itself with the brain or the body.
This wrong identification has caused
suffering in various forms and has led the
society to the path of struggle for existence
and peacelessness.
The practice of Raj Yoga results in
alertness and awareness of the mind and
illusions of material consciousness, frees
one from fear of the unknown, gives clarity
and certainty about what lies beyond the
immediate perceivable world. It can also be
practiced for maintaining sound health,
improving concentration for better
performance in any field, overcoming
character defects, developing personality,
etc.
There are several psychological
benefits incurred by yoga which have been
highlighted in the studies conducted in the
field. It increases somatic and kinesthetic
awareness, improves mood, [1]
increases
subjective well-being of the individuals, [2]
increases self-acceptance and self-
actualization, increases social adjustment,
decreases anxiety, depressive symptoms and
hostility. [3, 4]
There are reports of benefits of
yoga seen in the treatment of anxiety
disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder,
and schizophrenia. Kundalini meditation and
relaxation have been used for anxiety
disorders and obsessive-compulsive
disorder. [5]
The best studies of mood
changes associated with Yoga were carried
out on Hatha-Yoga, a form of Yoga that
involves a strong exercise dimension. [6]
It
involves stretching, balancing, and breathing
routines. After practicing Hath Yoga,
subjects reported being less anxious, tense,
angry, fatigued, and confused. Yoga has a
very significant role in the treatment of
psychosomatic disorder which is
precipitated due to stress. [7-10]
Yoga has also been described as
training in awareness which produces
definite changes in perception, attention and
cognition. [11]
It has been shown that
processing of sensory information at the
thalamic level is facilitated during the
practice of pranayama (breathing exercises)
[12]
and meditation. [13]
Integrated approach
of yoga that combines physical postures,
pranayama and meditation together with the
notional correction based on philosophy of
yoga was found to improve both cognitive
(visual perception) and motor functions
(hand steadiness in college students
following 10 days of yoga practice). [14]
This
improvement was believed to be due to
improved eye hand coordination, attention,
concentration and relaxation. [13]
Among the various types of Yoga,
very few studies have been documented
regarding the practice of Raj Yoga and its
effects. Changes in various autonomic and
respiratory variables during the practice of
Brahmakumaris Raja yoga meditation in 18
males with 5-25 years of experience in
meditation were reported in a study [13]
which revealed that heart rate during the
meditation period was increased. There was
no significant change during meditation, for
the group as a whole, in palmar GSR, finger
plethysmogram amplitude, and respiratory
rate. The individual level analysis revealed
that changes in autonomic variables
suggestive of both activation and relaxation
occurred simultaneously in different
subdivisions of the autonomic nervous
system in a subject. Apart from this, there
were differences in patterns of change
among the subjects who practiced the same
meditation.
With this background, the present
study was conducted to know: (i) The
impact of duration of Raja Yoga Meditation
practice on affective and cognitive functions

and (ii) To compare the beginners and
experts of Raja Yoga Meditation on
affective and cognitive functions in terms of
attention/concentration, memory, visual
processing, neuroticism, hope, and
happiness.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
This study was conducted at
BramhaKumari Raj Yoga Centre, Delhi. 100
Participants were interviewed and screened
initially. The Inclusion and Exclusion
criteria for the participants were age group
of twenty five to fifty years, at least
educated up to High School, residing in
North Delhi and nearby areas, not having
any significant physical or psychiatric
illness and given informed consent to
participate in the study. After screening
according to the exclusion and inclusion
criteria, sixty four individuals were selected
for the study. Informed consent was taken
from each participant. The nature and
purpose of the study was explained to them.
Thereafter, the drawn sample was randomly
divided into two groups. The first group
consisted of thirty eight individuals who
were practicing raj yoga for the last two
years and the second group consisted of
twenty six individuals who were practicing
raj yoga for ten or more years. Mean age of
the participants in group I and group II was
38.42+9.78 and 40.38+8.34 years
respectively. In both groups majority of the
participants were married, employed and
from urban background. Most of the
participants‟ income was above 3 Lac rupees
per year. No significant difference was
found between the groups on any of the
socio demographic characteristics i.e.,
education, marital status, occupation and
socio-economic status and income.
Socio- demographic and Clinical
Data Sheet were filled for initial
information. Assessment of all the
participants was done using the NEO-PI R
(Neuroticism Scale for assessing
neuroticism),Happiness Scale, The Adult
Hope Scale and Quality of Life Scale which
were used to assess psychological and
affective functioning. Rey Verbal Learning
Test, Rey Osterrieth Complex Figure Test
and Letter Cancellation Tests of NIMHANS
Neuropsychological Battery were
administered to assess cognitive functions.
Tools used:
 Neuroticism scale of NEO-PI R: [15]
The scale is characterized by a
general tendency to experience
negative affects such as fear,
sadness, embarrassment, anger, guilt
and disgust. Individuals high in this
factor are also prone to have
irrational ideas, are less able to
control their impulses and cope more
poorly than others with stress. Six
facets of neuroticism that are
assessed include: anger, anxiety,
hostility, depression, self-
consciousness, impulsiveness and
vulnerability. Each facet contains six
items. The domain scales show
internal reliabilities ranging from
0.87 to 0.92. The facet scales show
internal reliability ranging from 0.58
to 0.82.
 The Adult Hope Scale: [16]
The adult
hope scale measures Snyder‟s
cognitive model of hope which
defines hope as “a positive
motivational state that is based on an
interactively derived sense of
successful (a) agency (goal-directed
energy) and (b) pathways (planning
to meet goals)”. The adult hope scale
contains 12 items. Four items
measure pathways thinking, four
agency thinking and four items are
fillers. Participants respond to each

item using an eight point scale,
ranging from definitely false to
definitely true and the scale takes
only a few minutes to complete.
 Happiness Scale: [17]
is a four item
scale of global subjective happiness.
Two items ask respondents to
characterize themselves using both
absolute ratings and ratings relative
to peers, whereas the other two items
offer brief description of happy and
unhappy individuals and ask
respondents the extent to which each
characterization describes them.
 Quality of Life Scale: [18]
It assesses
an individual‟s quality of life
through self-report of the importance
they attach to each of six life
domains, on a seven-point rating
scale. The six domains are: material
and physical well-being,
relationships with other people,
social, community and civic
activities, personal development and
fulfillment, recreation and
independence or the ability to do for
yourself. The QOLS has low to
moderate correlations with physical
health status and disease measures.
The QOLS is a valid instrument for
measuring quality of life across
patient groups and cultures and is
conceptually distinct from health
status or other causal indicators of
quality of life.
 Rey‟sauditory verbal learning test
(RAVLT) [19]
from NIMHANS
Neuropsychological Battery is a
measure of verbal learning and
memory. It is a measure of
immediate memory, acquisition or
new learning, retention, primacy, and
recency effect, susceptibility to
proactive and retroactive
interference.
 Letter Cancellation Test (From
NIMHANS Neuropsychological
Battery): [19]
This test assesses visual
scanning, response speed and
sustained attention. The subject is
presented with letters of English
alphabet, and is instructed to cancel
out specific letters. In addition, the
numbers of different errors
(omissions and commissions) done
by the subject are counted.
 Rey Osterith Complex Figure Test [20]
from NIMHANS Neuropsychological Battery
ROCFT is a “pen and paper”
neuropsychological test used to evaluate
neurological dysfunction in visual
perception and long term memory. The test
requires the subject to copy a complex
figure and later produce from memory.
Statistical analysis
The results were analyzed using the statistical package of social sciences-version 16.0 for
windows. Socio-demographic variables were analyzed using the x2
and independent sample t-
test. Performance of both the groups on study variables were compared using the independent
sample t-test.

Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of the sample: Group I (N=38) and Group II (26)
Group 1(38) Group2(26) X2
Gender
Male 19 15
.36 NS
Female 19 11
Education
High School 2 3
3.59 NS
Intermediate 5 1
Graduate 20 13
Postgraduate 6 7
Professional 5 2
Marital Status
Unmarried 9 12
3.53 NS
Married 29 14
Occupation
Student 5 1
2.67 NS
Service 16 15
Business 10 7
Housewife 7 3
Average no of hours
1 to 5 22 7
9.16 NS
6 to 10 9 9
11 to 15 5 7
16 to 20 1 1
21 to 25 1 0
26 to 30 0 2
*=.05, **=.01, NS= Not Significant
Table-1 shows the significance of difference
between the beginners and practitioners on
socio-demographic characteristics. The table
reveals that beginners and practitioners did
not differ significantly on any of the socio-
demographic variables, i.e. gender,
education, occupation, marital status and
average number of hours of Raj Yoga
practice.
Table 2. Comparison of Raj Yoga Practitioners on NEO-PIR, hope, happiness and QOL: Group I (N=38), Group II (N=26)
Group 1 (38) Group 2(26)
M+SD M+SD t
N1 14.71+5.01 9.42+4.51 4.31**
N2 13.05+5.14 8.73+3.81 3.65**
N3 14.00+6.09 9.69+4.26 3.11**
N4 13.44+4.39 9.50+4.12 3.61**
N5 13.65+4.26 10.07+3.03 3.68**
N6 11.84+5.42 6.57+3.61 4.33**
Total 80.71+24.00 54.00+17.48 4.85**
Hope 53.10+7.42 56.92+6.32 2.14*
Happiness 5.03+1.27 5.99+1.02 3.17**
QOL 85.76+13.77 84.80+15.18 0.26
NS
Table 2 presents the comparison of both
groups‟ scores on the subscales of NEO-PI
R i.e. anxiety, anger, hostility, self-
consciousness, impulsivity and
vulnerability. Findings suggest that the
differences between both groups were found

to be statistically significant at .01 level on
all the subscale of NEO-PI R. The mean
total scores for the group I and group II were
80.71+24.00 and 54.00+17.48 respectively.
The difference between these was also found
to be statistically significant at .01 level.
These findings suggest that the group
practicing raj yoga for longer duration had
significantly less neurotic symptoms in
comparison to the group practicing raj yoga
for shorter duration. The differences
between both the groups‟ scores were also
found to be significantly different for hope
and happiness scales. These findings suggest
that the group practicing raj yoga for longer
duration had significantly more amount of
hope and happiness in comparison to the
group practicing raj yoga for shorter
duration. However, no significant
differences were found between both
groups‟ scores on Quality of Life Scale.
Table 3. Comparison of Raj Yoga Practitioners on Cognitive functions: Group I (N=38), Group II (N=26)
Group 1 (38)
Group
2(26)
M+SD M+SD t
Verbal learning 7.39+2.18 7.00+2.13 .71
NS
Visual
perception
8.44+4.67 8.92+4.21 .41
NS
Attention
6.02+7.38 6.23+5.90 .11
NS
1.25+6.50 .04+.020 .92
NS
Table -3 shows that in visual and verbal
memory, no significant difference was found
between the groups and neither was there
any difference in attention i.e., errors of
omission or commission.
DISCUSSION
The findings of the present study
suggest that the group practicing raj yoga for
longer duration had significantly less
neurotic symptoms in comparison to the
duration. These findings are consistent with
the findings of other studies revealing that
normal healthy volunteers practicing yoga
show reduced neuroticism, anxiety and
hostility. [21,22]
There is an increase in
expressiveness or catharsis, indicating
decreased emotional complexes. [22,23]
Others have reported that yoga exercises
help to release muscle tension [24]
and
improve muscular efficiency as seen in
enhanced strength, tone, flexibility and work
output. [25-28]
Due to improved functions of
the entire muscular system, build up of
chronic muscle tension is avoided, thus
helping to promote a state of mental
relaxation.
Comparative studies have shown
meditation and yogic therapeutic techniques
to be better and more efficacious than
psychoanalysis or behaviour therapy. Yoga
practices serve as effective therapy to cure
hypertension, anxiety and psychoneurotic
symptoms. [21,29]
The differences between both the
groups‟ scores were also found to be
significantly different for hope and
happiness scales. These findings suggest that
the group practicing raj yoga for longer

duration had significantly more amount of
hope and happiness in comparison to the
duration. These findings are consistent with
the findings of other studies revealing that
practicing yoga improves mood, [1]
increases
subjective well-being of the individuals, [2]
increase self-acceptance and self-
actualization, increases social adjustment.
[3,4]
However, no significant differences
were found between both groups‟ scores on
quality of life scale. Some studies have
specifically demonstrated potential benefits
of yoga on quality of life in various clinical
populations, including patients with
depression, stress, and anxiety. However,
the results of these studies need to be
interpreted carefully since many of the
published studies regarding yoga are small
and lack meticulous design. It may also be
difficult to compare studies that evaluate
different patient populations. Only a few
systematic and comprehensive reviews of
scientific research on yoga for patients have
been published. Also, none of the previously
published reviews addresses the quantitative
magnitude of the identified effects.
This result might also have been
obtained because of the complexity of the
concept of quality of life for normal
individuals. The concept of quality of life
has many more domains than only hope and
happiness and is determined by many other
moderator variables like age and other
socio-demographic variables in normal
population. Studies controlling the
moderator effects of other socio-
demographic and psychological variable will
be needed in future to exactly find out the
status of quality of life in different groups of
normal yoga practitioners.
In visual and verbal memory, no significant
difference was found between groups and
neither was there any difference on errors of
omission or commission. These findings are
consistent with the findings of Oken, et al.
(2006) [30]
who found no effects from either
of the active interventions on any of the
cognitive and alertness outcome measures.
Whereas the difference between the
two groups for the error of omission is
negligible, the difference between the two
groups for the error of commission is
comparatively large showing that the people
practicing raj yoga for 10 or more years
have falsely hit only few targets in
comparison to the people who have been
practicing raj yoga for 0-2 years. This is also
a very significant finding indicating that
there has been a large although not
statistically significant difference in one
aspect of attention in favor of people
practicing raj yoga for a longer time. This
finding is also supported by findings of the
previous studies indicating improvement in
some aspect of attention with raj yoga. [31]
The reason for the differences not becoming
statistically significant may be the nature of
task used in the study.
A suggestion for future studies on
this topic may be using finer measures of
cognitive functions as the subjects
participating in these studies are normal
individuals who can perform equally on
these very basic cognitive tasks. Hopefully,
finer measures of the cognitive functions
will be able to differentiate between the
experts and beginners of Raj Yoga.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our grateful acknowledgements to
all who helped in this project. We are
grateful to Brahmkumari Raj Yoga Centre,
Delhi for supporting in the conduct of this
study in a big way. We thank the volunteers
and supporters who participated in this
study.
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How to cite this article: Misra N, Gupta A, Alreja S et. al. Effect of Raj Yoga Meditation on
Affective & Cognitive Functions. Int J Health Sci Res. 2013;3(2):38-46.

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