English grammar in use

English Grammar in Use
Present and Past
1. Present Continuous (I am doing)
a. Situation
Ann is in her car. She is on her way to work. She is driving to work.
This means: she is driving now, at the time of speaking.
The action is not finished.
Am/is/are –ing is the present contiuous
b. I am doing something = I’m in the middle of doing something; I’ve started doing it
and I haven’t finished yet.
Often the action is happening at the time speaking:
- Please don’t make so much noise. I’m working. (not I’m work)
- ‘Where is Margaret ?’ ‘She is having take a bath.’ (not she has a bath)
- Let’s go out now. It isn’t raining any more. (not it doesn’t rain)
- (at a party) Hello, Jane. Are you enjoying the party? (not do you enjoy)
- I’m tired. I’m going to bed now. Goodnight!
But the action is not necessarily happening at the time of speaking. For example:
Tom and Ann are talking in a café. Tom says;
‘I’m reading an interesting book at the moment. I’ll lend it to you when I’ve finished
it.
Tom is not reading the book at the time of speaking. He means that he has started it
but not finished it yet. He is in the middle of reading it.
- Catherine wants work in Italy, so she is learning Italian. (but perharps she isn’t
learning Italian exactly at the time of speaking)
- Some friends of mine are building their own house. They hope it will be finished
before next summer
c. We use the present continuous when we talk about things happening in a period
around now (for example, today / this week / this evening, etc)
- ‘You’re working hard today.’ ‘Yes, I have a lot to do.’ (not you work hard today)
- ‘Is Susan working this week? ‘No, she’s on holiday.’
We use the present continuous when we talk about changes happening around now.
- The population of the world is rising very fast. (not rises)
- Is your English getting better? (not ‘does your English get better’)

2. Present Simple (I do)
a. Situation
Alex is a bus driver, but now he is in bed asleep.
So: He is not driving a bus. (he is asleep)
But He drives a bus. (He is a bus driver)
b. We use the present simple to talk about things in general. We are not thinking only
about now. We use it to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly, or that
something is true in general. It is not important whether the action is happening at the
time of speaking:
- Nurses look after patients in hospitals.
- I usually go away at weekends.
- The earth goes round the sun.
Remember that we say: he/she/it –is. Don’t forget the s :
- I work …. But He works …. They teach ……. But my sister teaches ……
For spelling (-s or –es), see Appendix 6 (Appendix.doc)
c. We use do/does to make questions and negative sentences:
- I come from Canada. Where do you come from?
- ‘Would you like a cigarette?’ ‘No, thanks. I don’t smoke’
- What does this word mean? (not ‘what means this word?’)
- Rice doesn’t grow in cold climates.
In the following examples do is also the main verb:
- ‘What do you do?’ (= what’s your job?) ‘I work in a shop’
- He’s so lazy. He doesn’t do anything to help me. (not he doesn’t anything)
d. We use the present simple when we say how often we do things:
- I get up at 8 o’clock every morning. (not ‘I’m getting’)
- How often do you go to dentist? (not ‘how often are you going?’)
- Ann doesn’t drink tea very often.
- In summer John usually plays tennis once or twice a week.
e. I promise / I apologise etc.
Sometimes we do things saying something. For example, when you promise to do
something you can say ‘I promise …’; when you suggest something, you can say ‘I
suggest ….’; we use the present simple (promise/suggest etc.) in sentences like this:
- I promise I won’t be late. (not I’m promising)
- ‘What do you suggest I do?’ ‘I suggest that you ….’
In the same way we say: I apologise…./ I advice …/ I insist…/ I agree…/I refuse…
etc.

3. Present continuous and present simple (1) (I am doing and I do)
a. Study and compare:
Present continuous (I’m doing)
Use the continuous for something that
is happening at or around the time
speaking. Yhe action is not finished.
I am doing
Past now future
- The water is boiling. Can you turn
it off?
- Listen to those people. What
language are they speaking?
- Let’s go out. It isn’t raining now.
- ‘Don’t disturb me. I’m busy.’
‘why? What are you doing?’
- I’m going to bed now. Goodnight.
- Maria is in Britain at the moment.
She’s learning English.
Use the continuous for a temporary
situation:
- I’m living with some friends until I
find a flat.
- ‘you’re working haard today.’ ‘yes,
I’ve go a lot to do.’
Present simple (I do)
Use the simple for things in general or
things thet happen repeatedly.
-------------------I do-----------------
Past now future
- Water boils at 100 degrees celcius
- Excuse me, do you speak English?
- It doesn’t rain very much in summer.
- What do you usually do at
weekends?
- What do you do? (=what ur job?)
- I always go to bed before midnight
- Mos people learn to swim when they
are children
Use the simple for a permanent
situation:
- My parents live in London . they
have lived there all their lives.
- John isn’t lazy. He works very hard
most of the time.
b. I always do and I’m always doing
Usually we say ‘I always do something’ (= I do it every time)
I always go to work by car. (not I’m always going)
You can also say ‘I’m always doing something’, but this has a different meaning. For
example:
I’ve lost my key again. I’m always losing thing.
‘I’m always losing things’ does not mean that I lose things every time. It means that I
lose things to often more often than normal.
‘you’re always –ing’ means that you do something very often, more often than the
speaker thinks is normal or reasonable.
- You’re always watching television. Ypu should do something more active
- John is never satisfied. He’s always complaining.

4. Present continuous and present simple (2)
(I am doing and I do)
a. We use continuous tenses only for actions and happenings (they are eating / it is
raining etc).
Some verbs (ex, know and like) are not action verbs. You cannot say ‘I am knowing’
or ‘they are liking’; you can only say ‘I know’, ‘they like’.
The following verbs are not normaly used in continuous tenses:
Like Love Depend Want Need Prefer
Know Realise Suppose Mean Understand Seem
Believe Remember Belong Contain Consist Hate
- I’m hungry. I want something to eat. (not I’m wanting)
- Do you understand what I mean?
- Ann doesn’t seemvery happy at the afternoon.
When think means ‘believe’, do not use the continuous:
- What do you think (=believe) will happen? (not what are you thinking)
but
- You look serious. What are you thinking about? (=what is going on in your mind)
- I’m thinking of giving up my job. (=I’m considering)
When have means ‘possess’ etc., do not use the continuous (see Unit 17):
- We’re enjoying our holiday. We have a nice room in the hotel. (not we’re having)
but
- We’re enjoying our holiday. We’re having a great time.
b. See hear smell taste
We normally use the present simple (not continuous) with these verbs:
- Do you see that man over there? (not are you seeing)
- This room smells. Let’s open a window.
We often use can + see/hear/smell/taste:
- Listen! Can you hear something?
But you can use the continuous with see (I’m seeing) when the meaning is ‘having a
meeting with’ (especially in the future – see unit 19A):
- I’m seeing the manager tomorrow morning.
c. He is selfish an He is being selfish.
The present continuous of be is I am being / he is being / you are being etc.
I’m being = ‘I’m behaving / I’m acting’. Compare:

- I can’t understand why he’s being so selfish. He isn’t usually like that. (being
selfish = behaving selfishly at the moment)
but
- He never thinks about other people. He is very selfish. (not ‘he is being)
(=he is selfish in generally, not only at the moment)
We use am/is/are being to say how somebody is behaving. It is not usually possible in
other sentences:
- It’s hot today. (not it is being hot)
- Sarah is very tired. (not is being tired).
d. Look and feel
You can use the present simple or continuous when you say how somebody looks or
feels now:
- you look well today. Or You’re looking well today.
- How do you feel now? Or How are you feeling now?
but
- I usually feel tired in the morning. (not ‘I’m, usually feeling)
5. Past simple (I did)
a. Example
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was an Austrian musician and composer. He lived from
1756 to 1791. he started composing at the age of five and wrote more than 600
pieces of music. He was only 35 years old when he died.
Lived/started/wrote/was/died are all past simple.
b. Very often the past simple ends in –ed (regular verbs):
- I work in a travel agency now. Before that I worked in a shop.
- We invited them to our party but they decided not to come.
- The police stopped me on my way home last night.
- She passed her examination because she studied very hard.
For spelling see appendix 6
But many verbs are irregular. The past simple does not end in –ed. Ex:
Write  wrote - Mozart wrote more than 600 pieces of music.
See  saw - We saw Rose in town a few days ago.
Go  went - I went to the cinema three times last week.
Shut  shut - It was cold, so I shut the window
c. In question and negatives we use did/didn’t + infinitive (enjoy/see/go, etc)
I enjoyed you enjoy? I enjoy
She saw did she see? She didn’t see

They went they go? They go
- A: Didi you go out last night?
B: yes, I went to the cinema but I didn’t enjoy the film much
- When did Mr. Thomas die?’ ‘About ten years ago’
- They didn’t invite her to the party, so she didn’t go.
- ‘Did you have time to write letter?’ “No, I didn’t’
Be careful when do is the main verbs in sentences:
- What did you do at the weekend? ( not ‘what did you at the weekend?’)
- I didn’t do anything. (not ‘I didn’t anything’)
d. The past of be (am/is/are)
Note that we do not use did in negatives and questions with was/were:
I/he/she/it  was/wasn’t was  I/he/she/it?
We/you/they  were/weren’t were We/you/they?
- I was angry because they were late.
- Was the weather good when you were on holiday?
- They weren’t able to come because they were so busy.
- Did you go out last night or were you too tired?
6. Past continuous (I was doing)
a. Situation
Yesterday Karen and Jim played tennis. They began at 10 o’clock and finished at
11.30. so, at 10.30 they were playing tennis.
They were playing = ‘they were in the middle of playing’. They had not finished
playing.
Was/were –ing is the past continous:
I/he/she/it was
We/you/they were
playing
doing, etc.
b. We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of doing
something at acertain time. The action or situation had already started before this time
but had not finished.
I started doing I was doing I finished doing
↓ / ↓
past past now
- this time last year I was living in Brazil
- what were you doing at 10 o’clock last night?
- I waved to her but she wasn’t looking.

c. Compare the past continuous (I was doing) and past simple (I did):
Past continuous (in the middle of an
action)
- I was walking home when I met
Dave. (= in the middle of walking
home)
- Ann was watching television
when the phone rang.
Past simple (complete action)
- I walked home after the party last
night. (= all the way, completely)
- Ann watched television a lot when she
was ill last year.
d. We often use the past simple and past continuous together to say that something
happening in the middle of something else:
Tom burnt his hand when he was cooking the dinner.
I saw you in the party yesterday. You were sitting on the grass and reading a
book.
While I was working in the garden, I hurt my back.
But we use the past simple to say that one thing happened after another:
I was talking along the road when I saw Dave. So I stopped and we had a chat.
Compare :
When Karen arrived, we were having
dinner. (= we had already started dinner
before Karen arrived).
When Karen arrived, we had dinner.
(= first Karen arrived and then we
had dinner.)
e. There are some verbs (ex, know/want/believe) that are not normally used in the
continuous. (see unit 4A).
We were good friends. We knew each other well. (not ‘we were knowing’)
I was enjoying the party but Chris wanted to go home. (not ‘was wanting)
Present Perfect and Past
7. Present perfect (1) (I have done)
a. Situation
Tom is looking for his key. He can’t find it. He has lost his key.
‘He has lost his key’ = He lost it and he still hasn’t got it.
Have/has lost is the present perfect simple:
The present perfect have/has + past participle. The past participle often end in –ed
(finished/decided, etc), but many important verbs are irregular
(lost/done/been/written, etc). for a list of irregular verbs, see appendix 1).

b. When we use the present perfect there is always a connection with now. The action in
the past has a result now:
- ‘where’s your key?’ ‘I don’t know. I’ve lost it. (I haven’t got it now)
- He told me his name but I’ve forgotten it. (I cant remember it now)
- ‘is Sally here?’ ‘no, she’s gone out.’ (she is out now)
- I cant find my bag. Have you seen it? (do you know where it is now?)
We often use the present perfect to give new information or to announce a recent
happening:
- Ow! I’ve cut my finger.
- The road is closed. There’s been (=has been) an accident.
- (from the news) The police arrested two men in connection with the robbery.
c. You can use the present perfect with just, already and yet:
Just = short time ago
- ‘would you like something to eat?” ‘no, thanks. I’ve just had lunch.’
- Hello. Have you just arrived/
We use already to ay that something happened sooner than expected (see also unit
110D)
- ‘don’t forget to post the letter, will you?’ ‘I’ve already posted it’
- ‘what time is Mark leaving? ‘he’s already gone.’
Yet = until now and shows that the speaker is expecting something to happen. Use yet
only in question and negative sentences. (see also unit 110C)
- Has it stopped raining yet?’
- I’ve written the letter but I haven’t posted it yet.
d. Note the difference between gone (to) and been (ro):
- Jim is away on holiday. He has gone to Spain. (= he is there now or on his way
there)
- Jane is back home from holiday now. She has been to Italy. (= she has now come
back from Italy)
From been (to) see also Unit 8 and 125 B.
8. Present perfect (2) (I have done)
a. Conversation
Dave : have you traveled a lot, Jane?
Jane : Yes, I’ve been to a lots of places.
Dave : Really? Have you ever been to China?
Jane : Yes, I’ve been to China twice.
Dave : what about India?
Jane : No, I haven’t been to India.

Jane’s life
(a period until now)
past now
When we talk about a period of time that continuous from te past until now, we use
the present perfect (have been/have traveled etc). Here, Dave and Jane are talking
about the places Jane has visited un her life (which is period that continuous until
now).
- Have you ever eaten caviar? (in your life)
- We’ve never had a car.
- ‘have you ever read Hamlet?’ (No, I haven’t read any Shackespeare’s plays’.
- Susan really loves that film. She’s seen it eight times!
- What a boring film! It’s the most boring film I’ve everseen.
In the following examples too the speakers are talking about a period that continuous
until now (recently/ in the last few days/ so far/ since breakfast etc).
- Have you heard from George recently?
- I’ve meet a lot of people in the last few days.
- Everything is going well. We haven’t had any problems so far.
- I’m hungry. I haven’t eaten anything since breakfast. (= from breakfast until
now).
- It’s nice to see you again. We haven’t seeneach other for a long time.
b. We use the present perfect with today/ this morning/ this evening etc. when these
periods are not finished at the time of speaking (see also Unit 14 B):
- I’ve drunk four cups of coffee today. (perhaps I’ll drink more before today
finished).
- Have you had a holiday this year (yet)?
- I haven’t seenTom this morning.
- Ron hasn’t worked very hard this term.
c. Note that we say ‘It’s the first time something has happened’ (present perfect). Ex :
Don is having a driving lesson. He is very nervous and unsure because it is his first
lesson.
- I’ts this eveningthe first time he has driven car. (not drives)
Or He has never driven a car before.
- Linda has lost her passport again. It’s the second time this has happened. (not
happen).
- This is a lovely meal. It’s the first good meal I’ve had for ages. (not I have).

- Bill is phoning his girlfriend again. That’s the third time he’s phoned her this
evening.
9. Present perfect continuous (I have been doing)
a. It has been raining Situation:
Is it raining?
No, but the ground is wet.
It has been rainig.
Have/has been –ing is the present perfect continuous:
i/we/they/you have (= I’ve etc)
he/she/it has (= he’s etc)
been
Doing
Waiting etc.
We use the present perfect continuous for an activity that has recently stopped or just
stopped. There is a connection with now:
- You’re out of breath. Have you been running? (you’re out of breath now)
- Paul is very tired. He’s been working very hard. (he’s tired now)
- Why are your clothes so dirty? What have you been doing?
- I’ve been talking to Carol about the problem and she thinks that..
b. It has been raining for two hours. Situation:
It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago and it is still
raining.
How long has it been raining?
It has been raining for two hours.
We often use the present perfect continuous in this way,
especially with how long, for… and since… . The activity is still
happening (as in this example) or has just stopped.
- How long have you been learning English? (you’re still learning English)
- Tim is still watching television. He’s been watching television all day.
- Where have you been? I’ve been looking for you for the last half hour.
- George hasn’t been feeling well recently.
You can use the present perfect continuous for actions repeated over a period of time:
- Debbie is a very good tennis player. She’s been pleying since she was eight.
- Every morning they meet in the same café. They’ve been going there for years.
c. Compare I am doing (see unit 1) and I have been doing:
I am doing
Present continuous
↓
now
- Don’t disturb me now. I’m
now
- I’ve been working hard, so now I’m
I have been doing
present perfect continuous

working.
- We need an umbrella. It’s raining.
- Hurry up! We’re waiting.
going to have a rest.
- The ground is wet. It’s been raining.
- We’ve been witing for an hour.
10. Present perfect continuous and Simple (I have been doing and I have done)
a. Situation:
Ann’s clothes are covered in paint.
She has been painting the ceiling.
Has been peinting is the present
perfect continuous.
We are interested in the activity. It
does not matter whether something
has been finished or not. In this
example, the activity (painting the
ceiling) has not been fionished.
The ceiling was white. Now it is blue.
She has painted the ceiling.
Has painted is the present perfect simple.
Here, the important thing is that
something has been finished. ‘Has
painted’ is a completed action. We are
interested in the result of the activity (the
painted ceiling), not in the activity itself.
Compare these examples:
- My hands are very dirty. I’ve been
reoairing the car.
- She’s been smoking too much
recently. She should smoke less.
- It’s nice to see you again. What have
you been doing since we last met?
- Where have you been? Have you been
playing tennis.
- The car is OK again now. I’ve
repaired it.
- Somebody has smoked all my
cigarettes. The packet is empty.
- Where’s the book I gave you? What
have you done with it?
- Have you ever played tennis?
b.
We use the continuous to ask or say
how long (for an activity that is still
happening):
- How long have you been reading
that book?
- Mary is still writing letters. She’s
been writing letters all day.
- They’ve been playing tennis since
2 o’clock.
We use the simple to ask or say how
much, how many or how many times
(completed actions):
- How many pages of that book have
you read?
- Mary has written ten letters today.
- They’ve played tennis three times this
week.
c. There are some verbs (example, know/like/believe) that are normally not used in the
continuous:
- I’ve known about it for a long time. (not ‘I’ve been knowing’)

For a list of these verbs, see unit 4A.
11. How long have you (been) …?
a. Situation:
Bob and Alice married. They got married exactly 20 years ago, so today is their
20th wedding anniversary.
They have been married for 20 years.
We say:
They are married. (present)
But How long have they been married? (present perfect)
(not ‘How long are they married?’)
They have been married for 20 years.
(not ‘They are married for 20 years’)
We use the present perfect to talk about something that began in the past and still
continues now. Compare the present and the present perfect:
- Amy is in hospital.
But She has been in hospital since Monday. (not ‘Amy is in hospital since
Monday’)
- We know each other very well.
But We have kknown each other for a long time. (not ‘we know’)
- Are you waiting for somebody?
But How long have you been waiting?
b. I have been doing something (present perfect continuous) = ‘I started doing
something in the past and I am still doing it (or have just stopped)’:
- I’ve been learning English for a long time. (not ‘I am learning’)
- Sorry I’m late. Have you been waiting long?
- It’s been raining since I got up this morning.
The action can be a repeated action:
- ‘How long have you been driving?’ ‘Since I was 17.’
c. I have done (simple) or I have been doing (continuous)
The continuous is more usual with how long, since and for (see also unit 10B):
- I’ve been learning English for a long time. (not usually ‘I’ve learnt’)
You can normally use either the continuous or simple with live and work:
- John has been living/ has lived in London for a long time.
- How long have you been working/ have you worked here?
But we use the simple with always:
- John has always lived in London. (not ‘has always been living’)
You can use the continuous or the simple for actions repeated over a long period:

- I’ve been collecting/ I’ve collected stamps since I was child.
Some verbs (example, know/like/believe) are nor normally used in the continuous:
- How long have you know Jane? (not ‘have you been knowing’)
- I’ve had a pain in my stomach since I got up this morning.
For a list of these verbs, see unit 4A. for have see unit 17.
d. We use the present perfect simple in negative sentences like these:
- I haven’t seen Tom since Monday. (= Monday was the last time I saw him)
- Jane hasn’t phoned me for two weeks. (= the last time she phoned was two weeks
ago)
12. When …? and How long …? For a since
a. Compare when…? (+ past simple) and how long…? (+ present perfect):
A: When did it start raining?
B: it started rainig an hour ago/ at 1 o’clock.
A: How long has it been raining?
B: It’s been rainig for an hour/ since 1 o’clock.
A: When did Joe and Carol first meet?
B: They first met a long time ago/ when they
were at school.
A: How long have Joe and Carol known each
other?
B: They’ve known each other for a long
time.
Since they
were at school.
b. We use both for and since to say how long something has been happening.
We use for when we say a period of
time (two hours, six weeks etc):
- I’ve been waiting for two hours.
Two hours ago -------------> now
For
Two hours a week
20 minutes 50 years
Five days a long time
We use since when we say the start of a
period (8 o’clock, Monday, 1985 etc):
- I’ve been waiting since 8 o’clock.
8 o’clock ------------------------> now
Since
8 o’clock 1977
Monday Christmas
12 may lunchtime
For two hours Since 8 o’clock

Six months ages
- Sally’s been working here for six
months. (not ‘since six months’)
- I haven’t seen Tom for three days.
(not ‘since three days’)
April they were at school
- Sally’s been working here since april.
(= from April until now)
- I haven’t seen Tom since Monday. (=
from Monday until now)
It is possible to leave out for (but not usually in negative sentences):
- They’ve been married (for) ten years. (with or without for)
- They haven’t had holiday for ten years. (you must use for.
We do not use for + all… (all day/ all time etc):
- I’ve lived here all my life. (not ‘for all my life’)
c. We say ‘it’s (a long time/ two years etc) since something happened’:
- It’s two years since I last saw Joe. (= I haven’t see Joe for two years/ the last time
I saw Joe was two years ago)
- It’s ages since we went to the cinema. (= we haven’t benn to the cinema for ages)
The question is How long is it since…?
- How long is it since you last saw Joe? (= when did you last see Joe?)
- How long is it since Mrs Hill died? (= when did Mrs Hill die?)
13. Present perfect and past (1) (I have done and I did)
a. Situation:
Tom is looking for his key. He can’t find it.
He has lost his key. (present perfect)
This means that he doesn’t have his key now.
Ten minutes later:
Now Tom has found his key. He has it now.
Has he lost his key? (present perfect)
No, he hasn’t. he has found it.
Did he lose his key? (past simple)
Yes, he did.
He lost his key (past simple)
But now he has found it. (present perfect)
The present perfect is a present tense. It always tells us something about now. ‘Tom
has lost his key’ = he doesn’t have his key now. (see unit 7)

The past simple tells us only about the past. If somebody says ‘Tom lost his key’, we
don’t know whether he has it now or not. We only know he lost it at some time in the
past.
Two more example:
- Jack grew a beard but now he has shaved it off. (so he doesn’t have a beard now)
- They went out after lunch and they’ve just come back. (so they are back now)
b. Do not use the present perfect if there is no connection with the present (example,
things that happened a long time ago):
- The Chinese invented printing. (not ‘have invented’)
- How many plays did Shakespears write? (not ‘has Shakspears written’)
- Beethoven was a great composer. (not ‘has been’)
Compare:
- Shakspears wrote many plays.
- My sister is a writer. She has written many books. (she still writes books)
c. We use the present perfect to give new information (see unit 7). But if we continue to
talk about it, we normally use the past simple:
- A: Ow! I’ve burnt myself
B: How did you do that? (not ‘have you done’)
A: I picked up a hot dish. (not ‘have picked’)
- A: Look! Somebody has split milk on the carpet.
B: well, it wasn’t me. I didn’t do it. (not ‘hasn’t been..haven’t done’)
A: I wonder who it was then. (not ‘who it has been”)
14. Present perfect and past (2) (I have done and I did)
a. Do not use the present perfect (I have done) when you talk about a finished time
(example, yesterday/ ten minute ago/ in 1985/ when I was a child) use a past tense:
- The weather was nice yesterday. (not ‘has been nice’)
- They arrived ten minutes ago. (not ‘have arrived’)
- I ate a lot of sweets when I was a child. (not ‘have eaten’)
- A: did you see the news on television last night? (not ‘have you seen’)
B: No, I went to bed early. (not ‘have gone’)
Use a past tense to ask when…? Or What time…?:
- When did they arrive? (not ‘have they arrive’)
- What time did you finish work?
Compare:
Present perfect
- Tom has lost his key. He can’t get
into the house.
Past simple
- Tom lost his key yesterday. He
couldn’t get into the house.

Here, we are not thinking of the past
action. We are thinking of the present
result of the action: Tom doesn’t have
his key now.
Here, we are thinking of the action in
the past. We don’t know from this
sentence whether Tom has his key now.
b. Compare present perfect and past:
Present perfect
- I’ve done a lot of work today.
We use the present perfect for a period
of time that continues from the past until
now. Example, today, this week, since
1985.
unfinished
past now
- It hasn’t rained this week.
- Have you seen Ann this morning?
(it is still morning)
- Have you seenAnn recently?
- I don’t know where Ann is. I haven’t
seen her. (= I haven’t seen her
recently)
- We’ve been waiting for an hour. (we
are still waiting now)
- Ian lives in London. He has lived
there for seven years.
- I have never played golf. (in my life)
The present perfect always has a
connection with now. See units 7-12
Past simple
- I did a lot of work yesterday.
We use the past simple for a finished
time in the past. Example, yesterday,
last week, from 1985 to 1991.
--- finished ---
past now
- It didn’t rain last week.
- Did you see Ann this morning? (it is
now afternoon or evening)
- Did you see Ann on Sunday?
- A: Was Ann at the party on Sunday?
B: I don’t think so. I didn’t see
- We waited (or were waiting) for an
hour. (we are no longer waiting)
- Ian lived in Scotland for ten years.
Now he lives in London.
- I didn’t play golf when I was on
holiay last summer.
The past simple tells us only about the
past. See units 5-6.
15. Past perfect (I had done)
a. Situation:
Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party
too but they didn’t see each other. Paul went home at
10.30 and Sarah arrived at 11 o’clock. So:
When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there.
He had gone home.
Had gone is the past perfect (simple):
i/we/they/you had (= I’d etc) Gone, seen
today yesterday

he/she/it (= he’d etc) Finished etc.
The past perfect simple is had + past participle (gone/seen/finished etc). For a list of
irregular verbs, see Apendix 1.
Sometimes we talk about something that happened in the past:
- Sarah arrived at the party.
This is the starting point of the story. Then, if we want to talk about things that
happened before this time, we use the past perfect (had…):
- When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul had already gone home.
Some more examples:
- When we got home last night, we found that somebody had broken into the flat.
- Karen didn’t want to come to the cinema with us because she had already seen
the film.
- At first I thought I’d done the right thing, but I soon realized that I’d made a
serious mistake.
- The man sitting next to me on the plane was vary nervous. He hadn’t flown
before. / He had never flown before.
b. Had done (past perfect) is the past of have done (present perfect). Compare:
Present perfect
past now
- Who is that woman? I’ve never seen
her before.
- We aren’t hungry. We’ve just had
lunch.
- The house is dirty. They haven’t
cleaned in for weeks.
Past simple
past now
- I didn’t know who she was. I’d never
seen her before. (before that time)
- We weren’t hungry. We’d just had
lunch.
- The house was dirty. They hadn’t
cleaned it for weeks.
c. Compare the past perfect (I had done) and past simple (I did):
- ‘Was Tom at the party when you arrived?’ ‘No, he had already gone home.’
But ‘Was Tom there when you arrived?’ ’Yes, but he went home soon afterwards.’
- Ann wasn’t at home when I phoned. She was in London.
But Ann had just got home when I phoned. She had been in London.
16. Past perfect continuous (I had been doing)
a. Situation:
Yesterday morning. I got up and looked out of the window.
The sun was shining but the ground was very wet.
Have done Had done

It had been raining.
It was bot raining when I looked out of the window; the sun
was shining. But it had been raining before. That’s why the
ground was wet.
Had been –ing is the past perfect continuous:
i/we/they/you
he/she/it
had
(= I’d etc)
(= he’d etc)
been
Doing, working
Playing etc.
Some more examples:
- When the boys came into the house, their clothes were dirty, their hair was untidy
and one of them had a black eye. They’d been fighting.
- I was very tired when I arrived home. I’d been working hard all day.
b. You can say that something had been happening for a period of time before
something else happened:
- Our game of tennis was interrupted. We’d been playing for about half an hour
when it started to rain very heavily.
- Ken gave up smoking two years ago. He’d been smoking for 30 years.
c. Had been –ing (past perfect continuous) is the past of have been –ing (present
perfect continuous). Compare:
Present perfect continuous
past now
- I hope the bus comes soon. I’ve been
waiting for 20 minutes. (before now)
- He’s out of breath. He has been
running.
Past perfect continuous
past now
- At last the bus came. I’d been
waiting for 20 minutes. (before the
bus come)
- He was out of breath. He had been
running
d. Compare had been doing and was doing (past continuous):
- It wasn’t raining when we went out. The sun was shining. But it had been
raining, so the ground was wet.
- Ann was sitting in an armchair watching television. She was tired because she’d
been working very hard.
e. Some verbs (example, know and want) are not normally used in the continuous:
- We were good friends. We had known each other for years. (not ‘had been knowing).
For a list of these verb, see unit 4A.
I have been -ing I had been -ing

17. Have and have got
a. Have and have got (= possess, own etc)
We often use have got rather than have alone. So youo can say:
- We’ve got a new car. Or We have a new car.
- Ann has got two sisters. Or Ann has two sisters.
We use have got or have for illnesses, paints etc:
- I’ve got a headache. Or I have a headache.
In questions and negative sentences there are three possible form:
Have you got any money?
Do you have any money?
Have you any money? (less usual)
Has she got a car?
Does she have a car?
Has she a car? (less usual)
I haven’t got any money.
I don’t have any money.
I haven’t any money. (less usual)
She hasn’t got a car.
She doesn’t have a car.
She hasn’t a car. (less usual)
When have means ‘posses’ etc, you cannot use continuous forms (is having/ are
having etc):
- I have / I’ve got a headache. (not ‘I’m having)
For the past we use had (usually without ‘got’):
- Ann had long fair hair when she was child. (not ‘Ann had got’)
In past question and negative sentences we normally use did/didn’t:
- Did tjey have a car when they were living in London?
- I didn’t have a watch, so I didn’t know the time.
- Ann had long fair hair, didn’t she?
b. Have breakfast/ have a bath/ have a good time etc
Have
breakfast/ dinner/ a cup of coffee/ a cigarette etc
a bath/ a shower/ a swim/ a rest/ a party/ a holiday/ a nice time etc
an accident/ an experience/ a dream etc
Have a look (at something)/ a chat (with somebody)
a baby (= give birth to a baby)
difficulty/ trouble/ fun
- Goodbye! I hope you have a nice time.
- Mary had a baby recently.
‘Have got’ is not possible in these expressions. Compare:
- I usually have a sandwich for my lunch. (have = ‘eat’ – not ‘have got’)
But – I’ve got some sandwich. Would you like one?
In these expressions, have is like other verbs. You can use continuous form (is
having/ are having etc) where suitable:

- I had a postcard from Fred this morning. He’s on holiday. He says he’s having a
wonderful time. (not ‘he has a wonderful time’)
- The phone rang while we were having dinner. (not ‘while we had’)
In question and negative sentences we normally use do/does/did:
- I don’t usually have a big breakfast. (not ‘I usually haven’t)
- What time does Ann have lunch? (not ‘has Ann lunch’)
- Did you have any difficult finding somewhere to live?
18. Used to (do)
a. Situation:
Dennis stopped smoking two years ago. He doesn’t smoke any more.
But he used to smoke.
He used to smoke 40 cigarette a day.
‘He used to smoke‘ = he smoked regularly for some time in the past, but he
doesn’t smoke now. He was a smoker, but now he isn’t.
 He used to smoke  he doesn’t smoke
past 2 years ago now
b. ‘Something used to happen’ = something happened regularly in past but no longer
happens:
- I used to play tennis a lot but I don’t play very often now.
- Diane used to travel a lot. These days she doesn’t go away so often.
- ‘Do you go to the cinema very often?’ ‘Not now, but I used to.’ (= I used to
go…)
We also use used to… for something that was true but is not true any more:
- This building is now a furniture shop. It used to be a cinema.
- I used to think he was unfriendly but now I realize he’s a very nice person.
- I’ve started drinking coffee recently. I never used to like it before.
- Janet used to have very long hair when she was a child.
c. ‘I used to do something’ in past. There is no present form. You cannot say ‘I use to
do’. To talk about the present, use the present simple (I do).
Compare:
Past he used to smoke we used to live there used to be
Present he smokes we live there is
- We used to live in a small village but now we live in London.
- There used to be four cinemas in the town. Now there is only one.

d. The normal question form is did (you) use to…?:
- Did you used to eat a lot of sweets when you were a child?
The negative form is didn’t use to… (used not to… is also possible)
- I didn’t use to like him. (or I used not to like him)
e. Compare i used to do and I was doing (see unit 6):
- I used to watch TV a lot. (= I watched TV regularly in the past, but I no longer do
this)
- I was watching TV when the phone rang. (= I was in the middle of watching TV)
f. Do not confuse I use to do and I am used to doing (see unit 60). The structure and
meanings are different:
- I used to live alone. (= I lived alone in the past but I no longer live alone)
- I am used to living alone. (= I lived alone and I don’t find it strange or new
because I’ve been living alone for some time)
Future
19. Present tenses (I am doing / I do) for the future
a. Present continuous (I am doing) with a future meaning.
Situation:
This is Tom’s diary for next week.
He is playing tennis on Monday afternoon.
He is going to the dentist on Tuesday morning.
He is having dinner with Ann on Friday.
In all these examples, Tom has already decided and
arranged to do these things.
Use the present continuous to say what you have already arranged to do. Do not use
the present simple (I do):
- A: What are you doing on Sunday evening? (not ‘what do you do?’)
B: I’m going to the theatre. (not ‘I go’)
- A: What time is Cathy arriving tomorrow?
B: At 10.30. I’m meeting her at the station.
- I’m not working tomorrow, so we can go out somewhere.
- Ian isn’t playing football on Saturday. He’s hurt his leg.
‘(I’m) going to (do)’ is also possible in these sentences:
- What are you going to do on Saturday evening?
But the present continuous is more natural for arrangements. See also unit 20B.
Do not use will to talk about what you have arranged to do:
- What are you doing this evening? (not ‘what will you do’)

- Alex is getting married next month. (not ‘will get’)
b. Present simple (I do) with a future meaning.
We use the present simple when we talk about timetables, programmes etc (example,
for public transport, cinemas etc):
- The train leaves Plymouth at 11.30 and arrives in London at 14.45.
- What time does the film begin?
- It’s Wednesday tomorrow.
You can the present simple for people if their plans are fixed like a timetable:
- I start my new job on Monday.
- What time do you finish work tomorrow?
But the continuous is more usual for personal arrangements:
- What time are you meeting Ann tomorrow?
Compare:
- What time are you leaving tomorrow?
But - What time does the train leave tomorrow?
- I’m going to the cinema this evening.
But - the film start at 8.15 (this evening).
20. (I’m) going to (do)
a. ‘I am going to do something’ = I have already decided to do it, I intend to do it:
- A: There’s a film on television tonight. Are you going to watch it?
B: No, I’m tired. I’m going to have an early night.
- A: I hear Ruth has won some money. What is she going to do with it?
B: She’s going to buy a new car.
- A: Have you made the coffee yet?
B: I’m just going to make it. (just = right at this moment)
- This food looks horrible. I’m not going to eat it.
b. I am doing and I am going to do
We normally use I am doing (present continuous) when we say what we have
arranged to do – example, arranged to meet somebody, arranged to go somewhere
(see unit 19A):
- What time are you meeting Ann this evening?
- I’m leaving tomorrow. I’ve got my plane ticket.
‘I am going to do something’ = I’ve decided to do it (but perharps not arranged to do
it):
- ‘The windows are dirty.’ ‘Yes, I know. I’m going to clean them later.’ (= I’ve
decided to clean them but I haven’t arranged to clean them)

- I’ve decided not to stay here any longer. Tomorrow I’m going to look for
somewhere else to stay.
Often the difference is very small and either form id possible.
c. You can also say that ‘something is going to happen’ in the future. Example:
The man can’t see where he’s walking. There is a hole in front of him.
He is going to fall into the hole.
When we say that ‘something ios going to happen’, the situation now makes us
believe this. The man is walking towards the hole now, so he is going to fall into
it.
- Look at those black clouds! It’s going to rain. (the clouds are these now)
- I feel terrible. I think I’m going to be sick. (I feel terrible now)
d. ‘I was going to (do something)’ = I intended to do it but didn’t do it:
- We were going to travel by train but then we decided to go by car instead.
- A: Did Peter do the examination?
B: No, he was going to do it but he changed his mind.
- I was just going to cross the road when somebody shouted ‘Stop!’
You can say that something was going to happen (but didn’t happen):
- I thought it was going to rain but then the sun came out.
21. Will/ Shall (1)
a. We use I’ll (= I will) when we decide to do something at the time of speaking:
- Oh, I’ve left the door open. I’ll go and shut it.
- ‘What would you like to drink?’ ‘I’ll have an orange juice, please.’
- ‘Did you phone Ruth?’ ‘Oh no, I forgot. I’ll phone her now.’
You cannot use the present simple (I do/ I go etc) in these sentences:
- I’ll go and shut the door. (not ‘I go and shut’)
We often use I think I’ll… and I don’t think I’ll…:
- I feel a bit hungry. I think I’ll have something to eat.
- I don’t think I’ll go out night. I’m too tired.
In spoken English the negative of will is usually won’t (= will not):
- I can see you’re busy, so I won’t stay long.
b. Do not use will to talk about what you have already decided or arranged to do (see
units 19-20):
- I’m going on holiday next Saturday. (not ‘I’ll go’)
- Are you working tomorrow? (not ‘will you work’)

c. We often use will in these situations:
Offering to do something
- That bag looks heavy. I’ll help you with it. (not ‘I help’)
Agreeing to do something
- A: You know that book I lent you. Can I have it back if you’ve finished with
it?
B: Of course. I’ll give it to you this afternoon. (not ‘I give’)
Promising to do something
- Thanks for lending me the money. I’ll pay you back on Friday. (not ‘I pay’)
- I won’t tell anyone what happened. I promise.
Asking somebody to do something (will you…?)
- Will you please be quite? I’m trying to concentrate.
- Will you shut the door, please?
d. Shall I…? shall we…?
Shall is used mostly in the question shall i…?/ shall we…?
We use shall i…?/ shall we…? To ask somebody’s opinion (especially in offers or
suggestion):
- Shall I open the window? (= do you want me to open the window?)
- I’ve got no money. What shall I do? (= what do you suggest?)
- ‘Shall we go?’ ‘Just a minute. I’m not ready yet.’
- Where shall we go this evening?
Compare shall I…? and will you…?
- Shall I shut the door? (=do you want me to shut it?)
- Will you shut the door? (= I want you to shut it)
22. Will/ Shall (2)
a. We do not use will to say what somebody has already arranged or decided to do in
the future:
- Ann is working next week. (not ‘Ann will work’)
- Are you going to watch television this evening? (not ‘will you watch’)
For ‘I’m working…’ and ‘Are you going to…?’, see units 19-20.
But often, when we talk about the future, we are not talking about what somebody has
decided to do. Example:
CHRIS: Do you think Ann will pass the exam?
JOE : Yes, she’ll pass easily.
‘She’ll pass’ does not mean ‘she has decided to pass’. Joe is saying what he
knows or thinks will happen. He is predicting the future.
When we predict a future happening or situation, we use will/won’t.

- Jill has been away a long time. When she returns, she’ll find a lot of changes.
- ‘Where will you be this time next year?’ ‘I’ll be inJjapan.’
- That plate is very hot. If you touch it, you’ll burn yourself.
- Tom won’t pass the examination. He hasn’t worked hard enough for it.
- When will you know your exam result?
b. We often use will (‘ll) with:
Probably - I’ll probably be home late this evening.
I expect - I haven’t seen Carol today. I expect she’ll phone this evening.
(I‘m) sure - Don’t worry about the exam. I’m sure you’ll pass.
(I) think - Do you think Sarah will like the present we bought her?
(I) don’t think - I don’t think the exam will be very difficult.
I wonder - I wonder what will happen.
After (I) hope, we generally use the present:
- I hope Carol phones this evening.
- I hope it doesn’t rain tomorrow.
c. Generally we use will to talk about the future, but sometimes we use will to talk about
now. Example:
- Don’t phone Ann now. She’ll be busy. (= I know she’ll be busy now)
d. I shall…/ we shall…
Normally we use shall only with I and we.
You can say I shall or I will (I’ll), we shall or we will (we’ll):
- I shall be tired this evening. (or I will be…)
- We shall probably go to Scotland for our holiday. (or will probably go…)
In spoken English we normally use I’ll and we’ll:
- We’ll probably go to Scotland.
The negative of shall is shall not or shan’t:
- I shan’t be here tomorrow. (or I won’t be…)
Do not use shall with he/she/it/you/they:
- She will be very angry. (not ‘she shall be’)
23. I will and I’m going to
a. Future actions
Study the difference between will and going to:

Will (‘ll): We use will when we decide to do something at the time of speaking.
The speaker has not decided before.
SUE: Let’s have a party.
HELEN: That’s great idea. We’ll invite lots of people.
The party is a new idea.
Decision
Now
Past now future
Going to: We use (be) going to when we have already decided to do something.
HELEN: Sue and I have decided to have aparty. We’re going to invite lots of
people.
DAVE :
Helen had already decided to invite lots of people before she spoke to Dave.
Decision
Before
Past now future
Compare:
- ‘George phoned while you were out.’ ‘OK. I’ll phone him back.’
But - ‘George phoned while you were out.’ ‘Yes, I know. I’m going to
phone him back.’
- ‘Ann is in hospital.’ ‘Oh really? I ddidn’t know. I’ll go and visit her.’
But - ‘Ann is in hospital.’ ‘Yes, I know. I’m going to visit her tomorrow.’
b. Future happenings and situations (predicting the future)
Sometimes there is not much difference between will and going to. Example, you can
say:
- I think the weather will be nice later.
- I think the weather is going to be nice later.
When we say ‘something is going to happen’, we know (or think) this because of the
situation now. Example:
- Look at those black clouds. It’s going to rain. (not ‘it will rain’ – we can see the
clouds now)
- I feel terrible. I think I’m going to be sick. (not ‘I think I’ll be sick’ – I feel
terrible now)
I’ll
 I’m going to

Do not use will in situations like these. (see also unit 20C)
In other situations, it is safer to use will:
- Tom will probably arrive at about 8 o’clock.
- I think Ann will like the presents we bought for her.
24. will be doing and will have done
a. Situation:
Kevin loves ootball and this evening there is a big football match on television.
The match begins at 7.30 and ends at 9.15. Paul wants to see Kevin the same
evening and wants to know what time to come tohis house.
PAUL : Is it all right if I come at about 8.30?
KEVIN: No, I’ll be watching the football then.
PAUL : Well, what about 9.30?
KEVIN: Fine. The match will have finished by then.
b. ‘I will be doing something’ (future continuous) = I will be in the middle of doing
something. The ffootball match begins at 7.30 and ends at 9.15. So during this time,
example at 8.30, Kevin will be watching the match. Another example:
- I’m going on holiday on Saturday. This time next week I’ll be lying on a beach or
swimming in the sea.
Compare will be (do)ing and will (do):
- Don’t phone me between 7 and 8. we’ll be having dinner then.
- Let’s wait for Mary to arrive and then we’ll have dinner.
Compare will be –ing with other continuous forms:
- At 10 o’clock yesterday, Sally was in her office. She was working. (past)
It’s 10 o’clock now. She is in her office. She is working. (present)
At 10 o’clock tomorrow, she will be in her office. She will be working.
c. We also use will be doing in a different way: to talk about complete actions un the
future:
- A: If you see Sally, can you ask her to phone me?
B: Sure. I’ll be seeing her this evening, So I’ll tell her then.
- What time will your friends be arriving tomorrow?
In these example will be –ing.. is similar to the present continuous for the future. (see
unit 19A).
You can use Will you be –ing..? to ask about somebody’s plans, especially if you
want something or want them to do something. Example:
- A: Will you be passing the post office when you’re out?
B: Probably. Why?

A: I need some stamps. Could you get me some?
- A: Will you be using your bicycle this evening?
B: No. Do you want to borrow it?
d. We use will have (done) (future perfect) to say that something will already be
complete. Kevin’s football match ends at 9.15. So after this time, example at 9.30, the
match will have finished. Some more example:
- Sally always leaves for work at 8.30 in the morning, so she won’t be at home at 9
o’clock. She’ll gone to work.
- We’re late. The film will already have started by the time we get to the cinema.
Compare will have (done) with other perfect forms:
- Ted and Amy have been married for 24 years. (present perfect)
Next year they will have been married for 25 years.
When their first child was born, they had been married for three years. (past
perfect)
25. When I do/ when I’ve done When and if
a. Study these examples:
A: What time will you phone me tomorrow?
B: I’ll phone you when I get home from work.
‘I’ll phone you when I get home from work’ is a sentence with two parts:
the main-part: ‘I’ll phone you’
And the when-part: ‘when I get home from work (tomorrow)’
The time in the sentence is future (‘tomorrow’) but we use a present tense (get)
in the when-part of the sentence.
We do not use will in the when-part of the sentence:
- We’ll go out when it stop raining. (not ‘when it will stop’)
- When you are in London again, you must come and see us. (not ‘when you
will be’)
- (said to a child) What do you want to be when you grow up? (not ‘will grow’)
The same thing happens after: while before after as soon as until or till
- I’m going to read a lot of books while I’m on holiday. (not ‘while I will be’)
- I’m going back home on Sunday. Before I go, I’d like to visit the museum.
- Wait here until (or till) I come back.
b. You can also use the present perfect (have done) after when/ after/ until/ as soon as:
- Can I borrow that book when you’ve finished it?
- Don’t say anything while Ian is here. Wait until he has gone.
It is often possible to use the present simple or the present perfect:

- I’ll come as soon as I finish. Or I’ll come as soon as I’ve finish.
- You’ll feel better after you have Or You’ll feel better after you’ve had
something to eat. something to eat.
But do not use the present perfect if two things happens together. The present perfect
shows that one thing will be complete before the other (so the two things do not
happen together).
Compare:
- When I’ve phoned Kate, we can have dinner.
(= First I’ll phone Kate and after that we can have dinner)
But - When I phone Kate this evening, I’ll invite her to the party. (not ‘when I’ve
phoned’)
(in this example, the two things happen togerther.)
c. After if, we normally use the present simple (if I do/ if I see etc) for the future:
- It’s raining hard. We’ll get wet if we go out. (not ‘if we will go’)
- Hurry up! If we don’t hurry, we’ll be late.
Compare when and if:
We use when for things which are sure to happen:
- I’m going shopping this afternoon. (for sure) When I go shopping, I’ll buy some
food.
We use if (not ‘when’) for things that will possibly happen:
- I might go shopping this afternoon. (it’s possible) If I go shopping, I’ll buy some
food.
- If it is raining this evening, I won’t go out. (not ‘when it is raining’)
- Don’t worry if I’m late tonight. (not ‘when I’m late’)
- If they don’t come soon, I’m going to wait. (not ‘when they don’t come’)
Modals
26. Can, could and (be) able to
a. We use can to say that something is possible or that somebody has the ability to do
something. We use can + infinitive (can do/ can see etc):
- We can see the lake from our bedroom window.
- Can you speak any foreign languages?
- I can come and see you tomorrow if you like.
The negative is can’t (cannot):
- I’m afraid I can’t come to the party on Friday
b. (Be) able to… is possible instead of can, but can is more usual:
- Are you able to speak any foreign languages?

But can has only two forms, can (present) and could (past). So sometimes it is
necessary to use (be) able… compare:
- I can’t sleep
but I haven’t been able to sleep recently. (can has no present perfect)
- Tom can come tomorrow.
but tom might be able to come tomorrow. (can has no infinitive)
c. Could and was able to
Sometimes could is the past of can. We use could especially with:
See hear smell taste feel remember understand
- When we went into the house, we could smell burning.
- She spoke in a very low voice, but I could understand what she said.
We also use could to say that somebody had the general ability or permission to do
something:
- My grandfather could speak five languages.
- We were completely free. We could do what we wnted. (= we were allowed to
do).
We use could for general ability. But if we are talking about what happened in a
particular situation, we use was/were able to… or managed to… (not could):
- The fire spread through the building quickly but everybody was able to
escape.
Or …everybody managed to escape. (but not ‘could escape’)
- They didn’t want to come with us at first but we managed to persuade them.
Or …we were able to persuade them. (but not ‘could persuade’)
Compare:
- Jack was an excellent tennis player. He could beat anybody. (= he had the
general ability to beat anybody)
but
- Jack and Alf had a game of tennis yesterday. Alf played very well but in the
end Jack managed to beat him. Or …was able to beat him. (= he managed to
beat him in tennis particular game)
The negative couldn’t (could not) is possible in all situation:
- My grandfather couldn’t swim.
- We tired hard but we couldn’t persuade them to come with us.
- All played well but he couldn’t beat Jack.
27. Could (do) and could have (done)
a. We use could in a number of ways. Sometimes could is the past of can (see unit 26C):
- Listen. I can hear something. (now)

- I listened. I could hear something. (past)
But could is not only used in this way. We also use could to talk about possible
actions now or in the future (especially to make a suggestion). Example:
- A: What shall we do this evening?
B: We could go to the cinema.
- It’s a nice day. We could go for a walk.
- When you go to New York next month, you could stay with Barbara.
- A: If you need money, why don’t you ask Karen?
B: Yes, I suppose I could.
Can is also possible in these sentences (‘We can go for a walk.’ Etc). could is less
sure than can. You must use could (not can) when you don’t relly mean what you say.
Example:
- I’m so angry with him. I could kill him! (not ‘I can kill him’)
b. We also use could to say thath something is possible now or in the future:
- The phone is ringing. It could be Tim.
- I don’t know when they’ll be here. They could arrive at any time.
Can is not possible in these examples (not ‘it can be Tim’)
In these sentences could is similar to might (see units 29-30):
- The phone is ringing. It might be Tim.
c. Compare could (do) and could have (done):
- I’m so tired. I could sleep for a week. (now)
- I was so tired. I could have slept for a week. (past)
Most often, we use could have (done) for things which were possible but did not
happen:
- Why did you stay at a hotel when you went to New York? You could have stayed
with Barbara. (= you had the opportunity to stay with her but you didn’t)
- Jack fell off a ladder yesterday but he’s all right. He’s lucky – he could have hurt
himself badly. (nut he didn’t hurt himself)
- The situation was bad but it could have been worse.
d. Sometimes could means ‘would be able to…’:
- We could go away if we had enough money. (= we would be able to go away)
- I don’t know how you work so hard. I couldn’t do it.
Could have (done) = would have been able to (do):
- Why didn’t Liz apply for the job? She could have got it.
- We could have gone away if we’d had enough money.
- The trip was cancelled last week. Paul couldn’t have gone anyway because he was
ill. (= he wouldn’t have been able to go)

- You did very well to pass the exam. I’m sure I couldn’t have passed it. (= I
wouldn’t have been able to pass it if I had taken it)
28. Must and can’t
a. Example:
A: My house is very near the motorway.
B: It must be very noise.
We use must to say that we feel sure something is true:
- You’ve been traveling all day. You must be tired. (Travelling is tiring and you’ve
been traveling all day, so you must be tired)
- ‘Jim is a hard worker.’ ‘Jim? A hard worker? You must be joking. He’s
very lazy.’
- Carol must get very bored in her job. She does the same thing every day.
We use can’t to say that we feel sure something is not possible:
- You’ve just had lunch. You can’t be hungry already. (people are not normally
hungry just after eating a meal. You’ve just eaten, so you can’t be hungry.)
- Brian said he would definitely be here before 9.30. It’s 10 o’clock now and he’s
never late. He can’t be coming.
- They haven’t lived here for very long. They can’t know many people.
Study the structure:
I/you/he (etc)
Must
Can’t
Be (tired/ hungry/ at work etc)
Be (doing/ coming/ joking etc)
Do/ go/ know/ have etc.
b. For the past we use must have (done) and can’t have (done). Example:
George is outside his friends’ house.
He has rung the doorbell three times but nobody has answered.
They must have gone out.
(otherwise they would have answered)
- The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. It must have been asleep.
- I’ve lost one of my gloves. I must have dropped it somewhere.
- Jane walked past me without speaking. She can’t have seen me.
- Tom walked straight into a wall. He can’t have been looking where he was going.
I/you/he (etc)
Must
Can’t
Have
Been (asleep/ at work etc)
Been (doing/ working etc)
Done/ gone/ known/ had etc.
Couldn’t have… is possible instead of can’t have…:
- She couldn’t have seen me.

- Tom couldn’t have been looking where he was going.
29. May and might (1)
a. Situation:
You are looking for Bob. Nobody is sure where he is but you get some suggestions.
Where’s Bob? He may be in his office. (= perharps he is in his office)
He might be having lunch. (= perharps he is having lunch)
Ask Ann. She might know. (= perharps she knows)
We use may or might to say that something is a possibility. Usually you can use may
or might, so you can say:
- It may be true. Or It might be true. (= perharps it is true)
- She might know. Or She may know.
The negative forms are may not and might not (or mightn’t):
- It might not be true. (= perharps it isn’t true)
- I’m not sure whether I can lend you any money. I may not have enough. (=
perharps I don’t have enough)
I/you/he (etc)
May
Might
(not)
Be (true/ in his office etc)
Be (doing/ working/ having etc)
Do/ know/ have/ want etc)
b. For the past we use may have (done) or might have (done):
- A: I wonder why Kay didn’t answer the phone.
B: She may have been asleep. (= perharps she was asleep)
- A: I can’t find my bag anywhere.
B: You might have left it in the shop. (= perharps you left it in the shop)
- A: I was surprised that Sarah wasn’t at the meeting.
B: She might not have known about it. (= perharps she didn’t know)
- A: I wonder why Colin was in such a bad mood yesterday.
B: He may not have been feeling well (= perharps he wasn’t feeling well)
I/you/he (etc)
May
Might
(not) have
Been (asleep/ at home etc)
Been (doing/ waiting etc)
Done/ known/ had/ seen etc.
c. Sometimes could has a similar meaning to may and might:
- The phone’s ringing. It could be Tim. (= it may/might be Tim)
- You could have left your bag in the shop. (= you may/mighr have left it…)

But couldn’t (negative) is different from may not and might not. Compare:
- She was too far away, so she couldn’t have seen you. (= it is not possible that she
saw you)
- A: I wonder why she didn’t say hello.
B: She might not have seen you. (= perharps she didn’t see you; perharps she did)
30. May and might (2)
a. We use may and might to talk about possible actions or happenings in the future:
- I haven’t decided yet where to spend my holiday. I may go to Ireland. (= perhaps I
will go to Ireland)
- Take an umbrella with you when you go out. It might rain later. (= perhaps it will
rain)
- The bus doesn’t always come on time. We might have to wait a few minutes. (=
perhaps we will have to wait)
The negative forms are may not and might not (mightn’t):
- Ann may not come to the party tonight. She isn’t well. (= perhaps she will not
come)
- There might not be a meeting on Friday because the director is ill. (= perhaps
there will not be a meeting)
b. Usually it doesn’t matter whether you use may or might. So you can say:
- I may go to Ireland. Or I might go to Ireland.
- Jane might not be able to help you. Or Jane may be able to help you.
But we use only might (not may) when the situation is not real:
- If I knew them better, I might invite them to dinner.
(the situation here is not real because I don’t know them very well, so I’m not
going to invite them. ‘May’ is not possible in this example)
c. There is also a continuous form: may/might be-ing. Compare this with will be-ing:
- Don’t phone at 8.30. I’ll be watching the football on television.
- Don’t phone at 8.30. I might be watching (or I may be watching) the football on
television. (= perhaps I’ll be watching it)
For will be –ing see unit 24.
We also use may/might be –ing for possible plans. Compare:
- I’m going to Ireland in July. (for sure)
- I may be going (or I might be going) to Ireland in July. (possible)
But you can also say ‘I may go (or I might go) to Ireland…’ with little difference of
meaning.

d. Might as well/ may as well:
Example:
Helen and Clare have just missed the bus. The buses run every hour.
Helen: What shall we do? Shall we walk?
Clare : We might as well. It’s a nice day and I don’t want to wait here for an
hour.
‘(We) might as well do something’ = (we) should do something because there is
nothing better to do and there is no reason not to do it.
You can also say ‘may as well’.
A: What time are you going?
B: Well, I’m ready, so I might as well go now. (or …I may as well go now)
A: The buses are so expensive these days, you might as well get a taxi. (= taxis are
just as good, no more expensive)
31. Must and have to
a. We use must and have to to say that it is necessary to do something. Sometimes it
doesn’t matter which you use:
- Oh, it’s later than I tjought. I must go. Or I have to go.
But there is a difference between must and have to and sometimes this is important:
Must is personal. We use must when
we give our personal feelings.
‘You must doing something’ = ‘I (the
speaker) say it is necessary:
- She’s a really nice person. You
must meet her. (= I say this is
necessary)
- I haven’t phoned Ann foe ages. I
must phone hre tonight.
Compare:
- I must get up early tomorrow. There
are a lot of things I want to do.
Have to is impersonal. We use have to
for facts, not for our personal feelings.
‘You have to do something’ because of
a rule or situation:
- You can’t turn right here. You have
to turn left. (because of the traffic
system)
- My eyesight isn’t very good. I have
to wear glasses for reading.
- George can’t come out with us this
evening. He has to work.
- I have to get up early tomorrow. I’m
going to away and my train leaves at
7.30.
If you are not sure which to use, it is usually safer to use have to.
b. You can use must to talk about the present or future, but not the past:
- We must go now.

- We must go tomorrow. (but not ‘we must go yesterday’)
You can use have to in all forms. Example:
- I had to go to hospital. (past)
- Havew you ever had to go to hospital? (present perfect)
- I might have to go to hospital. (infinitive after might)
In questions and negative sentences with have to, we normally use do/does/did:
- What do I have to do to get a driving licence? (not ‘what have I to do?’)
- Why did you have to go to hospital?
- Karen doesn’t have to work on Saturdays.
c. Mustn’t and don’t have to are completely different:
You mustn’t do something = it is
necessary that you do not do it (so, don’t
do it):
- You must keep it a secret. You
mustn’t tell anyone. (= don’t tell
anyone)
- I promised I would be on time. I
mustn’t be late. (= I must be on time)
You don’t have to do something = you
don’t need to do it (but you can if you
want):
- You can tell me if you want but you
don’t have to tell me. (= you don’t need
to tell me)
- I’m not working tomorrow, so I don’t
have to get up early.
d. You can use ‘have got to’ instead of ‘have to’. So you can say:
- I’ve got to work tomorrow. Or I have to work tomorrow.
- When has Ann got to go? Or When does Ann have to go?
32. Must mustn’t needn’t
a. Must mustn’t needn’t
‘You must do something’ = it is necessary that you do it:
- Don’t tell anybody what I said. You must keep it a secret.
- We haven’t got much time. We must hurry.
‘You mustn’t do something’ = it is necessary that you do not do it (so don’t do it):
- You must keep it a secret. You mustn’t tell anybody else. (= don’t tell anybody
else)
- It’s essential that nobody hears us. We mustn’t make any noise.
‘You needn’t do something’ = it is not necessary that you do it, ypu don’t need to
do it:
- You can come with me if you like but you needn’t come if you don’t want to.
(= it is not necessary for you to come)
- We’ve got plenty of time. We needn’t hurry.

b. Instead of needn’t, you can use don’t/doesn’t need to. So you can say:
- We needn’t hurry. Or We don’t need to hurry.
Remember that we say ‘don’t need to do’, but ‘needn’t do’ (without to).
Needn’t and don’t need to are similar to don’t have to (see unit 31C):
- We’ve got plenty of time. We don’t have to hurry.
c. Needn’t have (done)
Situation:
George had to go out. He thought it was going to rain, so he decided to take the
umbrella.
But it didn’t rain, so the umbrella was not necessary. So:
He needn’t have taken the umbrella.
‘He needn’t have taken the umbrella’ = He took the umbrella but this was not
necessary. Of course, he didn’t know this when he went out.
Compare needn’t (do) and needn’t have (done):
- That shirt isn’t dirty. You needn’t wash it.
- Why did you wash that shirt? It wasn’t dirty. You needn’t have washed it.
d. Didn’t need to (do) and needn’t have (done)
I didn’t need to… = it was not necessary for me to… (and I knew this at the time):
- I didn’t need to get up early, so I didn’t.
- I didn’t need to get up early, but it was a lovely morning, so I did.
‘I needn’t have (done) something’ = I did something but now I know that it was not
necessary:
- I got up very early because I had to get ready to go away. But in fact it didn’t
take me long to get ready. So, I needn’t have got up so early. I could have
stayed in bed longer.
33. Should (1)
a. You should do something = it is a good thing to do or the right thing to do. You can
use should to give or to give an opinion:
- You look tired. You should go to bed.
- The government should do more to help homeless people.
- ‘ Should we invite Susan to the party?’ ‘Yes, I think we should.’
We often use should with I think/ I don’t think/ do you think…?:
- I think the government should do more to help homeless people.
- I don’t think you should work so hard.
- ‘Do you think I should apply for this job?’ ‘Yes, I think you should.’
‘You shouldn’t do something’ = it isn’t a good thing to do:
- You shoouldn’t believe everything you read in the newspapers.

Should is not as strong as must:
- You should apologise. (= it would be a good thing to do)
- You must apologise. (= you have no alternative)
b. We also use should when something is not right or what we expect. Example:
- I wonder where Liz is. She should be here by now. (= she isn’t here yet, and this
is not normal)
- The price on this packet is wrong. It should be £1.20, not £1.50.
- Those boys shouldn’t be playing football at this time. They should be at school.
We use should to say that we expect something to happen:
- She’s been studying hard for the exam, so she should pass. (= I expect her to pass)
- There are plenty of hotels in the town. It shouldn’t be difficult to find somewhere
to stay. (= I don’t expect that I will be difficult)
c. ‘You should have done something’ = you didn’t to do it but it would have been the
right thing to do:
- It was a great party last night. You should have come. Why didn’t you? (= you
didn’t come but it would have been good to come)
- I’m feeling sick. I shouldn’t have eaten so much chocolate. (= I ate too much
chocolate)
- I wonder why they’re so late. They should have been here an hour ago.
- She shouldn’t have been listening to our conversation. It was private.
Compare should (do) and should have (done):
- You look tired. You should go to bed now.
- You went to bed very late last night. You should have gone to bed earlier.
d. Ought to…
You can use ought to instead of should in the sentences on this page. Note that we say
‘ought to do…’ (with to):
- Do you think I ought to apply for this job? (= do you think I should apply…)
- Jack ought not to go to bed so late. (= Jack shouldn’t go…)
- It was a great party last night. You ought to have come.
- She’s been studying hard for the exam, so she ought to pass.
34. Should (2)
a. You can use should after a number of verbs, especially:
Suggest propose recommend insist demand
- They insisted that we should have dinner with them.
- I demanded that he should apologise.
- What do you suggest I should do?

In the same way, you can use should after suggestion/proposal/recommendation etc:
- What do you think of Jane’s suggestion that I should buy a car?
And also after ‘it’s important/vital/necessary/essential that…’:
- It’s essential that you should be here on time.
b. You can also leave out should in all the sentences in Section A:
- It’s essential that you be here on time. (= that you should be here)
- I demanded that he apologise.
- What do you suggest I do?
This form (you be/ he apologise etc) is sometimes called the subjunctive.
You can also use normal present and past tense:
- It’s essential that you are here on time.
- I demanded that he apologise.
Be careful with suggest. You cannot use to… (‘to do/ to buy’ etc) after suggest:
- What do you suggest we should do?
Or What do you suggest we do? (but not ‘what do you suggest us to do?’)
- Jane suggested that I (should) buy a car.
Or Jane suggested that I bought a ar. (but not ‘Jane suggested me to buy’)
For suggest –ing, see unit 52.
c. You can use should after a number of adjectives, especially:
Strange odd funny typical natural interesting surprised surprising
- It’s strange that he should be late. He’s usually on time.
- I was surprised that she should say such a thing.
d. If…should…
You can say ‘If something should happen…’. Example:
- If Tom should phone while I’m out, tell him I’ll phone him back later.
‘If Tom should phone’ is similar to ‘If Tom phones’. With shoul, the speaker feels
that the possibility is similar. Another
- I’ve left the washing outside. If it should rain, can you bring it in?
You can also put should at the beginning of these sentences (should something
happen…):
- Should Tom phone, can you tell him I’ll phone him back later?
e. You can use I should…/ I shouldn’t … to give somebody advice. Example:
- ‘Shall I leave now?’ ‘No, I should wait a bit longer.’
Here, ‘I should wait’ = ‘I would wait if I were you, I advise you to wait’. Two more
examples:
- It’s very cold this morning. I should wear a coat when we go out.

- I shoudn’t stay up too late. You’
35. Had better It’s time ….
a. Had better (I’d better/ you’d better etc)
I’d better do something = it is advisable to do it. If I don’t, there will be a problem or
a danger:
- I have to meet Ann in ten minutes. I’d better go now or I’ll be late.
- ‘Shall I take an umbrella?’ ‘Yes, you’d better. It might rain.’
- We’d better stop for petrol soon. The tank is almost empty.
The negative is I’d better not (= I had better not):
- A: Are you going out tonight?
B: I’d better not. I’ve got a lot of work to do.
- You don’t look very well. You’d better not go to work today.
You can use had better when you warn somebody that they must doing something:
- You’d better be on time. /You’d better not be late. (or I’ll be very angry)
Note that:
The form is ‘had better’ (usually ‘I’d better/ you’d better’ etc in spoken English):
- I’d better phone Carol, hadn’t I?
Had is a past form, but in this expression the meaning is present or future, not past:
- I’d better go to the bank now/ tomorrow.
We say ‘I’d better do…’ (not ‘to do’):
- It might rain. We’d better take an umbrella. (not ‘we’d better to take’)
b. Had better and should
Had better is similar to should (see unit 33A) but not exactly the same.
We use had better only for a particular situation (not for things in general).
You can use should in all types of situation to give an opinion or to give advice:
- It’s cold today. You’d better wear a coat when you go out. (a particular situation)
- I think all drivers should wear seat belts. (in general – not ‘had better wear’)
Also, with had better, there is always a danger or a problem if you don’t follow the
advice. Should only means ‘it is a good thing to do’. Compare:
- It’s a great film. You should go and see it. (but no danger, no problem if you don’t)
- The film starts at 8.30. You’d better go now or you’ll be late.
c. It’s time…
You can say ‘It’s time (for somebody) to do something’:
- It’s time to go home. /It’s time for us to go home.
You can also say:
- It’s late. It’s time we went home.
Here we use the past (went) but the meaning is present or future, not past:

- It’s 10 o’clock and he’s still in bed. It’s time he got up. (not ‘it’s time he gets up’)
It’s time you did something = ‘you should have done it already or started it’. We often
use this structure to criticize or to complain:
- It’s time the children were in bed. It’s long after their bedtime.
- The windows are very dirty. I think it’s time we cleaned them.
You can also say: It’s about time…/ It’s hig time…. This makes the criticism stronger:
- Jack is a great talker. But it’s about time he did something instead of just talking.
- You’re very selfish. It’s high time you realized that you’re not the most important
person in the world.
36. Can/ Could/ Would you …? Etc (Requests, offers, permission and invitations)
a. Asking people to do things (request)
We often use can or could to ask people to do things:
- Can you wait a moment, please? Or Could you wait a moment, please?
- Liz, can you do me a favour?
- Excuse me, could you tell me how to get to the airport?
- I wonder if you could help me.
Note that we say ‘Do you think (you) could…? (not usually ‘can’):
- Do you think you could lend me some money until next week?
We also use will and would to ask people to do things (but can/ could are more usual):
- Liz, will you do me a favour?
- Would you please be quite? I’m trying to concentrate.
b. Asking for things
To ask for something we use Can I have…? Or Could I have…?
- (in a shop) Can I have these postcard, please?
- (during a meal) Could I have the salt, please?
May I have…? Is also possible (but less usual):
- May I have these postcard, please?
c. Asking for and giving permission
To ask for permission to do something, we sometimes use can, could or may:
- (on the phone) Hello, can I speak to Tom, please?
- ‘Could I use your phone?’ ‘Yes, of course’
- Do you think I could borrow your bike?
- ‘May I come in?’ ‘Yes, please do.’
To give permission, we use can or may:
- You can use the phone. Or You may use the phone.
May is formal and less usual than can or could.

d. Offering to do things
To offer to do something, we sometimes use Can i…?
- ‘Can I get you a cuo of coffee?’ ‘Yes, that would be veri nice’
- ‘Can I help you?’ ‘No, it’s all right. I can manage.’
You can also use I’ll… to offer to do things (see unit 21C):
- You look tired. I’ll get you a cup of coffee.
e. Offering and inviting
To offer or invite we use Would you like…? (not ‘do you like’)
- ‘Would you like a cup of coffee?’ ‘Yes, please.’
- ‘Would you like to come to dinner tomorrow evening?’‘Yes, I’d love to.’
I’d like… is a polite way to saying what you want:
- (at a tourist information office) I’d like some information about hotels, please.
- (in a shop) I’d like to try on this jacket, please.
Conditionals and ‘wish’
37. If I do … and If I did …
a. Compare these example:
(1) Sue has lost her watc. She thinks it may be at Ann house’s.
SUE: I think I left my watch oat your house. Have you seen it?
ANN: No, but I’ll have a look when I get home. If I find it, I’ll tell you.
In this example, Ann feels there is a real possibility that she will find the watch.
So she says: If I find…., I’ll….
(2) Ann says: If I found a wallet in the street, I’d take to the police.
This is a different type of situation. Here, Ann not thinking about a real
possibility; she is imagining the situation and doesn’t expect to find a wallet in
the street. So she says: If I found…., I’d…. (= I would)… (not ‘if I find…, I’ll..)
When you imagine something like this, you use if + past (if I found/ if you were/ if
we didn’t etc). but the meaning is not past:
- What would you do if you won a million pounds? (we don’t really expect this to
happen)
- I don’t reallt want to go to their party, but I probably will go. They’d be
offended if I didn’t go.
- Sarah has decided not to apply for the job. She isn’t really qualified for it, so she
probably wouldn’t get it if she applied.
b. We do not normally use would in the if-part of the sentences:
- I’d be very frightened if somebody pointed a gun at me. (not ‘if somebody
would point’)

- Id I didn’t go to their party, they’d be offended. (not ‘if I wouldn’t go)
But it is possible to say ‘if… would’ when you ask somebody to do something:
- (from a formal letter) I would be grateful if you would send me your brochure
as soon as possible.
- ‘Shall I close the door?’ ‘Yes, please, if you would.’
c. In the other part of sentence (not the if-part) we use would (‘d)/ wouldn’t:
- If you took more execise, you’d (= you would) probably feel healthier.
- Would you mind if I used your phone?
- I’m not tired enough to go to bed yet. I wouldn’t sleep (if I went to bed now)
Could and might are also possible:
- If you took more execise, you might feel healthier. (= it is possible that you
would feel healthier)
- If it stopped raining, we could go out. (= we would be able to go out)
d. Do not use when in sentences like those on this page:
- They would be offended if we didn’t accept their invitation. (not ‘when we
didn’t’)
- What would you do if you were bitten by a snakr? (not ‘when you were bitten’)
For if and when see also Unit 25.
38. If I knew … I wish I knew …
a. Situation
Sue wants to phone Paul but she can’t do this because she doesn’t know his
number. She says:
If I knew his number, I would phone him.
Sue says: If I knew his number.. . this tells us that she doesn’t hnow his number.
She imagining the situation. The real situation is that she doesn’t know his
number.
When you imagining a situation like this, you use if + past (if I knew/ if you were/ if
we didn’t etc).
But the meaning is present, not past:
- Tom would read more if he had more time. (but he doesn’t have much time)
- If I didn’t want to go to the party, I wouldn’t go. (but I want to go)
- We wouldn’t have any money if we didn’t work. (but we work)
- If you were in my position, what would you do?
- It’s a pity you can’t drive. It would be useful if you could.

b. We use the past in the same time way after wish (I wish I knew/ I wish you were etc).
we use wish to say that we regret something, that something is not as we would like it
to be:
- I wish I knew Paul’s phone number. (= I don’t know it and I regret this)
- Do you ever wish you could fly? (you can’t fly)
- It rains a lot here. I wish it didn’t rain so often.
- It’s very crowded here. I wish there weren’t so many people. (but there are a lot
of people)
- I wish I didn’t have to work. (but I have to work)
c. After if and wish, you can use were instead of was (if I were/ I wish it were etc) so
you can say:
- If I were you, I wouldn’t buy that coat. Or if I was you…
- I’d go out if it weren’t raining. Or … if it wasn’t raining.
- I wish it were possible. Or I wish it was possible.
d. We do not normally use would in the if-part of the sentence or after wish:
- If I were rich, I would have a yacht. (not ‘If I would be rich’)
- I wish I had something to read. (not ‘I wish I would have’)
Sometimes wish... would is possible (‘I wish you would listen’). See unit 40C
e. Note that could sometimes means ‘would be able to’ and sometimes ‘was/ were able
to:
- You could get ajob more easily if you could speak a foreign language.
(you could get = you would be able to get)
(you could speak = you were able to speak).
39. If I had known … I wish I had known…
a. Situation
Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didn’t know this, so she
didn’t go to visit him. They met a few days ago. Liz said:
If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you.
Liz said: If I had known you were in hospital… . the real situation was that she
didn’t know he was in hospital.
When you are talking about the past, you use if + had (‘d)… (if I had
known/been/done etc):
- I didn’t see you when you passed me in the street. If I’d seen you, of course I
would have said hello. (but didn’t see you)

- I decided to stay at home last night. I would have gone out if I hadn’t been so
tired. (but I was tired)
- If he had been looking where he was going, he wouldn’t have walked into the
wall. (but he wasn’t looking)
- The view was wonderful. If I’d had camera, I would have taken some
photographs. (but I didn’t have a camera)
Compare:
- I’m not hungry. If I was hungry, I would eat something. (now)
- I wasn’t hungry. If I had been hungry, I would have eaten something. (past)
b. Do not use would in the if-part of the sentences. We use would in the other part of
the sentences:
- If I had seen you, I would have said hello. (not ‘If I would have seen you’)
Note that ‘d can be would or had:
- If I’d seen you, (I’d seen = I had seen)
I’d have said hello. (I’d have said = I would have said)
c. We use had (done) in the same way after wish. I wish something had happened = I am
sorry that it didn’t happen:
- I wish I’d known that Gary was ill. I would have gone to see him. (but I didn’t
know)
- I feel sick. I wish I hadn’t eaten so much cake. (I ate too much cake)
- Do you wish you had studied science instead of languages? (you didn’t study
science)
- The weather was cold while we were away. I wish it had been warmer.
Do not use would have… after wish in these sentences:
- I wish it had been warmer. (not ‘I wish it would have been’)
d. Compare would (do) and would have (done):
- If I had gone to the party last night, I would be tired now. (I am not tired now –
present)
- If I had gone to the party last night, I would have met lots of people. (I didn’t
meet lots of people – past)
Compare would hwve, could have and might have:
- If I the weather hadn’t been so bad, we would have gone out.
We could have gone out.
(we would have been able to go out)
We might have gone out.
(= perharps we would have gone out)

40. Would I wish… would
a. We use would (‘d) when we imagine a situation or action:
- It would be nice to have a holiday but we can’t afford it.
- I’m not going to bed yet. I’m not tired and I wouldn’t sleep.
We use would have (done) when we imagine situations or actions in the past:
- They helped me a lot. I don’t know what I would have done without their help.
- I didn’t go to bed. I wasn’t tired, so I wouldn’t have slept.
For would in sentences with if see Unit 37-39.
b. Compare will (‘ii) and would (‘d)
- I’ll stay a bit longer. I’ve got plenty of time
- I’d stay a bit longer but I really have to go now. (so I can’t stay longer)
Sometimes would/wouldn’t is the past of will/won’t. compare:
Present Past
- Tom: I’ll phone you on Sunday. - Tom said he’d phone me on Sunday.
- Ann: I promise I won’t be late. - Ann promised that she wouldn’t be late
- Liz: Damn! The car won’t start. - Liz was angry cause the car wouldn’t start
c. I wish… would…
Situation:
It is raining. Jill wants to go out, but not in the rain. She says: I wish it would
stop raining.
This means that Jill is complaining about the rain and wants it to stop.
We use I wish…would… when we want something to happen or when we want
somebody to do something. The speaker is not happy with the present situation.
- The phone has been ringing for five minutes. I wish somebody would answer it.
- I wish you would do something instead of just sitting and doing nothing.
You can use I wish…wouldn’t… to complain about things people do repeatedly:
- I wish you wouldn’t keep interrupting me.
We use I wish… would… for actions and changes, not situations. Compare:
- I wish Sarah would come. (= I want her to come)
But - I wish Sarah were (or was) here now. (not ‘I wish Sarah would be..’)
- I wish somebody would buy me a car.
But - I wish I had a car. (not ‘I wish I would have…’)
For ‘I wish… were/had (etc).’ see unit 38B and 39C
d. You can also use would when you talk about things that happened regularly in the
past:
- When we were children, we lived by the sea. In summer, if the weather was fine,
we would all get up early and go for a swim. (= we did this regularly)

- Whenever Arthur was angry, he would walk out of the room.
With this meaning, would is similar to used to (see Unit 18):
- Whenever Arthur was angry, he used to walk out of the room.
Passive
41. Passive (1) (is done/ was done)
a. Example:
This house was built in 1930.
‘Was built’ is passive. Compare active and passive:
Somebody built in 1930. (active)
Subject
Was built in 1930. (passive)
We use an active verb to say what the subject does:
- My grandfather was a builder. He built this house in 1930.
- It’s a big company. It employs two hundred people.
We use an passive verb to say what happen to the subject:
- This house is quite old. It was built in 1930.
- Two hundred people are employed by the company.
b. When we use the passive, who or what causes the action is often unknown or
unimportant:
- A lot of money was stolen in the robbery. (somebody stole it but we don’t know
who)
- Is this room cleaned every day? (does somebody clean it? – it’s not important who)
If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use by…:
- This house was built by my grandfather.
- Two hundred people are emoployed by the company.
This house
object
This house
subject

c. The passive is be (is/was/have been etc) + the past participle (done/cleaned/seen etc):
(be) done (be) cleaned (be) seen (be) damaged (be) built etc.
For irregular past participles (done/known/seen etc), see appendix 1.
Study the active and passive forms of the present simple and past simple:
Present simple
Active: clean (s)/see (s) etc. Somebody cleans every day.
Passive: am/is/are cleaned/seen etc. is cleaned every day.
- Many accidents are caused by careless driving.
- I’m not often invited to parties.
- How is this word pronounced?
Past simple
Active: cleaned/saw etc. Somebody cleans every day.
Passive: was/were cleaned/seen etc. was cleaned every day.
- We were woken up by a loud noise during the night.
- ‘Did you go to the party?’ ‘No, I wasn’t invited.’
- How much money was stolen?
42. Passive (2) (be/ been/ being done)
Study the following active and passive forms:
a.
Infinitive
Active: (to) do/clean/see etc. Somebody will clean the room later.
Passive: (to) be done/cleaned/seen etc. The room will be cleaned later.
- The situation is serious. Something must be done before it’s too late.
- A mystery is something that can’t be explained.
- The music was very loud and could be heard from a long way away.
- A new supermarket is going to be built next year.
- Please go away. I want to be left alone.
b.
Perfect infinitive
Active: have done/cleaned/seen etc. Somebody should have cleaned the room.
Passive: have been done/cleaned/seen etc. The room should have been cleaned.
- I haven’t received the letter yet. It might have been sent to the wrong address.
This room
This room
This room
This room

- If you hadn’t left the car unlocked, it wouldn’t have been stolen.
- There were some problems at first but they seem to have been solved.
c.
Present perfect
Active: have/ has (done) The room looks nice. Somebody has cleaned it.
Passive: have/ has been (done). The room looks nice. It has been cleaned.
- Have you heard the news? The President has been shot!
- Have you ever been bitten by a dog?
- ‘Are you going to the party?’ ‘No, I haven’t been invited.’
Past perfect
Active: had (done) The room looks nice. Somebody had cleaned it.
Passive: had been (done). The room looks nice. It had been cleaned.
- The vegetables didn’t taste very good. They had been cooked for too long.
- The car was three years old but hadn’t been used very much.
d.
Present continuous
Active: am/is/are (do)ing Somebody is cleaning the room at the moment.
Passive: am/is/are being (done). The room is being cleaned at the moment.
- There’s somebody walking behind us. I think we are being followed.
- (in a shop) ‘Can I help you, madam?’ ‘No, thank you. I’m being served.’
Past continuous
Active: was/were (do)ing Somebody was cleaning the room when I arrived.
Passive: was/were being (done). The room was being cleaned when I arrived.
- There was somebody walking behind us. We were being followed.
43. Passive (3)
a. I was born
We say: I was born… (not ‘I am born’):
- I was born in Chicago. Past simple
- Where were you born? (not ‘where are you born’)
But - How many babies are born every day? Present simple
b. Some verbs can have two object. Example, give:
- We gave the police the information. (= We gave the information to the polie)
----------- -------------------

Object 1 Object 2
So it is possible to make two passive sentences:
- The police were given the information.
Or The information was given to the police
Other verbs which can have two object are: ask offer pay show teach tell
When we use these verbs in the passive, most often we begin with the person:
- I was offered the job but I refused it. (= they offered me the job)
- You will be given plenty of time to decide. (= we will give you plenty of time)
- Have you been shown the new machine? (= has anybody shown you…?)
- The men were paid £200 to do the work. (= somebody paid the men £200)
c. I don’t like being…
The passive of doing/seeing etc is being done/ being seen etc. Compare:
Active : I don’t like people telling me what to do.
Passive : I don’t like being told what to do.
- I remember being given a toy drum on my fifth birthday. (= I remember
somebody giving me a toy drum…)
- Mr Miller hates being kept waiting. (= he hates people keeping him waiting)
- We managed to climb over the wall without being seen. (= …without anybody
seeing us)
d. Get
Sometimes you can use get instead of be in the passive:
- There was a fight at the party but nobody got hurt. (= nobody was hurt)
- I don’t often get invited to parties. (= I’m not often invited)
- I’m surprised Ann didn’t get offered the job. (…Ann wasn’t offered the job)
You can use get to say that something happens to somebody or something, especially
if this is unplanned or unexpected:
- Our dog got run over by a car.
You can use get only when things happen or change. Example, you cannot use get in
these sentences:
- Jill is liked by everybody. (not ‘gets liked’ – this is not a ‘happening’)
- He was a mystery man. Nothing was known about him. (not ‘got known’)
We use get mainly in informal spoken English. You can use be in all situations.
We also use get in the following expressions (which are not passive in meaning):
Get married get divorced
Get dressed(= put on your clothes) get changed (= change your clothes)

44. It is said that… He is said to… (be) supposed to…
a. Situation.
Henry is very old. Nobody knows exactly how old he is, but:
It is said that is 108 years old.
Or is said to be 108 year old.
Both these sentences mean: ‘People say that he is 108 years old.’
You can use these structures with a number of other verbs, especially:
Thought belived considered reported known expected alleged
Compare the two structure:
- Cathy works very hard.
It is said that she works 16 hours a day. Or She is said to work 16 hours a day.
- The police are looking for a missing boy.
It is belived that the boy is wearing a Or The boy is belived to be a wearing a
white pullover and bue jeans. white pullover and bue jeans.
- The strike started three weeks ago.
It is expected that it will end soon. Or The stike is expected to end soon.
- A friend of mine has been arrested.
It is alleged that he kicked a policeman. Or He is alleged to have kicked a policeman
- Those two houses belong to the same family.
It is said that there is a secret tunnel Or There is said to be a secret tunnel
between them. between them.
These structures are often used in news reports. Example, in a report about an
accident:
- It is reported that two people were or Two people are reported to have
injured in the explosion. been injured in the explosion.
b. (be) supposed to
Sometimes it is supposed to… = it is said to…:
- Let’s go and see that film/ it’s supposed to be very good. (= it is said to be very
good)
- ‘Why was he arrested?’ ‘He’s supposed to have kicked a policeman.’ (= he is
said to have kicked a policeman)
But sometimes supposed to had a different meaning. ‘Something is supposed to
happen’ = it is planned, arranged or expected. Often this is different from what really
happens:
- I’d better hurry. It’s nearly 8 o’clock and I’m supposed to be meeting Ann at 8.15.
(= I have arranged to meet Ann, I said I would meet her)
he
he

- The train was supposed to arrive at 11.30 but it was an hour late. (= the train was
expected to arrive at 11.30 according to the timetable)
- You were supposed to clean the windows. Why didn’t you do it?
‘You’re not supposed to do something’ = it is not allowed or advisable for you to do it:
- You’re not supposed to park your car here. It’s private parking only.
- Mr Bond is much better after his illness but he’s still not supposed to do any
heavy work. (= his doctors have advised him not to…)
45. Have something done
a. Situation.
The roof of Jill’s house was damaged in a storm, so she
arranged for somebody to repair it. Yesterday a workman
came and did the job.
Jill had the roof repaired yesterday.
This means: Jill arranged for somebody else to repair
the roof. She didn’t repair it herself.
We use have something done to say that we arrange for somebody else to do
something for us.
Compare:
- Jill repaired the roof. (= she repaired it herself)
- Jill had the roof repaired. (= she arranged for somebody else to repaire it)
Study these sentences:
- Did Ann make the dress herself or did she have it made?
- ‘Are you going to repair the car yourself?’ ‘No, I’m going to have it repaired.’
Be careful with word order. The past participle (repaired/cut etc) is after the object
(the roof/ your hair etc):
Have + object + past participle
Jill
Where
Your hair looks nice.
Julia
We
How often
I think you should
I don’t like
had
did you have
have you had
has just had
are having
do you have
have
having
the roof
your hair
it
central heating
the house
yours truly, car
that coat
my phptograph
repaired
cut?
cut?
installed
painted?
serviced?
cleaned
taken
yesterday.
in her house.
at the moment.
soon.
b. You can also say ‘get something done’ instead of ‘have something done’ (mainly in
informal spoken English):

- When are you going to get the roof repaired? (= have the roof repaired)
- I think you should get your hair cut.
c. Sometimes have something done has a different meaning. Example:
- Jill and Eric had all their money stolen while they were on holiday.
Of course this does not mean that they arranged for somebody to steal their money.
‘They had all their money stolen’ means only: ‘All their money was stolen from them.’
With this meaning, we use have something sone to say that something happens to
somebody or their belongings. Usually whay happens is not nice:
- George had his nose broken in a fight.
- Have you ever had your passport stolen?
Reported speech
46. Reported speech (1) (He said that…)
a. Situation.
You want to tell somebody else what Tom said.
There are two ways of doing this:
You can repeat Tom’s words (direct speech):
Tom said ‘I’m feeling ill.’
Or you can use reported speech:
Tom said that he was feeling ill.
Compare:
Direct: Tom said ‘ feeling ill.’ In writing we use these to
show direct speech.
↓ ↓
Reported: Tom said that feeling ill.
b. When we use reported speech, the main verb of the sentence is usually past (When we
use reported speech, the main verb of the sentence is usually past (Tom said that…/ I
told her that… etc). The rest of the sentence is usually past too:
- Tom said that he was feeling ill.
- I told her that I didn’t have any money.
You can leave out that:
- Tom said (that) he was feeling ill. – I told her (that) I didn’t have any money.
In general, the present form in direct speech changes to the past form in reported
speech:
Am/is  was do/does  did will  would
Are  were have/has  had can  could
I am
he was

Want/like/know/go etc  wanted/liked/knew/went etc.
Compare direct speech and reported speech:
You met Judy. Here are some of the
things she said to you in direct speech:
Later you tell somebody what Judy said.
You use reported speech:
- Judy said that her parents were very
well.
- She said that she was going to learn to
drive.
- She said that John had given up his job.
- She said that she couldn’t come to the
party on Friday.
- She said that she wanted to go away for
a holiday but (she) didn’t know where
to go.
- She said that she was going away for a
few days and would phone me when she
got back.
c. The past simple (did/saw/knew etc) can usually stay the same in reported speech, or
you can change it to the past perfect (had done/ had seen/ had known etc):
Direct Tom said: ‘I woke up feeling Ill, so I didn’t go to work.’
Reported Tom said (that) he woke up feeling ill, so he didn’t go to work. Or
Tom said (that) he had woken up feeling ill, so he hadn’t gone to work
47. Reported speech (2)
a. It is not always necessary to change the verb when you use reported speech. If you
report something and it is still true, you do not need to change the verb:
- Direct Tom said ‘New York is more lively than London.’
Reported Tom said that New York is more lively than London.
- Direct Ann said ‘I want to go to New York next year.’
Reported Ann said that she wants to go to New York next year.
Note that it is also correct to change the verb into the past:
- Tom said that New York was more lively than London.
- Ann said that she wanted to go to New York next year.
But you must use a past form when there is a difference between what was said and
what is really true. Study this example situation:
You met Sonia a few days ago.
She said: ‘Jim is ill.’ (direct speech)
Later that day you see Jim. He looking well and carrying a tennis racket.
‘My parents are very well.’
‘I’m going to learn to drive.’
‘John has given up his job.’
‘I can’t come to the party on
Friday.’
‘I want to go away for a holiday but
I don’t know where to go.’
‘I’m going away for a few days. I’ll
phone you when I get back,’

You say:
‘I didn’t expect to see you, Jim. Sonia said you were ill.’
(not ‘Sonia said you are ill’, because clearly he is not ill.)
b. Say and tell
If you say who you are talking, use tell:
- Sonia told me that you were ill. (not ‘Sonia said me’) TELL SOMEBODY
- What did you tell the police? (not ‘say the police’)
Otherwise use say:
- Sonia said that you were ill. (not ‘Sonia told that…’) xSAY SOMEBODYx
- What did you say?
But you can ‘say something to somebody’:
- Ann said goodbye to me and left. (not ‘Ann said me goodbye)
- What did you say to the police?
c. Tell/ask somebody to do something
We also use the infinitive (to do/ to stay etc) in reported speech, especially with tell
and ask (for orders and requests):
- Direct ‘Stay in bed for a few days,’ the doctor said to me.
Reported The doctor told me to stay in bed for a few days.
- Direct ‘Don’t shout,’ I said to Jim.
Reported I told Jim not to shout.
- Direct ‘Please don’t tell nybody what happened,’ Ann said to me.
Reported Ann asked me not to tell anybody what (had) happened.
‘…said to do something’ is also possible:
- The doctor said to stay in bed for a few days. (but not ‘The doctor said me…’)
Questions and auxiliary verbs.
48. Question (1)
a. We usually make questions by changing the word order: we put the first auxiliary
verb (AV) before the subject (S):
S + AV AV + S
Tom will  will Tom?
You have  have you?
I can  can I?
Th- e house was  was the house?
- Will Tom be here tomorrow?
- Have you been working hard?
- What can I do? (not ‘what I can do?’)

- When was the house built? (not ‘when was built the house?’)
b. In present simple questions, we use do/does:
You live  do you live?
The film begins  does the film begins?
- Do you live near here?
- What time does the film begins? (not ‘what time begins…?’)
In past simple questions, we use did:
You sold  did you sell?
The accident happened  did the accident happen?
- Did you sell your car?
- How did the accident happen?
But do not use do/does/did in questions if who/ what/which is the subject of the
sentence.
Compare:
Who object
Emma telephoned
did Emma telephone?
Who subject
telephoned Emma.
Subject
telephoned Emma?
In these example, who/what/which is the subject:
- Who wants something to eat? (not ‘who does want’)
- What happened to you last night? (not ‘what did happen’)
- Which bus goes to the city centre? (not ‘which bus does go’)
c. Note the position of prepositions in questions beginning Who/What/Which/Where…?:
- Who do you want to speak to?
- Which job has Jane applied for?
- What was the weather like yesterday?
- Where do you come from?
d. Negative questions (isn’t it…?/ didn’t you…?)
We use negative questions especially to show surprise:
- Didn’t you hear the bell? I rang it four times.
Or when we expect the listener to agree with us:
- ‘Haven’t we met somewhere before?’ ‘Yes, I think we have.’
- Isn’t it a beautiful day! (= it’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?)
somebody
who
somebody
who

Note the meaning of yes and no in answer to negative questions:
- Don’t you want to go to the party? Yes. (= Yes, I want to go)
No. (= No, I don’t want to go)
Note the word order in negative questions beginning why…?:
- Why don’t we go out for a meal tonight? (not ‘why we don’t…’)
- Why wasn’t Mary at work yesterday? (not ‘why Mary wasn’t….’)
49. Question (2) (Do you know where…? / She askedme where…)
a. When we ask for information, we often say Do you know…?/ Could you tell me…?
Etc. If you begin a question like this, the word order is different from a simple
question.
Compare:
Where has Tom gone? (simple question)
X
But Do you know where Tom has gone?(not ‘Do u know where has Tom gone?’)
When the question (Where has Tom gone?) is part of a longer sentence (Do you
know…? / I don’t know…/ Can you tell me…? etc), it loses the normal question word
order.
Compare:
- What time is it? But Do you know what time it is?
- Who is that woman? I don’t know who that woman is.
- Where can I find Linda? Can you tell me where I can find Linda?
- How much will it cost? Have you any idea how much it will cost?
Be careful with do/does/did questions:
- What time does the film begin? But Do you know what time the film begins?
(not ‘Do you know what time does…’)
- What do you mean? Please explain what you mean.
- Why did Ann leave early? I wonder why Ann left early.
Us if or whether where there is no other question word (what, why etc):
- Did anybody see you? But Do you know if (or whether) anybody saw you?
b. The same changes in word order happen in reported questions:
Direct The police officer said to us, ‘Where ?’
Reported The police officer asked us where .
Direct Clare said. ‘What time ?’
are you going
We were going
do the banks close

Reported Clare wanted to know what time
Study these examples. You had an interview for a job and these were some of the
questions the interview asked you:
INTERVIEWER: How old are you?
What do you do in your spare time?
How long have you been working in your present job?
Why did you apply for the job?
Can you speak any foreign languages?
Have you got a driving licence?
Later you tell a friend what the interviewer asked you. You use reported speech:
- She asked (me) how old I was.
- She wanted to know what I did in my spare time.
- She asked (me) how long I had been working in my present job.
- She asked (me) why I had applied for the job. (or …why I applied)
- She wanted to know whether (or if) I could speak any foreign languages.
- She asked whether (or if) I had a driving licence. (or …I had got)
50. Auxiliary verbs (have/ do/ can etc)
a. There two verbs in each of these sentences:
I
She
The hotel
where
have
can’t
was
do you
lost
come
built
llive?
my keys
to the party
ten years ago.
In these examples have/can’t/was/do/ are auxiliary (= helping) verbs.
You can use an auxiliary verb (without the rest of the sentence) when you don’t want
to repeat something:
- ‘Have you locked the door?’ ‘Yes, I have.’ (= I have locked the door)
- George wasn’t working but Janet was. (= Janet was working)
- She could lend me the money but she won’t. (= she won’t lend me the money)
- ‘Are you angry with me?’ ‘Of course I’m not.’ (= I’m not angry)
Use do/does/did for the present and past simple:
- ‘Do you like onions?’ ‘Yes, I do.’ (= I like onion)
- ‘ Does Mark some?’ ‘He did but he doesn’t any more.’
b. We use have you?/ Isn’t she?/ do they? etc to show polite interest in what somebody
has said:
- ‘I’ve just met Simon.’ ‘Oh, have you? How is he?’
- ‘Liz isn’t very well today.’ ‘Oh, isn’t she? What’s wrong with her?’
the banks closed

- ‘It rained every day during our holiday.’ ‘Did it? What a pity!’
Sometimes we use these ‘short questions’ to show surprise:
- ‘Jim and Nora are getting married.’ ‘Are they? really?’
c. We use auxiliary verbs with so and neither:
- ‘I’m feeling tired.’ ‘So I am.’ (= I’m feeling tired too)
- ‘I never read newspaper.’ ‘Neither do i.’ (= I never read newspaper either)
- Sue hasn’t got a car and neither has Martin.
Note the word order after so and neither (verb before subject):
- I passed the exam and so did Tom. (not ‘so Tom did’)
You can use nor instead or neither:
- ‘I can’t remember his name.’ ‘Nor can I.’ or ‘Neither can I.’
You can also use ‘…not…either’:
- ‘I haven’t got any money.’ ‘Neither have I.’ or ‘Nor have I.’ or ‘I haven’t either.’
d. I think so/ I hope so etc.
After some verbs you can use so when you don’t want to repeat something:
- ‘Are those people English?’ ‘I think so.’ (= I think they are English.)
- ‘Will you be at home tomorrow morning?’ ‘I expect so.’ (= I expect I’ll
be at home…)
- ‘Do you think Kate has been invited the party?’ ‘I suppose so.’
You can also say I hope so, I guess so and I’m afraid so.
The usual negative forms are:
I think so / I expect so  I don’t think so/ I don’t expect so.
I hope so/ I’m afraid so/ I guess so  I hope not/ I’m afraid not/ I guess not.
I suppose so  I don’t suppose so or I suppose not.
- ‘Is that woman American?’ ‘I think so. / I don’t think so.’
- ‘Do you think it’s going to rain?’ ‘I hope so. / I hope not.’ (not ‘ I don’t hope so’)
51. Question tags (do you? Isn’t it? Etc)
A: You haven’t seen Mary?
B: No, I’m afraid not.
X: It was a good film, wasn’t it?
Y: Yes, I really enjoyed it.
Have you? And wasn’t it? Are question tags (= mini-question that we often put on the
end of a sentence in spoken English). In question tags, we use an auxiliary verb

(have/was/will etc). We use do/does/did for the present and past simple (see also Unit
50):
- ‘Karen plays the piano, doesn’t she?’ ‘Well, yes, but not very well.’
- You didn’t lock the door, did you?’ ‘No, I forgot.’
b. Normally we use a negative question tag after a positive sentence:
positive sentence + negative tag
Mary will be here soon, won’t she?
There was a lot of traffic, wasn’t there?
Jim should pass the exam, shouldn’t he?
…and a positive question tag after a negative sentence:
negative sentence + positive tag
Mary won’t be late, will she?
They don’t like us, do they?
You haven’t got a car, have you?
Notice the meaning of yes and no in answer to a negative sentence:
- You’re not going out today, are you? Yes. (= Yes, I am going out)
No. (= No, I am not going out)
c. The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it. If your voice goes down,
you aren’t really asking a question; you are only inviting the listener to agree with
you:
- ‘It’s a nice day, isn’t it? ‘Yes, lovely.’
- ‘Tim doesn’t look well today, does he?’ ‘No, he looks very tired.’
- She’s very pretty. She’s got beautiful eyes, hasn’t she?
But if the voice goes up, it is a real question:
- ‘You haven’t seen Mary today, have you?’ ‘No, I’m afraid not.
(= Have you seen Mary today by a chance?)
We often use a negative sentence + positive tag to ask for things or information, or to
ask somebody to do something. The voice goes up at the end of the tag in sentences
like these:
- ‘You haven’t got a pen, have you?’ ‘Yes, here you are.’
- ‘You couldn’t do me a favour, could you?’ ‘It depends what it is.’
- ‘You don’t know where Karen is, do you?’ ‘Sorry, I’ve no idea.’
d. After let’s… the question tag is… shall we?:
- Let’s go for a walk, shall we?
After the imperative (Do…/ Don’t do… etc), the tag is usually …will you?:
- Open the door, will you? - Don’t be late, will you?
Note that we say …aren’t i? (= am I not?):

- I’m late, aren’t I?
-ing and the infinitive
52. Verb + -ing (enjoy doing/ stop doing etc)
a. Look at these examples:
- I enjoy dancing. (not ‘I enjoy to dance’)
- Would you mind closing the doo? (not ‘mind to close’)
- Ian suggested going to the cinema. (not ‘suggested to go’)
After enjoy, mind and suggest, we use –ing (not to…).
Here are some more verbs that are followed by –ing:
Stop delay fancy consider admit miss involve
Finish postpone imagine avoid deny risk practise
- Suddenly everybody stopped talking. There was silence.
- I’ll do the shopping when I’ve finished cleaning the flat.
- He tried to avoid answering my question.
- I don’t fancy going out this evening.
- Have you ever considered going to live in another country?
Note the negative form not –ing:
- When I’m on holiday, I enjoy not having to get up early.
b. We also use –ing after:
Give up (= stop)
Put off (= postpone)
Carry on /go on (= continue)
Keep or keepon (= do something continuously or repeatedly)
- Paula has given up smoking.
- We must do something. We can’t go on living like this! (or …carry on living…)
- Don’t keep interrupting me while I’m speaking. (or Don’t keep on interrupting…)
c. With some verbs you can use the structure verb + somebody + -ing:
- I can’t imagine George riding a motorbike.
- You can’t stop me doing what I want.
- ‘Sorry to keep you waiting so long.’ ‘That’s all right.’
Note the passive form (being done/seen/kept etc):
- I don’t mind being kept waiting. (= I don’t mind people keeping me…)
d. When you are talking about finished actions, you can say having done/stolen/said etc:
- She admitted having stolen the money.

But it is not necessary to use having (done). You can also use the simple –ing form
for finished actions:
- She admitted stealing the money.
- I now regret saying (or having said) what I said.
For regret, see Unit 55B.
e. After some of the verbs on this page (especially admit/deny/suggest) you can use
that…:
- She denied that she had stolen the money. (or She denied stealing…)
- Ian suggested that we went to the cinema. (or Ian suggested going…)
53. Verb + to… (decide to do/ forget to do etc)
a.
Offer decide hope deserve attempt promise
Agree plan aim afford manage threaten
Refuse arrange learn forget fail
If these verbs are followed by another verb, the structure is usually verb + to…
(infinitive):
- It was late, so we decided to take a taxi home.
- Simon was in a difficult situation, so I agreed to lend him some money.
- How old were you when you learnt to drive? (or ‘learnt how to drive’)
- I waved to Karen but failed to attract her attention.
Note these examples with the negative not to…:
- We decided not to go out because of the weather.
- I promised not to be late.
With many verbs you cannot normally use to… . Example, enjoy/think/suggest::
- I enjoy dancing. (not ‘enjoy to dance’)
- Ian suggested going to the cinema. (not m’suggested to go’)
- Are you thinking of buying a car? (not ‘thinking to buy’)
For verb + -ing, see Unit 52. for verb + preposition + -ing, see Unit 61.
b. We also use to… after: seem appeart end pretend claim. Example:
- They seem to have plenty of money.
- I like George but I think he tends to talk too much.
- Ann pretented not to see me as she passed me in the street.
There is also a continuous infinitive (to be doing) and a perfect infinitive (to have
done):
- I pretented to be reading the newspaper. (= I pretented that I was reading)
- You seem to have lost weight. (= it seems that you have lost weight)

c. We say ‘decide to do something’, ‘promise to do something’ etc. In the same way, we
say ‘a decision to do something’, ‘a promise to do something’ etc. (noun + to…):
- I think his decision to give up his job was stupid.
- George has a tendency to talk too much.
d. After dare you can use the infinitive with or without to:
- I wouldn’t dare to tell him. Or I wouldn’t dare tell him.
But after daren’t (or dare not), you must use the infinitive without to:
- I daren’t tell him what happened. (not ‘I daren’t to tell him’)
e. After the following verbs you can use a question word (what/whether/how etc) + to…:
ask decide know remember forget explain learn understand wonder
We asked how to get to the station
Have you decided where to go for your holidays?
I don’t know whether to apply for the job or not.
Do you understand what to do?
Also: show/tell/ask/advise/teach somebody what/how/where to do something:
- Can somebody show me how to change the film in this camera.
- Ask Jack. He’ll tell you what to do.
54. Verb + (object) + to… (I want (you) to do etc)
a.
want ask help would like would love
expect beg mean (= intend) would prefer would hate
These verbs are followed by to… (infinitive). The structure can be:
Verb +to… verb + object + to…
- We expected to be late - We expected Tom be late
- Would you like to go now? - Would you like me to go now?
- He doesn’t want to know. - He doesn’t want anybody to know.
Be careful with want. Do not say ‘want that…’:
- Do you want me to come with you? (not ‘Do you want that I come’)
After help tou can use the infinitive with or without to. So you can say:
- Can you help me to move this table? Or Can you help me move this table?
b.
tell remind force enable teach
order warn invite persuade get (= persuade, arrange for)
These verbs have the structure verb + object + to…:
- Can you remind me to phone Ann tomorrow?
- Who taught you to drive?

- I didn’t move the piano by myself. I got somebody to help me.
- Jim said the switch was dangerous and warned me not to touch it.
In the next example, the verb is passive (was warned):
- I was warned not to touch the switch.
Note that you cannot use suggest with the structure verb + object + to…:
- Jane suggested that I should buy a car. (not ‘Jane suggested me to buy’)
For suggest, see Unit 34 and 52.
c.
Advise recommend encourage allow permit forbid
There are two possible structures after these verbs. Compare:
Verb + -ing (without an object) Verb + object + to…
- I wouldn’t recommend staying in - I wouldn’t recommend anybody to
that hotel. stay in that hotel.
- She doesn’t allow smoking in the - She doesn’t allow us smoking in the
house. house.
Compare these examples with (be) allowed (passive):
- Smoking isn’t allowed in the house. - We aren’t allowed to smoke in the
house.
d. Make and let
These verbs have the structure verb + object + infinitive (wirhout to):
- The customs officer made Sally open her case. (not ‘to open’)
- Hot weather makes me feel tired. (= causes me to feel tired)
- Her parents wouldn’t let her go out alone. (= wouldn’t allow her to go out)
- Let me carry your bag for you.
We say ‘make somebody do…’ (not ‘to do’), but the passive is ‘(be) made to do…’
(infinitive with to):
- Sally was made to open her case (by the customs officer).
55. Verb + -ing or to… (1)(remember/regret etc)
a. When one verb follows another verb, the structure is usually verb + -ing or verb +
to… . Compare:
Verb + -ing
- They denied stealing the money.
- I enjoy going out.
Often we use –ing for an action that
happens before the first verb or at the
same time:
Stealing  denied enjoy, going
Verb + to..
- They decided to steal the money.
- I want to go out.
Often we use to… for an action that
follows the first verb:
Decided  to steal want  to go

b. Some verbs can be followed by –ing or to… with a difference of meaning:
Remember
I remember doing something = I did it and
now I remember this.
You remember doing something after you
have done it:
- I’m absolutely sure I locked the door. I
clearly remember locking it. (= I locked
it, and now I remember this)
- H ecould remember driving along the
road just before the accident happened,
but he couldn’t remember the accident
itself.
I remember to do something = I
remembered that I had to do it, and so I
did it.
You remember to do something before
you do it:
- I remembered to lock the door when I
left but I forgot to shut the windows.
(= I remembered that I had to lock the
door and so I locked it)
- Please remember to post the letter. (=
don’t forget to post it)
Regret
I regret doing something = I did it and
now I’m sorry about it:
- I now regret saying what I said. I
shouldn’t have said it.
I regret to say/ to tell you/ to inform you
= I’m sorry that I have to say (etc):
- (from a formal letter) We regret to
inform you that we are unable to offer
you the job.
Go on
Go on doing something = continue doing
the same thing:
- The minister went on talking for two
hours.
- We must change our ways. We can’t go
on living like this.
Go on to do something = do or say
something new:
- After discussing the economy, the
minister then went on talk about
foreign policy.
c. Begin start intend continue bother
These verbs can be followed by –ing or to… with little or no difference in meaning.
So you can say:
- It has started raining. Or It has started to rain.
- John intends buying a house. Or John intends to buy…
- Don’t bother locking the door. Or Don’t bother to lock…
But normally we do not use –ing after –ing:
- It’s starting to rain. (not ‘It’s starting raining’)

56. Verb + -ing or to… (2)(try/need/help)
a. Try to… and try –ing
Try to do = attempt to do, make an effort to do:
- I was very tired. I tried to keep my eyes open but I couldn’t.
- Please try to be quite when you come home. Everyone will be asleep.
Try also means ‘do something as an experiment or test’. Example:
- These cakes are delicious. You must try one. (= you must have one to see if
you like it)
- We couldn’t find anywhere to stay. We tried every hotel in the town but they
were all full. (= we went to every hotel to see if they had a room)
If try (with this meaning) is followed by a verb, we say try –ing:
- A: The photocopier doesn’t seem to be working.
B: Try pressing the green button. (= press the green button – perhaps this will
help to solve the problem)
Compare:
- I tried to move the table but it was too heavy. (so I couldn’t move it)
- I didn’t like the way furniture was arranged, so I tried moving the table to the
other side of the room. But it still didn’t look right, so I moved it back again.
b. Need to… and need –ing
I need to do something = it is necessary for me to do it:
- I need to take more exercise.
- He needs to work harder if he wants to make progress.
- I don’t need to come to the meeting, do I?
Something needs doing = something needs to be done:
- The batteries in the radio need changing. (= they need to be changed)
- Do you think my jacket needs cleaning? (= …needs to be cleaned)
- It’s a difficult problem. It needs thinking about very carefully. (= it needs to
be thought about)
c. Help and can’t help
You can say ‘help to do’ or ‘help do’ (infinitive with or without to):
- Everybody helped to clean up after the party. Or Everybody helped clean up..
- Can you help me to move this table? Or Can you help me move…
There is also an expression ‘can’t/couldn’t help doing something’. ‘I can’t help
doing something’ = I can’t stop myself from doing it:
- I don’t like him but he has a lot of problems. I can’t help feeling sorry for him.
- She tried to be serious but she couldn’t help laughing. (= she couldn’t stop
herself from laughing)
- I’m sorry I’m so nervous. I can’t help it. (= I can’t help being nervous)

57. Verb + -ing or to… (3)(like/ would like etc)
a.
Like love hate can’t bear enjoy dislike mind can’t stand
These verbs and expressions all means ‘like’ or ‘not like’. They are often followed by
–ing:
- Ann hates flying.
- Why do you dislike living here?
- I don’t like people shouting at me. (= I don’t like being shouted at)
After love, hate and can’t bear, you can also use to… . So you can say:
- I love meeting people or I love to meet people.
- She can’t bear being alone. Or She can’t bear to be alone.
But after enjoy/ dislike/ mind/ can’t stand, we use only –ing (not ‘to…’):
- I enjoy being alone. (not ‘I enjoy to be’)
- Tom doesn’t mind working at night. (not ‘mind to work’)
b. Like
You can say ‘I like doing something’ or ‘I like to do something’. Often it doesn’t
matter which you use, so you can say:
- I like getting up early. Or I like to get up early.
In British English, there is sometimes a difference between ‘I like doing’ and ‘I like
to do’. ‘I like doing something’ means ‘I enjoy it’:
- Do you like cooking? (= do you enjoy it?)
- I like living here. (= I enjoy it)
‘I like to do something’ means ‘I think it is good or right to do it’:
- I like to clean the kitchen as often as possible. (Tjis doesn’t mean that I enjoy it; it
means that I think it is a good thing to do)
- Mary likes people to be on time.
c. Would like/ would love/ would hate/ would prefer are usually followed by to…
(infinitive):
- I would like to be rich.
- Would you like to come to dinner on Friday?
- I’d love (= would love) to be able to travel round the world.
- Would you prefer to have dinner now or later?
Compare I like and I would like:
- I like playing/ to play tennis. (= I enjoy it in general)
- I would like to play tennis today. (= I want to play today)
Note that would mind is followed by –ing (not to…)
- Would you mind closing the door, please?

d. You can also say ‘I would like to have done something’ (= I regret now that I didn’t
or couldn’t do something):
- It’s a pity we didn’t see Val when we were in London. I would like to have seen
her again.
- We’d like to have gone on holiday but we didn’t have enough money.
You can use the same structure after would love/ would hate/ would prefer:
- Poor old Tom! I would hate to have been in his position.
- I’d love to have gone to the party but it was impossible.
58. Prefer and would rather
a. Prefer to do and prefer doing
You can use ‘prefer to (do)’ or ‘prefer –ing’ to say what you prefer in general:
- I don’t like cities. I prefer to live in the country. Or I prefer living in the country.
Study the differences in structure after prefer. We say:
I prefer something to something else.
I prefer doing something to doing something else.
But I prefer to do something to (do) something else.
- I prefer this coat to the coat you were wearing yesterday.
- I prefer driving to traveling by train.
But - I prefer to drive rather than travel by train.
- Ann prefer to live in the country rather than (live) in a city.
b. Would prefer (I’d prefer…)
We use ‘would prefer’ to say what somebody wants in a particular situation (not in
general):
- ‘Would you prefer tea or coffee?’ ‘Coffee, please.’
We say ‘would prefer to do’ (not ‘doing’):
- ‘Shall we go by train?’ ‘Well, I’d prefer to go by car.’ (not ‘I’d prefer going’)
- I’d prefer to stay at home tonight rather than go to the cinema.
c. Would rather (I’d rather…)
Would rather (do) = would prefer (to do). After would rather we use the infinitive
without to.
Compare:
- ‘Shall we go by train?’ ‘I’d prefer to go by car.’
‘I’d rather go by car.’ (not ‘to go’)
- ‘Would you rather have tea or coffee?’ ‘Coffee, please.’
The negative is ‘I’d rather not (do something)’:
- I’m tired. I’d rather not go out this evening, if you don’t mind.
- ‘Do you want to go out this evening?’ ‘I’d rather not.’

Study the structure after would rather:
I’d rather do something than (do) something else
- I’d rather stay at home tonight than go to the cinema.
d. I’d rather you did something
When you want somebody to do something, you can say ‘I’d rather you did
something’:
- ‘Shall I stay here?’ ‘I’d rather you came with us.’
- ‘Shall I tell them the news?’ ‘No, I’d rather they didn’t know.’
- Shall I tell them or would you rather they didn’t know?
In this structure we use past (came, did etc), but the meaning is present or future, not
past.
Compare:
- I’d rather cook the dinner now.
But - I’d rather you cooked the dinner now. (not ‘I’d rather you cook’)
The negative is ‘I’d rather you didn’t…’:
- I’d rather you didn’t tell anyone what I said.
- ‘Do you mind if I smoke?’ ‘I’d rather you didn’t.’
59. Preposition (in/for/about etc) + -ing
a. If a preposition (in/for/about etc) is followed by a verb, the verb ends in –ing.
Example:
Are you interested
I’m not very good
She must be fed up
What are the advantages
This knife is only
How
I bought a new bicycle
Carol went to work
Preposition
in
at
with
of
for
about
instead of
in spite of
Verb (-ing)
working
learning
studying
having
cutting
playing
going
feeling
for us?
languages.
a car?
bread.
tennis tomorrow?
away on holiday.
ill.
You can also say ‘interested in somebody (do)ing…’, ‘fed up with you (do)ing…’ etc:
- I’m fed up with you telling me what to do.
b. Note the use of the following prepositions + -ing
Before –ing and after –ing:
- Before going out, I phoned Sarah. (not ‘Before to go out’)
- What did you do after leaving school?
You can also say ‘Before I went out…’ and ‘…after you left school’.
By –ing (to say how something happens):

- The burglars got into the house by breaking a window and climbing in.
- You can improve your English by resding more.
- She made herself ill by not eating properly.
Without –ing:
- I ran ten kilometers without stopping.
- They climbed through the window without anybody seeing them. (or
…without being seen)
- She needs to work without people disturbing her. (or …without being
disturbed)
- It’s nice to go on holiday without having to worry about money.
c. To –ing
To is often part of the infinitive (to do/ to see etc):
- We decided to go out.
- Would you like to play tennis?
But to is also a preposition (like in/for/about/from etc). Example:
- We drove from London to Edinburgh.
- I prefer tea to coffee.
- Are you looking forward to the weekend?
In preposition is followed by a verb, the verb ends in –ing (in doing/ about going etc
– see Section A). So, when to is a preposition and it is followed by a verb, you must
say to –ing:
- I prefer driving to traveling by train. (not ‘to travel’)
- Are you looking forward to seeing Ann again? (not ‘looking forward to see’)
For be/get used to –ing, see Unit 60.
60. be/get used to something (I’m used to…)
a. example situation:
Jane is American but she has lived in Britain for three years. When she first
drove a car in Britain, she found it very difficult because she had to drive on the
left instead of on the right. Driving on the left was strange and difficult for her
because:
She wasn’t used to it.
She wasn’t used to driving on the left.
But after a lot of practice, driving on the left became less strange. So:
She got used to driving on the left.
Now after three years, it’s no problem for Jane:
She is used to driving on the left.
I’m used to something = it is not new or strange for me:

- Frank lives alone. He doesn’t mind this because he has lived alone for 15 years. It
is not strange for him. He is used to it. He is used to living alone.
- I bought some new shoes. They left a bit strange at first because I wasn’t used to
them.
- Our new flat is on a very busy street. I expect we’ll get used to the noise, but at
the moment it’s very disturbing.
- Diane has a new job. She has to get up much earlier now than before – at 6.30.
She finds this difficult because she isn’t used to getting up so early.
- Brenda’s husband is often away from home. She doesn’t mind this. She is used to
him being away.
b. after be/get used you cannot use the infinitive. (to do/to drive etc). We say:
- She is used to driving on the left. (not ‘she is used to drive’)
When we say ‘I am used to…’, ‘to’ is a preposition, not a part of the infinitive (see
Unit 59S). So we say:
- Frank is used to living alone. (not ‘Frank is used to live’)
- Jane had to get used to driving on the left. (not ‘get used to drive’)
c. do not confuse I am used to doing (be/get used to) and I used to do. They are different
in structure and meaning.
I am used to (doing) something = something isn’t strange or new for me:
- I am used to the weather in this country.
- I am used to driving on the left because I’ve lived in Britain for a long time.
I used to do something = I did something regularly in the past but no longer do it
(see Unit 18). You can use this structure only for the past, not for the present.
The structure is ‘I used to do’ (not ‘I am used to do’):
- I used to drive to work every day, but these days I usually go by bike.
- We used to live in a small village, but now we live in London.
61. Verb + preposition + -ing (succeed in –ing/ accuse somebody of –ing etc)
a. Many verbs have the structure verb + preposition (in/for/about etc) + object. Example:
Verb +
We talked
You must apologise
Preposition
about
for
+ object
the problem.
what you said.
If the object is another verb, it ends in –ing:
Verb +
We talked
She apologise*
Preposition
about
for
+ object
going to America
not telling the truth
Here are some more verbs with this structure:
Have you succeced in finding a job yet?

They insisted
I’m thinking
I wouldn’t dream
She doesn’t approve
We have decided
Do you feel
I’m looking forward
on
of
of
of
against
like
to
paying for the meal.
buying a house.
asking them for money.
gambling.
moving to London.
going out tonight?
meeting her.
*We say ‘apologised to somebody for…’:
- She apologized to me for not telling the truth. (not ‘she apologized me’)
b. With some of the verbs in A, you can use the structure verb + preposition +
somebody + -ing:
Verb +
She doesn’t approve
We are all looking forward
Preposition
of
to
Somebody
Me
Liz
+-ing
gambling.
coming home.
c. The following verbs can have the structure verb +object + preposition + -ing:
Verb +
I congratulated
They accused
Nobody suspected
What prevented
The police stopped
I forgot to thank
Please forgive
They warned
Object +
Ann
me
the man
him
everyone
them
me
us
Preposition
on
of
of
from
from
for
for
against
+-ing
passing the exam.
telling lies.
being a spy.
coming to see us?
leaving the building.
helping me.
not writing to you.
buying the car.
*You can also say ‘stop somebody doing’ (without from). So you can say:
- You can’t stop me doing what I want. Or …stop me from doing what I want.
Some of these verbs are often used in passive. Example:
- I was accused of telling lies.
- The man was suspected of being a spy.
- We were warned against buying the car.
62. Expressions + -ing
a. When these expressions are followed by a verb, the verb ends in –ing:
It’s no use…/It’s no good…:
- There’s nothing you can do about the situation, so it’s no use worrying about
it.
- It’s no good trying to persuade me. You won’t succeed.
There’s no point in…:

- There’s no point in having a car if you never use it.
- There was no point in waiting any longer, so we went.
It’s (not) worth…:
- I live only a short walk from here, so it’s not worth taking a taxi.
- It was so late when we got home, it wasn’t worth going to bed.
You can say ‘a film is worth seeing’, ‘a book is worth reading’, etc.
- What was the film like? Was it worth seeing?
- I don’t think newspapers are worth reading.
b. (Have) difficulty –ing
We say ‘have difficulty doing something’ (not ‘to do’):
- I had difficulty finding a place to live. (not ‘I had difficulty to find’)
- Did you have any difficulty getting a visa?
- People often have great difficulty reading my writing.
We usually say ‘have difficulty’ (not ‘have difficulties’):
- I’m sure you’ll have no difficulty passing the exam. (not ‘have no difficulties’)
c. We use –ing after:
A waste of money…/ a waste of time… (to… is also possible):
- It was a waste of time reading that book. It was rubbish.
- It’s a waste of money buying things you don’t need.
Spend/waste (time)…
- He spent hours trying to repair the clock.
- I waste a lot of time daydreaming.
(be) busy…:
- She said she couldn’t see me. She was too busy doing other things.
d. Go swimming/ go fishing etc
We use go –ing for a number of activities (especially sports). Example, you can say:
Go swimming/ go sailing/ go fishing/ go climbing/ go skiing/ go jogging etc.
Also: go shopping/ go sightseeing.
- I’d like to go skiing.
- When did you last go shopping?
- I’ve never been sailing. (For been and gone, see Unit 7D)
You can also say ‘come swimming/ come skiing’ etc:
- Why don’t you come swimming with us?
63. To…, for… and so that… (purpose)
a. We use to… to say why somebody does something (= the purpose of an action):
- ‘Why did you go out?’ ‘To post a letter.’

- A friend of mine phoned to invite me to a party
- We shouted to warn everybody of the danger.
We use to… to say why something exists or why somebody has/wants/needs
something:
- This wall is to keep people out of the garden.
- The president has a team of bodyguards to protect him.
- I need a bottle opener to open this bottle.
b. We use to.. to say what can be done or must be done with something:
- It’s difficult to find a place to park in the city centre. (= a place where you can
park)
- Would you like something to eat?
- Have you got much work to do? (= work that you must do)
- I get lonely if there’s nobody to talk to.
Also: money/time/chance/opportunity/energy/courage etc to (do something):
- Thay gave us some money to buy some food.
- Do you have much opportunity to practice your English?
- I need a few days to think about your proposal.
c. For… and to…
Compare:
- I’m going to Spain for a holiday.
But I’m going to Spain to learn Spanish. (not ‘for learn Spanish’, not ‘for
learning Spanish’)
We use for + noun (for a holiday) but not + verb (to learn). Example:
- What would you like for dinner?
But What would you like to eat? (not ‘for eat’)
- Let’s go to the pool for a swim.
But Let’s go to the pool to have a swim.
Note that you can say …for (somebody) to (do something):
- There weren’t ny chairs for us to sit on, so we had to sit on the floor.
You can use for –ing to say what the general purpose of a thing is. To… is also
possible:
- This knife is only for cutting bread. (or …to cut bread)
You can use What …for? to ask about purpose:
- What is this switch for?
- What did you do that for?
d. So that
Sometimes you have to use so that for purpose. We use so that (not to…):
i. When the purpose is negative (so that… won’t/ wouldn’t):

- I hurried so that I wouldn’t be late. (= because I didn’t want to be late)
- Leave early so that you won’t (or don’t) miss the bus.
ii. With can and could (so that… can/ could):
- She’s learning English so that she can study in Canada.
- We moved to London so that we could visit our friends more often.
iii. When one person does something so that another person does something else:
- I gave her my address so that she could contact me.
- He wore glasses and a false beard so that nobody would recognize him.
64. Adjective + to…
a. Difficult to understand etc
Compare sentences a and b:
- Jim doesn’t speak very clearly. It is difficult to understand . (a)
{ is difficult to understand. (b)
Sentences a and b have the same meaning. But note that we say:
- He is difficult to understand. (not ‘He is difficult to understand him.’)
You can use the structures in the box with:
difficult easy hard impossible dangerous safe expensive cheap
and a number of other adjectives (example, nice/interesting/exciting):
- Do you think it is safe to drink this water?
Do you think this water is safe to drink? (not ‘to drink it’)
- Your writing is awful. It is impossible to read it. (= to read your writing)
Your writing is impossible to read. (not ‘to read it’)
- I like being with Jill. It’s very interesting to talk to her.
Jill is very interesting to talk to. (not ‘to talk to her’)
You can also use this structure with an adjective + noun:
- This is a difficult question (for me) to answer. (not ‘to answer it’)
b. (It’s) nice (of you) to…
You can use this structure to say what you think of what somebody does:
- It was nice of you to take me to the station. Thank you very much.
You can use many other adjectives in this way. Example:
kind clever sensible mean silly stupid careless unfair considerate:
- It’s silly of Mary to give up her job when she needs the money.
- I think it was very unfair of him to criticise me.
c. (I’m) sorry to…
You can use this structure to say how somebody reacts to something:
- I was sorry to hear that your father is ill.
him
He

You can use many other adjectives in this way. Example:
happy glad pleased delighted sad disappointed surprised amazed
astonished relieved:
- Was Tom surprised to see you when you went to see him?
- Was were delighted to get your letter last week.
d. The first (person) to know, the next train to arrive
We use to… after the first/second/third etc and also after the next, the last, the only:
- If I have any more news, you will be the first (person) to know.
- The next train to arrive at platform 4 will be the 6.50 to Cardiff.
- Everybody was late except me. I was the only one to arrive on time.
e. You can say that something is sure/ certain/ bound/ likely to happen:
- She’s very intelligent. She’s sure/certain/bound to pass the exam.
- I’m likely to be late home this evening. (= I will probably be late home)
65. To… (afraid to do) and preposition + -ing (afraid of –ing)
a. Afraid to (do) and afraid od (do)ing
I am afraid to do something = I don’t want to do it because it is dangerous or the
result could be bad. We use afraid to do for things we do intentionally:
- A lot of people are afraid to go out at night. (= they don’t want to go out because
it is dangerous – so they don’t go out)
- He was afraid to tell his parents about the broken window. (= he didn’t want to
tell them because he knew they would be angry)
I am afraid of something happening = it is possible that something bad will happen
(example, an accident). We do not use afraid of –ing for things we do intentionally:
- The path was icy, so we walked very carefully. We were afraid of falling. (= it
was possible that we would fall – not ‘we were afraid to fall’)
- I don’t like dogs. I’m always of being bitten. (not ‘afraid to be bitten’)
So, you are afraid to do something because you are afraid of something happening
as a result:
- I was afraid to go near the dogs because I was afraid of being bitten.
b. Interested in (do)ing and interested to (do)
I’m interested in doing something = I’m thinking of doing it, I’d like to do it:
- I’m trying to sell my car but nobody is interested in buying it. (not ‘to buy’)
We use interested to especially with hear/see/know/read/learn. I was interested to
hear it = ‘I heard it and it was interesting for me’:
- I ws interested to hear that Diane has got a new job.

- Ask George for his opinion. I would be interested to know what he thinks. (=
it would be interesting for me to know)
This structure is the same as surprised to/ delighted to… etc. (see Unit 64C):
- I was surprised to hear that Diane has got a new job.
c. Sorry to (do) and sorry for (do)ing
We usually say sorry to… to apologise when (or just before) we do something:
- I’m sorry to bother you, but I need to talk to you.
We use sorry to (hear/read etc) to show sympathy with somebody (see Unit 64C):
- I was sorry to hear that Fiona lost her job. (= I was sorry when I heard…)
You can use sorry for (doing something) to apologise for something you did before:
- (I’m) sorry for shouting at you yesterday. (not ‘sorry to shout…’)
You can also say:
- (I’m) sorry I shouted at you yesterday.
d. Note that we say:
I want to (do) / I’d like to (do) but I’m thinking of (do)ing / I dream of (do)ing
I failed to (do) but I secceededin (do)ing
I allowed them to (do) but I prevented them from (do)ing
For example, see Units 53-54 and 61
66. See somebody do and see somebody doing
a. Example situation:
Tom got into his car and drove away. You saw this. You can say:
- I saw Tom get into his car and drive away.
In this structure we use get/drive/do etc. (infinitive without ‘to’):
+
Note that we use the infinitive without to:
- We saw them go out. (not ‘to go’)
But after a passive (‘they were seen’) etc, we use to:
- They were seen to go out.
b. Example situation:
Yesterday you saw Ann. She was waiting for a bus.
You can say:
Somebody did something I saw this
I saw somebody do something

- I saw Ann waiting for a bus.
In this structure we use –ing (waiting):
+
c. Study the difference in meaning between the two structures:
‘I saw him do something’ = he did something (past simple) and I saw this. I saw the
complete action from beginning to end:
- He fell off the wall. I saw this.  I saw him fall of the wall.
- The accident happened. Did you see this?  Did you see the accident happen?
‘I saw him doing something’ = he was doing something (pat continuous) and I saw
this. I saw him when he was in the middle of doing it. This does not mean that I saw
the complete action:
- He was walking along the street.  I saw him walking alog the
I saw this when I drove past in my car. Street.
Sometimes the difference is not important and you can use either form:
- I’ve never seen her dance. Or I’ve never seen her dancing.
d. We use these structures with see and hear, and a number of other verbs:
- I didn’t hear you come in.
- Liz suddenly felt something touch her on the shoulder.
- Did you notice anyone go out?
- I could hear it raining.
- The missing boys were last seen playing near the river.
- Listen to the birds singing!
- Can you smell something burning?
- I found Sue in my room reading my letters.
67. – ing clauses (Feeling tired, I went to bed early)
a. A clauses is a part of a sentence. Some sentences have two or more clauses:
- Jim hurt his arm playing tennis.
--main clause-- ---ing clause--
- Feeling tired, I went to bed early.
--ing clause- ---main clause---
b. When two things happen at the same time, you can use –ing for one of the verbs. The
main clause usually comes first:
Somebody was doing something I saw this
I saw somebody doing something

- I’ve just seen Carol. She’s in the bar having a drink. (= she is in the bar and
she is having a drink)
- A man ran out of the house shouting. (= he run out of the house and he was
shouting)
- Do something! Don’t just stand here doing nothing!
We also use –ing when onr action happens during another action. We use –ing for the
longer action. The longer action is the second part of the sentence:
- Jim hurt him arm playing tennis. (= while he was playing)
- Did you cut yourself shaving? (= while you were shaving)
You can also use –ing after while or when:
- Jim hurt his arm while playing tennis.
- Be careful when crossing the road. (= when you are crossing)
c. When one action happens before another action, we use having (done) for the first
action:
- Having found a hotel, we looked for somewhere to have dinner.
- Having finished her work, she went home.
You can also say after –ing:
- After finishing her work, she went home.
If one short action follows another short action, you can use the simple –ing form
(doing instead of having done) for the first action:
- Taking a key out of his pocket, he opened the door.
These structures are used more written English than in spoken English.
d. You can use an –ing clause to explain something or to say why somebody does
something. The –ing clause usually comes first:
- Feeling tired, I went to bed early. (= because I felt tired)
- Being unemployed, he hasn’t got much money. (= because he is unemployed)
- Not having a car, she finds it difficult to get around. (= because she doesn’t
have a car)
- Having already seen the film twice, I didn’t want to go to cinema. (= because I
had already seen it twice)
These structures are used more written English than in spoken English.

Article and nouns
68. Countable and uncountable nouns (1)
a. A noun can be countable or uncountable. Compare:
Countable
- I eat a banana every day.
- I like bananas.
Banana is a countable noun.
A countable noun can be singular
(banana) or plural (bananas).
Countable nouns are things we can
count. So we can say ‘one banana’,
‘two banana’ etc:
Example of nouns usually countable:
- There’s a beach near here.
- Ann was singing a song.
- Have you got a ten-pound note?
- It wasn’t your fault. It was an
accident.
- There are no batteries in the radio.
- We haven’t got enough cups.
Uncountable
- I eat rice every day.
- I like rice.
Rice is uncountable noun.
An uncountable noun has only one
form (rice).
Uncountable nouns are things we
cannot count. We cannot say ‘one rice’,
‘two rice’ etc.
Example of nouns usually uncountable:
- There’s sand in my shoes.
- Ann was listening to (some) music.
- Have you got any money?
- It wasn’t your fault. It was bad luck.
- There is no electricity in this house.
- We haven’t got enough water.
b.
You can use a/an with singular
countable nouns:
A beach a student an umbrella
You cannot use singular countable
nouns alone (without a/the/my etc):
- I want a banana. (not ‘I want
banana’)
- There’s been an accident. (not
‘There’s been accident’)
You can use plural countable nouns
alone:
- I like bananas. (=banana in general)
- Accident can be prevented.
See also unit 74
You cannot normally use a/an with
uncountable nouns. We do not say ‘a
sand’ or ‘a music’. But you can often
use a… of:
A bowl of rice a drop of water
A piece of music a game of tennis etc
You can use uncountable nouns alone
(without the/my/some etc):
- I eat rice every day.
- There’s blood on you shirt.
- Can you hear music?
- Se also unit 74.

c.
You can use some and any with plural
countable nouns:
- We sang some songs.
- Did you buy any apples?
We use many and few with plural
countable nouns:
- We didn’t take many photographs.
- I have a few jobs to do.
You can use some and any with
uncountable nouns:
- We listened to some music.
- Did you buy any apple juice.
We use much and little with
uncountable nouns:
- We didn’t do much shopping.
- I have a little work to do.
69. Countable and uncountable nouns (2)
a. Many nouns can be used as countable or uncountable nouns, usually with a difference
in meaning. Compare:
Countable:
- Did you hear a noise just now? (= a
particular noise)
- I bought a paper to read. (= a
newspaper)
- There’s a hair in my soup! (= one
single hair)
- You can stay with us. There is a
spare room. (= a room in house)
- I had some interesting experiences
while I was away. (= things that
happened to me)
- Enjoy your holiday. Have a good
time!
Uncountable
- I can’t work here. There’s too much
noise (not ‘too many noises’)
- I nees some paper to write on. (=
material for writing on)
- You’ve got very long hair. (= not
‘hairs’) (= all the hair on your head)
- You can’t sit here. There isn’t room.
(= space)
- They offered me the job because I
had a lot of experience. (not
‘experiences’)
- I can’t wait. I haven’t got time.
b. Coffee/tea/beer/juice etc. (drink) are normally uncountable:
- I don’t drink coffee very often.
But they can be countable when you are thinking of a cup/ a glass etc. so you can say:
- (in a restaurant) Two coffees and an orange juice, please.
c. There are some nouns that are usually uncountable in English but often countable in
other languages. Example:
Accommodation behaviour damage luck permission traffic
Advice bread furniture luggage progress weather
Baggage chaos information news scenery work
These nouns are usually uncountable, so:
i) you cannot use a/an with them (you cannot say ‘a bread’, ‘an advice’ etc) and

ii) they are not normally plural (we do not say ‘breads’, ‘advices’ etc):
- I’m going to buy some bread.
- Enjoy your holiday! I hope you have good weather. (not ‘a good weather’)
- Where are you going to put all your furniture? (not ‘furnitures’)
News is uncountable, not plural:
- The news was very depressing. (not ‘the news were’)
Travel (noun) means ‘travelling in general’. You cannot say ‘a travel’ to mean a
journey or a trip:
- We had a very good journey.
Compare these countable and uncountable nouns:
Countable:
- I’m looking for a job.
- What a beautiful view!
- It’s a nice day today.
- We had a lot of bags and cases.
- These chairs are mine.
- It was a good suggestion.
Uncountable
- I’m looking for work. (not ‘a work’)
- What beautiful scenery!
- It’s nice weather today.
- We had a lot of luggage. (not
‘luggages’)
- This furniture is mine.
- It was good advice.
70. Countable nouns with a/an and some
a. Countable nouns can be singular or plural:
A dog a child the evening this party an umbrella
Dogs some children the evenings these parties two umbrella
b. Before singular countable nouns you can use a/an:
- Goodbye! Have a nice evening.
- Do you need an umbrella?
You cannot use singular countable nouns alone (without a/the/my etc):
- She never wears a hat. (not ‘She never wears hat’)
- Be careful of the dog. (not ‘Be careful of dog’)
- What a beautiful day!
- I’ve got a headache.
c. We use a/an… to say what kind of thing or person something/somebody is:
- A dog is an animal.
- I’m an optimist.
- Tim’s father is a doctor.
- Are you a good driver?
- Jill is a really nice person.

- What a lovely dress!
We say that somebody has a long nose/ a nice face/ a strong heart etc:
- Jack has got a long nose. (not ‘the long nose’)
In sentences like these, we use plural nouns alone (not with ‘some’):
- Dogs are animals.
- Most of my friends are students.
- Jill’s parents are really nice people.
- What awful shoes!
- Jack has got blue eyes. (not ‘the blue eyes’)
Remember to use a/an when you say what somebody’s job is:
- Sandra is a nurse. (not ‘Sandra is nurse’)
- Would you like to be an English teacher?
d. You can use some with plural countable nouns. We use some in two ways:
i) Some = a number of/ a few of/ a pair of:
- I’ve seen some good films recently. (not ‘I’ve seen good films’)
- Some friends of mine are coming to stay at the weekend.
- I need some new sunglasses. (= a new pair of sunglasses)
Do not use some when you are talking about things in general (see also unit 74):
- I love bananas. (not ‘some bananas’)
- My aunt is a writer. She wrires books. (not ‘some ooks’)
Sometimes you can make sentences with or without some (with no difference in
meaning):
- There are (some) eggs in the fridge if you’re hungry.
i) Some = some but not all
- Some children learn very quickly. (but not all children)
- Some police officers in Britanian carry guns, but most of them don’t.
71. A/an ant the
a. Example
 John says ‘a sandwich’, ‘an apple’
because this is the first time he
talks about them.
 John now says ‘the sandwich’, ‘the
apple’ because Karen knows which
sandwich and which apple he
means – the sandwich and the
apple he had for lunch.
I had a sandwich and an
apple for lunch.
The sandwich wasn’t very
good but the apple was
nice.

Compare a and the in these examples:
- A man and a woman were sitting opposite me. The man was American but I
think the woman was British.
- When we were on holiday, we stayed at a hotel. Sometimes we had our evening
meal at the hotel and sometimes we went to a restaurant.
b. We use the when we are thinking of one particular thing. Compare a/an and the:
- Tom sat down on a chair. (perharps one of many chairs in the room)
But Tom sat down on the chair nearest the door. (a particular chair)
- Ann is looking for a job. (not a particular)
But Did Ann get the job she applied for? (a particular job)
- Have you got a car? (not a particular)
But I cleaned the car yesterday. (= my car)
For a see also unit 70 and 72A
c. We use the when it is clear in the situation which thing or person we mean. Example,
in a room we talk about ‘the light/ the floor/ the ceiling/ the door/ the carpet’ etc:
- Can you turn off the light, please? (= the light in this room)
- I took a taxi to the station. (= the station in that town)
- I’d like to speak to the manager, please. (= the manager of this shop etc.)
In the same way, we say (go to) the bank, the post office:
- I must go to the bank to get some money and then I’m going to the post office to
get some stamps. (The speaker is usually thinking of a particular bank or post
office)
Also: the doctor, the dentist:
- Carol isn’t very well. She’s gone to the doctor. (= her usual doctor)
- I hate going to the dentist.
Compare a:
- Is there a bank near here?
- My sister is a dentist.
Don’t forget the:
- Susan works in the city centre. (not ‘in city centre’)
- My brother is in the army. (not ‘in army’)
d. We say ‘once a week/ three times a day/ £1.20 a kilo’ etc:
- ‘How often do you go to the cinema?’ ‘About once a month’
- ‘How much are those potatoes?’ ‘£1.20 a kilo.’
- She works eight hours a day, six days a week.

72. The (1)
a. We use the… when there is only one of something:
- What is the longest river in the world? (there is only one longest river)
- The earth goes round the sun and the moon goes round the earth.
- I’m going away at the end of this month.
Don’t forget the:
- Paris is the capital of France. (not ‘Paris is capital of…’)
But we use a/an to say what kind of thing something is (see unit 70Caaaaaaa0.
compare the and a:
- The sun is a star. (= one of many stars)
- The hotel we stayed
b. We say: the sky the sea the ground the country the environment:
- We looked up at all the stars in the sky. (not ‘in sky’)
- Would you rather live in a town ot in the country?
- We must do more to protect the environment. (= the natural world around us)
Note that we say space (without ‘the’) when we mean ‘space in the universe’:
- There are millions of stars in space. (not ‘in the space’)
But - I tried to park my car but the space was too small.
c. We use the before same (the same):
- Your pullover is the same colour as mine. (not ‘is same colour’)
- These two photographs are the same. (not ‘are same’)
d. We say: (go to) the cinema, the theatre:
- I often go to the cinema but I haven’t been to the theatre for ages.
When we say the cinema/ the theatre, we do not necessarily mean one particular
cinema or theatre.
We usually say the radio, but television (without ‘the’):
- I often listen to the radio. - We heard the news on the radio.
- I often watch television. - We watched the news on television.
but
- Can you turn off the television, please? (= the television set)
Compare a:
- There isn’t a theatre in this town.
- I’m going to buy a new radio/ television (set).
e. Breakfast lunch dinner
We do not normally use the with the names of meals (breakfast, lunch etc):
- What did you have for breakfast.

- We had lunch in a very nice restaurant.
- What time is dinner?
But we use a if there is an adjective before breakfast, lunch etc:
- We had a very nice lunch. (not ‘we had very nice lunch’)
f. Platform 5 Room 126 etc.
We do not use ‘the’ before noun + number. Example, we say:
- Our train leaves from Platform 5. (not ‘the platform’)
- (in a shop) Have you got these shoes in size 43? (not ‘the sie 43’)
In the say way, we say: Room 126 (in a hotel) page 29 (of a book) Section A etc.
73. The (2) (School/ the school)
a. Compare school and the school:
Alison is ten years old. Every day she
goes to school. She’s at school now.
School begins at 9 and finish at 3.
We say a child goes to school or is at
school (as a pupil). We are not
necessarily thinking of a particular
school. We are thinking of school as a
general idea.
Today Alison’s mother wants to speak
to her daughter’s teacher. So she has
gone to the school to see her. She’s at
the school now.
Alison’s mother is not pupil. She is not
‘at school’, she doesn’t ‘go to school’.
But if she wants to see Alison’s
teacher, she goes to the school (=
Alison’s school, a particular school)
b. We use prison, hospital, university, and mosque in a similar way. We do not use the
when we are thinking of the general idea of these places and what they are used for.
Compare:
- Ken’s brother is in prison for robbery.
(He is a prisoner. We are not thinking
of a particular prison).
- Jack had an accident last week. He
was taken to hospital. He’s still in
hospital now. (as a patient)
- When I leave school, I want to go to
university.
- Mrs. Kelly goes to mosque every day.
(to a religious service)
- Ken went to the prison to visit his
brother. (He went as a visitor, not as a
prisoner.)
- Jill has gone to the hospital to visit
Jack. She’s sat at the hospital now. (as
a visitor)
- Exuce me, where is the university,
Please?
- The workmen went to the mosque to
repair the roof. (not for a religious
service)
With most other places, you need the. Example, the cinema, the bank, the station. See
units 71C and 72D.

c. Bed work home
We say ‘go to bed/ be in bed’ etc. (not ‘the bed’):
- It’s time to go to bed now. - This morning I had breakfast in bed.
But - I sat down on the bed. (a particular piece of furniture)
‘go to work/ be at work/ start work/ finish work’ etc. (not ‘the work’):
- Ann didn’t go to work yesterday.
- What time do you usually finish work?
‘go home/ come home/ arrive home/ be at home’ etc:
- It’s late. Let’s go home. - Will you be at home tomorrow afternoon?
d. We say ‘go to sea/ be at sea’ (without ‘the’) when the meaning is ‘go/be on a voyage:
- Keith is a seaman. He spends most of his life at sea.
But - I’d like to live near the sea. - It can be dangerous to swim in the sea.
74. The (3) (Children/ the children)
a. When we are talking about things or people in general, we do not use ‘the’:
- I’m afraidof dogs. (not ‘the dogs’)
(dogs = dogs in general, not particular group of dogs)
- Doctors are paid more than teachers.
- Do you collect stamps?
- Crime is a problem in most big cities. (not ‘the crime’)
- Life has changed a lot in the last 30 years. (not ‘the life’)
- Do you often listen to classical music? (not ‘the classical music’)
- Do you like Chinese food/ French cheese/ Swiss chocolate?
- My favourite sport is football/ skiing/ athletics. (not ‘the football/ the skiing’ etc)
- My favourite subject at school was history/ physics/ English.
We say ‘most people/ most book/ most cars’ etc. (not ‘the most…’ – see also Unit
87A).
- Most people like George.
b. We use the when we mean particular things or people. Compare:
In general (without ‘the’) Particular people or things (with the)
- Children learn a lot from playing. But - We took the children to the zoo.
(= children in general) (= a particular group, perharps the
speaker’s own children)
- I often listen to music. But - The film wasn’t very good but I liked
the music. (= the music in the film)
- All cars have wheels. But - All the cars in this park belong to people
who work here.

- Sugar isn’t very good for you. But - Can you pass the sugar, please?
(= the sugar on the table)
- Do English people work hard? But - Do the English people you know
(= English people in general) but work hard? (= only the English people
you know, not English people in general)
c. The difference between ‘something in general’ and ‘something in particular’ is not
always very clear. Compare these sentences:
In general (without ‘the’)
- I like worjing with people. (= people
in general)
- I like working with people who are
lively. (not all people, but ‘people
who are lively’ is still a general idea)
- Do you like coffee? (= coffee in
general)
- Do you like strong black coffee? (not
all coffee, but ‘strong black coffee’ is
still a general idea)
Particular people or things (with the)
- I like the people I work with. (= a
particular group of people)
- Did you like the coffee we had after
our meal last night? (= particular
coffee)
75. The (4) (The giraffe/ the telephone/ the piano etc.; the + adjective)
a. Study these sentences:
- The giraffe is the tallest of all animals.
- The bicycle is an excellent means of transport.
- When was the telephone invented?
- The dollar is the currency (= money) of the United States.
In these example, the… does not mean one particular thing. The giraffe = one
particular type of animal, not one particular giraffe. We use the (+ singular countable
noun) in this way to talk about a type of animal, machine etc.
In the same way we use the for musical instruments:
- Can you play the guitar?
- The piano is my favourite instrument.
Compare a:
- I’d like to have a guitar.
- We saw a giraffe at the zoo.
Note that we use man (= human beings in general/ the human race) without ‘the’:
- What do you know about the origins of man? (not ‘the man’)
b. The + adjective
We use the + adjective (without a noun) to talk about groups of people, especially:

The young the old the elderly
The rich the poor the unemployed the homeless
He sick the disable the injured the dead
The young = young people, the rich = rich people etc:
- Do you think the rich should pay more taxes to help the poor
- The homeless need more help from the government.
These expressions are always plural in meaning. You cannot say ‘a young’ or ‘an
unemployed’. You must say ‘a young man’, ‘an unemployed woman’ etc.
Note also that we say ‘the poor’ (not ‘the poors’), ‘the young’ (not ‘the youngs’) etc.
c. The + nationality
You can use the with some nationality adjectives to mean ‘the people of that country’.
For example:
- The French are famous for their food. (= the people of France)
- Why do the English think they are so wonderful? (= the people of England)
In the same way you can say:
The Spanish the Dutch the British the Irish the Welsh
Note that the French/ the English etc. are plural in meaning. You cannot say ‘a
French/ an English’. You have to say ‘a Frenchman/ an Englishwoman’ etc.
You can also use the + nationality words ending in –ese (the Chinese/ the Sundanese
etc):
- The Chinese invented printing.
These words can also be singular (a Japanese, a Sundanese).
Also: the Swiss/ a Swiss (plural or singular)
With other nationalities, the plural noun ends in –s. example:
An Italian a Mexican a Scot a Turk
(the) Italian (the) Mexicans (the) Scots (the) Turks
76. Names with and without the (1)
a. We do not use ‘the’ with names of people (‘Ann’, ‘Ann Taylor’ etc). in the same way,
we do not normally use ‘the’ with names of places. Example:
Continents Africa (not ‘the Africa’), Europe, South America
Countries France (not ‘the France’), Japan, Switzerland
States, regions etc Texas, Cornwall, Tuscany, Central Europe
Islands Corsica, Sicily, Bermuda
Cities, towns etc. Cairo, New York, Madrid
Mountains Everest, Etna, Kilimanjaro
But we use the in names with ‘Republic’, ‘Kingdom’, ‘States’ etc:
The United States of America (the USA) the United Kingdom (the UK)
The Dominican Republic

Compare:
- We visited Canada and the United States.
b. When we use Mr/Mrs/Captain/Doctor etc. + a name, we do not use ‘the’. So we say:
Mr. Johnson/ Doctor Johnson/ Captain Johnson/ President Johnson etc. (not ‘the’)
Uncle Robert/ Aunt Jane/ Saint Catherine/ Princess Anne etc. (not ‘the’)
Compare:
- We called the doctor. But - We called Doctor Johnson.
We use mount (= mountain) and lake in the same way (without ‘the’:
Mount Everest (not ‘the’) Mount Etna Lake Superior Lake Constance
- They live near the lake but - They live near Lake Constance.
c. We use the with the names of oceans, seas, rivers and canals (see also unit 77B):
The Atlantic (Ocean) the Mediterranean (Sea) the Red Sea
The Indian Ocean the Channel (between France and Britain) the Rhine
The (River) Amazon the (River) Thames the Nile the Suez Canal
d. We use the with pural names of people and places:
People the Taylors (= the Taylor family), the Johnsons
Countries the Netherlands, the Philippines, the United States
Groups of island the Canaries/the Canary Island, the Bahamas, the British Isles
Mountain ranges the Rocky Mountains/ the Rokies, the Andes, the Alps
- The highest mountain in the Alps is Mont Blanc. (not ‘the Month Blanc’)
e. North/northern etc.
We say: the north (of France) but northern France (without ‘the’)
The south-east (of Spain) but south-eastern Spain
Compare:
- Sweden is in northern Europe; Spain is in the south.
Also: the Middle East the Far East
You can also use north/south etc. + a place name (without ‘the’):
North America West Africa South-East Spain
Note that on maps, the is not usually included in the name.
77. Names with and without the (2)
a. Names without ‘the’
We do not use ‘the’ with names of most streets/roads/squares/parks etc:
Union Street (not ‘the..’) Fifth Avenue Piccadilly Circus Hyde Park
Blackrock Road Broadway Times Square Waterloo Bridge
Many names (especially names of important buildings and institutions) are two words:

Kennedy Airport Cambridge University
The first word is usually the name of a person (‘Kennedy’) or a place (‘Cambridge’).
We do not usually use ‘the’ with names like these. Some more examples:
Victoria Station Edinburgh Castle London Zoo
Westminster Abbey Buckingham Palace Canterbury Cathedral
But we say ‘the White House’, ‘the Royal Palace’, because ‘white’ and ‘royal’ are
not names like ‘Kennedy’ and ‘Cambridge’. This is only in general rule and there are
excaptions.
b. Most other names (of place, building etc.) have names with the:
The + adjective or names etc + nouns
the
Hilton
National
Sahara
Atlantic
Hotel
Theatre
Desert
Ocean
These places usually have names with the:
Hotels/ restaurants/pubs the Station Hotel, the Bombay Restaurant, the Red Lion
Theatres/cinemas the Palace Theatre, the Odeono Cinema
Museums/galleries the British Museum, the Tate Gallery
Other buildings the Empire State Building, the Festival Hall
Oceans/seas/canals the Indian Ocean,the Mediterranean Sea,the Suez Canal
Also:
Newspapers the Washington Post, the Financial Times
Organizations the European Union, the BBC (=the British
(but see also Section D) Broadcasting Corporation)
Sometimes we leave out the noun: the Hilton (Hotel), the Sahara (Desert)
Sometimes the name is only the + noun: the Vatican (in Rome), the sun (British
Newspaper)
Names with …of… usually have the. Example:
The Bank of England the Tower of London
The Houses of Parliament the Great Wall of China
The Gulf of Mexico the University of London (but the London Univ)
c. Many shops, restaurants, hotes, banks, etc. are named after the people who started
them. These names end in –‘s or –s. We do not use ‘the’ with these names:
Lloyds Bank (not the Lloyds Bank) McDonalds Jack Guest House
Churches are often named after saints:
St John’s Church (not ‘the St John’s Church) St Paul’s Cathedral

d. Names of companies, airlines etc. are usually without ‘the’:
Fiat (not ‘the Fiat’) Sony Kodak British Airawys IBM
78. Singular and plural
a. Sometimes we use a plural noun for one things that has two parts. Example:
Trousers (two legs) also jeans/tights/shorts/pants
Pyjamas (top and bottom) binoculars
Glasses (for spectacles) scissors
These words are plural, so they take a plural verbs:
- My trousers are too long. (not ‘is too long’)
You can also use a pair of + these words:
- Those are nice jeans. Or That’s a nice pair of jeans. (not‘a nice jeans)
- I need some new glasses. Or I need a new pair og glasses.
b. Some noun end in –ics but are not usually plural. Example: athletics gymnastics
Mathematics (or maths) physics electronics econimics pilitics
- Gymnastics is my favourite sport.
News is not plural (see unit 69C):
- What time is the news on television? (not ‘ are the news’)
Some words ending in –s can be singular or plural. Example:
Means a means of transport many means of transport
Series a television series two television series
Species a species of bird 200 species of bird
c. Some singular nouns are often used with a plural verb. Example:
Government staff team family audience committee company
These nouns are all groups of people. We often think of them as a number of people
(= ‘they’), not as one thing (= ‘it’). So we often use a plural verb:
- The government (= they) want to increase taxes.
- The staff at the school (= they) are not happy with their new working conditions.
In the same way, we often use a plural verb after the name of a sport team or a
company:
- Scotland are playing France next week (in a football match)
- Shell have increasd the price of petrol.
A singular verb (The government wants…/
Shell has.. etc) is also possible.
We always use a plural verb with police:
- The police have arrested a friend of mine. (not ‘The police has’)
- Do you think the police are well-paid?

Note that a person in the police is ‘a policeman/ a policewoman/ a police officer’ (not
‘a police’)
d. We do not often use the plural of person (‘persons’). We normally use people (a
plural word):
- He’s a nice person. But They are nice people.
- Many people don’t have enough to eat. (not ‘doesn’t have’)
e. We think of a sum of money, a period of time, a distance etc. as one thing. So we use
a singular verbs:
- Twenty thousand pounds (= it) was stolen in the robbery. (not ‘were stolen’)
- Three years (= it) is a long time to be without a job. (not ‘Three years are…)
- Six miles is a long way to walk every day.
79. Noun + noun (a tennis ball/ a headache etc)
a. We often use two nouns together (noun + noun) to mean one thing/person/idea etc.
Example:
A tennis ball a bank manager a road accident income tax the city centre
The first noun is like an adjective – it tells us what kind of thing/ person/idea etc.
Example:
A tennis ball = a ball used to play tennis.
A road accident = an accident that happens on the road.
Income tax = tax that you pay on your income.
The sea temperature = the temperature of the sea.
A London doctor = a doctor from London
So you can say:
A television camera a television programme a television studio
(all different things or people to do with television)
Language problems marriage problems health problems
(all different kinds of problems)
Compare:
Garden vegetables (= vegetable that are grown in a garden)
A vegetable garden (= a garden where vegetables are grown)
Often the first word ends in –ing. Usually these are things used for doing something.
Example:
A washing machine a frying pan a swimming pool the dining room
Sometimes there are more than two nouns together:
- I waited at the hotel reception desk. (= a desk)
- We watched the World Swimming Championships on television.

- If you want to play table tennis (= a game), you need a tble tennis table (= a
table)
b. When nouns are together like this, sometimes we write them as one word and
sometimes as two separate words. Example:
A headache toothpaste a weekend a stomach ache table tennis
There are no clear rules for this. If you are not sure, it is usually better to write two
words. You can often put a hyphen (-) between the two words (but this is not usuall
necessary):
A dining-room a city-centre
c. Note that difference between:
A wine glass (perharps empty) and a glass of wine (= a glass with wine in it)
A shopping bas (perharps empty) and a bag of shopping (= a bag full of shopping)
d. When we use noun + noun, the first noun is like an adjective. It is normally singular
but the meaning is often plural. Example, a bookshop is a shop where you can buy
books, an apple tree is a tree that has apples.
In the same way we say:
A three-hour journey (not ‘a three-hours journey’)
A ten-pound note (not ‘pounds’) two 14-year-old girls (not ‘years’)
A four-week English course (not ‘weeks’) a three-page letter (not ‘pages)
So we say:
- It was a three-hour journey. But The journey took three hours.
For the structure ‘I’ve got three weeks’ holiday’, see unit 80E
80. –‘s (the girl’s name) and of… (the name of the book)
a. We normally use –‘s for people or animals (the girl’s…/ the horse’s… etc):
The girl’s name the horse’s tail Mr Evan’s daughter
A woman’s hat the manager’s office Sarah’s eyes
- Where is the manager’s office? (not ‘the office of the manager’)
- What colour are Sarah’s eyes? (not ‘the eyes of Sarah’)
Note that you can use –‘s without a following noun:
- This isn’t my book. It’s my brother’s. (= my brother’s book)
We do not always use –‘s for people. Example, we would use of… in this sentence:
- What is the name of the man who lent us the money? (‘the man who lent us the
money’ is too long to be followed by –‘s)
Note that we say a woman’s hat (= a hat for a woman), a boy’s name (= a name for a
boy), a bird’s egg (= an egg laid by a bird) etc.

b. For things, ideas etc. we normally use of (…of the book/ …of the restaurant etc):
The door of the garage (not ‘the garage’s door’)
The name of the book the owner of the restaurant
Sometimes you can use the structure noun + noun (see unit 79):
The garage door the restaurant owner
We normally use of (not noun+ noun) with the beginning/ end/ top/ bottom/ front/
back/ middle/ side etc. so we cay:
The back of the car (not ‘the back car’)
The beginning of the month
c. You can usually use –‘s or of… for an organization (= a group of people). So you can
say:
The government’s decision or the decision of the government
The company’s success or the success of the company
It is also possible to use –‘s for places. So you can say:
The city’s new theatre the world’s population Italy’s largest city
d. After a singular noun we use –‘s:
My sister’s room (= her room – one sister) Mr Carter’s house
After a plural noun (sisters, friens etc) we put’ (an apostrophe) after the s (s’):
My sister’s room (= their room – two or more sisters)
The Carter’s house (Mr and Mrs Carter)
If a plural noun does not end in –s (example, men/ women/ children/ people) we use –
‘s:
The men’s changing room a children’s book (= a book for children)
Note that you can use –‘s after more than one noun:
Jack and Jill’s wedding Mr and Mrs Carter’s house
e. You can also use –‘s with time expressions (yesterday/ next week etc):
- Have you still got yesterday’s newspaper?
- Next week’s meeting has been cancelled.
In the same way, you can say today’s…/ tomorrow’s…/ this evening’s…/
Monday’s… etc.
We also use –‘s (or –s’ with plural words) with periods of time:
- I’ve got a week’s holiday starting on Monday.
- Jill has got three week’s holiday.
- I live near the station – it’s only about ten minute’s walk.
Compare this structure with ‘a three-hour journey’, ‘a ten-minute walk’ etc. (see unit
79D).

Pronouns and determiners
81. A friend of mine My own house On my own/ by myself
a. A friend of mine/ a friend of Tom’s etc.
We say ‘a friend of mine/ yours/ his/ hers/ ours/ theirs’ (not ‘a frien of me/ you/ him’
etc)
- I’m going to a wedding on Saturday. A friend of mine is getting married. (not ‘a
friend of me’)
- We went on holiday with some friends of ours. (not ‘some friends of us’)
- Michael had an argument with a neighbour of his.
- It was a good idea of yours to go swimming this afternoon.
In the same way we say ‘a friend of Tom’s’, ‘a friend of my sister’s etc)
- It was a good idea of Tom’s to go swimming.
- That woman over there is a friend of my sister’s
b. My own…/ your own… etc.
We use my/your/his/her/its/our/their before own:
My own house your own car her own room
You cannot say ‘an own…’ (‘an own house’, ‘an own car’ etc)
My own…/ your own… (etc) = something that is only mine/ yours etc). not shared or
borrowed:
- I don’t want to share a room with anybody. I ant my own house.
- Vera and George would like to have their own house. (not ‘an own house’)
- I’ts a pity that the flat hasn’t got its own entrance.
- It’s my own fault that I’ve got no money. I buy too many things I don’t need.
- Why do you want to borrow my car? Why can’t use your own? (= your own car)
You can also use …own… tosay that you do something yourself instead of somebody
else doing it for you. Example:
- Brian usually cuts his own hair. (= he cuts it himself; he doesn’t go to the
hairdresser)
- I’d like to have a garden so that I could grow my own vegetables. (= grow them
myself instead of buying them from shops)
c. On my own/ by myself
=
On my own and by myself both mean ‘alone’. We say:
- I like living on my own/ by myself.
- Did you go on holiday on your own/ by yourself?
My/ your
On his/ her/ its own
Our/ their
myself/ yourself (singular)
By himself/ herself/ itself
ourselves/ yourselves (plural)/ theirselves

- Jack was sitting on his own/ by himself in a corner of the café.
- Learner drivers are not allowed to drive on their own/ by themselves.
82. Myself/ yourself/ themselves etc.
a. Example:
George cut himself when he was shaving this morning.
We use myself/yourself/himself etc (reflextive pronouns) when the subject and
object are the same:
-------------------------
Subject  cut . .  object
The reflextive pronouns are:
Singular: myself yourself (one person) himself/herself/itself
Plural: ourselves yourselves (more than one person) themselves
- I don’t want to pay for me. I’ll pay for myself. (not ‘I’ll pay for me’)
- Julia had a great holiday. She enjoyed herself very much.
- Do you sometimes talk to yourself? (said to one person)
- If you want more to eat, help yourselves. (said to more than one person)
Compare:
- It’s not our fault. You can’t blame us.
- It’s our own fault. We blame ourselves.
Note that we do not use myself/yourself etc after ‘bring/take something with…’:
- It might rain. I’ll take an umbrella with me. (not ‘with myself’)
b. We do not use myself etc after concentrate/feel/relax/meet:
- You must try and concentrate. (not ‘concentrate yourself’)
- ‘Do you feel nervous?’ ‘Yes, I can’t relax.’
- What time shall we meet? (not ‘meet ourselves’, not ‘meet us’)
We normally use wash/shave/dress without myself etc:
- He got up, washed, shaved and dressed. (not ‘washed himself’ etc)
But we say ‘I dried myself’.
c. Study the difference between –selves and each other:
- Tom and Ann stood in front of the mirror and looked at themselves. (= Tom
and Ann looked at Tom and Ann)
But - Tom looked at Ann; Ann looked at Tom. They looked each other.
You can use one another instead of each other:
- How log have you and Bill known another? (or …known each other)
George himself

- Sue and Ann don’t like each other. (or …don’t like one another)
d. We also use myself/yourself etc in another way. Example:
- ‘Who repaired your bicycle for you?’ ‘Nobody. I repaired it myself.’
‘I repaired it myself’ = I repaired it, not anybody else. Here, myself is used to
emphasise I (= it makes it stronger). Some more example:
- I’m not going to do it for you. You can do it yourself. (= you, not me)
- Let’s paint the house ourselves. It will be much cheaper.
- The film itself wasn’t very good but I liked the music.
- I don’t thing Sue will get the job. Sue herself doesn’t think she’ll get it. (or Sue
doesn’t think she’ll get it herself)
83. There… and it…
a. There and it
We use there… when we talk about something for the first time, to say that it exists:
- There’s a new restaurant in King Street. (not ‘A new restaurant is in King Street’)
- The journey took a long time. There was a lot of traffic. (not ‘It was a lot of
traffic’)
- Things are much more expensive now. There has been a big rise in the cost of
living.
It = particular thing, place, fact, situation etc. (but see also section C):
- We went to the new restaurant. It’s very good. (it = the restaurant)
- ‘Was the traffic bad?’ ‘Yes, it was terrible.’ (it = the traffic)
- I wasn’t expacting them to come. It (= that they came) was a complete surprise.
Compare:
- I don’t like this town. There’s nothing to do here. It’s a boring place.
Note that there also means ‘to/at/in that place’:
- The new restaurant is very good. I went there (= the restaurant) last night.
- When we arrived at the party, there were already a lot of people there (= at the
party).
b. You can say there will be, there must be, there used to be etc:
- Will there be many people at the party?
- ‘Is there a flight to Paris this evening?’ ‘There might be. I’ll phone the airport.’
- If people drove more carefully, there woudn’t be so many accidents.
Also: there must have been, there should have been etc:
- There was a light on. There must be have been somebody at home.
Compare there and it:
- They live on a busy road. There must be a lot of noise from the traffic
They live on a busy main road. It must be very noisy.

- There used to be an cinema in King Street but it closed a few years ago.
That building is now a supermarket. It used to be a cinema.
You can also say there is sure/certain/likely to be something (see also unit 64E):
- There is sure to be a flight to Paris this evening.
c. We use it in sentences like this:
- It’s dangerous to walk in the road. (It = to walk in the road)
It is unusual to say ‘To walk in the road is dangerous.’ Normally we begin with It...:
- It didn’t take us long to get here. (it = to get here)
- It’s a pity (that) Sandra can’t come to the party. (it = that Sandra can’t come)
- Let’s go. It’s not worth waiting any longer. (it = waiting any longer)
We use it to talk about distance, time and weather:
- It’s a long way from here to the airport. - How far is it to the airport?
- What day is it today? - It’s a long time since I last saw you.
- It’s going to be a nice day. - It was windy. (but ‘There was a cold wind’)
84. Some and any
a. In general we use some (also somebody/someone/something) in positive sentences
and any (also anybody etc) in negative sentences (but see also Section C and D):
Some
- We bought some flowers.
- He’s busy. He’s got some work to do.
- There’s somebody at the door.
- I’m hungry. I want something to eat.
Any
- We didn’t buy any flowers.
- He’s lazy. He never does any work.
- There isn’t anybody at the door.
- I’m not hungry. I don’t want
anything to eat.
We use any in the following sentences because the meanings in negative:
- She went out without any money. (She didn’t take any money with her)
- He refused to eat anything.
- Hardly anybody passed the examination.
b. In most question we use any:
- ‘Have you got any luggage?’ ‘No, I haven’t.’
- ‘Has anybody seen my bag?’ ‘Yes, it’s under the table.’
But we use some in question when we expect the answer ‘yes’:
- What’s wrong? Have you got something in your eyes? (it seems that you have got
something in your eye and I expect you to answer ‘yes’)
We use some in questions when we offer or ask for things:
- Would you like something to eat? - Can I have some sugar, please?

c. We often use any after if:
- If there are any letters for me, can you send them on to this address?
- If anyone has any question, I’ll be pleased to answer them.
- Let me know if you need anything.
The following sentences have the idea of if:
- I’m sorry for any trouble I’ve caused. (= if I have caused any trouble)
- Anyone who wants to do the exam must give me their names today.
d. We also use any with the meaning ‘it doesn’t matter which’:
- You can catch any bus. They all go to the centre. (= it doesn’t matter which bus
you catch)
- ‘Sing a song.’ ‘Which song shall I sing?’ ‘Any song. I don’t mind.’ (= it
doesn’t matter which song)
- Come and see any time you want.
- ‘Let’s go out somewhere.’ ‘Where shall we go?’‘Anywhere. I don’t mind.’
- We left the door unlocked. Anybody could have come in.
Compare something and anything:
- A: I’m hungry. I want something to eat.
B: What would you like?
A: I don’t mind. Anything. (= something, but it doesn’t matter what)
e. Somebody/someone/anybody/anyone are singular words:
- Someone is here to see you.
But we often use they/them/their after these words:
- Someone has forgotten their umbrella. (= his or her umbrella)
- If anybody wants to leave early, they can. (= he or she can)
85. No/ none/ any
a. No none nothing nobody/no one nowhere
You can use these negative words at the beginning of a sentences or aloe:
- No cars are allowed in the city centre.
- None of tis money is mine.
- ‘What did you say?’ ‘Nothing.’
- Nobody (or No one) came to visit me while I was in hospital.
- ‘Where are you going?’ ‘Nowhere. I’m staying here.’
You can also use these words after a verb, especially after be and have:
- The house is empty. There’s nobody living there.
- She had no difficulty finding a job.
No/nothing/nobody etc = not + any/anything/anybody etc:
- We haven’t got any money. (= we’ve got no money)

- I didn’t say anything. (= I said nothing)
- She didn’t tell anybody about her plans. (= she told nobody)
- The station isn’t anywhere near here. (= …is nowhere near here)
When you use no/nothing/nobody etc, do you use a negative verb (isn’t, didn’t, can,t
etc)
- I said nothing. (not ‘I didn’t say nothing’)
- Nobody tells me anything. (not ‘Nobody doesn’t tell…)
b. We also use any/anything/anybody etc (without ‘not’) to mean ‘it doesn’t matter
which/what/who (see unit 84D). compare no- and any-:
- ‘What do you want to eat?’ ‘Nothing. I’m not hungry’
I’m so hungry. I could eat anything. (= it doesn’t matter what)
- The exam eas extremely difficult. Nobody passed. (= everybody failed)
The exam was very easy. Anybody could have passed. (= it doesn’t matter who)
c. No and none
We use no + a noun. No = not a or not any:
- We had to walk home because there was no bus. (= there wasn’t a bus)
- I can’t talk to you now. I’ve got no time. (= I haven’t got any time)
- There were no shops open. (= there weren’t any shops open)
We use none alone (without a noun):
- ‘How much money have you got?’ ‘None.’ (= no money)
- All the tickets have been sold. There are none left. (= no tickets left)
Or we use none of…:
None of these shops none of my money none of it/them/us/you
After none of + a plural word (‘none of the shops’, ‘none of them’ etc) you can use a
singular or a plural verb. A plural verb is more usual:
- None of the shops were (or was) open
d. After nobody/ no one you can use thay/them/their:
- Nobody phoned, did they? (= did he or she)
- The party was a disaster. Nobody enjoyed themselves. (= himself or herself)
- No one is the class did their homework. (= his or her homework)
86. Much, many, little, few, a lot, plenty
a. We use much and little with uncountable nouns:
Much time much luck little energy little money
We use many and few with plural nouns:
Many friends many people few cars few countries

b. We use a lot of / lots of/ plenty of with uncountable and plural nouns:
A lot of luck lot of time plenty of money
A lot of friends lots of people plenty of ideas
Plenty = more than enough
- There’s no need to hurry. We’ve got plenty of time.
- I’ve had plenty to eat. I don’t want any more.
c. We use much/ many especially in negative sentences and questions. A lot (of) is also
possible:
- We didn’t spend much money. (or we didn’t spend a lot of money)
- Do you know many people? (or do you know a lot of people?)
- I don’t go out much. (or I don’t go out a lot)
In positive sentences a lot (of) is more usual. Much is unsual in positive sentences in
spoken English:
- We spend a lot of money. (not ‘we spent much money’)
- He goes out a l ot. (not ‘He goes out much’)
You can use many in positive sentences, but a lot (of) is more usual in spoken English:
- A lot of people (or many people) drive too fast.
But note that we use too much and so much in positive sentences:
- We spent too much money.
d. Little and few (without ‘a’) are negative ideas (= not much/ not many):
- We must be quick. There is little time. (= not much, not enough time)
- He isn’t popular. He has few friends. (= not many, not enough friends)
You can say very little and very few:
- There is very little time.
- He has very few friends.
A little and a few are more positive. A little = some, a small amount:
- Let’s go and have a drink. We’ve got a little time before the train leaves. (a little
time = some time, enough time to have a drink)
- ‘Do you speak English?’ ‘A little.’ (so we can talk a bit)
A few = some, a small number:
- I enjoy my life here. I have a few friends and we meet quite often. (a few friends
= not many but enough to have a good time)
- ‘When did you last see Clare?’ ‘A few days ago.’ (= some days ago)
Compare:
- He spoke little English, so it was difficult to communicate with him.
He spoke a little English, so we were able to communicate with him.
- She’s lucky. She has few problems. (= not many problems)
Things are not going so well for her. She has a few problems. (= some problems)

Note that ‘only a little’ and ‘only a few’ have a negative meaning:
- We must be quick. We’ve only got a little time.
- The village was very small. There were only a few houses.
87. All/ all of most/ most of no/ none of etc
All some any most much/many littlte/few
a. You can use the words in the box (and also no) with a noun (some food/ few books
etc):
- All cars have wheels.
- Some cars can go faster than others.
- (on a notice) NO CARS (= no cars allowed)
- Many people drive too fast.
- I don’t go out very often. I’m at home most days.
You cannot say ‘all of cars’, ‘most of people’ etc (see also section B):
- Some people are very unfriendly. (not ‘some of people’)
Note that we say most (not ‘the most’):
- Most tourists don’t visit this part of the town. (not ‘the most tourist’)
b. Some of…/ most of…/ none of… etc
You can use the words in the box (also none and half) with of. You can say some of
(the people), most of (my friends), none of (this money) etc.
We use some of, most of (etc) + the/this/that/these/those/my/his/Ann’s… etc.
So we say:
-
Example:
- Some of the people I work with are very friendly.
- None of this money is mine.
- Have you reas any of these books?
- I wasn’t well yesterday. I spent most of the day in bed.
You don’t need of after all or half. So you can say:
- All my friends live in London. Or All of my friends…
- Half this money is mine or Half of this money…
See also section C.
Compare all… and all (of) the…:
- All flowers are beautiful. (= all flowers in general)
- All (of) the flowers in this garden are beautiful. (= a particular group of flowers)
c. You can use all of/ some of/ none of etc + it/us/you/them:
- ‘How many of these people do you know?’ ‘None of them,’/’A few of them’

- Do any of you want to come to a party tonight.
- ‘Do you like this music?’ ‘Some of it. Not all of it.’
Before it/us/you/them you need of after all and half (all of, half of):
All of us (not ‘all us’) half of them (not ‘half them’)
d. You can use the words in the box (and also none) alone, without a noun:
- Some cars have four doors and some have two.
- A few of the shops were open but most (of them) were closed.
- Half (of) this money is mine, and half (of it) is yours. (not ‘the half’)
88. Both/ both of neither/ neither of either/either of
a. We use both/neither/either for two things. You can use these words with a noun (both
books, neither book etc)
Example, you are talking about going out to eat this evening. There are two
restaurants where you can go. You say:
- Both restaurants are very good. (not ‘the both restaurants)
- Neither restaurant is expensive.
- We can go to either restaurant. I don’t mind. (either = one or the other, it doesn’t
matter which one)
b. Both of…/ neither of…/ either of…
When you use both/neither/either + of, you always need
the…/these/those…/my/your/his/Tom’s… (etc). You cannot say ‘both of restaurants’.
You have to say ‘both of the restaurants’, ‘both of those restaurants’ etc:
- Both of these restaurants are very good.
- Neither of the restaurants we went to was (or were) is expensive.
- I haven’t been to either of those restaurants. (= I haven’t been to one or the other)
You don’t need of after both. So you can say:
- Both my parents are from London.
You can use both of/ neither of/ either of + us/you/them:
- (talking to two people) Can either of you speak English?
- I asked two people the way to the station but neither of them knew.
You must say ‘both of’ before us/you/them (of is necessary):
- Both of us were very tired. (not ‘both us were…’)
After neither of… a singular or a plural verb is possible:
- Neither of the children wants (or want) to go to bed.
c. You can also use both/neither/either alone:
- I couldn’t decide which of the two shirts to buy. I liked both. (or I like both of
them)

- ‘Is your friend British or American?’ ‘Neither. She’s Australian.’
- ‘Do you want tea or coffee?’ ‘Either. I don’t mind.’
d. You can say:
Both…and…: - Both Ann and Tom were late.
- I was both tired and hungry when I arrived home.
Neither…nor…: - Neither Liz nor Robin came to the party.
- She said she would contact me but she neither wrote nor phone.
Either…or…: - I’m not sure where he’s from. He’s either Spanish or Italian.
- Either you apologise or I’ll never speak to you again.
e. Compare both/neither/either (two things) and any/none/all (more than two):
- There are two good hotels in the
town.
You can stay at either of them.
- We tried two hotels. Neither of
them had any rooms. / Both of them
were full.
- There are many good hotels in the
town.All
You can stay at any of them.
- We tried a lot of hotels. None of
them had any rooms. / All of them
were full.
89. All, every and whole
a. All and everybody/everyone
We do not normally use all to mean everybody/everyone:
- Everybody enjoyed the party. (not ‘All enjoyed…’)
But note that we say all of us/you/them, not ‘everybody of…’)
- All of us enjoyed the party. (not ‘everybody of us’)
b. All and everything
Sometimes you can use all or everything:
- I’ll do all I can to help. Or I’ll do everything I can to help.
You can say ‘all I can’ / ‘all you need’ etc bur we do not normally use all alone:
- He thinks he knows everything. (not ‘he knows all’)
- Our holiday was a disaster. Everything went wrong. (not ‘all went wrong’)
We use all in the expression all about:
- They told us all about their holiday.
We also use all (not ‘everything’) to mean the only thing(s):
- All I’ve eaten today is a sandwich. (= the only thing I’ve eaten today)
c. Every/everybody/everyone/everything are singular words, so we use a singular nouns:
- Every seat in the theatre was taken.
- Everybosy has arrived. (not ‘have arrived’)

But we often use they/them/their after everybody/everyone:
- Everybody said they enjoyed themselves. (= he or she enjoyed himself or herself)
d. All and whole
Whole = complete, entire. Most often we use whole with singular nouns:
- Did you read the whole book? (= all the book, not just a part of it)
- She has lived her whole life in Scotland.
We normally use the/my/her etc before whole. Compare whole and all:
The whole book/ all the book her whole life/ all her life
You can also use: a whole…:
- Jack was so hungry, he ate a whole packet of biscuits. (= a complete packet)
We do not normally use whole with uncountable nouns. We say:
- I’ve spent all the money you gave me. (not ‘the whole money’)
e. Every/all/whole with time words
We use every to say how often something happens. So we say every day/every
Monday/ every ten minutes/every three weeks etc:
- When we were on holiday, we went to the beach every day. (not ‘all days’)
- The bus service is very good. There’s a bus every ten minutes.
- Ann gets paid every four weeks.
All day/ the whole day = the complete day from beginning to end:
- We spent all day/ the whole day on the beach.
- He was very quite. He didn’t say a word all evening/ the whole evening.
Note that we say all day (not ‘all the day’), all week (not ‘all the week’) etc.
Compare all the time and everytime:
- They never go out. They are at home all the time. (= always – not ‘everytime’)
- Every time I see you, you look different. (= each other, on every occasion)
90. Each and every
a. Each and every are similar in meaning. Often it is possible to use each or every:
- Each time ( or everytime) I see you, you look different.
- There’s a telephone in each room (ot every room) of the house.
But each and every are not exactly the same. Study the difference:
We use each when we think of things
separately, one by one.
- Study each sentence carefully. (=
study the sentences one by one)
Each = x + x + x + x
Each is more usual for a small
number:
We use every when we think of things
as a group. The meaning is similar to
all.
- Every sentence must have a verb. (=
all sentenves in general.
Every is more usual for a large number:

- There were four books on the table.
Each book was a different colour.
- (in a car game) At the beginning of
the game, each player has three
cards.
- Carol loves reading. She has read
every books in the library. (= all the
books)
- I would like to visit every country in
the world. (= all the countries)
Each (but not every) can be used for two things:
- In a football match, each team has 11 players. (not ‘every team’)
We use every (not each) to say how often something happens:
- ‘How often do you go shopping?’ ‘Every day.’ (not ‘each day’)
- There’s a bus every ten minutes. (not ‘each ten minutes’)
b. Compare the structure we use with each and every:
You can use each with a noun:
Each book each student
You can use each alone (without a noun):
- None of the rooms was the same. Each
was different. (= each room)
Or you can use each one:
- Each one was different.
You can say each of (the…/these… etc):
- Read each of these books sentences
carefully.
- Each of the books is a different colour.
Also each of us/you/them:
- Each of them is a different colour.
You can use every with a noun:
Every book every student
You can say every one (but not every
alone):
- ‘Have you read all these books?’
‘Yes, every one.’
You can say every one of… (but not
‘every of…’)
- I’ve read every one of these books.
(not ‘every of these books’)
- I’ve read every one of them.
c. You can also use each in the middle or at the end of a sentences:
- The students were each given a book. (= each students was given a book)
- These oranges cost 25 pence each.
d. Everyone and every one:
Everyone (one word) is only for people (= ‘everybody’). Every one (two words) is for
things or people, and is similar to each one (see section B):
- Everyone enjoyed the party. (= everybody…)
- He is invited to lots of parties and he goes to every one. (= to every party)

Relative clauses
91. Relative Clauses (1) – clauses with who/that/which
a. Example sentence:
The woman is a doctor
Relative clause
A clause is a part of a sentence. A relative clause tells us which person or thing (or
what kind of person or thing) the speaker means:
- The woman who lives next door… (‘who lives next door’ tells us which woman)
- People who live in London… (‘who live in London’ tells us what kind of people)
We use who in relative clause when we are talking about people (not things). We use
who instead of he/she/they:
The woman – she lives next door – is a doctor
 The woman who lives next door is a doctor
we know a lot of people – they live in London
 We know a lot of people who live in London
- An architect is someone who designs buildings.
- What was the name of the man who lent you the money?
- Anyone who wants to do the exam must enter before next Friday.
You can also use that (instead of who):
- The man that lives next door is very friendly.
But sometimes you must use who (not ‘that’) for people – see unit 94.
b. When we are talking about things, we use that or which (not ‘who’) in a relative
clause:
Where is the cheese? – it was in the fridge
 Where is the cheese that was in the fridge?
which
- I don’t like stories that have unhappy endings. (or …stories which have…)
- Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines. (or …a company
which makes…)
- The machine that broke down has now been repaired. (or The machine which
broke down…)
Who lives next door

That is more usual than which. But sometimes you must use which (not ‘that’) – see
unit 94.
c. You cannot use what in sentences like these:
- Everything that happened was my fault. (not ‘everything what happened…’)
What = ‘the thing(s) that’:
- What happened was my fault. (= the thing that happened)
d. Remember that in relative clauses we use who/that/which instead of he/she/they/it. So
we say:
- Do you know the woman who lives next door? (not ‘…the woman she lives next
door’)
92. Relative Clauses (2) – clauses with or without who/that/which
a. Look again at these example sentences from unit 91:
- The woman lives next door is a doctor. (or the woman that lives…)
lives next door. Who (= the woman) is the subject.
- Where is the cheese was in the frige? (or …the cheese which was..)
was in the frige. That (= the cheese) is the subject.
You must use whi/that/which when it is the subject of the relative clause. You cannot
say ‘The woman lives next door is a doctor’ or ‘Where is the cheese was in the
fridge?’
b. Sometimes who/that/which is the object of the verb. Example:
- The woman I wanted to see was away on holiday.
I wanted to see . Who (= the woman) is the object.
I is the subject
- Have you found the keys you lost?
You lost . That (= the keys) is the object.
You is the subject
who
The woman
that
The cheese
who
The woman
that
The keys

When who/that/which is the object, you can leave it out. So you can say:
- The woman I wanted to see was away. Or The woman who I wanted to see..
- Have you found the keys you lost? Or …the keys that you lost?
- The dress Ann bought doesn’t fit her very well. Or The dress that Ann bought
- Is there anything I can do? Or …anything that I can do?
Note that we say:
The keys you lost (not ‘the keys you lost them’)
The dress Ann bought (not ‘bought it’)
c. Notice the position of prepositions (in/at/with etc) in relative clauses:
Do you know the woman? – Tom is talking her.
 Do you know the woman (who/that) Tom is talking ?
The bed – I slept it last night – wasn’t very comfortable.
 The bed (that/which) I slept last night wasn’t very comfortable.
- Are these the keys (that/which) you were looking for?
- The woman (who/that) he fell in love with left him after a few weeks.
- The man (who/that) I was sitting next to on the plane talked all the time.
In all these examples, you can leave out who/that/which.
Note that we say:
The books you were looking for (not ‘ the books you were looking for them’)
d. You cannot use what in sentences like these:
- Everything (that) they said was true. (not ‘everything what they said..’)
- I gave her all the money (that) I had. (not ‘…all the money what I said’)
What = the thing(s) that:
- Did you hear what they said? (= the things that they said)
93. Relative Clauses (3) – whose/whom/where
a. Whose
We use whose in relative clauses instead of his/her/their:
We saw some people - car had broken down.there
to
to
in
in

 We saw some people car had broken down.
We use whose mostly for people:
- A widow is a woman whose husband is dead. (her husband is dead)
- What’s the name of the man whose car you borrowed? (you borrowed his car)
- A few days ago I met someone whose brother I went to school with. (I went to
school with his/her brother)
Comparewho and whose:
- I met a man who knows you. (he knows you)
- I met a man whose sisterknows you. (his sister knows you)
b. Whom
Whome is possible instead of who when it is the object of the verb in the relative
clause (like the sentences in unit 92):
- The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday.
You can also use whom with a preposition (to whome/ from whom/ with whom etc):
- The woman with whom he fell in love left him after a few weeks. (he fell in love
with her)
But we do not often use whom. In spoken English we usually prefer who or that, or
nothing (see unit 92). So we usually say:
- The man I saw… or The man who/that I saw…
- The woman he fell in love with… or The woman who/that he fell in
love with…
For whom see also unit 94-95
c. Where
You can use where in a relative clause to talk about a place:
The hotel – we stayed - wasn’t very clean
 The hotel we stayed wasn’t very clean
- I recently went back to the town where I was born. (or … the town I was born
in. or … the town that I was born in)
- I would like to live in a country where there is plenty of sunshine.
there
where
whose

d. We say: the day/ the year/ the time (etc) something happens or
that something happens
- Do you still remember the day (that) we first met?
- The last time (that) I saw her, she looked very well.
- I haven’t seen them since the year (that) they got married.
e. We say: the reason something happens or
that/why something happens
- The reason I’m phoning you is to invite you to a party. (or The reason that I’m
phoning…/ The reason why I’m phoning…)
94. Relative Clauses (4) – ‘extra information’ Clauses (1)
a. There are two types of relative clause. In these example, the relative clauses are
underlined. Compare:
Type 1
- The woman who lives next door is a
doctor.
- Barbara works for a company that
makes washing machines.
- We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann
recommended to us.
In these examples, the relative clause tells
you which person or thing (or what kind
of person or thing) the speaker means:
‘The woman who lives next door’ tells
us which one.
‘A company that makes washing
machines’ tells us what kind of
company.
‘The hotel (that)Ann recommended tells
us which hotel.
We do not use commas (,) with these
clauses:
- We know a lot of people who live in
London. (what kind of people)
Type 2
- My brother Jim, who lives in
London, is a doctor.
- Colin told me about his new job,
which he’s enjoying very much.
- We stayed at the Grand Hotel, which
Ann recommended to us.
In these examples, the relative clauses
do not tell you which person or thing
the speaker means. We already know
which thing or person is meant: ‘My
brother Jim’, Colin’s new job’ and ‘the
Grand Hotel’.
The relative clauses in these sentences
give us extra information about the
person or thing.
We use comma (,) in these clauses:
- My brother Jim, who lives in
London, is a doctor. (extra
information about Jim)
b. In both types of relative clause we use who for people and which for things. But:
Type 1
You can use that:
- Do you know anyone who/that speaks
Type 2
You can not use that:
- John, who (not ‘that’) speaks French

French and Italian?
- Barbara works for a company
which/that makes washing machines.
You can leave out that/who/which when it
is the object (see unit 92):
- We stayed at the hotel (that/which) Ann
recommended.
- This morning I met somebody
(that/who) I hadn’t seen for ages.
We do not often use whom in this type of
clause (see unit 93B):
In both types of relative clause you can
use whose and where:
- We met some people whose car had
broken down.
- What’s the name of the place where
you spent your holiday?
and Italian, works as a tourist guide.
- Colin told me about his new job,
which (not ‘that’) he’s enjoying very
much.
You cannot leave out who or which:
- We stayed at the Grand Hotel, which
Ann recommended to us.
You can use whom (when it is the
object):
- This morning I met Diane, whom (or
who) I hadn’t seen for ages.
- Amy, whose car had broken down,
was in a very bad mood.
- Mrs Bond is going to spend a few
weeks in Sweden, where her
daughter lives.
95. Relative Clauses (5) – ‘extra information’ Clauses (2)
a. Preposition + whom/which
In ‘extra information’ clauses (see unit 94 – Type 2) you can use a preposition before
whom (for people) and which (for things). So you can say:
To whom/ with whom/ about which/ for which etc:
- Mr Carter, to whom I spoke on the phone last night, is very interested inour plan.
- Fortubately we had a map, without which we would have got lots.
In spoken English we often keep the preposition after the verb in the relative clause.
When we do this, we normally use who (not ‘whom’) for people:
- This is Mr Carter, who I was telling you about.
- Yesterday we visited the City Museum, which I’d never been to before.
b. All of/ most etc + whom/which
Study these example:
Mary has three brothers. All of them are married. (2 sentences)
 Mary has three brothers, all of whom are married. (1 sentences)
They asked me a lot of questions. I couldn’t answer most of them. (2
sentences)

 They asked me a lot of questions, most of which I couldn’t answer. (1
sentences)
In the same way you can say:
None of/ neither of/ any of/ either of
Some of/ many of/ much of/ (a) few of + whom (people)
Both of/ half of/ each of/ one of/ two of (etc) + which (things)
- Tom tried on three jackets, none of which fitted him.
- Two men, neither of whom I had ever seen before, came into my office.
- They’ve got three cars, two of which they never use.
- Sue has a lot of friends, many of whom she was at school with.
c. Which (not ‘what’)
Example:
surprised everybody. (2 sentences)
surprised everybody. (1 sentences)
relative clause
In this example, which = ‘the fact that he passed his driving test’. You must use
which (not ‘what’) in sentences like these:
- Sheila couldn’t come to the party, which was a pity. (not ‘…what was a pity’
- The weather was very good, which we hadn’t expected. (not ‘…what we hadn’t
expected’)
For what, see also unit 91C and 92D.
96. –ing and –ed clauses (the woman talking to Tom, the boy injured in the accident)
a. A clause is a part of a sentence. Some clauses begin with –ing or –ed. Example:
Do you know the woman talking to Tom?
--- -ing clause ---
The boy injured in the accident was taken to hospital.
------ -ed clause ------
b. We use –ing clauses to say what somebody (or something) is doing (or was doing) at
a particular time:
- Do you know the woman talking to Tom? (the woman is talking to Tom)
- Police investigating the crime are looking for three men. (police are
investigating the crime)
Jim passed his driving test. This
Jim passed his driving test, which

- I was woken up by a bell ringing. (a bell was ringing)
When you are talking about things (and sometimes people), you can use an –ing
clause to say what something does all the time, not just at a particular time. Example:
- The road joining the two villages is very narrow. (the road joins the two villages)
- I live in a pleasant room overlooking the garden. (the room overlooks the
garden)
- Can you think of the name of a flower beginning with ‘T’? (the name begins
with ‘T’)
c. –ed clauses have a passive meaning:
- The boy injured in the accident was taken to hospital. (the boy was injured in
the accident)
- Some of the people invited to the party can’t come. (the people have been
invited to the party)
Injured and invited are past participles. Many verbs have past particilples that do
not end in –ed (made, bought, stolen etc):
- Most of the goods made in this factory are exported. (the goods are made..)
- The police never found the money stolen in the robbery. (the money was stolen)
You can use left in this way, with the meaning ‘not used, still there’:
- We’ve spent nearly all aour money. We’ve only got a little left.
For irregular past participle, see Appendix 1.
d. We often use –ing and –ed clauses after there is/ there was etc:
- There were some children swimming in the river
- Is there anybody waiting?
- There was a big red car parked outside the house.
Adjectives and adverbs
97. Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed (boring/bored etc)
a. There are many adjectives ending –ing and –ed. Example, boring and bored. Example
situation:
Jane has been doing the same job for a very long time.
Every day she does exactly the same thing again and
again. She doesn’t enjoy it any more and wouls like to
do something different.
Jane’s job is boring.
Jane is bored (with her job)

Somebody is bored if something (or somebody else) is boring. Or, if something is
boring, it makes you bored. So:
- Jane is bored because her job is boring.
- Jane’s job is boring, so jane is bored. (not ‘jane is boring’)
If a person is boring, this means that they make other people bored:
- George always talks about the same things. He’s really boring.
b. Compare adjectives ending –ing and –ed:
You can say:
boring
interesting
- My job is tiring
satisfying
depressing. (etc)
The –ing adjective tells you about the
job.
Compare thse examples:
interesting
- Julia thinks politics is very Julia
thinks politics is very interesting
- Did you meet anyone interesting at
the party.
suprising
- It was quite suprising that he
passedthe examination.
disappointing
- The film was disappointing. I
expected it to be much better.
shocking
- The news was shocking
You can say:
- I’m bored with my job.
- I’m not intereted in my job any
more.
- I’m always tired when I finish work.
- I’m not satisfied with my job.
- My job makes me depressed. (etc)
The –ed adjective tells you how
somebody feels (about the job).
interested
- Julia is very interested in polics.
(not ‘interesting in politics’)
- Are you interested in buying a car?
I’m trying to sell mine.
suprised
- Everybody was surprised that he
passed the examination.
disappointed
- I was disappointed with the film. I
expected it to be much better.
shocked
- We were very shocked when we
heard the news.
98. Adjectives: word order (a nice new house)
Adjectives after verbs (You look tired)
a. Sometimes we use two or more adjective together:
- My brother lives in a nice new house.
- In the kitchen there was a beautiful large round wooden table.

Adjectives like new/large/round/wooden are fact adjectives. They give us factual
information about age, size, colour etc.
Adjectives like nice/beautiful are opinion adjectives. They tell us what somebody
thinks of something or somebody.
Opinion adjectives usually go before fact adjectives.
Opinion Fact
a nice long summer holiday
an interesting young man
delicious hot vegetable soup
a beautiful large round wooden table
b. Sometimes we use two or more fact adjectives. Very often (but not always) we put
fact adjectives in this order:
    
A tall young man (12) a large wooden table (1 5)
Big blue eyes (13) an old Rusian song (24)
A small lack plastic bag (135) an old white cotton shirt (235)
Adjectives of size and length (big/small/tall/short/long etc) usually go before
adjectives of shapes and width (round/fat/thin/slim/wide etc):
A large round table a tall thin girl a long narrow street
When there are two colour adjectives, we use and:
A black and white dress a red, white and green flag
But a long black dress (not ‘a long and black dress’)
c. We say ‘the first two days’,’the next few weeks’, ‘the last ten minute’ etc:
- I didn’t enjoy the first two days of the course. (not ‘the two first days’)
- They’ll be away for the next few weeks. (not ‘the few next weeks’)
d. We use adjectives after be/get/become/seem:
- Be careful!
- As the film went on, it became more and more boring.
- Your friend seems very nice.
- I’m tired and I’m getting hungry.
We also use adjectives to say how somebody/something looks, feels, sounds, tastes
or smells:
- You look tired. /I feel tired / she sounds tired.
1
How
big?
2
How
old?
3
What
colour?
4
Where
from?
5
What is it
made of?
NOUN

- The dinner smells good.
- This tea tastes a bit strange.
But to say how somebody does something you must use an adverb (see unit 99-100):
- Drive carefully! (not ‘drive careful’)
- Susan plays the piano very well. (not ‘plays… very good’)
99. Adjectives and adverb (1) (quick/quickly)
- Our holiday was too short – the time went very quickly.
- The driver of the car was seriously injured in the accident.
Quickly and seriously are adverbs. Many adverbs are made from an adjective + -ly:
Adjective: quick serious careful quiet heavy bad
Adverb : quickly seriously carefully quietly heavily badly
For spelling, see Apendix 6.
Not all words ending in –ly are adverbs. Some adjective end in –ly too, example:
Friendly lively elderly lonely silly lovely
b. Adjective or adverb?
Adjectives (quick/careful etc) tell us
about a noun. We use adjectives
before nouns and after some verbs,
especially be:
- Tom is a careful driver. (not ‘a
carefully driver’)
- We didn’t go out because of the
heavy rain.
- Please be quiet.
- I was dissapointes that my exam
results were so bad.
We also use adjectives after the verbs
look/feel/sound etc. (see unit 98D):
- Why do you always look so
serious?
Compare:
- She speaks perfect English
Adjectives + noun
Compare these sentences with look:
- Tom looked sad when I saw him. (=
he seemed sad, his expression was
sad)
Adverbs (quickly/carefully etc) tell us
about a verb. An adverb tell us how
somebody does something or how
something happens:
- Tom drove carefully along the
narrow road. (not ‘drove careful’)
- We didn’t go out because it was
raining heavily. (not ‘raining heavy’)
- Please speak quietly. (not ‘speak
quiet’)
- I was disappointed that I did so badly
in the exam. (not ‘did so bad’)
- Why do you never take me
seriously?
- She speaks English perfectly.
Verb + object + adverb
- Tom looked at me sadly. (= he
looked at me in a sad way)

c. We also use adverb before adjectives and other adverbs. Example:
Reasonably cheap (adverb + adjective)
Terribly sorry (adverb + adjective)
Increadibly quickly (adverb + adverb)
- It’s a reasonably cheap restaurant and the food is extremely good.
- Oh, I’m terribly sorry. I didn’t mean to push you. (not ‘teribble sorry’)
- Maria lerns languages incredibly quickly.
- The examination was surprisingly easy.
You can also use an adverb before a past participle (injured/organized/written etc):
- Two people were seriously injured in the accident.
- The meeting was very badly organised.
100. Adjectives and adverb (1)
a. Good/well
Good is an adjective. The adverb is well:
- Your English is good. But You speak English well.
- Susan is good pianist. But Susan plays the piano well.
We use well (not ‘good’) with past participle (dressed/known etc):
Well-dressed well-known well-educated well-paid
But well is also an adjective with the meaning ‘in good health’:
- ‘How are you today?’ ‘I’m very well, thanks.’ (not ‘I’m very good’)
b. Fast/hard/late
These words are both adjectives and adverbs:
Adjective adverb
- Jack is a very fast runner. Jack can run very fast
- Ann is a hard worker. Ann works har. (not ‘works hardly’)
- The train was late. I got up late this morning.
Lately = “recently”
- Have you seen Tom lately?
c. Hardly
Hardly = very little, almost not. Study these example:
- Sarah was rather unfriendly to me at the party. She hardly spoke to me.
(= she spoke to me very little, almost not at all)
- George and Hilda want to get married but they’ve only known each other for a
few days. I don’t think they should get married yet. They hardly know each other.
(= they know each other very little)
Hard and hardly are completely different. Compare:
- He tried hard to find a job but he had no luck. (= he tried a lot, with a lot of effort)

- I’m not surprised he didn’t find a job. He hardly tried to find one. (= he tried very
little)
We often use hardly + any/anybody/anyone/anything/anywhere:
- A: How much money have you got?
B: Hardly any. (= very little, almost none)
- I’ll have to go shopping. We’ve got hardly any food.
- The eaxam result were very bad. Hardly anybody in our class passed. (= very few
students passed, almost nobody passed)
- She ate hardly anyting. She wasn’t feeling hungry. (= she ate very little, almost
nothing)
Note the position of hardly. You can say:
- She ate hardly anything. Or She hardly ate anything.
- We’ve got hardly any food. Or We’ve hardly got any food.
We often use can/couls + hardly. I can hardly do something. = it’s almost impossible
for me to do it:
- You writing is terrible. I can hardly read it. (= it is almost impossible for me to
read it)
- My leg was hurting me. I could hardly walk.
Hardly ever = almost never
- I’m nearly always at home in the evenings. I hardly ever go out.
101. So and such
- I didn’t enjoy the book.
The story was so stupid.
We use so + adjective/adverb:
So stupid so quick
So nice so quickly
- I didn’t enjoy the book.
It was such a stupid story.
We use such + noun:
Such a story such people
We use such + adjective + noun:
Such a stupid story
Such a nice people
Note that we say such a… (not ‘a such..’)
b. So and such make the meaning of an adjective (or adverb) stronger:
- It’s a lovely day, isn’t? It’s so
warm. (= really warm)
- He’s difficult to understand because
he speaks so quickly.
Compare so and such in these
sentences:
- I like Tom and Ann. They are so
- We enjoyed our holiday. We had such a
good time. (= a really good time)
- I like Tom and Ann. They are such nice

nice.
You can use so… that…:
- The book was so good that I
couldn’t put it down.
- I was so tired that I fell asleep in the
armchair.
You can leave out that in sentences
like this:
- I was so tired (that) I fell asleep.
people. (not ‘so nice people’)
You can use such…that…:
- It was such a good book that I couldn’t
put it down.
- It was such lovely weather that we spent
the whole day on the beach.
- It was such lovely weather (that) we..
c. We also use so and such with the meaning ‘like this’:
- I was surprised to find out that the
house was built 100 years ago. I
didn’t realize it was so old. (as old
as it is)
- I expected the weather to be much
cooler. I didn’t expect it to be so
warm.
- I’m tired because I got up at 6
o’clock. I don’t ususlly get up so
early.
- I didn’t realize it was such an old
house.
- The house was so intidy. I’ve never
seen such a mess. (= a mess like this)
Note the expression no such…:
- You won’t find the word ‘blid’ in an
English dictionary because there is
no such a word. (= this word does
not exist)
d.
We say: so long but such a long time:
- I haven’t seen her for so long I’ve
forgotten what she looks like.
So far but such a long way:
- I didn’t know it was so far.
So much, so many but such a lot (of):
- Why did you buy so much (food)?
- I haven’t seen her for such a long
time. (not ‘a so long time’)
- I didn’t know it as such a long way.
- Why did you buy such a lot of food?
102. Enough and too
a. The position of enough
Enough goes after adjectives and adverbs:
- He didn’t get the job because he wasn’t experienced enough. (not ‘enough
experienced’)
- You won’t pass the examination if you don’t work hard enough.
- She shouldn’t get married yet. She’s not old enough.
The opposite is too… (too hard /too old etc):
- You never stop working. You work too hard.

Enough normally goes before nouns:
- He didn’t get the job because he didn’t have enough experience. (not ‘experience
enough)
- I’d like to go away on holiday but I haven’t got enough money.
- Some of us had to sit on the floor because there weren’t enough chairs.
You can also use enough alone (without a noun):
- I’ll lend you some money if you haven’t got enough.
The opposite is too much… / too many…:
- We can’t go away on holiday. It costs too much (money).
- There are too many people and not enough chairs.
b. We say enough/too… for (somebody/something):
- I haven’t got enough money for a holiday.
- He wasn’t experienced enough for the job.
- This shirt is too big for me. I need a smaller size.
But we usually say enough/too… to do something (not ‘for doing’). So we say:
Enough money to buy something too young to do something etc.
Example:
- I haven’t got enough money to go on holiday. (not ‘for going’)
- He wasn’t experienced enough to do the job.
- She’s not old enough to get married. Or She’s too young to get married.
- Let’s get a taxi. It’s too far to walk home from here.
- There weren’t enough chairs for everyone to sit down.
- They spoke too quickly for us to understand.
c. We say:
The food was very hot. We couldn’t eat it.
And The food was so hot that we couldn’t eat it.
But The food was too hot to eat. (without ‘it’)
Some more examples like this:
- The wllet was too big to put in my pocket. (not ‘too big to put it’)
- These boxes are too heavy to carry. (not ‘too heavy to carry them’)
- The water wasn’t clean enough to swim in.
103. Quite and rather
a. Quite = less than ‘very’ but more than ‘a little’:
- I’m surprised you haven’t heard of her. She’s quite famous. (= less than ‘very
famous’ but more than ‘a little famous’)
- It’s quite cold. You’d better wear your coat.
- Lucy lives quite near me, so we see each other quite often.

Quite goes before a/an:
Quite a nice day (not ‘a quite nice day’) quite an old house
Quite a long way
Sometimes we use quite + noun (without an adjective):
- I didn’t expect to see them. It was quite a surprise.
We also use quite with some verbs, especially like and enjoy:
- I quite like tennis but it’s not my favourite sport.
Quite sometimes means ‘completely’. See section C.
b. Rather is similar to quite. We use rather mainly with mainly negative words and
negative ideas:
- It’s rather cold. You’d better wear your coat.
- ‘What was the examination like?’ ‘Rather difficult, I’m afraid.’
- Let’s get a taxi. It’s rather a long way to walk.
Quite is also possible in these examples.
Often we use quite with a positive idea and rather with a negative idea:
- She’s quite intelligent but rather lazy.
When we use rather with positive words (nice/interesting etc), it means ‘unusually’ or
‘surprisingly’. Example, rather nice = unusually nice/ surprisingly nice/ nice than
expected:
- These oranges are rather nice. Where did you get them?
- Ann didn’t like the book but I thought it was rather interesting. (= more
interesting than expected)
Rather can go before or after a/an. So you can say:
A rather interesting book or rather an interesting book.
c. Quite also mean ‘completely’. Example:
- ‘Are you sure?’ ‘Yes, quite sure.’ (= completely sure)
Quite means ‘completely’ with a number of adjectives, especially:
Sure right true clear different increadible amazing
Certain wrong safe obvious unnecessary extraordinary impossible
- She was quite different from what I expected. (= completely different)
- Everything they said was quite true. (= completely true)
We also use quite (= ‘completely’) with some verbs. Example:
- I quite agree with you. (= I completely agree)
Not quite = ‘not completely’:
- They haven’t quite finished their dinner yet.
- I don’t quite understand what you mean.
- ‘Are you ready yet?’ ‘Not quite.’ (= not completely)

104. Comparison (1) – cheaper, more expensive etc.
How shall we travel? By car or by train?
Let’s go by car. It’s cheaper.
Don’t go by train. It’s more expensive.
Cheaper and more expensive are comparative forms.
After comparatives you can use than (see also unit 106):
- It’s cheaper to go by car than by train.
- Going by train is more expensive than going by car.
b. The comparative form is –er or more..
We use –er for short words (one
syllable):
Cheap  cheaper fast  faster
Large  larger thin  thinner
We also use –er for two syllable words
that end in –y (-y  -ier):
Lucky  luckier early  earlier
Easy  easier pretty  prettier
For spelling, see Appendix 6.
Compare these examples:
- You’re older than me.
- The exam was quite easy – easier
than we expected.
- Can you walk a bit faster?
- I’d like to have a bigger car.
- Last night I went to bed earlier than
usual.
You can use –er or more… with some
two-syllable adjectives, especially:
Quite clever narrow shallow simple
- It’s too noisy here. Can we go
somewhere quieter/ more quiet?
We use more… for longer words (two
syllable or more):
More modern more serious
More expensive more comfortable
We use more… for adverbs that end in
–ly:
More slowly more
More quickly more carefully
Also: more often
But: earlier (not ‘more early’)
- You’re more patient than me.
- The exam was quite difficult – more
difficult than we expected.
- Can you walk a bit more slowly?
- I’d like to have a more reliable car.
- I don’t play tennis much these days. I
used to play more often.
c. These adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative forms:
Good/well  better:
- The garden looks better since you tidied it up.
Bad/badly  worse:
- ‘Is your headache better?’ ‘No, it’s worse.’

- He did very badly in the exam – worse than expected.
Far  further (or farther):
- It’s a long walk from here to the station – further than I thought. (or …farther
than…)
Further (but not ‘farther’) can also mean ‘more’ or ‘additional’:
- Let me know if you hear any further news. (= any more news)
105. Comparison (2)
a. Before comparatives you can use:
Much a lot far (= a lot) a bit a little slightly (= a little)
- Let’s go by car. It’s much cheaper. (or It’s a lot cheaper)
- Don’t go by train. It’s a lot more expensive. (or It’s much more expansive)
- Could you speak a bit more slowly? (or …speak a little more slowly?)
- This bag is slightly heavier than the other one.
- Her illness was far more serious than we thought at first. (or …much more
serious… or …a lot more serious…)
b. You can use any and no + comparatives (any longer/ no bigger etc):
- I’ve waited long enough. I’m not waiting any longer.
- We expected their house to be very big but it’s no bigger than ours. (or… it isn’t
any bigger than ours)
- Yesterday you said you felt ill. Do you feel any better today?
- This hotel is better than the other one and it’s no more expensive.
c. Harder and harder/ more and more/ more and more difficult etc:
We repeat comparatives like this (…and…) to say that something is changing
continuously:
- It’s becoming harder and harder to find a
- It’s becoming more and more difficult to find a job.
- Your English is improving. It’s getting better and better.
- These days more and more people are learning English.
d. The…the better
Study these examples:
- ‘What rime shall we leave?’ ‘The sooner the better.’ (= as soon as possible)
- ‘What sort of box do you want?’ a big one?’ ‘Yes, the bigger the better.’ (= as
big as possible)
- When you’re traveling, the less luggage you have to carry the better. (= it is best
to have as little luggage as possible)

We also use the…the (wit two comparatives) to say that one thing depends on another
things:
- The warmer the weather, the better I feel. (= if the weather is warmer, I feel better)
- The sooner we leave, the sooner we will arrive.
- The younger you are, the easier it is to learn.
- The more expensive the hotel, the better the service.
- The more electricity you use, the higher your bill will be.
- The more I thought about the plan, the less I liked it.
e. Older and elder
The comparative of old is older:
- Tom looks older than he really is.
You can use elder (or older) when you talk about people in a family. You can say (my)
elder brother/sister/son/daughter:
- My elder brother is a pilot. (or my older brother…)
We say ‘my elder brother’ but we do not say ‘somebody is elder…’:
- My brother is older than me. (not ‘elder than me’)
For eldest, see unit 107D.
106. Comparison (3) – as…as/ than
a. Study this example situation:
Shirley, Henry and Arthur are all millionaires. They are all very rich.
Shirley has £10 million, Henry has £8 million and Arthur has £2 million. So:
Henry is rich.
He is richer than Arthur.
But he isn’t as rich as Shirley. (= Shirley is richer than he is)
Some more examples of not as… (as):
- Tom isn’t as old as he looks. (= he looks older than he is)
- The city centre wasn’t as crowded this morning as it usually is. (= it is usually
more crowded)
- Jenny didn’t do as well in the exam as she had hoped. (= she had hoped to do
better)
- ‘The weather is better today, isn’t it?’ ‘Yes, it’s not as cold.’ (= yesterday was
codler)
- I don’t know as many people as you do. (= you know more people)
You can also say ‘not so…(as)’:
- It’s not warm but it isn’t so cold as yesterday. (= …it isn’t as cold as…)
Less… (than) is similar to not as… (as):
- I spent less money than you. (= I didn’t spend as much money…)

- The city centre was less crowded than usual. (= it wasn’t as crowde..)
b. You can use as…as (but not ‘so…as’) in positive sentences and in questions:
- I’m sorry I’m late. I got here as fast as I could.
- There’s plenty of food. You can have as much as you like.
- Let’s walk. It’s just as quick as taking the bus.
- Can you send me the money as soon as possible, please?
Also: twice as…as, three times as…as etc:
- Petrol is twice as expensive as it was a few years ago.
- Their house is about three times as big as ours.
c. We say the same as (not ‘the same like’):
- Ann’s salary is the same as mine. Or Ann gets the same salary as me.
- Tom is the same age as George.
- ‘What would you like to drink?’ ‘I’ll have the same as you.’
d. Than me/ than I am etc.
We usually say:
- You are taller than I am. But you are taller me.
- They have more money than we have. But they have more money than us.
- I can’t run as fast as he can. But I can’t run as fast as him.
107. Superlatives – the longest/ the most enjoyable etc.
What is the longest river in the world?
What was the most enjoyable holiday you’ve ever had?
Longest and most enjoyable are superlative forms.
b. The superlative form is –est or most… in general, we use –est for short words and
most… for longer words. (the rules are the same as those for the comparative – see
unit 104.)
Longlongest hothottest easyeasier hardhardest
But most famous most boring most difficult most expensive
These adjectives are irregular:
Goodbest badworst farfurthest
For spelling, see Apendix 6.
c. We normally use the before a superlative (the longest/ the most famous etc):
- Yesterday was the hottest day of the year.

- That film was really boring. It was the most boring film I’ve ever seen.
- She is a really nice person – one of the nicest people I know.
- Why does he always come to see me at the worst possible moment?
Compare:
- This hotel is the cheapest in town. (superlative)
- This hotel is cheaper tah all the other in town. (comparative)
d. Oldest and eldest
The superlative of old is oldest:
- That church is the oldest building in the town. (not ‘the eldest’)
We use eldest (or oldest) when we are talking about people in a family:
- My eldest son id 13 years old. (or My oldest son…)
- Are you the eldest in your family? (or …the oldest…)
e. After superlatives we use in with places (town, buildings etc):
- What is the longest river in the world? (not ‘of the world’)
- We had a lovely room. It was one of the nicest in the hotel. (not ‘of the hotel’)
We malso use in for organizations and groups of people (a class/team/company etc):
- Who is the best student in the class? (not ‘of the class’)
We normally use of for a period of time:
- What was the happiest day of your life?
- Yesterday was the hottest day of the year.
f. We often use the present perfect (I have done) after a superlative (see also unit 8A):
- What’s the best film you’ve ever seen?
- That was the most delicious meal I’ve had for a long time.
g. Sometimes we use most + adjective to mean ‘very’:
- The book you lent me was most interesting. (= very interesting)
- Thank you for the money. It was most generous of you. (=very generous)
108. Word order (1) – verb +object; place and time
a. Verb + object
The verb and the object of the verb normally go together. We do not usually put other
words between them:
Verb + object
I like children very much. (not ‘I like very much children’)
Did you see your friends yesterday?
Ann often plays tennis.

Study these examples. Notice how the verb and the object go togrther each time:
- Do you clean the house every weekend? (not ‘do you clean every weekend the
house?’)
- Everybody enjoyed the party very much. (not ‘everybody enjoyed very much the
party’)
- Our guide spoke English fluently. (not ‘… spoke fluently English’)
- I not only lost all my money – I also lost my passport. (not ‘I lost also my
passport’)
- At the end of the street you’ll see a supermarket on your left. (not ‘… see on
your left a supermarket’)
b. Place and time
Usually the verb and the place (where?) go together:
Go home live in a city walk to work etc
If the verb has an objrct, the place comes after the verb + object:
Take somebody home meet a friend in the street
Time (when?/how often?/how long?) normally goes after place:
Place + time
Tom walks to work every morning. (not ‘Tom walks every morning to
work’)
She has been in Canada since April.
We arrived at the airport early.
Study these example:
- I’m going to Paris on Monday. (not ‘I’m going on Monday to Paris’)
- They have lived in the same house for a long time.
- Don’t be late. Make sure you’re here by 8 o’clock.
- Sarah gave me a lift home after the party.
- You really shouldn’t go to bed so late.
It is often possible to put time as the beginning of the sentence:
- On Monday I’m going to Paris.
- Every morning Tom walks to work.
Some time words (example, always/never/often) usually go with the verb in the
middle of the sentence. See unit 109.
109. Word order (2) – adverbs with he verb
a. Some adverbs (example, always, also, probably) go with the verb in the middle of a
sentences:
- Tom always goes to work by car.
- We were feelling very tired and we were also hungry.
- Your car has probably been stolen.

b. Study these rules for the position of adverbs in the middle of a sentence. (They are
only general rules, so there are exceptions.)
i. If the verb is one word (goes/fell/cooked etc), the adverb usually goes before the
verb:
Tom
I
Adverb
Always
almost
Verb
Goes
fell
To work by car.
As I was going down the stairs.
- I cleaned the house and also cooked the dinner.
- Lucy hardly ever watches television and rarely reads newspaper.
Note that these adverbs (always/often/also etc) go before have to:
- Jim never phones me. I always have to phone him. (not ‘I have always to phone’)
ii. but adverbs go after am/is/are/was/were:
- We were feeling very tired and we were also hungry.
- Why are you always late? You’re never on time.
- The traffic isn’t usually as bad as it was this morning.
iii. if the verb is two or more words (can remember/ doesn’t smoke/ has been stolen
etc), the adverb goes after the first verb (can/doesn’t/has etc):
Verb 1
I can
Ann doesn’t
Are you
Your car has
Adverb
never
usually
definitely
probably
Verb
Remember
Smoke
Going
been
His name
To the party tomorrow?
Stolen.
- My parents have always lived in London.
- Jack can’t cook. He can’t boil an egg.
- The house was only built a year ago and it’s already falling down.
Note that probably goes before the negative. So we say:
- I probably won’t see you. Or I will probably not see you. (but not ‘I won’t
probably…’)
c. We also use all and both in these positions:
- We all felt ill after the meal. (not ‘we felt all ill’)
- My parents are both teachers. (not ‘my parents both are teachers’)
- Sarah and Jane have both applied for the job.
- We are all going out this evening.
d. Sometimes we use is/will/did etc instead of repeating part of a sentence (se unit 50A).
Note the position of always/never etc in these sentences:
- He always says he won’t be late but he always is. (= he is always late)
- I’ve never done it and I never will. (= I will never do it)
We normally put always/never etc before the verb in sentences like these.

110. Still, yet and already Any more/ any longer/ no longer
a. Still
We use still to say that a situation or action is continuing. It hasn’t changed or stopped:
- It’s 10 o’clock and Tom is still in bed.
- When I went to bed, Jane was still working.
- Do you still want to go to the party or have you changed your mind?
Atill usually goes in the middle of the sentences with the verb. See unit 109
b. Any more/ any longer/ no longer
We use not… any more or not…any longer to say that a situation has changed. Any
more and any longer go at the end of a sentences:
- Ann doesn’t work here any more (or any longer). She left last month. (not ‘Ann
doesn’t still work here’)
- We used to be good friends but we aren’t any more (or any longer).
You can also use no longer. No longer goes in the middle of the sentences:
- Ann no longer work here.
Note that we do not normally use no more in this way:
- We are no longer friends. (not ‘we are no more friends’)
Compare still and not..any more:
- Sheila still works here but Ann doesn’t work here any more.
c. Yet
Yet = ‘until now’. We use yet mainly in negative sentences (I haven’t finished yet)
and questions (have you finished yet?). yet shows that the speaker is excepting
something to happen.
Yet usually goes at the end of a sentences:
- It’s 10 o’clock and Tom hasn’t got up yet.
- I’m hungry. Is dinner ready yet?
- We don’t know where we’re going for our holidays yet.
We often use yet with the present perfect (have you finished yet?). see also unit 7C.
Compare yet and still:
- Jack lost his job a year ago and is still unemployed.
Jack lost his job a year ago and hasn’t found another job yet.
- Is it still raining?
Has it stopped raining yet?
Still is also possible in negative sentences (before the negative):
- She said she would be here an hour ago and she still hasn’t come.
This is similar to ‘she hasn’t come yet’. But still.. not shows a stroger feeling of
surprise or impatience. Compare:
- I wrote to him last week. He hasn’t replied yet. (but I expect he will reply soon)

- I wrote to him months ago and he still hasn’t replied. (he should have replied
before now)
d. Already
We use already to say that something happened sooner than expected. Already
usually goes in the middle of a sentences (see unit 109):
- ‘When is Sue going on holiday?’ ‘She had already gone.’ (= sooner than you
expected)
- Shall I tell Liz the news or does she already know?
- I’ve only just had lunch and I’m already hungry.
111. Even
Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every
room of the house – even the bathroom.
We use even to say that something is unusual or surprising.
It is not usual to have a TV set in the bathroom.
Some more examples:
- These photographs aren’t very good. Even I could take better photographs than
these. (an I’m certainly not a good photographer)
- He always wear a coat – even in hot weather.
- Nobody would lend her the money – not even her best friend. Or
Not even her best friend would lend her the money.
b. Very often we use even with the verb in the middle of a sentence (see unit 109):
- Sue has traveled all over the world. She has even been to the Antarctic. (it’s
especially unusual to go to the Antarctic, so she must have traveled a lot)
- They are very rich. They even have their own private jet.
Study these examples with not even:
- I can’t cook. I can’t even boil an egg. (and boiling an egg is very easy)
- They weren’t very friendly to us. They didn’t even say hello.
- Jenny is very fit. She’s just run five miles and she’s not even out of breath.
c. You can use even + a comparative (cheaper/ more expensive):
- I got up very early but John got up even earlier.
- I knew I didn’t have much money but I’ve got even less than I thought.
- We were surprised to get a letter from her. We were even more surprised when
she came to see us a few days later.

d. Even though/ even when/ even if
You can use even + though/ when/ if to join sentences. Note that you cannot use even
alone in the following examples:
- Even though she can’t drive, she has bought a car. (not ‘even shecan’t drive’)
- He never shouts, even when he’s angry.
- I’ll probably see you tomorrow. But even if I don’t see you tomorrow, we’re sure
to see each other before the weekend. (not ‘even I don’t see you’)
Compare even if and if:
- We’re going to the beach tomorrow. It doesn’t matter what the weather is like.
We’re going to the beach even it’s raining.
- We hope to go to the beach tomorrow, but we won’t go if it’s raining.
Conjunctions and prepositions
112. Altough/ though/ eventhough In spite of/ despite
a. Situation:
Last year Jack and Jill spent their holidays by the sea. It rained a lot but they enjoyed
themselves.
You can say:
Although it rained a lot, they enjoyed themselves. (= it rained a lot but they…)
Or
In spite of the rain, they enjoyed themselves.
Despite
b. After although we use a subject + verb
- Altough it rained a lot, we enjoyed our holiday.
- I didn’t get the job although I had all the necessary qualifications.
Compare the meaning of although and because:
- We went out although it was raining.
- We didn’t go out because it was raining.
c. After in spite of or despite, we use a noun, a pronoun (this/that/what etc) or –ing:
- In spite of the rain, we enjoyed our holiday.
- I didn’t get the job in spite of having all the necessary qualifications.
- She wasn’t well, but in spite of this she went to work.
- In spite of what I said yesterday, I still love you.
Despite is the same as in spite of. Note that we say ‘in spite of’, but despite (without
‘of’):
- She wasn’t well, but despite this she went to work. (not ‘despite of this’)
You can say ‘in spite of the fact (that)…’ and ‘despite the fact (that)…’:

- I didn’t get the job in spite of the fact (that) / despite the fact (that) I had all the
necessary qualifications.
Compare in spite of and because of:
- We went out in spite of the rain. (or … despite the rain)
- We didn’t go out because of the rain
d. Compare although and in spite of/ despite:
- Although the traffic was bad, I arrived on time.
In spite of the traffic, (not ‘in spite of the traffic was
bad’)
- I couldn’t sleep although I was very tired.
despite being very tired. (not ‘despite I was tired’)
e. Sometimes we use though instead of although:
- I didn’t get the job though I had all the necessary qualifications.
In spoken English we often use though at the end of a sentence:
- The house isn’t very nice. I like the garden though. (= but I like the garden)
- I see him every day. I’ve never spoken to him though. (= but I’ve never spoken
to him)
Even though (but not ‘even’ alone) is a stronger form of although:
- Even though I was really tired, I couldn’t sleep. (not ‘even I was really tired…’)
113. In case
a. Situation
Geoff is a football referee. He always wears two watches during a game because it is
possible that one watch will stop.
He wears two watches in case one of them stops.
In case one of them stops = ‘because it is possible one of them will stop’.
Some more examples of in case:
- Ann might phone tonight. I don’t want to go out in case she phones. (= because
it is possible she will phone)
- I’ll draw a map for you in case you can’t find our house. (= because it is
possible you won’t be able to find it)
We use just in case for a smaller possibility:
- I don’t think it will rain but I’ll take an umbrella just in case. (- just in case it
rains)
Do not use will after in case. Use a present tense for the future (see also unit 25)
- I don’t want to go out in case she phones. (not ‘in case Ann will phones’)

b. In case is not the same as if. We use in case to say why somebody does (or doesn’t do)
something. You do something now in case something happens Later. Compare:
In case
- We’ll buy some more food in case
Tom comes.
(= Perharps Tom will come; we’ll
buy some more food now, whether
he comes or not; then we’ll already
have the food if he comes.)
- I’ll give you my phone number in
case you need to contact me.
- You should insure your bicycle in
case it is stolen
If
- We’ll buy some food if Tom comes.
(= Perharps Tom will come; if de
comes, we’ll buy some more food; if
he doesn’t come, we won’t buy any
more food)
- You can phone me at the hotel if you
need to contact me.
- You should inform the police if your
bicycle is stolen.
c. You can use in case (+ past) to say why somebody did something:
- We bought some more food in case Tome came. (= because it was possible that
Tom would come)
- I drew a map for Sarah in case she couldn’t find the house.
- We rang the bell again in case they hadn’t heard it the first time.
d. ‘In case of …’ is not the same as ‘in ase’. In case of… = ‘if there is…’ (especially in
notices etc):
- In case of fire, please leave the building as quicly as possible. (= if there is a fire)
- In case of emergency, telephone this number. (= if there is an emergency)
114. Unless As long as and provided/ providing
a. Unless
Situation:
The club is for members only.
You can’t go in unless you are a member.
This means:
‘you can’t go in except if you are a member’ or ‘You can go in only if you are a
member’,
Unless = ‘except if’
Some more example of unless:
- I’ll see you tomorrow unless I have to work late. (= except if I have to work late)
- Don’t tell Sue what I said unless she ask you. (= except if she asks you)
- ‘Shall I tell Sue what you said?’‘not unless she asks you.’(= only if she asks you)
- I don’t like fish. I wouldn’t eat it unless I was extremely hungry. (= except if I
was extremely hungry)

We often use unless in warnings:
- We’ll be late unless we hurry. (= except if we hurry)
- Unless you work much harder, you won’t pass the exam.
- I was told I wouldn’t pass the exam unless I worked harder.
Instead of unless it is often possible to say if… not:
- Don’t tell Sue what I said if she doesn’t ask you.
- We’ll be late if we don’t hurry.
b. As long as etc.
As long as or so long as All these wxpressions mean ‘if’ or ‘on
Provided (that) or providing (that) condition that’.
Example:
- You can use my car as long as you drive carefully.
so long as
(= you can use my car but you must drive carefully – this condition)
- Traveling by car is convenient provided (that) you have somewhere to park.
providing (that)
(= but only if you have somewhere to park)
- Provided (that) she studies hard, she’ll pass her exams.
Providing (that)
(= she must study hard – if she does this, she will pass)
c. When you are talking about the future, do not use will after unless/ as long as/
provided/ providing. Use a present tense (see also unit 25):
- We’ll be late unless we hurry. (not ‘unless we will hurry’)
- Providing she studies hard, she will pass the exam. (not ‘providing she will
study’).
115. As (reason and time)
a. As (reason)
As sometimes means ‘because’:
- As it was a public holiday, all the shops were shut. (= because it was a public
holiday)
- As they live near us, we see them quite often.
- We watched television all evening as we had nothing better to do.
We also use as to say that two things happened as the same time. See section B.
b. As (time)
You can use as when two things happen at the same time:

- I watched her as she opened the letter. (‘I watched’ and ‘she opened’ at the same
time)
- As they walked along the street, they looked in the shop windows.
- Can you turn off the light as you go out, please? (= on your way out of the room)
Or you can say that something happened as you were doing something else (= in the
middle of doing something else):
- Jill slipped as she was getting off the bus.
- The thieft was seen as he was climbing over the wall.
Most often we use as when two short actions happen at the same time:
- George arrived as Sue left. (= he arrived and Sue left at the same time)
- We all waved goodbye to Liz as she drove away in her car.
But we also use as when twothings happen together over a longer period of time:
- As the day went on, the weather got worse.
- I began to enjoy the job more as I got used to it.
You can also use just as (= exactly at that moment):
- Just as I sat down, the phone rang.
- Just as we were going out, it started to rain.
- I had to leave just as the conversation was getting interesting.
For the past continuous (was getting/ were going etc) see unit 6.
c. As , when and while
We use as only if two things happen at the same time. We use when (not ‘as’) if one
thing happens after another. Compare when and as:
- When I got home, I had a bath. (not ‘as I got home’)
- As I walked into the room, the phone started ringing. (= at the same time)
We use as (time) for actions and happenings. As + a situation (not an action) usually
means ‘because’ (section A):
- As we were asleep, we didn’t hear the doorbell. (= because we were asleep)
- As they live near me, I see them quite often. (= because they live near me)
You cannot use as for time in sentences like this. You have to use while or when:
- The doorbell rang while we were asleep. (not ‘as we were asleep’)
- Angela got married when she was 23. (not ‘as was 23’).
116. Like and as
a. Like = ‘similar to’, ‘the same as’. Note that you cannot use as in this way:
- What a beautiful house! It’s like a palace. (not ‘as a palace’)
- ‘What does Sandra do?’ ‘She’s a teacher, like me.’ (not ‘as me’)
- Be careful! The floor has been polished. It’s like walking on ice. (not ‘as
walking’)
- It’s raining again. I hate weather like this. (not ‘as this’)

In these sentences, like is a preposition. So it is followed by a noun (like a palace), a
pronoun (like me/ like this) or –ing (like walking).
You can also say ‘like (somebody/ something) doing something’:
- ‘What’s that noise?’ ‘It sound like a baby crying.’
b. Sometimes like = ‘for example’:
- Some sports, like motor racing, can be dangerous.
You can also use such as (= for example):
- Some sports, such as motor racing, can be dangerous.
c. We use as (not ‘like’) before a subject + verb:
- I didn’t move anything. I left everything as I found it.
- They did as they promised. (= they did what they promised.)
Compare like and as in these sentences:
- You should have done it like this. (like + pronoun)
- You should have done it as I showed you. (as +subject + verb)
We also say as you know/ as I said/ as she expected/ as I though etc:
- As you know, it’s Tom’s birthday next week. (= you know this already)
- Jane failed her driving test, as she expected. (= she expected this before)
Note that we say usual/ as always:
- You’re late as usual.
d. As can also be a preposition but the meaning is different from like. Compare:
as
- Brenda Casey is the manager of a
company.
As the manager, she has to make
many important decisions.
(‘as the manager’ = in her position
as the manager)
- During the war this hotel was used
as a hospital. (so it really was a
hospital).
like
- Mary Stone is the assistant manager.
Like the manager (Brenda Casey),
she also has to make important
decisions.
(‘like the manager’ = similar to the
manager)
- Everyone is ill at home. Our house is
like a hospital. (it isn’t really a
hospital).
As (preposition) = ‘in the position of’, ‘in the form of’ etc:
- A few years ago I worked as a bus driver. (not ‘like a bus driver’)
- We’ve got a garage but we haven’t got a car, so we use the garage as a
workshop.
- Many English words (for example, ‘work’ and ‘rain’) can be used as verbs or
nouns.
- London is all right as aplace to visit, but I wouldn’t like to live there.

- The news of her death came as a great shock.
We say regard… as:
- I regard her as my best friend.
117. As if
a. You can use as if to say how somebody or something looks/ sounds/ feels etc:
- That house looks as if it’s going to fall down.
- Ann sounded as if she had a cold, didn’t she?
- I’ve just come back from holiday but I feel tired and depredded. I don’t feel as if
I’ve just had a holiday.
Compare:
- You look tired. (look + adjective)
You look as if you haven’t slept. (look + as if + subject + verb)
- Tom sounded worried. (sound + adjective)
Tom sounded as if he was worried. (sound + as if + subject + verb)
You can use as though instead of as it:
- Ann sounds as though she’s got a cold. (= …as if she’s got a cold)
b. You can also say it looks/ sounds/ smells as if (or as though):
- Sandra is very late, isn’t she? It looks as if she isn’t coming.
- We took an umbrella with us because it looked as if it was going to rain.
- Do you hear that music next door? It sounds as if they’re having a party.
- It smells as though someone has been smoking in here.
After it looks/ sounds/ smells, many people use like instead of as if/ as though:
- It looks like Sandra isn’t coming.
c. You can use as if with other verbs to say how somebody does something:
- He ran as if he was running for his life.
- After the interruption, the speaker carried on talking as if nothing had happened.
- When I told them my plan, they looked at me as if I was mad..
d. After as if we sometimes use the past when we are talking about the present. Example:
- I don’t like Norma. She talks as if she knew everything.
The meaning is not past in this sentences. We use the past (‘as if she knew’) because
the idea is not real: Norma does not know everything. We use the past in the same
way with if and wish (see unit 38).
Some more example:
- She’s always asking me to do things for her – as if I didn’t have enough to do. (I
do have enough to do).

- Harry’s only 40. why do you talk about him as if he was an old man? (he isn’t
an old man).
When you use the past in this way, you can use were instead of was:
- Why do you talk about him as if he were an old man?
- They treat me as if I were (or was) their own son. (I’m not their son)
118. For, during and while
a. For and during
We use for + a period of time to sy how long something goes on:
For two hours for a week for ages]
Example:
- We watched television for two hours last night.
- Victoria is going away for a week in September.
- Where have you been? I’ve been waiting for ages.
- Are you going away for the weekend.
We use during + noun to say when something happens (not how long):
During the film during our holiday during the night
Example:
- I fell asleep during the film.
- We met a lot of people during our holiday.
- The ground is wet. It must have rained during the night.
With a ‘time word’ (for example, the morning/ the afternoon/ the summer), you can
usually say in or during:
- It must have rained in the night. (or …during the night)
- I’ll phone you sometime during the afternoon. (or …in the afternoon)
You cannot use during to say how long something goes on:
- It rained for three days without stopping. (not ‘during three days’)
Compare during and for:
- I fell asleep during the film. I was asleep for half an hour.
b. During and while
Compare:
We use during + noun:
- I fell asleep during the film.
Compare during and while in these
examples:
- We met a lot of interesting people
during our holiday.
- Robert suddenly began to feel ill
during the examination.
We use while + subject + verb:
- I fell asleep while I was watching
television.
- We met a lot of interesting people
whilr we were on holiday.
- Robert suddenly began to feel ill
while he was doing the examination.

Some more examples of while:
- We saw Amanda while we were waiting for the bus.
- While you were out, there was a phone call for you.
- Christopher read a book while I watched television.
When you are talking about the future, use the present (not ‘will’) after while:
- I’ll be in London next week. I hope to see Tom while I’m there. (not ‘while I
will be there’)
- What are you going to do while you are waiting? (not ‘while you will be
waiting’)
See also unit 25
119. By and until By the time…
a. By (+ a time) = ‘not later than’:
- I posted the letter today, so they should receive it by Monday. (= on or before
Monday, not later than Monday)
- We’d better hurry. We have to be at home by 5 o’clock. (= at or before 5
o’clock, not later than 5 o’clock)
- Where’s Sue? She should be here by now. (= now or before now – so she should
have arrived already)
You cannot use until with this meaning:
- Tell me by Friday whether or not you can come to the party. (not ‘Tell me until
Friday’)
b. We use until (or till) to say how long a situation continues:
- ‘Shall we go now?’ ‘No, let’s wait until (or till) it stops raining.’
- I couldn’t get up this morning. I stayed in bed until half past ten
I didn’t get up until half past ten
Compare until and by:
Until
Something continues until a time in
the future:
- Fred will be away until Monday.
(so, he’ll be back on Monday)
- I’ll be working until 11.30. (so, I’ll
stop working at 11.30)
We use while + subject + verb:
Something happens by a time in the
future:
- Fred will be back by Monday. (=
he’ll be back not later than Monday)
- I’ll have finished my work by 11.30.
(I’ll finish my work not later than
11.30)
c. You can say ‘by the time something happens’. Study these examples:
- It’s not worth going shopping now. By the time we get to the shops, they will be
closed. (= the shops will close between now and the time we get there)

- (from a letter) I’m flying to the United States this evening. So by the time you
receive this letter, I’ll be in New York. (= I will arrive in New York between
now and the time you receive this letter)
- Hurry up! By the time we get to the cinema, the film will already have started.
You can say ‘by the time something happened’ (for the past):
- Jane’s car broke down on the way to the party last night. By the time she arrived,
most of the other guests had gone. (= it took her a long time to get the party and
most of the guests went home during this time)
- I had a lot of work to do yesterday evening. I was very tired by the time I
finished. (= it took me a long time to do the work and I became more and more
tired during this time)
- We went to the cinema last night. It took us a long time to find somewhere to
park the car. By the time we got to the cinema, the film had already started.
Also by then or by that time:
- Jane finally arrived at the party at midnight, but by then (or by that time), most
of the guests had gone.
Prepositions
120. At/on/in (time)
a. Compare at, on and in
- they arrived at 5 o’clock
- they arrived on Friday
- they arrived in October. They arrived in 1968
we use:
at for the time of day:
at 5 o’clockat 11.45 at midnight at lunchtime at sunset, etc.
on for days and dates:
on Friday on 12 March 1991 on my birthday on feastday,etc.
in forlonger periods (ex, months/years/season):
in April in the 18th century in 1985 in the past
in (the) winter in the Middle Ages in the 1970s in (the) future
b. We use at in these expressions:
At night - I don’t like going out at night
At the weekend/at weekend - Will you be here at the weekend
At Christmas/ at Easter - Do you give each other present at Christmas?
(but on Christmas Day)
At the moment/ at present - Mr. Benn is busy at the moment/ at present
At the same time - Liz and I arrived at the same time

Note: that we usually ask ‘What time …?’ (not usually ‘at what time..?’)
- What time are you going out this evening?
c. We say:
In the morning(s) in the afternoon(s) in the evening(s)
- I’ll see you in the morning. - Do you work in the evening?
But:
On Friday morning(s) on Sunday afternoon(s) on Monday evening(s)
- I’ll be at home on Friday morning
- Do you usually go out on Saturday evening?
d. Wedo not use at/in/on before last/next/this/every:
- I’ll see you next Friday. (not on next Friday).
- They got married last March.
e. In a few minutes/ in six months etc. = at time in the future.
- The train will be leaving in a few minutes. (= a few minutes from now)
- Jack has gone away. He’ll be back in a week. (=a week from now)
- She’ll be here in a moment. (= a moment from now)
You can also say ‘in six months’ time’, ‘in a week’s time’ etc:
- They’re getting married in six months time. (or …. In six months)
We also use in … to say how long it takes to do something:
- I learnt to drive in four weeks. (= it took me four weeks to learn)
121. On time/ in time At the end/ in the end
a. On time and in time
On time = punctual, not late.if something happens on time, it happens at the time
which was panned:
- The 11.45 train left on time. (=left at 11.45)
- ‘I’ll meet you at 7.30.’ ‘OK, but please be on time.’ (= don’t be late, be there
at 07.30).
- The conference wasvery well organized. Everything began and finished on
time.
The opposite of on time is late
- Be on time. Don’t be late.
In time (for something/ to do something) = soon enough
- Will you be home in time for dinner? (=soon enough for dinner)
- I’ve sent Jill her birthday present. I hope it arrives in time (for her birthday).
(=soon enough for her birthday).

- I must hurry. I want to get home in time to see the football match on
television. (= soon enough to see the football match).
The opposite of in time is too late:
- I got home too late to see the football match.
You can say just in time (= almost too late)
- We got to the station just in time to catch the train.
- A child ran across the road in front of the car, but I managed to stop just in
time.
b. At the time and in the time
At the end (of something) = at the time when something ends. Ex:
At the end of the month At the end of January At the end of the match
At the end of the film At the end of the course At the end of the concert
- I’m going away at the end of January/ at the end of the month
- At the end of the concert, there was great applause.
- All the players shook hands at the end of the match.
You cannot say ‘in the end of something’. So you cannot say ‘in the end of
January’ or ‘in the end of the concert’.
The opposite of at the end is at the beginning:
At the beginning of January At the beginning of the concert
In the end = finally
We use in the end when we say what the final result of a situation was:
- we had a lot of problems with our car. In the end we sold it and bought
another one. (= finally we sold it).
- He got more and more angry. In the end he just walked out of the room.
- Jim couldn’t decide where to go for his holidays. He didn’t go anywhere in
the end..
The opposite of in the end is usually at first:
- At first we didn’t like each other very much, but in the end we become
good friends.
122. in/at/on (place) (1)
a. in
in a room in a garden
in a building in a town/ city
in a box in a country
- there’s no one in the room.
- What have you got in your hand/ in your mouth?
- When we were in Italy, we spent a few days in Venice. (not at Venice)

- I have a friend who lives in a small village in the mountain.
- Look at those people swimming in the pool/ in the sea/ in the river.
b. at
at the bus stop at the top (of the page) at the end of the street
at the door at the bottom (of a page)
at the window
- who is that man standing at the bus stop/ at the door?
- Turn left at the traffic lights/ at the roundabout
- Write your name at he top/ at the bottom of the page.
- Angela’s house is the white one at the end of the street.
- When you leave the hotel, please leave your key at reception.
c. on
on the ceiling on her nose on a page on an island
on the wall
- I sat on the floor/ on the beach.
- There’s s dirty mark on the wall/ your shirt.
- Have you seen the notice on the notice board?
- You’ll find detail of TV programmes on page seven (of the newspaper).
d. Compare in and at
- There were a lot of people in the shop. It was very crowded.
But Go along this road, then turn left at the shop. (somebody giving direction).
Compare in and on
- There is some water in the bottle
But There is a label on the bottle.
Compare at and on
- There is somebody at the door. Shall I go and see who it is?
But There is notice on the door. It says ‘Do not disturb’.
123. in/at/on (place) (2)
a. In We say that somebody/ something is:
in a line/ in a row/ in a street
in a photograph/ in a picture/ (look at your self) in a mirror
in the sky/ in the world
in a book/ in a newapaper/ in a magazine/ in a letter (but ‘on a page’)
- When I go to the cinema, I prefer to sit in the front row.
- I live in King Street. Sarah lives in Queen Street.
- Who is the women in that photograph? (not ‘on that photograph)

- Have you seen this article in the paper. (= newspaper)?
- It wal a lovely day. There wasn’t a cloud in the sky.
b. On We say that somebody/ something is:
On the left/ on the right
On the ground floor/ on the first floor, etc.
On the map/ on the menu (in a restaurant)/ on a list
On a farm
- In Britanian we drive on the left. (or …. On the left-hand side)
- Our flat is on the second floor of the building.
- Here’s shopping list. Don’t buy anything that’s not on the list.
- Have you ever worked on a farm?
We say that a place in on a river/ on a road/ on the coast:
- London is on the river Thames.
- Portsmouth is on the south coast of England.
We say that a place is on the way to another place:
- We stopped at asmall village on the way to London
c. The corner
We say ‘in the corner or a room’, but ‘at the corner (or on the corner) of a street:
- The television is in the corner of the room.
- There is a public telephone at/on the corner of the street.
d. The front and the back
We say in the front/ in the back of a car:
- I was sitting in the back (of the car) when we crashed.
But
At the front/ at the back of a building/ cinema/ group of people, etc:
- The garden is at the back of the house.
- Let’s sit at the front (of the cinema). (but ‘in the front row’ – See section A)
- I was standing at the back, so I couldn’t see very well.
Also
On the front/ on the back of letter/ piece of paper, etc:
- Write your name on the back of this envelope.
124. In/at/on (place) (3)
a. In bed / at home
We say that somebody is in bed/ in hospital/ in prison:
- Mark isn’t up yet. He’s still in bed.
- Kay’s mother is in hospital.

We say that somebody is at home/ at work/ at school/ at university/ at collage:
- I’ll be at work until 5.30 but I’ll be at home all evening.
- Julia is studying chemistry at university.
Also at sea (= on a voyage). Compare at sea and in the sea:
- It was a long voyage. We were at sea for 30 days.
- I love swimming in the sea.
b. At a party/ at a corner
We say that somebody is at an event (at a party/ at a conference)
- Were there many people at the party/ at the meeting.
- I saw Jack at a football match/ at a concert last Saturday.
c. In and at for building
You can often use in or at with buildings. Ex, you can eat in a restaurant or at a
restaurant. We usually say at when we say where an event takes place (ex, a concert,
a film, aparty, a meeting, a sport event):
- We went to a concert at the Royal Festival Hall.
- The meeting took place at the company’s headquarters.
- The film I want to see is showing at the Odeon (cinema).
We say at the station/ at the airport:
- Don’t meet me at the station. I can get a taxi.
We say at somebody’s house:
- I was at Judy’s house last night. Or I was at Judy’s last night.
Also: at the doctor’s , at the hairdresser, etc.
We use in when we are thinking about the building itself:
- The rooms in Judy’s house are very small. (not ‘ Judy’s house’).
- I aenjoyed the film but it was very cold in the cinema. (not ‘ at the cinema’).
d. In and at for town
We normally use in with cities, town and villages:
- Tom’s parents live in Nottingham. (not ‘at Nottingham’)
- The Louvre is a famous art museum in Paris. (not ‘at Paris’)
But you can use at or in when you think of the place as a point or station on a
journey:
- Do you know if this train stop at (or in) Nottingham? (not ‘at Nottingham
station’)
- We stopped at (or in) a small village on the way to London.

e. On a bus/ in acar
We usually say on a bus/ on a train/ on a plane/ on a ship but in a car/ in a taxi:
- The bus was very full. There were too many people on it.
- George arrived in a taxi.
We say on bicycle/ on a motorcycle/ on a horse:
- Mary passed me on her bicycle.
125. To/at/in/into
a. We say go/ come/ travel (etc). to place or event. Ex:
Go to Amerika go to bed take (somebody) to hospital
Return to Italy go to the bank come to my house
Drive to the airport go to a concert be sent to prison
- When are your friends returning to Italy? (not ‘returning in Italy’)
- After the accident three people were taken to hospital.
In the same way we say : on my way to …/ a journey to …/ a trip to …/ welcome
to… etc:
- Welcome to our country! (not ‘welcome in’)
Compare to (for movement) an in/at (for position):
- They are going to France. But They live in France.
- Can you come to the party? But I’ll see you at the party.
b. Been to
We usually say ‘I’ve been to a place’:
- I’ve been to Italy four times but I’ve never been to Rome.
- Ann has never been to a football match in her life.
- Jack has got some money. He has just been to the bank.
c. Get and arrive
We can say ‘get to a place’:
- What time did they get to London/ get a work/ get to the party?
But we say ‘arrive in …’ or ‘arrive at …’ (not ‘arrive to’).
We say ‘arrivein a country or town/city’:
- When did they arrive in Britanian/ arrive in London?
For other places (building etc) or event, we say ‘arrive at’:
- What time did they arrive at the hotel/ arrive at the party/ arrive at work.
d. Home
We do not say ‘to home’. We say go home/ come home/ get home/ arrive home/ on
the way home etc. (no preposition).
- I’m tired. Let’s go home. (not ‘go to home’)

- I met Caroline on my way home.
But we sat ‘be at home’, ‘stay at home’, ‘do something at home’, etc.
e. Into
‘Go into …’, ‘get into …’ etc. =’enter’ (a room/ a building/ a car, etc).
- She got into the car and drove away.
- A bird flew into the kitchen through the window.
We sometimes use in (instead of onto):
- Don’t wait outside. Come in the house. (or come into the house)
Note that we say ‘enter a building/ enter a room’ etc. (not ‘enter into’)
The opposite of into is out of:
- She got out of the car and went into a shop.
Note that we usually say ‘get on/ off a bus/ a train/ a plane’:
- She got on the bus and I never saw her again.
126. On/in/at (Other uses)
a. On holiday etc
(be/go) on holiday/ on business/ on a trip/ on a tour/ on a cruise/ etc:
- Tom’s away at the moment. He’s on holiday in France. (not ‘in holiday’)
- Did you go to Germany on business or on holiday?
- One day I’d like to go on a world tour.
Note that you can also say: ‘go to a place for a holiday/ for my holiday(s)’:
- Tom has gone to France for a holiday. (not ‘for holiday’)
- Where are you going for your holidays next summer?
b. Other expressions with on
On television/ on the radio:
- I didn’t watch the news on television, but I heard it on the radio.
On the phone/ telephone:
- You can’t phone me. I’m not on the phone.
- I’ve never met her but I’ve spoken to her on the phone.
(be/ go) on strike/ on a diet:
- There are no trains today. The railway workers are on strike.
- I’ve put on a lot of weight. I’ll have to go on a diet.
(be) on fire:
- Look! That car is on fire!.
On the whole (= in general)
- Sometimes I have problem at work but on the whole I enjoy my job.
On purpose (= intentionally)
- I’m sorry. I didn’t mean to annoy you. I didn’t do it to purpose.

But: by mistake/ by chance/ by accident (see unit 127).
c. Expressions with in
In the rain/ in the sun (= sunshine)/ in the shade/ in the dark/ in bad weather etc:
- We sat in the shade. It was too hot to sit in the sun.
- Don’t go out in the rain. Wait until it stops.
(write) in ink/ in biro/ in pencil:
- When you do the exam, you’re not allowed to write in pencil.
Also: in words, in figure, in BLOCK LETTERS etc:
- Please fill in the form in block letters.
(pay) in cash:
- I paid the bill in cash. But I paid by cheque/ by credit card.
(be/ fall) in love (with somebody):
- Have you ever been in love with anybody?
In (my) opinion:
- In my opinion, the film wasn’t very good.
d. At the age of … etc.
We say: at the age of …/ at a speed of …/ at a temperature of …etc. example:
- Jill left school at 16. or … at the age of 16.
- The train was traveling at 120 miles an hour. Or …at a speed of 120 miles an
hour.
- Water boils at 100 degrees celsius.
127. By
We use by in a number of different ways:
a. We use by … in many expression to say how we do something. Example, you can:
Send something by post do something by hand
Pay by cheque/ by credit card (but pay in cash)
Or something can happen by mistake/ by accident/ by chance (but do something on
purpose):
- Did you pay be cheque or in cash?
- We hadn’t arranged to meet. We meet by chance.
In these expressions we use by + noun without ’a’ or ‘the’. We say by chance/ by
cheque etc. (not ‘by a chance/ by a cheque’).
b. In the same way we use by … to say how somebody travels:
By car/ by train/ by plane/ by boat/ by ship/ by bus/ by bicycle etc
And By road/ by rail/ by air/ by sea/ by underground
- Liz usually goes to work by bus.

- Do you prefer to travel by air or by train?
But we say ‘on foot’:
- Did you come here by car or on foot?
You cannot use by if you say ‘my car’/ ‘the train’/ ‘a taxi’ etc. we use by + noun
without ‘a/ the/ my’ etc. we say:
By car but in my car (not ‘by my car’)
By train but on the train (not ‘by the train’)
We use in for cars and taxis:
- They didn’t come in their car. They came in taxi.
We use on for bicycle and public transport (buses, trains etc):
- We traveled on the 6.45 train.
c. We say ‘something is done by somebody/ something’ (passive – see unit 41-43):
- Have you ever been bitten by a dog?
- The programme was watched by millions of people.
Compare by and with:
- The door must have been opened with a key. (not ‘by a key’).
(= somebody used a key to open it)
- The door must have been opened by somebody with a key.
We say ‘a play by Shakespare’, ‘a painting by Rembrandt’, ‘a novel by Tolstoy’ etc.
- Have you read any books by Agatha Christie?
d. By also means next to/ beside:
- Come and sit by me. (= beside me)
- ‘Where’s the light switch?’ ‘By the door’.
e. Note the following use of by …:
- Clare’s salary has just gone up from £1,000 a month to £1,100. So it has
increased by £100 / by ten per cent.
- John and Roger had a race over 100 metres. Roger won by about five metres.
128. Noun + preposition (reason for, cause of etc)
a. Noun + for
A cheque FOR (a sum of money):
- They sent me a cheque for £754.
A demand FOR/ a need FOR…:
- The firm closed down because there wasn’t enough demand for its product.
- There’s no excuse for behaviour like that. There’s no need for it.
A reason FOR…:
- The train was late but nobody knew the reason for the delay. (not ‘reason of’)

b. Noun + of
An advantage/ a disadvantage OF…:
- The advantage of living alone is that you can do what you like.
But we usually say: ‘there is an advantage in (or to) doing something’:
- There are many advantages in (or to) living alone.
A cause OF…:
- Nobody knows what the cause of the explosion was.
A photograph/ a picture/ a map/ a plan/ a drawing (etc) OF…:
- She showed me some photographs of her family.
- I had a map of the town, so I was able to find my way around.
c. Noun + in
An increase/ a decrease/ a rise/ a fall IN (prices etc):
- There has been an increase in the number of road accidents recently.
- Last year was a bad year for the company. There was a big fall in sales
d. Noun + to
Damage TO…:
- The accident was my fault, so I had to pay for the damage to the other car.
An invitation TO… (a party/ a wedding etc):
- Did you get an invitation to the party?
A solution TO (a problem)/ a key TO (a door)/ an answer TO (a question)/ a reply
TO (a letter)/ a reaction TO…:
- Do you think we’ll find a solution to the problem? (not ‘a solution of the
problem’)
- I was surprised at her reaction to my suggestion.
An attitude TO… (or TOWARDS…):
- His attitude to his job is very negative. Or His attitude towards his job…
e. Noun + with…/ between…
A relationship/ a connection/ contact WITH…:
- Do you have a good relationship with your parents?
- The police want a question a man in connection with the robbery.
But: a relationship/ a connection/ contact/ a difference BETWEEN two things or
people:
- The police believe that there is no connection between the two crimes.
- There are some difference between British and American English.

129. Adjective + preposition (1)
a. It was nice of you to…
Nice/ kind/ good/ generous/ polite/ silly/ stupid etc OF somebody (to do
something):
- Thank you. It was very nice/kind of you to help me.
- It is stupid of her to go out without a coat in such cold weather.
But (be) nice/ kind/ good/ generous/ polite/ friendly/ cruel etc TO somebody:
- They have always benn very nice/ kind to me. (not ‘with me’)
- Why were you so unfriendly to Tessa?
b. Adjective + about/ with
Angry/ annoyed/ furious ABOUT something
WITH somebody FOR doing something
- It’s stupid to get angry about things that don’t matter.
- Are you annoyed with me for being late?
Excited/ worried/ upset/ nervous/ happy etc ABOUT something:
- Are you excited about going on holiday next week?
- Carol is upset about not being invited to the party.
Delighted/ pleased/ satisfied/ disappointed WITH something:
- I was delighted with the present you gave me.
- Were you disappointed with your exam results?
c. Adjective + at/ by/ with
Surprised/ shocked/ amazed/ astonished AT/ BY something:
- Everybody was surprised at (or by) the news.
- I hope you weren’t shocked by (or at) what I said.
Impressed WITH/ BY somebody/ something:
- I’m very impressed with (or by) her English. It’s very good.
Fed up/ bored WITH something:
- I don’t enjoy my job any more. I’m fed up with it. / I’m bored with it.
d. Sorry about/ for
Sorry ABOUT something:
- I’m sorry sbout the noise last night. We were having a party.
But usually sorry FOR doing something:
- I’m sorry for shouting at you yesterday.
You can also say ‘I’m sorry I (did something)’:
- I’m sorry I shouted at you yesterday.
We say ‘to feel/ to be sorry FOR somebody’:
- I feel sorry for George. He has a lot of problems.

130. Adjective + preposition (2)
a. Adjective + of (1)
Afraid/ frightened/ terrified/ scared OF…:
- ‘Are you afraid of dogs?’ ‘Yes, I’m terrified of them.’
Fond/ proud/ ashamed/ jealous/ envious OF…:
- Awhy are you always so jealous of other people?
Suspicious/ critical/ tolerant OF…:
- He didn’t trust me. He was suspicious of my intentions.
b. Adjective + of (2)
Aware/ conscious OF…:
- ‘Did you know he was married?’ ‘No, I wasn’t aware of that.’
Capable/ incapable OF…:
- I’m sure you are capable of passing the examination.
Full OF…/ short OF…:
- The letter I wrote was full of mistakes. (not ‘full with’)
- I’m a bit short of money. Can you lend me some?
Typical OF….:
- He’s late again. It’s typical of him to keep everybody waiting.
Tired OF…:
- Come on, let’s go! I’m tired of waiting. (= I’ve had enough of waiting)
Certain/ sure OF or ABOUT…:
- I think she’s arriving this evening but I’m not sure of that. (or …sure about that)
c. Adjective + at/ to/ from/ in/ on/ with/ for
Good/ bad/ excellent/ brilliant/ hopeless (etc) AT…:
- I’m not very good at repairing things. (not ‘good in repairing things’)
Married/ engaged TO…:
- Linda is married to an American. (not ‘married with’)
But - Linda is married with three children. (= she is married and has three
children)
similat TO…:
- Your writing is similar to mine.
Different FROM (or TO)…:
- The film was different from what I’d expected. (or …different to what I’d
expected.)
Interested IN…:
- Are you interested in art?
Keen ON…:
- We stayed at home because Cathy wasn’t very keen on going out.

Dependent ON… (but ‘independent OF…’):
- I don’t want to be dependent on anybody.
Crowded WITH (people etc):
- The city centre was crowded with tourists. (but ‘full of tourists’)
Famous FOR…:
- The Italian city of Florence is famous for its art treasures.
Responsible FOR…:
- Who was responsible for all that noise last night?
131. Verb + preposition (1) at and to
a. Verb + at
Look/ have a look/ stare/ glance (etc) AT…:
- Why are you looking at me like that?
Laugh/ smile AT…:
- I look stupid with this haircut. Everybody will laugh at me.
Aim/ point (something) AT…, shoot/ fire (a gun) AT... (= 'in the direction of’):
- Don’t point that knife at me. It’s dangerous.
- We saw some people with guns shooting at birds.
b. Verb + to
Talk/ speak TO (somebody) (‘with’ is also possible but less usual):
- Who was that man you were talking to?
- Can I speak to Jane, please?
Listen TO…:
- We spent the evening listening to music. (not ‘listening music’)
Write (a letter) TO…:
- Sorry I haven’t writtern to you for such a long time.
But phone/ telephone somebody (no preposition):
- Did you phone your father yesterday? (not ‘phone to your father’)
Invite (somebody) TO (a party/ a wedding etc):
- They only invited a few people to their wedding.
c. Some verbs can be followed bt at or to, with a difference of meaning. Example:
Shout AT somebody (when you are angry):
- She got very angry and started shouting at me.
Shout To somebody (so that they can hear you):
- She shouted to me from the other side of the street.
Throw something AT somebody/something (in order to hit them):
- Somebody threw an egg at the minister.
Throw something TO somebody (for somebody to catch):

- Judy shouted ‘Catch!’ and threw the keys to me from the window.
d. Explain/ describe/ apologise
We say explain something (TO somebody):
- Can you explain this word to me? (not ‘explain me this word’)
Also: ‘explain (to somebody) that/ what/ how/ why…’:
- I explained to them what I wanted them to do. (not ‘I expalained them’)
Describe is similar:
- Let me describe to you what I saw.
Note that we say ‘apologise TO somebody (for..)’:
- He apoligised to me. (not ‘he apologized me’)
But ‘thank somebody (for something)’, ‘ask somebody (for something)’:
- He asked me for money. (not ‘he asked to me’)
132. Verb + preposition (2) about/for/of/after
a. Verb + about
Talk ABOUT…/ read ABOUT…/ tell somebody ABOUT…/ have a discussion
ABOUT…:
- We talked about a lot of things at the meeting.
But ‘discuss something’ (no preposition):
- We discussed a lot of things at the meeting. (not ‘discussed about’)
Also: ‘do something ABOUT something’ (= do something to improve a bad
situation):
- If you’re worried about the problem, you should do something about it.
b. Care about, care of and take care of
Care ABOUT somebody/something (= I think that somebody/something is
important):
- He’s very selfish. He doesn’t care about other people.
We say ‘care what/where/how’ (etc) (without ‘about’):
- You can do what you like. I don’t care what you do.
Care FOR somebody/something:
i) = like something (usually in questions and negative sentences):
- Would you care for a cup of coffee? (= would you like…?)
- I don’t care for very hot weather. (= I don’t like…)
ii) = look after somebody:
- Albert is 85 and lives alone. He needs somebody to care for him.
Take care OF… (= look after):
- Have a nice holiday. Take care of yourself! (= look after yourself)

c. Verb + for
Ask (somebody) FOR…:
- I wrote to the company asking them for more information about the job.
But - I asked her a question. / They asked me thae way to the station.
(no preposition)
Apply (TO a person, a company etc) FOR (a job etc):
- I think this job would suit you. Why don’t you apply for it?
Wait FOR…/ wait FOR something to happen:
- Don’t wait for me. I’ll join you later.
- I’m not going out yet. I’m waiting for the rain to stop.
Search (a person/ a place/ a bag etc) FOR…:
- I’ve searched (the house) for my keys but I still can’t find them.
Leave (a place) FOR (another place):
- I haven’t seen her since she left (home) for work this morning. (not ‘left to
work’)
d. Look for and look after
Look FOR… (search for, try to find):
- I’ve lost my keys. Can you help me to look for them?
Look AFTER… (= take care of):
- Albert is 85 and lives alone. He needs somebody to look after him. (not ‘look
for’)
- You can borrow this book if you promise to look after it.
133. Verb + preposition (3) about and of
a.
Dream ABOUT…:
- I dream about you last night. (whjen I was asleep)
Dream OF being something/ doing something (= imagine):
- I often dream of being rich.
- ‘Don’t tell anyone what I said.’ ‘No, I wouldn’t dream of it.’ (= I would never
do it)
b.
Hear ABOUT… (= be told about something):
- Did you hear about the fight in the club on Saturday night?
Hear OF… (= know that somebody/ something exists):
- ‘Who is Tom Madely?’ ‘I’ve no idea. I’ve never heard of him.’ (not ‘heard
from him’)
Also: hear FROM.., (= receive a letter or phone call from somebody):

- ‘Have you heard from Jane recently?’ ‘Yes, I got a letter from her a few days
ago.’
c.
Think ABOUT… and think OF…
When you think ABOUT something, you consider it, you concentrate your mind
on it:
- You look serious. What are you thinking about?
- ‘Will you lend me the money?’ ‘I’ll think about it.’
When you think OF something, the idea comes to your mind:
- He told me his name but I can’t think of it now. (not ‘think about it’)
- That’s a good idea. Why didn’t I think of that? (not ‘think about that’)
We also use think of when we ask or give an opinion:
- ‘What did you think of the film?’ ‘I didn’t think much of it.’
The difference is sometimes very small. Often you can use of or about:
- When I’m alone, I often think of (or about) you.
You can say ‘think of or think about doing something’ (for possible future
actions):
My sister is thinking of (or about) going to Canada. (= she is considering it)
d.
Remind somebody ABOUT… (= tell somebody not to forget):
- I’m glad you reminded me about the meeting. I had completely forgotten it.
Remind somebody OF… (= cause somebody to remember):
- This house reminds me of the one I lived in when I was a child.
- Look at this photograph of Richard. Who does he remind you of?
e.
Complain (TO somebody) ABOUT… (= say that you are not satisfied):
- We complained to the manager of the restaurant about the food.
Complain OF a pain, an illness etc (= say that you have a pain etc):
- We called the doctor because Geroge was complaining of a pain in his stomach.
f.
Wanr somebody OF/ ABOUT a danger, something bad which might happen:
- Everybody has been warned of/ about the danger of smoking.
Warn somebody ABOUT somebody/something which is dangerous, unusual etc:
- I knew he was a strange person. I had been warned about him. (not ‘warned of
him’)
- Vicky warned us about the traffic. She said it would be bad.

134. Verb + preposition (4) of/for/from/on
a. Verb + of
Accuse/ suspect somebody OF…:
- Sue accused me of being selfish.
- Three students were suspected of cheating in the examination.
Approve OF…:
- His parents don’t approve of what he does, but they can’t stop him.
Die OF (an illness):
- ‘What did he die of?’ ‘A heart attack.’
Consist OF…:
- We had an enormous meal. It consisted of seven courses.
b. Verb + for
Pay (somebody) FOR…:
- I didn’t have enough money to pay (the waiter) for the meal. (not ‘pay the
meal’)
But ‘pay a bill/ a fine/ a tax/ a fare/ rent/a sum of money etc (no preposition):
- I didn’t have enough money to pay my telephone bill.
Thank/ forgive somebody FOR…:
- I’ll never forgive them for what they did.
Apologise (to somebody) FOR…:
- When I realized I was wrong, I apologized (to them) for my mistake.
Blame somebody/something FOR…:
- Everybody blamed me for the accident.
Also: ‘somebody is to blame for..’:
- Everybody said that I was to blame for the accident.
Also: blame something ON…:
- Everybody blamed the accident on me.
c. Verb + from
Suffer FROM (an illness etc):
- The number of people suffering from heart disease has increased.
Protect somebody/something FROM (or AGAINTS)…:
- Sun oil can protect the skin from the sun. (or …against the sun.)
d. Verb + on
Depend ON…/ rely ON…:
- ‘What time will you arrive?’ ‘I don’t know. It depends on the traffic.’
- You can rely on Jill. She always keeps her promises.
You can use depend + when/where/how etc (question words) with or without on:

- ‘Are you going to buy it?’ ‘it depends how much it is.’ (or depends on how
much)
Live ON (money/food):
- George’s salary is very low. It isn’t enough to live on.
Congratulate (someone) ON…/ compliment (someone) ON…:
- I congratulated her on her success in the exam.
135. Verb + preposition (5) in/into/with/to/on
a. Verb + in
Believe IN…:
- Do you believe in God? (do you believe that God exists?)
Specialize IN…:
- Helen is a lawyer. She specializes in company law.
Succed IN…:
- I hope you succeed in finding the job you want.
b. Verb + into
Break INTO…:
- Our house was broken into a few days ago but nothing was stolen.
Crash/ drive/ bump/ run INTO…:
- He lost control of the car and crashed into a wall.
Divide/cut/split something INTO (two or more parts):
- The book is divided into three parts.
- Cut the meat into small pieces before frying it.
Translate (a book etc) FROM one language INTO another:
- George Orwell’s books have been translated into many languages.
c. Verb + with
Collide WITH…:
- There was an accident this morning. A bus collided with a car. (but ‘crashed
into)
Fill something WITH… (but full of… - see unit 130B):
- Take this saucepan and fill it with water.
Provide/supply somebody WITH…:
- The school provides all its students with books.
d. Verb + to
Happen TO…:
- What happened to that gold watch you used to have? (= where is it now?)
Provide one thing/person TO another:

- I prefer tea to coffee.
e. Verb + on
Concentrate ON…:
- Don’t look out of the window. Concentrate on your work.
Insist ON…:
- I wanted to go alone but they insisted on coming with me.
Spend (money) ON…:
- How much money do you spend on food each week?
136. phrasal verb (get up/ break down/ fill in etc)
a. We often use verb with the following words:
In on up away round about over by
Out off down back through along forward
So you can say put out/ get on/ take off/ run away etc. These verbs are phrasal
verbs.
We often use out/off/up etc with verbs movement. Example:
Get on - The bus was full. We couldn’t get on.
Drive off - A woman got into the car and drove off.
Come back - Sally is leaving tomorrow and coming back on Saturday.
Turn around - When I touched him on the shoulder, he turned round.
But often the second word (out/off/up etc) gives a special meaning to the verb.
Example:
Break down - Sorry I’m late. The car broke down. (= the engine stopped
working)
Look out - Look out! There’s a car coming. (= be careful)
Take off - It was my first flight. I was nervous as the plane took off.
(= went into the air)
Get up - I was very tired this morning. I couldn’t get up. (= get out of
bed)
Get on - How was the exa? How did you get on? (= how did you do?)
Get by - My French isn’t very good but it’s enough to get by. (= to
manage)
b. Sometimes a phrasal verb is followed by a preposition. Example:
Phrasal preposition
Run away from - Why did you run away from me?
Keep up with - You’re walking too fast. I can’t keep up with
you.
Look forward to - Are you looking forward to your holiday?

Cut down on - Jack is trying to cut down on smoking.
(= reduce smoking)
c. Sometimes a phrasal verb has an object. Usually there are two possible positions for
the object. So you can say:
I turned off the light. Or I turned the light off
If the object is a pronoun (it/them/me/him etc), only one position is possible:
I turned it off. (not ‘I turned off it)
Some more examples:
- Could you fill in this form?
fill this form in?
But They gave me a form and told me to fill it in. (not ‘I turned off it’)
- The police got into the house by breaking down the door.
Breaking the door down.
But The door wasn’t locked. Why did the police break it down? (not ‘break
down ir’)
- I think I’ll throw away these newspaper.
throw these newspaper away.
But Do you want these newspaper or shall I throw them away? (not ‘throw them
away’)
- Don’t wake up the baby.
wake the baby up.
But The baby is asleep. Don’t wake her up. (not ‘wake up her’)

English grammar in use

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English grammar in use