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![28 C. Smith-Christensen
Where an event produces externalities
resulting in market failures, the event may be
forced to rely on public sector funding unless
rendered financially unsustainable. In some cir-
cumstances, where there is a conflict between
individual and collective rationality, govern-
ment might intervene to assist demand, supply
and infrastructure, or otherwise reduce block-
ages (Bauer et al., 2001, p. 71; Solberg and
Preuss, 2005, p. 139). However, as pointed
out by Solberg and Preuss (2005, p. 139), ‘in
an ideal (rational) world, however, the govern-
ment would only be willing to support [an]
activity as long as the aggregate socio-economic
return exceeds the socio-economic costs’.
Yet, due to the difficulty in estimating the
holistic impacts of events, and more specifi-
cally the challenge of applying meaningful
measures to less tangible impacts, emphasis
has been put on economic aspects such as an
event’s ability to attract non-local visitors who
by their expenditures contribute to the local
economy. This rather narrow-minded approach
is not only due to inadequate evaluation meth-
ods and tools, but also could be attributed to
inadequate terminology. While focus has been
on economic impact and ROI, the sector is still
challenged by the inability to make informed
decisions based on TBL developmental consid-
erations and measures of ROO.
Concerned with the above, it is necessary
to reconsider the previously suggested defini-
tions of sustainable events. If applying the
strictest definition of sustainability, a truly sus-
tainable event should generate sufficient funds
through the market and not depend on subsi-
dies from the public sector. However, consider-
ing the potential of events to contribute to
sustainable development, rather than requiring
autonomy (Proposed Definitions 1 and 2), sus-
tainable events should denote events efficiently
utilizing their available resources (human
resources, infrastructure and funds), thereby
being self-sustaining without (or with a mini-
mum of) public sector support.
Development Objectives – Considering
Individual and Societal Needs
Besides acknowledging the call for taking a
holistic approach to development, it is just as
important to take into account the local needs
across the TBL. This is directly in line with the
Brundtland Commission’s definition of sustain-
able development (see earlier). Illustrating this,
it is obvious that a wealthy suburb in a devel-
oped country has different development needs
than a rural town in a developing country.
However, needs may also vary vastly within a
community and among stakeholders. In the
context of events, both individual event-goers’
needs as well as societal needs within the host
community should be of concern. While indi-
viduals’ needs are generally psychological,
societal needs are both objective as well as
psychological.
Psychological needs are described by
Maslow (1943) through the hierarchy of needs,
and include physiological needs, safety, belong-
ingness, esteem and self-actualization. Besides
individual variations within each stakeholder
group, the psychological needs of event-goers
and host community residents do not necessar-
ily correspond. While event attendees may
enjoy public spaces closed off from traffic, or
outdoor concerts, residents may find it interfer-
ing with their daily wants and needs. Objective
societal needs, on the other hand, generally
concern the broader economy, socioculture
and environment (i.e. the TBL), and could spe-
cifically entail development of a less seasonal
tourism economy, improved social cohesion
and resource management. While the pro-
gramme of an event may demonstrate more or
less sensitivity to local needs, such considera-
tion should nevertheless be a parameter within
the planning, design and marketing of an
event, as well as within the actual implementa-
tion and follow-up of an event.
The ability to distinguish between the sus-
tainability and responsibility of an event is spe-
cifically useful when negotiating individual and
societal needs. While an event’s contribution to
Proposed Definition 4
Sustainable events: events efficiently utilizing
available resources (human resources, infrastruc-
ture and funds), thereby being self-sustaining
without, or, in the case of externalities, with a
minimum of, public sector support.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11830-250706045458-d6d0ea43/75/Event-Management-and-Sustainability-First-Edition-Razaq-Raj-49-2048.jpg)
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- 8. Event Management andSustainability Edited by Razaq Raj and James Musgrave Leeds Metropolitan University, UK
- 9. CABI is atrading name of CAB International CABI Head Office CABI North American Office Nosworthy Way 875 Massachusetts Avenue Wallingford 7th Floor Oxfordshire OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02139 UK USA Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 617 354 6875 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.cabi.org ©CAB International 2009. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Event management and sustainability / edited by Razaq Raj and James Musgrave. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84593-524-5 (alk. paper) 1. Special events--Planning. 2. Special events--Environmental aspects. I. Raj, Razaq. II. Musgrave, James. III. Title. GT3405.E92 2006 394.2068--dc22 2009003839 ISBN: 978 1 84593 524 5 Typeset by SPi, Pondicherry, India. Printed and bound in the UK by MPG Books Group. The paper used for the text pages in this book is FSC certified. The FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) is an international network to promote responsible management of the world’s forests.
- 10. v Contents Contributors vii Preface xv PARTI: CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABILITY WITHIN THE EVENTS SECTOR 1. Introduction to a Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Events 1 J. Musgrave and R. Raj 2. Policy, Politics and Sustainable Events 13 M. Foley, D. McGillivray and G. McPherson 3. Sustainability as a Concept within Events 22 C. Smith-Christensen 4. Events and Sustainable Urban Regeneration 32 A. Smith 5. Indicators and Tools for Sustainable Event Management 43 K.A. Griffin PART II: ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF EVENTS 6. The Economics of Sustainable Events 56 R. Raj and J. Musgrave 7. Environmental Impacts of Events 66 L. Dávid 8. Social Impacts of Events 76 D. Tassiopoulos and D. Johnson 9. Long-term Legacy Implications for Olympic Games 90 D. Sadd and I. Jones
- 11. vi Contents PART III:MANAGEMENT MODELS AND FEASIBILITY OF SUSTAINABLE EVENTS 10. Critical Success Factors in Sustainable Events 99 C. Haven-Tang and E. Jones 11. Critique of Consumer Marketing within Sustainable Events 109 N. Richardson 12. Assessing and Monitoring the Performances of a 119 Sustainable Event L. Lamberti, I. Fava and G. Noci 13. Changing Trends in the American Meetings Industry 132 M.C. Paxson PART IV: MANAGEMENT MODELS AND FEASIBILITY OF SUSTAINABLE EVENTS 14. Planning Models for Creating Sustainable Events Management 140 S. Saeed-Khan and P. Clements 15. Sustainable Planning for Community Venues 150 J. Mendes, M. Guerreiro and P. Valle 16. Analysis of a Supply Chain in the Events Context: 160 Where Does the Food Come From? S. Beer PART V: SUSTAINABLE EVENTS – CASE STUDIES 17. Networking Processes and Stakeholders’ Power Relationships: 172 Impact on Event Activities in a Rural Region of Italy A. Capriello and I.D. Rotherham 18. Local Markets and Sustainable Development 186 P. Jones, D. Comfort and D. Hillier 19. Greening Live Earth UK 195 E. Harvey 20. Sustainable Demand Management in Plitvice Lakes 206 National Park, Croatia M. Tomašević Lišanin and M. Palić 21. Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival: Impacts on the 222 Local Community V. Altıntaş 22. Managing Sustainable Events: Using Kenya as a Case Study 232 R.N. Okech 23. Changes in the Publicity Mode of Past Expos: a Case of 241 Diachronic Comparison and Its Impact on Shanghai Expo G. Jurong and Z. Shichang 24. Financial Feasibility of Sustainable Events 249 G. Festa, G. Metallo and M.T. Cuomo Index 259
- 12. vii Contributors Volkan Altıntaş graduatedfrom Gazi University in Ankara, obtained an MSc in Tourism and Hotel Management at Akdeniz University in Antalya with a thesis on tourism and the European Union, and is currently is undertaking a PhD at Akdeniz University Institute of Social Sciences. His research areas are quality of life, tourism politics and local development. Volkan has been working as a research assistant at Akdeniz University Institute of Social Sciences since 2003. At the same time, he is a member of the Junior Researchers Team in the Center for European Integration Studies at Bonn University in Germany. Mailing address: Akdeniz University, School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Dumlupınar Boulvard, Antalya, Turkey; e-mail: altintas@ akdeniz.edu.tr Sean Beer is a researcher and teacher with extensive academic experience in the UK and abroad, backed up with considerable practical experience in agriculture, food, tourism, marketing and the rural economy in general. He is currently a Senior Lecturer in the School of Services Management at Bournemouth University. His principal research and teaching interests include the food supply chain, consumer behaviour, rural business, and society and development. Sean is a Rotary Foundation Scholar, a Winston Churchill Fellow and a Nuffield Scholar; he is a regular commen- tator on radio and television and is active in the community. Mailing address: School of Services Management, Bournemouth University, Dorset House, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Antonella Capriello (PhD, University of Turin) is an Assistant Professor in Marketing at the University of Eastern Piedmont. Her research interests concern event management, rural tourism, and strategic marketing for the hospitality industry. In 2006 she was a Visiting Scholar at the University of Brighton, UK and a Visiting Researcher at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. She received prizes from the Italian Academy of Management in 2007, the Piedmont Region in 2007 and the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management at the International Conference in Alanya, Turkey in 2008. She is the author of over 40 publications including books, book chapters, articles and conference proceedings. Mailing address: Department of Business Studies and Environment, University of Eastern Piedmont, Via Perrone 18, I-28100 Novara, Italy; e-mail: [email protected] Phil Clements is a Senior Lecturer and Course Leader at the UK Centre for Events Management, Leeds Metropolitan University, and has a wide range of experience as both an academic and a
- 13. viii Contributors practitioner inthe hospitality, tourism and events industry. His pragmatic approach to sustainable events management is based not only on academic interest and research, but also includes interna- tional exposure and involvement in tourism and events activity – from the tropical rainforests of Australia to high-profile sporting events such as the Sydney 2000 Olympics, the unique hospitality events of New Zealand, and tourist operations in the Mediterranean and the French Alps. Mailing address: UK Centre For Events Management, Leeds Metropolitan University, Civic Quarter, Leeds LS1 3HE, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Daphne Comfort is the Research Administrator of the Business School at the University of Gloucestershire. She is a geography graduate and her research interests are in new developments in retailing, sustainable development, corporate social responsibility and woodland management. She is currently working on a project which evaluates the nature and quality of the student experi- ence. Mailing address: The Business School, University of Gloucestershire, The Park, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL50 2RH, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Maria Teresa Cuomo is a tenured Researcher and teaches Marketing and Systems of Market Analysis at the University of Salerno. Her numerous research interests range from marketing and market research to international management and finance. She has published several articles as well as numerous studies. She regularly participates at national and international conferences and is a Member of the PhD Joint Teaching Committee at the School of Economics. At present she is visiting at the Business School, Hull University, UK. Besides her commitment to academic and scientific research, she is also widely engaged in applied research and consultancy. Mailing address: School of Economics, Department of Business Studies and Researches, University of Salerno, Via Ponte Don Melillo, I-84084 Fisciano, Italy; e-mail: [email protected] Lóránt Dávid was born in Hungary and graduated in History, Geography, European Studies and Tourism. He is Professor in Tourism at Károly Róbert College, Gyöngyös, and Honorary Associate Professor at Szent István University, Gödöllő, Hungary. He has longstanding teaching, publica- tion and research interests in tourism, regional development and environmental studies. More recently he has been undertaking research on tourism management. He is the author and editor of more than ten books as well as over 100 journal articles and book chapters, and has been active in a number of international research and teaching associations. Mailing address: Department of Tourism and Regional Development, Károly Róbert College, Mátrai u. 36, 3200 Gyöngyös, Hungary; e-mail: [email protected] Ilaria Fava, PhD in Marketing and Management, is International Business Developer for Corporate Education at MIP Business School. Her research interests are in the field of marketing strategy, with a special focus on the convergence between marketing and supply chain, and in exhibition and convention management. She collaborates with the Sino-Italian Research and Training Centre on Exhibition & Convention Industry. Mailing address: School of Management, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, I-20133 Milan, Italy; e-mail: fava@mip. polimi.it Giuseppe Festa is Research Professor of Management at the School of Economics of the University of Salerno, where he is a Lecturer in Marketing. He is the author of numerous scien- tific works, mainly in the fields of health management and information technology management. Giuseppe is also a member of the Faculty of the PhD Course in Marketing and Communication and President of UNISCE, the Alumni Association of the School of Economics. As a consultant, he is Scientific Director of Consorzio ISMESS (Istituto Mediterraneo di Scienze Sanitarie) and External Verifier for the ECDL Health Certification c/o AICA (Associazione Italiana per l’Informatica e il Calcolo Automatico). Mailing address: School of Economics, Department of Business Studies and Researches, University of Salerno, Via Ponte Don Melillo, I-84084 Fisciano, Italy; e-mail: [email protected]
- 14. Contributors ix Malcolm Foleyhas an extensive publishing record in the field of events and festivity. He also has significant international experience of consulting in festival and events development for various national government organizations including Singapore, Indonesia, Syria, South Africa and South Korea. Professor Foley has been a keynote contributor to international conferences on festivals and events, including conferences held in Montreal (Canada), Waikato (New Zealand), Queensland (Australia) and West Sumatra. His current academic focus is on achievement of the ‘common good’ in a shared power world as it applies to cultural activity in local communities. Mailing address: Caledonian Business School, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Kevin A. Griffin (BEd, MA, PhD) initially studied teaching, then tourism organization and then historic settlement, and worked in a number of Geography Departments in the Dublin/Kildare area. Since 2001 he has worked at DIT, where he is actively involved in teaching and researching a broad range of tourism topics with particular specialism in both heritage and sustainable tour- ism. Now Head of the Department of Tourism, his main research interests include tourism and sustainability, religious tourism/pilgrimage, heritage tourism, social tourism and teaching meth- odologies. Mailing address: Department of Tourism, School of Hospitality Management and Tourism, Dublin Institute of Technology, Cathal Brugha Street, Dublin 1, Republic of Ireland; e-mail: [email protected] Maria Manuela Martins Guerreiro has a Bachelor’s in Marketing, a Master’s in Cultural Business Administration (University of Algarve and Université Paris-8) and a PhD in Management (‘City branding: The case of European capitals of Culture’, University of Algarve). She has been Assistant Professor of Marketing, Services Marketing and Human Resources Management at the Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, since 1996. Her current research interests include marketing and branding places, cultural tourism, events management, and tourism destination images. Mailing address: Faculdade de Economia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005- 139 Faro, Portugal; e-mail: [email protected] Emma Harvey (Director, SaltaSustainable and Senior Lecturer, International Centre for Responsible Tourism) is a sustainability consultant with a pragmatic, commercial approach and experience in ‘greening’ businesses, helping them to make carbon reductions and other environmental and social improvements. Recent clients include Wembley Stadium, the Live Earth global concert series, The Climate Group (a leading climate NGO), Virgin Atlantic, Enterprise Inns (a FTSE 2590 company with over 7500 public houses) and Divine Chocolate. Emma has a first class degree and a PhD in Psychology. She has 18 years’ experience of managing a range of initiatives, from small and local to large-scale, complex projects. Mailing address: SaltaSustainable, 31 Victoria Street, Leeds LS7 4PA, UK and International Centre for Responsible Tourism, Leeds Metropolitan University, Civic Quarter, Calverley Street, Leeds LS1 3HE, UK; e-mail: [email protected] and [email protected] Claire Haven-Tang is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Tourism, Hospitality and Events Management in the Cardiff School of Management at the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff (UWIC). Recent projects undertaken for the Tourism Training Forum for Wales, Capital Region Tourism, People 1st and Adventa include: exploring best practice in business and events tourism, labour market assessments, tourism industry training provision, and customizing sense of place. Her research interests include: destination development and tourism SMEs, sense of place, labour market and human resource development issues. She has co-edited a book (Tourism SMEs, Service Quality and Destination Competitiveness) with Professor Eleri Jones. Mailing address: Welsh Centre for Tourism Research, Cardiff School of Management, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff (UWIC), Colchester Avenue, Cardiff CF23 9XR, UK; e-mail: [email protected] David Hillier is Emeritus Professor in the Centre for Police Sciences at the University of Glamorgan. From 1994 to 2006 he was Head of Geography at Glamorgan. His principal
- 15. x Contributors research interestis in crime and the design of the urban fabric, and the work he has undertaken with Paul Cozens, now of Curtin University in Perth, Western Australia, has been widely dissemi- nated by the UK’s Home Office. David also has research interests in retail change, sustainability and urban regeneration. His work has been extensively published in a range of marketing, busi- ness and management, transport, planning and geography journals. Mailing address: Centre for Police Sciences, University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd CF37 1DL, UK; e-mail: dhillier@glam. ac.uk Guo Jurong, PhD, is Associate Professor in Antai College of Economics and Management, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, where he directs the EMBA Office. Advisor for the training and consultancy in many Chinese groups, he is Executive Director of CCPIT–Shanghai Jiao Tong University E&C Research Center. Mailing address: Room 115, Building 1, Antai College of Economics and Management, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 535 Fahua Road, Shanghai 200052, People’s Republic of China; e-mail: [email protected] Deborah Johnson is Head of the Tourism and Event Management Department, Faculty of Business, Cape Peninsula University of Technology. Since 1987 she has been involved in the tourism industry with tourism development and event management. She was responsible for pioneering the first event management qualification offered at a South African University of Technology. She is also involved with research linked to tourism and event management. Mailing address: Head of Department, Tourism and Event Management, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, PO Box 652, Cape Town 8000, South Africa; e-mail: [email protected] Eleri Jones is Director of Research in the Cardiff School of Management at the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff (UWIC). Her research interests are focused on innovation, information technology and human resource management in relation to sustainable tourism development. Professor Jones supervises an extensive international portfolio of research degree candidates, some in collaboration with colleagues from Africa and the Middle East. She is a member of the Welsh Assembly Government’s Tourism Advisory Panel, which advises the Minister for Heritage. She has managed a number of European projects including BESTBET, a European Union-funded project looking at best practice in business and event tourism. Mailing address: Welsh Centre for Tourism Research, Cardiff School of Management, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff (UWIC), Colchester Avenue, Cardiff CF23 9XR, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Ian Jones is an Associate Dean of Sport in the School of Services Management and Acting Head of the Centre for Event and Sport Research (CESR), Bournemouth University. His teaching inter- ests are based largely around the sociology of sport, sports management and research methods for sport. He has published in a variety of sport- and leisure-related journals, was co-author of Research Methods for Sport Studies (Routledge, 2004), and also co-edited two volumes, Leisure Cultures: Investigations in Media, Technology and Sport (LSA, 2003) and Serious Leisure: Extensions and Applications (LSA, 2006). He is a member of the advisory board for the Journal of Sport & Tourism. Mailing address: School of Services Management, Bournemouth University, Dorset House, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Peter Jones is a Professor in the Business School at the University of Gloucestershire, previously serving as Head of the Department of Retailing and Marketing at Manchester Metropolitan University and as Dean of the Business School at the University of Plymouth. He has undertaken educational and commercial consultancy work in Norway, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Greece, Spain, India, Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia. His current research interests are in corporate social responsibility and sustainability within the service sector of the economy. In the past Peter has published on the introduction of information and communication technologies within retail- ing and on urban fringe management projects. Mailing address: The Business School, University of Gloucestershire, The Park, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL50 2RH, UK; e-mail: pjones@ glos.ac.uk
- 16. Contributors xi Lucio Lamberti,PhD in Management Engineering, is a Marketing and Business Economics Lecturer at Politecnico di Milano. His research interests are in the field of marketing, with a spe- cial focus on customer-centric management, territorial marketing and exhibition and convention management. He collaborates with MIP Business School and the Sino-Italian Research and Training Centre on Exhibition & Convention Industry. Mailing address: School of Management, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, I-20133 Milan, Italy; e-mail: lucio.lamberti@ polimi.it David McGillivray is a Senior Lecturer in the Division of Cultural Business, Glasgow Caledonian University. His doctoral thesis applied a Foucauldian conceptual framework to the context of work– leisure relationships. His recent research investigations have focused on the events-led urban entre- preneurial strategies of developed and emerging global cities. He has also recently published on the sports fan experience of the Germany 2006 World Cup Fan Parks, applying a Foucauldian critical lens to consider this emerging events-related phenomenon. Commissioned research work includes an evaluation of the design and delivery of cultural entitlements in a Scottish rural environment. Mailing address: Caledonian Business School, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Gayle McPherson is the Acting Head of Division, Cultural Business and a Senior Lecturer in Cultural Policy at Glasgow Caledonian University. She leads a team with interests in the con- sumption and production of festivals and events, both on a global scale and in enhancing com- munity interests, and in using culture to develop the social economy. She has a particular interest in the social and cultural impacts and benefits of events on local communities. Commissioned research work includes the use of culture, as a planning tool, in deprived communities to develop social economy. Gayle co-wrote the ‘Culture, Ceremonies and Education’ element of the success- ful Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games bid and was the cultural advisor for over a year. Mailing address: Caledonian Business School, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Júlio da Costa Mendes (Bachelor’s in Business; Master’s in Business; PhD in Management – Strategy and Organizational Behaviour) is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, where he is Coordinator of the PhD programme in Tourism and in some Master’s and Post-Graduation Degrees. His current research interests include integrated quality management in tourism destinations, competitiveness, events management, tourism destinations image, branding, marketing strategies, and customer satisfaction. Júlio supervises some academic research studies. He has made several conference presentations, both in Portugal and abroad, and has professional experience in public and private companies. Mailing address: Faculdade de Economia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; e-mail: [email protected] Gerardino Metallo is Full Professor of Management and Business Development at the Faculty of Economics of the University of Salerno. His research interests range widely from business and finance issues, where he has published numerous works including I circuiti finanziari tra local- ismi e globalizzazione: Verso un’integrazione (Giuffrè, 1993), Decisioni di investimento nell’impresa commerciale complessa (Cedam, 1999) and Finanza sistemica per l’impresa (Giappichelli, 2007), to more general management, where he has published several articles in international journals and numerous other studies. Besides his commitment to academic and scientific research, Gerardino is also widely engaged in applied research and business consul- tancy. Mailing address: School of Economics, Department of Business Studies and Researches, University of Salerno, Via Ponte Don Melillo, I-84084 Fisciano, Italy; e-mail: [email protected] James Musgrave, BA(Hons), MSc, PGCE, is currently Course Leader for the MA in Responsible Events and is actively involved in the development of the new MSc distance learning programme and the undergraduate programme for the UK Centre for Event Management. At present,
- 17. xii Contributors James deliversmodules at undergraduate and postgraduate levels, including Strategic Management and Management Principles. His research interests are in strategic management and sustainable management principles, transitional management, transportation, planning strategies and audit trails, specifically related to the events sector. James worked for Thomas Danby College as Programme Leader for the hospitality management programmes. Before moving into education, James had a successful career in hotel and consultancy management for a range of national and international companies, where he gained much of his strategic planning experience and developed his skills in training. Mailing address: UK Centre For Events Management, Leeds Metropolitan University, Civic Quarter, Leeds LS1 3HE, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Giuliano Noci is Full Professor of Marketing at Politecnico di Milano, Dean of the Degree in Management Engineering of the Como campus (Politecnico di Milano) and Scientific Director of the Marketing area in all of the MBA programmes at MIP Business School. His research interests are in the field of consumer marketing, territorial marketing and exhibition and convention manage- ment. He is Vice-President of the Sino-Italian Research and Training Centre on Exhibition & Convention Industry. Mailing address: School of Management, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, I-20133 Milan, Italy; e-mail: [email protected] Roselyne N. Okech is Assistant Professor in Tourism Studies at Sir Wilfred Grenfell College, Memorial University of Newfoundland. She holds a Bachelor’s Degree in Commerce, a Master’s in Tourism Administration from India and a PhD in Tourism from KwaZulu-Natal University, South Africa. Her research interests include ecotourism planning and management, cultural tour- ism in various communities in Africa and issues in sustainable tourism and events. She has written numerous articles appearing in Anatolia, the Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, the World Journal of Tourism, Leisure and Sports and Tourism Today, among oth- ers. She is also a board member of ATLAS-Africa. Mailing address: Tourism Studies, Memorial University, Sir Wilfred Grenfell College, 10 University Drive, Corner Brook, Newfoundland A2H 6P9, Canada; e-mail: [email protected] Mirko Palić, PhD, is a Lecturer in the Marketing Department at the Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb. He lectures in Marketing and Marketing Channels at undergradu- ate level. His research interests include retail marketing, marketing innovation and marketing metrics. He is author of over 20 scientific papers and is involved in a number of commercial research projects with leading Croatian companies. Dr Palić is also a member of relevant market- ing associations such as CROMAR, CIRCLE and HUPUP. Mailing address: Marketing Department, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb, Trg J.F. Kennedya 6, Zagreb, Croatia; e-mail: [email protected] M. Chris Paxson, PhD, is an Associate Professor with the School of Hospitality Business Management at Washington State University. She currently teaches courses introducing students to the hospitality industry and in conventions and meetings management. Trained as a psycholo- gist, Dr Paxson’s research focuses on ageing and hospitality, management issues, teaching and learning, and survey methodology. Mailing address: School of Hospitality Business Management, Washington State University, Todd Hall Addition 470, PO Box 644742, Pullman, WA 99164- 4742, USA; e-mail: [email protected] Razaq Raj is a Senior Lecturer and Teacher Fellow at the UK Centre for Events Management, teaching Financial and Strategic Management. He has published work on special events, financial management in events, information technology, events sponsorship, cultural festivals and events, sustainable tourism and religious tourism. He is Editor-in-Chief of the World Journal of Tourism, Leisure and Sport and has edited/written the textbooks Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Man- agement: An International Perspective (CAB International, 2007) and Advanced Event Management: An Integrated and Practical Approach (SAGE Publishing, 2009). Mailing address:
- 18. Contributors xiii UK CentreFor Events Management, Leeds Metropolitan University, Civic Quarter, Leeds LS1 3HE, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Neil Richardson has over 20 years’ experience in sales management, marketing and customer service in the B2B sector, covering a wide spectrum of operational and strategic positions. Neil’s teaching areas have included postgraduate modules such as for the Chartered Institute of Marketing and at Master’s level. His undergraduate modules include consumer behaviour, sales management, retail marketing and digital and interactive marketing. Neil’s research has focused on sustainable marketing and he has published a number of articles. He has also undertaken consultancy work for a diverse range of organizations. Mailing address: Faculty of Business and Law, Leeds Metropolitan University, Civic Quarter, Leeds LS1 3HE, UK; e-mail: n.richardson@ leedsmet.ac.uk Ian D. Rotherham is a Reader in Tourism and Environmental Change at Sheffield Hallam University in the Faculty of Development and Society. He has researched and written exten- sively on a wide range of environmental subjects and on aspects of tourism in relation to culture, nature and economic impacts. He leads ongoing research projects on wildlife tourism, nature- based and cultural tourism, and related issues of marketing, quality assurance and networking. The work includes international collaborations especially in Europe and in the USA. His UK-based projects include the potential role of tourism and related hospitality to aid the regen- eration of rural areas and to engage local communities in the process. Mailing address: Tourism and Environmental Change Research Unit, Faculty of Development and Society, Sheffield Hallam University, City Campus, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Deborah Sadd is a PhD scholar in the School of Services Management at Bournemouth University, researching the urban regeneration legacies associated with the hosting of mega- events and in particular leveraging the legacy for London 2012. She teaches on the BA Events Management and MSc Events Management programmes as well as undertaking guest lectures within the Sports Management programme. Her research interests include social impacts of events, urban regeneration opportunities from events and legacy planning – particularly on the wider opportunities to be gained from hosting the London 2012 Olympic Games, not just those for the local communities in London. Mailing address: School of Services Management, Bournemouth University, Dorset House, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Sarah Saeed-Khan (BA and BEd, University of Manitoba) worked in the events industry for over 13 years on events that received national media coverage, establishing her as a well-known figure within the industry in Canada. In the UK, Sarah has organized corporate events for a number of blue-chip organizations (M&S, ASDA), as well as various music festivals across the UK. Sarah is now a Senior Lecturer in the UK Centre for Events Management at Leeds Metropolitan University and has recently gained her MSc. Mailing address: UK Centre For Events Management, Leeds Metropolitan University, Civic Quarter, Leeds LS1 3HE, UK; e-mail: S.Saeed-khan@leedsmet. ac.uk Zhu Shichang (BA, Fudan University and MA, Sydney University) is Full Professor of English and Dean of School of Foreign Languages of Shanghai Institute of Technology (SIT). Besides exhibi- tion and conference industry analysis, his major research interests also include discourse analysis, pragmatics and stylistics. Mailing address: Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Foreign Languages of Shanghai Institute of Technology (SIT), 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic of China; e-mail: [email protected] Andrew Smith is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Architecture and the Built Environment at the University of Westminster, where he leads an MA module in Events Tourism. He has pub- lished research in leading journals including Urban Studies, the Annals of Tourism Research and European Planning Studies. Andrew’s work focuses on the regeneration and re-imaging of
- 19. xiv Contributors cities, particularlythe use of sports events to assist these ambitions. His other publications con- cern city image change and the relationship between urban monuments and tourism marketing. His latest events research addresses social sustainability issues and, perhaps inevitably, the London 2012 Olympic Games. Mailing address: Centre for Tourism Research, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, University of Westminster, 35 Marylebone Road, London NW1 5LS, UK; e-mail: [email protected] Cecilie Smith-Christensen is a Norwegian economist with a special interest in events and festi- vals as drivers for sustainable development. Since 2002 Cecilie has been based in South Africa, where she founded Event Research International (ERi), providing research services and capacity- building strategies promoting the concept of responsible events. Cecilie is currently Deputy Director of the Nordic World Heritage Foundation, a UNESCO Category 2 centre. Here she also heads the Tourism for Sustainable Development initiative. Cecilie holds a Master’s Degree in Economics from the University of Oslo (1999), with specialization in development and environ- mental economics. Mailing address: Event Research International (ERi), Nedre Skogvei 8B, 0281 Oslo, Norway; e-mail: [email protected] Dimitri Tassiopoulos is an Associate Director at the School of Tourism and Hospitality of Walter Sisulu University, South Africa. Since 1993, he has been involved in various national and inter- national tourism research projects of a multidisciplinary and multi-institutional nature, concerning entrepreneurship, agri-tourism, events, cultural and wine tourism, among others. Mailing address: School of Tourism and Hospitality (SCOTH), Walter Sisulu University, PO Box 1421, East London 5200, Buffalo City, South Africa; e-mail: [email protected] Marija Tomašević Lišanin, PhD, is a full-time Professor in the Marketing Department at the Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb. She lectures in Marketing, Personal Selling and Negotiation and Sales Management at undergraduate level. Marija is also Head of the Sales Management specialized graduate study, a programme dedicated to all aspects of sales management with emphasis on key account management, business negotiation, category man- agement and private labels, sales promotion management, customer relationship management and similar relevant topics. She is mentor to a number of postgraduate students who aim to make a contribution towards the development of marketing and particularly sales-oriented scientific research. Mailing address: Marketing Department, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb, Trg J.F. Kennedya 6, Zagreb, Croatia; e-mail: [email protected] Patrícia Oom do Valle (Bachelor’s in Business; Master’s in Business; PhD in Applied Quantitative Methods to Economics and Business – Statistics) is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve and Coordinator of the Master’s in Marketing programme. Her current research interests are in applied statistics and modelling in the areas of integrated quality manage- ment in tourism destinations, events management, tourism destinations image, branding, market- ing strategies, customer satisfaction, and environment behaviour. She is a Member of the research centre Tourism and Leisure. Patrícia has made several conference presentations, both in Portugal and abroad, and has published in quantitative methods and business journals. Mailing address: Faculdade de Economia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; e-mail: [email protected]
- 20. xv Preface Utilizing the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), the World Tourism Organization (WTO/OMT), coupled with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and industry leaders, it is apparent that the events industry generates a multitude of activities associated with varied events. These have both positive and negative impacts on interested stakeholders, the community and the environment. Principles of sustainability refer to the environmental, economic and sociocultural aspects of event development, and a suitable balance must be established between these three dimensions to guarantee an event’s long-term sustainability and legacy. The sustainable development and pro- duction of events requires strong management, political leadership and the informed participation of all stakeholders to ensure adherence and congruence to a sustainable philosophy and manage- ment. Thus, the editors of this book propose that sustainable event management should: ● provide realistic and long-term economic event development and production, ensuring that socio-economic benefits are distributed fairly to all stakeholders; ● provide continuous employment opportunities, entrepreneurial opportunities and distribu- tion of event income within host communities, thereby contributing to the reduction of socio- economic disparity; ● consider the use of environmental resources that assist in event development and produc- tion, complying with essential management processes and conservation techniques to help safeguard natural heritage and the biodiversity of the surrounding community; and ● develop and produce events in conjunction with the host communities, protecting their sociocultural authenticity, built landmarks, traditions and cultural values by promoting inter- cultural understanding and tolerance. Although these are not prescriptive rules and regulations that must be adhered to, sustainable event management should aim to provide high satisfaction to all interested parties in the develop- ment and production of events. It is worth noting that in order to achieve sustainable event man- agement, a continuous and constant evaluation process is imperative. With the aim of contributing to the field, this book first presents sustainable management theory, academic research and empirical case studies. This should give the reader some historical foundation, thus allowing him/her to understand the more philosophical and conceptual ele- ments of the topic.
- 21. xvi Preface The bookthen gives a full and complete view of the concepts of sustainable management and how it relates to various sectors within the events industry. It illustrates the fundamental importance of local communities, businesses and interested stakeholders in relation to future events in regional, national and international locations. Historical and documented reports sup- plement this area. Next the book focuses on international governing bodies and national govern- ment strategic objectives as the cornerstone for sustainable development in the events sector. The relationship between these strategic objectives and on-the-ground operational responsibilities is presented using research by contributing authors and accredited organizations to add scope and depth to the publication. The book is not intended to become a reference material for practitioners or appointed advocates. However, best practice case studies are presented within the book to highlight and explain particular sustainable management issues where necessary. The book is intended to sup- port practitioners in their operational and administrative duties and to educate undergraduates/ postgraduates within their industry sectors throughout the UK and on an international basis.
- 22. ©CAB International 2009.Event Management and Sustainability (eds Razaq Raj and James Musgrave) 1 1 Introduction to a Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Events J. Musgrave and R. Raj Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK This chapter explores concepts of sustainable development and focuses on the traditional elements of social, economic and environmen- tal pillars within the context of planned events at different scales and levels. It examines the integration of principles of sustainability at all levels and stages of a planned event and the associated positive and negative impacts for different stakeholders. The aim is to pro- vide a conceptual framework emergent from existing principles and guidance that will under- pin the professionalism of sustainable event management. Chapter outline ● Introduction ● What is Sustainability? ● Sustainability: a Multidimensional Theory ● Sustainable Event Management ● Principles of Sustainable Management in Events ● Sustainable Policy Guidelines ● Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Events Management ● Summary ● Key Questions Introduction There is compelling evidence that the topic of sustainability has gained widespread accept- ance in many areas of society, with significant claims for the benefits of adopting the prin- ciples of sustainability as an integral part of development strategies, not least within the field of events. As DeSimone and Popoff (1997) suggest, sustainable management has emerged out of a necessity to continue to grow and pros- per while working in partnership with surround- ing communities, the environment and the economy. Fundamentally, sustainable event managers must be cognizant of the concept of sustainability and implement the principles within the organization and delivery of the event. The events industry benefits from easily accessible environmental and social resources, but as the industry grows to an estimated £11 billion in the UK (EIA, 2007), events and festi- vals will continue to generate both positive and adverse impacts on communities and cultures. Beyond the symbolic value of such claims is a requirement by academics and practitioners to determine, through empirical investigation, the approaches taken in identifying and implement- ing best practice, and to evaluate and measure
- 23. 2 J. Musgraveand R. Raj the sustainable strategies implemented. A future glimpse suggests that the events industry will operate with imposed legislation and applica- tions if the industry does not respond to the rationale of sustainability and operate within principles of sustainable management. Issues of sustainable development have been around for centuries. The 19th-century economist Thomas Malthus was concerned with the production of food and suggested that supply would be outstripped by population growth, developing the idea that nature is not simply a never-ending resource (Brodribb, 1997). More formalized organization and docu- mentation of these issues began with the for- mation of the Environmental Development Fund (EDF) in 1968. Moving quickly forward, in 1992, Agenda 21 called for all countries to develop national sustainable development strategies (NSDSs). In November 2001, a UN International Forum on National Strategies for Sustainable Development agreed guidance on NSDSs that proposes ‘elements’ of successful strategies for both developed and developing countries and economies (IISD, 2008). There are formidable barriers when attempts are made to translate the principles of sustainability into action within events (Jones et al., 2006), such as lack of reliable information, individual and organizational inertia, employee perceptions and the lack of using planning and performance standards. In essence, events are fragmented – made up of many stages, many suppliers, many performance indicators and many clients. Therefore any attempt at intro- ducing a sustainable policy should be integral to all elements of the event. Undoubtedly the ‘ele- ments’ of an event refer to pre-, live and post- event, and, as such, the life cycle and entirety of event management must be considered. What is Sustainability? Sustainability is embedded in loose terms to enable acceptance within varying scenarios and correlates to social will. The term ‘sustain- ability’ derives from a political and socially con- structed terminology that supports the ubiquitous policy of ‘sustainable development’ (Dresner, 2002; Rogers et al., 2008). Sustainability is often referred to as ‘sus- tainable development’ and frequently adopts a discourse of social, environmental and eco- nomic parity between developing and devel- oped countries. Although definitions of sustainable development are concerned with multilevel, worldwide issues, they are also influ- enced by local and national initiatives. Sustainability implies a link towards ecological impacts; namely, the consumption of natural resources and the deliberation of pollution and energy use, the concern for social inclusion and distribution of wealth, coupled with the economic themes of growth and longevity. The more affluent a society becomes, the more dis- tant it is from the impacts of its lifestyle. Antithetically, the poor often lack the resources to be concerned with their immediate commu- nity. Policy makers need to be mindful of the interactions between the social, economic and environmental factors in order to provide a sustainable and achievable lifestyle. The Bruntland Commission report for the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987) defined sustain- ability as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the abil- ity of future generations to meet their own needs’. Additionally, BS 8901:2007 Specific- ation for a sustainable event management system with guidance for use developed pro- poses that sustainable development is ‘an enduring, balanced approach to economic activity, environmental responsibility and social progress’ (BSI, 2007, p. 7). Within this framework is the realization that responsibility lies within the core activities of the event man- ager and considers all the support activities aligned to the planned events. The International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD, 1996) considers sustain- ability as a set of worldwide systems that high- light the cause and effect of actions and activities – personal and economic, national and local. Clearly the problems are complex, and worldwide problems cannot be solved by a single planning solution and probably not by any single action. Moreover, there is a continu- ous discourse surrounding the dichotomy of economic and environmental principles, and the suggestion that one principle takes priority over the other. Subsequently, social considera- tions are frequently given less attention. Within this book and within this chapter, equal conside- ration of all three principles – including the
- 24. Conceptual Framework forSustainable Events 3 implementation of social frameworks – is fun- damental to the concept of sustainable event management. Sustainability: a Multidimensional Theory Sustainability and sustainable development must be considered a multidimensional, plural concept that cannot be translated into fixed, predictable goals. The economic, environmen- tal and social elements of sustainability are defined as follows. ● Economic. Although economic stability is traditionally concerned with the con- cepts of efficiency and effectiveness of generating profit from a business activity, the more radical suggestion is that eco- nomic growth cannot be infinite, and that limitations to resources and thus scarcity of these resources will impact on eco- nomic stability (Found et al., 2006). As previously mentioned, the ‘three pillar’ principles are interwoven, and thus the economic transition towards a respon- sible direction must put economics within a social and environmental context; thus a natural capital. Accordingly, the more widely accepted definition in these terms suggests that sustainable economic devel- opment must maintain economic capital, while simultaneously improving quality of life and the environment to ensure stable economic growth. ● Environmental. The more widely associ- ated issue concerns itself with the impact on biodiversity and the environment. Overexploitation and mismanagement of ecological systems, living organisms and the non-living materials of the sur- roundings impact on the welfare of the population and society at large. Effects range from supply disruption of raw materials and acceptance of reduced quality through to scarcity of food items, seen more recently with water availability and crop yield (WWF and SustainAbility, 2007). More worryingly, the exploitation of natural resources is irreversible and, to be truly sustainable, consumption must be within the biophysical limits of the overall ecosystem. By reducing waste and pre- venting ecological pollution and consump- tion of natural resources, the present generation can ensure that future genera- tions do not regret the lack of action taken now. ● Social. Societal needs cannot solely be met by providing a stable ecological environ- ment. Social and cultural stability goes hand- in-hand with the other pillars. Without investment and services to support a stable infrastructure, a cohesive society cannot exist. Jeopardizing community cohesion will ultimately jeopardize the economic and ecological make-up of society. Conse- quently, structured approaches and frame- works that assist in the creation of strong civil societies – including meeting the needs of individual groups and generating shared values, equal rights and equal access – are integral for sustainable development (UNCSD, 2007). Only by sharing the res- ponsibility of creating such a utopian ideol- ogy of society can government, private industries and individuals create true social sustainability. Within a business context, these three impacts have come to be known as the ‘triple bottom line’. Within the notions of corporate social responsibility (CSR), the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD, 1998) believes that the benefits of incorporating CSR can be felt not only by the business but also by its stakeholders. Clearly here philosophical questions related to the purpose of business are raised. Simply put, a business can be used to reinvest profits within the business itself, its staff and surrounding community, or as a means to serve return on investment of the shareholders and generate increased profit. Sustainable Event Management The nomenclature of events includes mega, spe- cial, social, major, hallmark and community events. Events are categorized by virtue of their size, scope and scale. Moreover, events can be categorized according to their type or sector, such as conferences and exhibitions, arts and enter- tainment, sports events, and charitable events. The APEX (Accepted Practices Exchange)
- 25. 4 J. Musgraveand R. Raj Industry Glossary of Terms (CIC, 2003, cited in Bowdin et al., 2006, p. 14) defines an event as ‘an organised occasion such as a meeting, convention, exhibition, special event, gala din- ner, etc. An event is often composed of several different yet related functions.’ Events are explicitly linked to fundamentals of the human race – social and cultural values, and the more basic ladders of social inclusion, a sense of belonging and a sense of identity (Goodland, 2002; Garcia, 2003). It is evident that hosting an event creates vast impacts, as seen in Fig. 1.1. Dwyer et al. (2000) support the view that organizing and managing a planned event involves many component parts and many stakeholders. Often the decisions to organize and host events are taken from differ- ent stakeholder viewpoints. Good economic rationale is a strong indicator coupled with the social and cultural benefits to a destination, rais- ing awareness of community/social issues, and enhancing the exchange of ideas, networking and business contacts. Often neglected and often ambiguous are the social elements of the three pillars of sustainability. The scope of any framework should encompass those working, participating and attending the event, consider social inclusion as a key principle to widening participation and encourage interest from all aspects of the surrounding community. Social inclusion within events should include (DCMS, 2001; Garcia, 2003; UK Sport, 2005): ● awareness of the needs of groups partici- pating at the event; ● creation of a structured policy statement to ensure equity and equality for all; and ● induction and training of all staff and vol- unteers in the awareness, recognition and self-management of equity and equality for all. Significantly, the move towards the creation of a number of published frameworks for sustain- able event management has not only provided a sense of professionalism in light of contempo- rary concerns, but also highlighted best practice within the industry, advice and guidance, practi- cal solutions and an inward sense of the impor- tance of events in modern society. There have been many major develop- ments towards the events industry becoming sustainable. For example, in 1992 McDonough and Partners created the Hannover Principles, designed with sustainability principles in mind, for the Expo World Fair 2000. In February 1994, Lillehammer, Norway presented the first ‘green’ games in the history of the Olympics (Lesjo, 2000). The northern English city of Sheffield set out to develop the World Student Games as a catalyst for economic and social regeneration (B. Bramwell, 1995, unpublished paper), and the Sustainable Exhibition Industry Project (SEXI) set to reduce waste as a first step towards sustainable development within the exhibitions sector of events (MEBC, 2002). Clearly, sustainable event management has evolved over a number of years, rather than being a concept born out of government strate- gies or academic posturing. The recent propo- sition to develop past and existing frameworks into a recognized standard is a natural progres- sion. A conceptual framework that has devel- oped and emerged out of the planning and management of events over the past decade is a necessity for a responsible events profession operating within the 21st century. Hediger (2000) proposes that a component of sustain- able principles is to induce cultural change within society, and thus within the events sec- tor. Therefore principles of transition manage- ment apply here (Presbury and Edwards, 2005), wherein sustainable event management is a problem for each generation and requires changes through successive generations via: ● a change in attitude; ● an increase in supply chain pressure; ● an increase in the awareness of the true cost of waste; and ● transparency of product life cycle. Meadowcraft (1997, p. 37) states: Each generation must take up the challenge anew, determining in what direction their development objectives lie, what constitutes the boundaries of the environmentally possible and the environmentally desirable, and what is their understanding of the requirements of social injustice. Principles of Sustainable Management in Events The creation of a framework or set of princi- ples that can be adaptive to changes in mar- ket requirements is crucial for successful
- 26. Conceptual Framework forSustainable Events 5 Positive • Induced development and construction expenditure • Long-term promotional benefits • Civic pride • Community development • Increased employment opportunities Negative • Future use of infra- structure not maximized • Interruption of normal business • Resident exodus • Disruption of lifestyle • Media impacts • Community apathy and antagonism • Increased risk of security issues • Unequal distribution of wealth Positive • Raising awareness of environmental issues • Development of waste land • Long-term conservation of area Negative • Site/location damage – short- and long-term • Waste and pollution • Noise pollution • Traffic disruption and congestion • Increase in energy demands and other natural resources Positive • Direct/indirect expenditure • Increased property value due to regeneration • Additional trade and business development • Induced development and construction expenditure • Event product extensions Negative • Cost of event failure to local/national economy • Inflated price of products, services and amenities • Unequal distribution of wealth Social Environmental Economic EVENTS Fig. 1.1. The ‘three pillar impacts’ of events. implementation within the events industry. A major challenge to achieving sustainable man- agement practices is the incessant stress on the physical and ecological environments as the number of participants at events and festivals increases (DEFRA, 2007). Moreover, there is a requirement to develop a framework that fits with the internal and external events environ- ment. Finally, a sustainable event management framework should enable alleviation of the
- 27. 6 J. Musgraveand R. Raj impacts of hosting highly consumptive, resource-led events and incorporate achievable improvements to the ‘three pillar impacts’. Preparation in planning is paramount for the successful implementation and evaluation of any management plan. The nature of the events industry is such that constraints on time, contractual relationships, tight margins and the continuous pressure to produce unique experi- ences are second nature (MEBC, 2002). Any existing and/or new activity must consider the source of materials and the materials used in light of a life cycle analysis. If materials are to be used, then these are to be reusable, recycled or recyclable. Consequently, supply chain management and procurement negotiations are fundamental elements of aligning sustaina- bility principles and the logistics of event organization. Sustainable event management should set improved targets, implement inno- vative practice and consult new technologies. It should also provide a holistic view of all event activities in an industry that is traditionally viewed as consumptive of materials and resources. Even so, simple actions such as event tickets, delegation packs and contractual communication can be distributed via elec- tronic means or produced using recycled and reusable materials. Business as usual cannot continue, and innovative design approaches and communica- tion must become standard in the industry. Sustainable principles must provide a social, political and economic purpose for the intro- duction of sustainable systems (Downing and Ballantyne, 2007). An awareness of the demands on the ecological and social systems within which any event operates is a basic prin- ciple. An analysis of the resources used, how they are sourced and supplied must also be adopted to ensure that compliance is adhered to; where it is not, actions and steps should be taken. Absolute policy and processes must be designed and applied throughout all compo- nents and all stages of any event. Elements of strategy can help establish basic project management thinking in any planned event. Designing a critical path and chain analysis will assist in understanding the resources, time and interactions of key activities between each stakeholder, in order for basic actions and continuous measurement, evalua- tion and improvements to be made (Van der Ryn and Calthorpe, 1991). The purpose of strategic thinking within sustainable events management is to ensure that any interventions are timely, gain the optimum influence and generate an understanding of the cause and effect of any action against all other stake- holders, resources and principles of sustainabil- ity. The act of measurement and evaluation as a sustainable management tool can be used to adjust processes and procedures accordingly. Evaluation and an emphasis on evaluation pro- vide crucial opportunities for improvement. Sustainable Policy Guidelines As an absolute message of purpose, a sustain- able policy and a sustainable plan can provide clarity to many different stakeholders. Equally, conformity and compliance of suppliers and procurement can be imposed as a requirement for success of implementation. There are numerous guides to sustainability principles within events; a few examples are given below: ● Sustainable Events Guide (DEFRA, 2007); ● SEXI: The Sustainable Exhibition Industry Project (MEBC, 2002); ● The Hannover Principles: Design for Sustainability – Expo 2000 (McDonough and Partners, 1992); ● BS 8901:2007 Specification for a sus- tainable event management system with guidance for use developed (BSI, 2007); ● Staging Major Sports Events: The Guide (UK Sport, 2005); and ● The Sustainable Music Festival – A Strategic Guide (Brooks et al., 2007). There are many practical tips throughout these published guides (see Table 1.1), such as a reduction in travel to decrease carbon emis- sions and improve the well-being of clients during the live event. However, incentivized strategies for participants, staff and the organ- ization will provide instantaneous results and a more enthusiastic compliance towards the sus- tainable paradigm. For example, discounted train tickets offered to participants and the new market opportunities for low-carbon,
- 28. Conceptual Framework forSustainable Events 7 Table 1.1. Sustainable event guides and principles. Publication Key principles DEFRA Sustainable Events Guide Include sustainability clauses in contracts Use the 3 Rs – reduce, reuse, recycle Communicate electronically rather than by paper Be energy- and water-efficient Minimize the impacts of travel Consider the well-being of delegates, local community, suppliers and stakeholders Raise awareness and share best practice Be transparent SEXI: The Sustainable Exhibition Industry Project Waste hierarchy as applied to the exhibitions industry – research, re-design, reduce, reuse and recycle Monitoring, recording and reporting Influence cultural change, engage in community groups and adopt training sessions Project champions Increase efficiencies and profitability Environmental policies and responsibilities Sustainability reporting Offset emissions of carbon dioxide Off-site sorting Infrastructure Industrial symbiosis Materials and technology Hannover Principles Insist on the right of humanity and nature to coexist Recognize interdependence Respect relationships between spirit and matter Accept responsibility for the consequences of design Create safe objects of long-term value Eliminate the concept of waste Rely on natural energy flows Understand the limitations of design Seek constant improvement by the sharing of knowledge BS 8901:2007 Identify capabilities Design roles and responsibilities Identify appropriate resources Develop knowledge, competencies and training Plan and manage operational activities Supply chain management Communication and coordination Documentation and record-keeping Monitor and measure performance Develop sustainable policies and systems for regular audits Human rights and equity Race, ethnicity and sport Ageism and disability in sport Social and religious inclusion Evaluation and recommendations UK Sport Adopt a green policy Carry out an ‘environment scoping review’ of venues and operations Establish environmental teams Define programmes and set appropriate targets Implement programmes Continued
- 29. 8 J. Musgraveand R. Raj Table 1.1. Continued. Publication Key principles Monitor implementation and adjust programme accordingly Evaluate and publicize results Awareness of diverse groups within the scope of the event Create a structured policy statement to ensure equity and equality for all Induction and training of all staff and volunteers in the awareness, recognition and self-management of equity and equality for all The Sustainable Music Festival – A Strategic Guide Produce no waste – phase out all disposable food and beverage containers Use 100% renewable energy – implement an internal energy efficiency policy Develop strategic partnerships to access renewable energy Use resource-efficient transportation – sell a new ticket that includes transportation Review the location Work with sustainable stakeholders Identify key roles and responsibilities Create an atmosphere of inclusion and respect – create areas/ access for under-represented people Drive societal change towards sustainability – start with one thing from artists, suppliers to attendees Generate ideas and raise awareness through electronic media energy-efficient products and services, esti- mated at US$500 billion worldwide (Stern, 2006, p. xvi), will help create impetus with industry and consumers alike. There are many more principle guides that can be linked to the events industry such as the Green Tourism Business Scheme (GTBS), The Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) and ISO 14001. EMAS is essentially a voluntary scheme that distin- guishes those companies that go beyond the scope of legislative compliance. ISO 14001 is an internationally accepted standard that pro- vides organizations with a planned set of crite- ria required for implementation of an effective environmental management system (EMS). The standard addresses the continuing ques- tion of business purpose and the concept that business as usual cannot continue, thus creat- ing a business ideology of balance between maintaining profitability and reducing environ- mental impact (BSI, 2007). The aim of the GTBS is to offer guidelines to businesses, such as conference venues, event sites and suppli- ers, on how to implement principles of sustain- ability without endangering quality of service and/or product. GTBS certification is depend- ent on the achievement of specific criteria and focuses on ten different areas, ranging from compulsory compliance to environmental leg- islation to social involvement and communica- tion, transport strategies and innovate practices and use of technologies. Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Events Management From an analysis of existing models and other sustainable guides, the framework below (see also Fig. 1.2) provides an introduction to the fundamentals of sustainability, coherence and integration within the events industry. Equally, adopting such a framework presents a number of advantages in working towards sustainability that are implicit outcomes of adherence. Additionally, these principles represent the underlying philosophy for the way sustainable events should be considered, and symbolize a vision and overall direction, which must be
- 30. Conceptual Framework forSustainable Events 9 Organization structure Design for duality Education Avoidance No trace Incentivize Strategic management Engagement Legacy, longevity and transparency Conceptual framework for sustainable events management Location, location, location Fig. 1.2. The sustainable events management wheel. accessible and realistic. A sustainable event policy must respect all ten elements of the framework as stated below. 1. Organization structure. Define roles, train- ing, structured policies and procedures that foster positive attitude, compliance and under- standing with suppliers, employers and other stakeholders, within a realistic time and budget. 2. Design for duality. Introduce new tech- nologies and search for innovative approaches where services, products and facilities can be reused and/or recycled. 3. Avoidance. Establish baseline assessments and plan to reduce damage to surrounding eco- logical systems, disruption to surrounding com- munities and economic disparity. 4. Engagement. Invest time and resources in the culture of surrounding communities, create local partnerships and alliances, increase par- ticipation and access for all. 5. No trace. Work towards elimination of waste, reduction of energy consumption and a second-nature attitude towards product/ser- vice life cycle analysis. 6. Legacy, longevity and transparency. Measure, evaluate and inform all stakeholders of performance, actions taken and future investment. 7. Incentivize. Use strategic alliances to offer savings for compliance towards sustainability principles from all stakeholders, such as dis- counted rail schemes. 8. Strategic management. Create critical path and value chain analysis that will identify timely
- 31. 10 J. Musgraveand R. Raj interventions, increase the influence of actions taken, and increase understanding of cause and effect against all other stakeholders, resources and principles of sustainability. 9. Education. Educate participants, suppliers, employees and the surrounding community about the purpose and principles of sustainabil- ity, sharing knowledge and best practice. 10. Location, location, location. Decide on a site/venue that provides accessibility, con- venience, flexibility and/or compliance with sustainability principles and quality. Previous debates have not paid particular attention to the nature of the events industry as a service that is continuously pulsating. For example, changes in visitor priorities to include environmentally friendly initiatives are a clear indicator of a shift in cultural buyer behaviour. Indicators also serve to guide con- sumers about the environmental and social quality of the destination, and are good bench- marks to stimulate destinations to compete on sustainability grounds rather than solely on price. Finally, within the current economic cli- mate, year-on-year growth is expected to slow. The result is that many event organizations will only implement strategies to incorporate sus- tainability when it is commercially viable to do. However, changing the economic mindset and shifting entire business strategies to include sustainable principles – rather than unremitting percentage increases in profitability – will ulti- mately provide a well-considered, mature and stable business plan (Hamilton, 2003). Token gestures only add mistrust to what many believe is an ideological principle. Littig and Griebler (2005) suggest that many indi- viduals do not see the direct impact of their actions and therefore do not consider solu- tions to what is a social, personal and/or busi- ness dilemma. Many consider the concept of ‘sustainability’ an ethereal problem. Therefore, realistic ideas and solutions are crucial for acceptance of the ten key principles within events. Overcoming the problems of imple- mentation is often associated with a lack of reliable information or trust (‘green-wash’), boredom about the issues (‘green fatigue’), perceived implementation costs and compli- ance. There is a need to measure and evaluate initiatives that recognize market forces within the events industry and that complement these and achieve sustainable results. The lack of use of planning and performance standards will only heighten the necessity for long-term government policies, such as the Climate Change Bill, and create imposed policies that will standardize and characterize operations in the events sector. Events can operate within current budgets (Brown, 2003) while influencing individual and organizational inertia. Clearly there is finite achievement within the confines of existing technology, business practice and cultural acceptance, and practitioners must carry on pushing these parameters. Indeed, if the igno- rance and complacency of short-term business strategy do not change, then the events indus- try will be forced into change, imposed by legislation. Summary Given the current economic instability, the development of a sustainable and harmonious industry may be overlooked in order to create a quick profit margin. However, it is this mind- set and the overdependence on and draining of resources that impact the economic sustaina- bility and success of events. While events do present opportunities, they can also entail risks, causing a disruption in the supply chain of key services, a reduction in the quality of services, a decrease in efficiencies and an increase in commodity costs. Sympathetic gov- ernments, local council and industry leaders must attain the knowledge to assess and with- stand causes that stand as obstacles to sustain- able development within the industry and ensure that weak market conditions are over- come. The primary risks are degradation of the natural and cultural environment, particularly those featured as hosts to mega and major cul- tural events. There are other risks to the host community, including economic disruption, as well as risks for investors, and even physical risks for participants and attendees. If commer- cialization continues to be the primary motivat- ing factor in staging events, ‘short-termism’ will ensue resulting in no change in business practice.
- 32. Conceptual Framework forSustainable Events 11 Throughout this chapter there is an under- lying premise that those involved in event man- agement recognize the ethical responsibility involved in the planning and management of such events. Clearly this is not a given, and organizations must begin a top-down approach that creates long-term reductions in the adverse impacts on the surrounding environment of events. As the events industry evolves and moves further into the 21st century, the value systems of industry leaders that were once based on financial return must change to a value system based on community and moral judgement. The so-called ‘paradox of profita- bility’ will cease to be the driving force in the success of many event management compa- nies and the current climate of social account- ability will be the enduring remnant of a decade saturated in seminal social reports that reflect a more globally responsible paradigm. Accepting responsibility for the impacts that events cause can create a new generation of event managers. Responsible events man- agement will represent a holistic understanding of all core and support activities of planned events, raise awareness of the impacts of these activities and foster a strategic intent to reduce impacts, increase the effectiveness of actions taken and create a culture that continuously measures and evaluates these changes. By changing the mindset of the events business, from one that consumes resources to one that reduces the use of resources, the move towards responsible and sustainable event management can be achieved. Key Questions 1. Sustainable event management attempts to implement the principles of sustainable develop- ment within the events industry. What are the implications within the events industry if there is no change in the way in which events operate? 2. What are the main differences between ISO 14001 and the BS 8901? 3. Using the conceptual framework for sus- tainable event management and your own experiences, how can an events manager implement BS 8901? References Bowdin, G., Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R. and McDonnell, I. (2006) Events Management, 2nd edn. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK. Brodribb, J. (1997) Mission Earth. New Scientist Magazine, 13 December, issue 2112, p. 49. Brooks, S., O’Halloran, D. and Magnin, A. (2007) The Sustainable Music Festival – A Strategic Guide. Available at: http://www.thenaturalstep.org/en/system/files/MusicFestivalsGuidebook.pdf (accessed 16 March 2009). Brown, L.R. (2003) Plan B: Rescuing a Planet under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble. Earth Policy Institute/ W.W. Norton and Company, London. BSI (2007) BS 8901:2007 Specification for a sustainable event management system with guidance for use developed. British Standards Institution, London. DCMS (Department for Culture, Media and Sport) (2001) Staging International Sporting Events. The Stationery Office, London. DEFRA (2007) Sustainable Events Guide. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, London. DeSimone, L.D. and Popoff, F. (1997) Eco-efficiency: The Business Link to Sustainable Development. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Downing, P. and Ballantyne, J. (2007) Tipping Point or Turning Point: Social Marketing and Climate Change. IPSOS Mori Social Research Institute, London. Dresner, S. (2002) The Principles of Sustainability. Earthscan Publications, London. Dwyer, L., Mellor, R., Mistilis, N. and Mules, T. (2000) A framework for assessing ‘tangible’ and ‘intangible’ impacts of events and conventions. Event Management 6(3), 175–180. EIA (Events Industry Alliance) (2007) Press Release: Bed Tax Put to Bed. Available at: http://www.eventsindustry alliance.com/page.cfm/T=m/Action=Press/PressID=50 (accessed 22 January 2008).
- 33. 12 J. Musgraveand R. Raj Found, P., Beale, J., Hines, P., Naim, M., Rich, N., Sarmiento, R. and Thomas, A. (2006) A Theoretical Framework for Economic Sustainability of Manufacturing. Cardiff Business School Working Papers. Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. Garcia, B. (2003) Securing sustainable legacies through cultural programming in sporting events. Culture @ the Olympics 5(1), 1–10. Goodland, R. (2002) Sustainability: Human, Social, Economic and Environmental Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, Hoboken, New Jersey. Hamilton, K. (2003) Accounting for Sustainability. Environment Department, The World Bank, Washington, DC. Hediger, W. (2000) Sustainable development and social welfare. Ecological Economics 32(3), 481–492. IISD (1996) Global Green Standards: ISO 14000 and Sustainable Development. International Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. IISD (2008) The Sustainable Development Timeline. International Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Jones, B., Scott, D. and Abi Khaled, H. (2006) Implications of climate change for outdoor event planning: a case study of three special events in Canada’s National Capital Region. Event Management 10(1), 63–76. Lesjo, J.H. (2000) Lillehammer 1994: planning, figurations and the ‘green’ winter games. International Review for the Sociology of Sport 35(3), 282–293. Littig, B. and Griebler, E. (2005) Social sustainability: a catchword between political pragmatism and social theory. International Journal of Sustainable Development 8, 65–79. McDonough and Partners (1992) The Hannover Principles: Design for Sustainability – Expo 2000. William McDonough & Partners, Charlottesville, Virginia. Meadowcraft, J. (1997) Planning for sustainable development: what can be learned from the critics. In: Kenny, M. and Meadowcraft, J. (eds) Planning Sustainability. Routledge, London/New York, pp. 12–38. MEBC (2002) SEXI: The Sustainable Exhibition Industry Project. Midlands Environmental Business Company Ltd, Birmingham, UK. Presbury, R. and Edwards, D. (2005) Incorporating sustainability in meetings and event management educa- tion. International Journal of Event Management Research 1(1), 30–45. Rogers, P.P., Jalal, K.F. and Boyd, J.A. (2008) An Introduction to Sustainable Development. Earthscan Publications, London. Stern, N. (2006) The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. UK Treasury, London. UK Sport (2005) Staging Major Sports Events: The Guide. UK Sport, London. UNCSD (2007) Sustainable Development: The Road towards the 2007 Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD-15). United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, New York, New York. Van der Ryn, S. and Calthorpe, P. (1991) Sustainable Communities: A New Design Synthesis for Cities, Suburbs and Towns. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, California. WBCSD (1998) Exploring Sustainable Development, WBSCD Global Scenarios 2000–2005. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Geneva, Switzerland. WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) (1987) Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Bruntland Commission). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. WWF and SustainAbility (2007) One Planet Business – Creating Value within Planetary Limits. World Wide Fund for Nature–UK, Surrey, UK.
- 34. ©CAB International 2009.Event Management and Sustainability (eds Razaq Raj and James Musgrave) 13 2 Policy, Politics and Sustainable Events M. Foley, D. McGillivray and G. McPherson Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK This chapter aims to give critical consider- ation to the emergence of events policy as a distinctive field of study within the wider events management literature. It examines the political, social and economic conditions within which an entrepreneurial events policy became prominent, before concentrating attention on the emergence of a more socially aware policy context in the early 21st cen- tury. The chapter concludes by challenging policy makers and politicians alike to more fully embed a concern with social utility into their events policy ambitions. Chapter outline ● Introduction ● Events Policy and Politics: an Emerging Field of Study ● The Changing Function of Events ● The Emergence of the Social Policy Case for Events ● Community Cohesion and Identity ● From Social Impact to Social Leverage: the Policy Panacea? ● Summary ● Key Questions Introduction Urban events policy is being created and shaped to transform or restructure social space on the premise of attracting and winning major events to the urban environment. Local city policy makers and their central government counter- parts are increasingly aware of the global ‘neo- liberalized’ order that is emerging (Brenner and Theodore, 2005). While still pre-eminent, the economic imperative to transform urban social spaces is now subject to some challenge. In recent years there has been a greater emphasis placed on the ‘software’ of people and places alongside the ‘hardware’ of infrastructure and economic return on investment. As we enter the 21st century, sustainable social, cultural and environmental benefits are likely to preoccupy policy makers, academics and citizens as the global argument of civic boosterism is chal- lenged for overestimating benefits and underes- timating costs (Whitson and Horne, 2006). Events Policy and Politics: an Emerging Field of Study The emergence of a distinct field of study that can be termed ‘events policy’ is a recent
- 35. 14 M. Foleyet al. phenomenon. Getz (2007) allocates a chapter of his Event Studies text to the theme but, in the main, events policy has been an after- thought in the curriculum of higher education provision in events management and has been noticeable by its absence in the growing events research field. As a field of study, events man- agement has broadly evolved three stages of complexity, depicted in Table 2.1. First, we have the stage of events manage- ment. This stage works at a purely instrumen- tal level. Reflecting on practical experience, it reaches general conclusions about what works organizationally and it essentially produces a ‘how to’ approach. There is little attempt to contextualize these general micro-level conclu- sions. This stage is replete with a veritable ava- lanche of published materials reflecting the need to underpin the academic study of a new field as demand for higher education courses grows at an exponential rate. In the second stage – what we call the events policy stage – some attempt is made to contextualize events within a macro-level context. Researchers for- mulate questions from a policy angle and inquiries are made into the socio-economic (and sociocultural) effects of an events-led pol- icy. Attention is also paid to what constitutes an effective use of events and, occasionally, into what the goals of events policy might be (e.g. to develop civic pride). At the third level, events studies, events are located in a broader socio-historical context. This situates events from the perspective of social, cultural and economic reproduction. Here, we are concerned with debates about the significance of an events-led strategy for local and central governments approached with a theoretical preoccupation drawn from the third stage – events studies. In drawing from political economy and political science, we can analyse the role of events policy in the wider context of capitalist accumulation and reproduction, especially the role of events as a tool in inter-urban competition and the ques- tions of power interests and decision making at local/central government level focusing specifi- cally on public–private partnerships and coali- tions of interest groups (Hall, 2006). Human geography, in particular, provides the analyti- cal tools to question the role of events in the division of urban space, especially in the con- text of ‘gentrification debates’ (MacLeod, 2002) and the potential spatial injustices that are an outcome of events-led entrepreneurial governance. A sociological approach helps researchers to assess the importance of events in public culture debates, whereby they are used to generate and reinforce particular ver- sions of public culture (Roche, 2000) and can legitimate existing or new discourses of national identity (Waitt, 2003). The Changing Function of Events Historically, the Roman emperors were well- versed in the use of welfare (bread) and festivi- ties (circuses) as a means of retaining authority over their subjects. They believed that by pro- viding sustenance and amusement the threat of discontent over their rule could be minimized. As Veyne (1990) suggests, the Romans’ view was that ‘it is good to provide recreation from time to time for the childlike people, in the interests of authority itself’ (p. 418). Crucially, for our understanding of the historical role of state-supported patronage, in Roman times control was exercised over the nature and scope of the circuses offered for consumption. Table 2.1. Events management stages of complexity. Stage Characteristics Events management Instrumental Practical experience Operational/logistical Micro-level concerns Abundant literature Events policy Macro-level contextualization Policy angle evident Social, cultural and economic effects of events considered Paucity of specialized literature Events studies Considers wider socio-historical context for events Macro-level concerns Informed by a range of academic disciplines Emerging literature
- 36. Policy, Politics andSustainable Events 15 Temporal confinement (select days and types of events were offered) focused the minds of the ruled and was convenient for the rulers as they could dictate the outcomes they sought from the gift of these amusements. In the present day, there are clear continuities with the past as spectacular events such as the Olympics are offered to the populace in return for their active consent and approval (Waitt, 2001). What is certain is that hallmark, special or mega-events, along with associated culture-led regeneration processes, are part of the refash- ioning of urban governance in the context of the neoliberalized state and its roll-back of managerial welfare programmes. A key feature of this refashioning is that the principal risks are borne by a highly active entrepreneurial (local) state, with the involvement of the private sector being conditional upon the support of the public purse as a safety net. The underbelly of this is that, having abandoned welfare pro- grammes in the midst of neoliberal roll-backs, local and central governments are now strug- gling to address the ‘problem’ of socially mar- ginalized groups who have not shared equally in the (apparent) rewards emanating from the new consumerism. In fact, as Zukin (1995) argues, the socially marginalized are systemati- cally excluded from the disciplined spaces of consuming cities. Cities have taken over the mantle from nations as the most important focus of regimes of accumulation and the out- come is inter-urban competition involving city branding and specialization as a means of attracting private investment and inward visits. The last decade has witnessed the emergence of an entrepreneurial event policy in the afflu- ent West (particularly, though not exclusively) marked by a reliance on largely unaccountable public–private growth coalitions that enable publicly funded entrepreneurship to flourish. However, the presence of continuing spatial injustices (MacLeod, 2002), social polarities and disenfranchised groups has drawn atten- tion to the (un)sustainability of an events policy based solely on economic logic. Over recent years there has been an emer- gence of new policy-making bodies (e.g. Scotland’s EventScotland), new festivities and the reinvention of traditional events as branded, lifestyle products. These changes have signifi- cant implications for nations, regions and neighbourhoods with respect to shifting the landscape of events from their original role as vehicles for collective identity to their centrality in global economic strategies – to the extent that they are subject to ever-greater controls and surveillance and thus become sites of social conflict over meaning and representation. The international competition for global events also influences national and local political action as the institutional foundations for ‘winning’ events are resourced to the detriment of other means of delivering on public policy objectives. The oft-cited touristic intention of events policy focuses on an entrepreneurial approach to urban politics within which cities (and nations) focus on territorial and urban competition through events-led specialization. However, it remains unclear as to whether, at the global/ national level, greater integration is secured between the popular spectacular element of events and local community representation and empowerment – or alienation. In bidding for the right to host hallmark or sporting mega-events, cities compete to secure the attention of global markets for investment and tourism. However, the governance struc- tures formed to permit entrepreneurial activity to flourish can, at the same time, reduce levels of public participation and ownership of the policy-making process. Subsidized through the public purse, events and festivals have increas- ingly been invented or manufactured to satisfy the lifestyle aspirations of the sought-after tourist audiences. However, in so doing, the displacement outcomes of this sort of public policy are often stifled as positive, pro-growth messages emerge from political leaders. On a global scale there is no doubt that cities are trying to brand their identities and images through place and product association. The deliberate attempt to win the right to host large-scale sporting events allows them to develop a cultural infrastructure that accrues touristic advantage in showcasing the spec- tacle so that they can also win over people, investment and identity (Hall, 2006). Of course this is not a new strategy; the city planners of the 19th century did this too when hosting World Expos, which, although primarily about showcasing global trade and industry, were never without fanfare, entertainment and a
- 37. 16 M. Foleyet al. demonstration of global public culture (Roche, 2000). It is the intensification of the process that is astounding and the extent to which local actors are peripheral to the power play and decision-making processes that legitimate the policy objectives. But perhaps this is too one-sided? Are there no intimations of the spectacle being opposed (Debord, 1967) as the emperor is shown to have no clothes? Perhaps the answer lies in the social and cul- tural milieu and in the focus of sustainability. The Emergence of the Social Policy Case for Events While the study of distinct events-related phe- nomena has grown significantly since the late 1980s, there remains a knowledge gap in understanding of the social impact of events and festivals on host communities and beyond. Over recent years much more academic attention has been paid to whether the needs of direct and indirect ‘beneficiaries’ (Whitson and Horne, 2006) are being adequately served by the fur- therance of events-led urban strategies. The attraction and delivery of large-scale (often sporting) events is used by urban centres the world over to lever additional net economic ben- efits to their cities. However, the accompanying discourses of this neoliberalizing process – entrepreneurialism, managerialism and regen- eration – reflect the instrumental economic ethos of government intervention in a signifi- cant number of post-industrial economies. What we need to ask ourselves is whether these intended outcomes are sustainable in the longer term when a circuit of cities adopts very similar events-led strategies. When they are competing with other equally spectacular global cultural forms, it is increasingly difficult for global event spectacles to impress and attract the targeted global investors and tourist tribes. Instead, events policy makers and city fathers seeking distinct- iveness might be better served focusing on developing a social and cultural legacy that out- lives the ephemeral economic boost of the ‘mega-event’. This is certainly the suggestion of Chalip (2006), who argues that sport event pro- duction is too often about ‘spectacle rather than festival’ and ‘economic impact rather than social value’ (p. 111). While spectacle might well attract the atten- tion of global media conglomerates around the event core zone (Roche, 2000), as the road show moves on to its next destination, policy makers are invariably left with an anticlimactic fallout and a challenging set of internal political issues concerned with explaining how the ‘legiti- mating rhetoric’ (Chalip, 2006, p. 112) of eco- nomic return is to be turned into reality in the future. When the public gives its political leaders the consent to bid for events on the basis of securing transformations for professed benefici- aries – often the poor, the young and minority groups – then their failure to deliver takes on greater political significance. Policy makers are acutely aware that if the much-vaunted eco- nomic returns fail to transpire and the physical legacy depreciates thereafter, then the political fallout from citizens is likely to increase. It is here that the economic hegemony is in danger of breaking down, where the dualism of civic promotion and civic unity is challenged. If civic (place) promotion, with its economic impera- tive, continues to take precedence over invest- ment in meaningful civic unity, then the fragile consensus that events represent good value for host communities will come under increased scrutiny. It is in this context that the ubiquity of the events-as-economic-salvation discourse has attracted a fair amount of criticism. For example, Misener and Mason (2006) argue that, until recently, pro-growth urban renewal strategies have failed to give adequate cognizance to the wider community benefits accruable from investment in a sports event strategy. While the economic imperative had taken precedent, urban regeneration had been narrowly defined around the encouragement of public invest- ment and infrastructural developments (the hardware). But in the sprint for city marketing gain, tourism inward visits and resources for development efforts, the diversity of host com- munity beneficiaries has often been overlooked. Similarly, concern has been expressed at the way public resources are channelled to private beneficiaries, with the ‘benefits’ not always obvious to citizens – especially those in poorer communities. Until now, the economic impera- tive has tended to ensure that the social and cultural benefits of events have been down- played. However, with the economic hegemony
- 38. Policy, Politics andSustainable Events 17 now being questioned due to the failure of some events to generate the professed returns, renewed focus has turned to the verification of the social impact of events on host communi- ties and an accompanying critique of the actual beneficiaries of investment in events. This is a timely intervention, as the high-profile mega- event failures of Montreal (1976) and Athens (2004) have placed the issue of a sustainable people-focused legacy to the fore in the minds of policy makers, practitioners and academe alike (see Table 2.2). No longer is it sufficient for potential host cities or nations to take for granted the support of their citizenry. In fact, securing the support of the local population has now been enshrined formally in the governance process with the creation of the term ‘legacy’ as a moniker for the planned, strategic and tactical leverage of social value to the relevant communities of interest (whether they be sports associations, local citizens or local government) (Chalip, 2006). The achievement of positive social externalities has, to some extent, become a prerequisite of a successful events-led policy imperative. Outside China, so-called ‘white elephant’ signature buildings are a thing of the past – physical legacies are only valuable if they facilitate wider social returns on investment and improvements in the host community’s social and cultural capital. This is illustrative of a shift towards sport events, in particular, being used as a vehicle for regeneration and renewal (see the Olympics in Seoul, Barcelona and Sydney). What we are now experiencing is a step-change towards events having to trans- form and renew a city’s cultural and social landscape rather than just its physical one. In policy terms, the events continue to act as a catalyst or a lever for economic growth but they are also now expected to invest in the development of the host city’s social and cul- tural capital (Flinn and McPherson, 2007). Events policy in many UK cities is now insepa- rable from cultural policy and officials sit around the same table as social policy makers. We have seen shifts in social and urban policy from an (over)reliance on ‘financial capital and infra- structural investment to a concentration on people and the development of social capital’ (Coalter, 2001, p. v). Cities seek to develop a broad cultural tapestry not only as a tourist attraction but also as a tool in the sustainable development of communities. Community Cohesion and Identity Historically, festivals and special events have played a significant role in defining a commu- nity’s sense of place and identity. In the events policy field there is resurgence in interest in the role that collective celebrations might play in generating social cohesion through the building of linkages within and between communities and enabling these communities to communi- cate with each other in more productive ways. While the role of traditional festivities and fairs fixed in time and space in producing commu- nity identities is well covered in the literature, there remains some doubt as to the value of mobile and peripatetic sporting mega-events in generating the self-same ‘benefits’ to their host communities. The theoretical basis for the social case for events is built on the view that they can work as the ‘social glue’ of communities by aiding capacity building and through cement- ing a sense of place identity (whether a nation, a city or a neighbourhood) (Waterman, 1998; Derrett, 2003). Proponents argue that events and festivals can assuage feelings of alienation and social isolation experienced in some of the Table 2.2. Event policy hardware and software. Event legacy intention Principal imperatives Outcomes Hardware (place) Economic, physical Physical infrastructure (e.g. stadia, transport) Inward investment Tourism Job creation Skill development Software (people) Social, cultural Social capital Civic pride Quality of life Ownership and decision-making capacity Social cohesion Health Volunteerism
- 39. 18 M. Foleyet al. most challenging community circumstances. Arai and Pedlar (2003, p. 199) suggest that festivals can ‘reconnect leisure with the quality of community life, social engagement, and the achievement of the common good’, a view mirrored by Foley and McPherson (2007). Other social benefits are linked to the feeling of pride in the host city engendered by the hosting of a large-scale event – but again, the evidence suggests that higher property prices, displacement, inconvenience and the financial legacy of revenue funding can be punitive for lower-income groups, in par- ticular. Aligning with the renewed focus on social capital, McDonnell et al. (1999) define a series of positive social impacts emanating from the hosting of events. First, they argue for the benefits of generating shared experi- ence, which can replace other forms of coll- ective solidarity that have diminished in importance (e.g. trade unions, political par- ties). However, the critique of the depth of this solidarity is that it is unsustainable, more likely to be a fleeting and transitory coming together of people in proto-communities (Maffesoli, 1991). Second, critics ask whose version of ‘experience’ is being shared (Waitt, 2003). It is also proposed that the development of com- munity pride – of subjective feelings of hope and a renewed achievement orientation – rep- resents a positive social outcome of event hosting. Taken a step further, this renewed community pride can lever additional commu- nity participation, engagement and owner- ship. Yet, in her studies of Barcelona, Glasgow and Sydney, Garcia (2004) remains uncon- vinced of the linkages between urban sporting spectacles and the participation and represen- tation of local populations. Others offer the opportunity for citizens to extend their cultural horizons and experiences as a positive exter- nality accruing from hosting large-scale events. However, critical commentators suggest that this could also be seen as a means to exert social control to address the loss of identity associated with class, age, ethnicity and place brought about by the change in economic structures towards post-industrialism. While the literature discussing the positive social impact of events is growing quickly, there is also a fairly significant body of work emerg- ing on the negative social impacts of sporting mega-events, in particular. These include com- munity alienation, whereby the host popula- tions (or segments of it, at least) experience feelings of being ignored with respect to deci- sions about event bidding, planning and deliv- ery. Hall (2006) documents the manner in which public–private pro-growth coalitions involved in running large sports events can increasingly operate in an autonomous fashion, even to the extent that they benefit from legisla- tive fast-tracking to circumvent normal demo- cratic processes. This creates a democratic deficit, which further distances community groups from active participation in decision- making processes. With respect to the ills gen- erated during the delivery of a large-scale sporting event itself, McDonnell et al. (1999) suggest that a negative community image can be formed in the form of substance abuse, a (perhaps temporary) loss of amenities and the opportunity costs associated with expenditure on facilities and infrastructure to support large- scale events – the focus of the campaigns oper- ated by Toronto’s Bread Not Circuses protest group against the 2008 Olympics bid. From Social Impact to Social Leverage: the Policy Panacea? There is an ongoing debate within the events literature as to the most appropriate termin- ology to use to represent the social value of events. For example, Chalip (2006) decries over-use of the term ‘impacts’ in the literature, instead proposing use of the word ‘leverage’ to refer to the potential social value of sports events. Crucially, the focus on leverage repre- sents a change in emphasis towards pre-event legacy planning instead of the ad hoc nature of many social impact (post hoc) studies. So, while economic and social impact studies can provide useful post hoc analyses of what out- comes were accrued, these studies do not tell us about ‘why those outcomes occurred’ (Chalip, 2006, p. 112). This focus on the pre- event desired outcomes provides policy mak- ers and politicians with a much more meaningful, action-based approach that can demonstrate the commitment of the host to securing social value from its events rather than merely acting to legitimate public sector
- 40. Policy, Politics andSustainable Events 19 investment after the event has ended. The host community is much more involved in deciding and owning strategies in a social leverage- based approach – thus lending itself to more interactive participation and engagement tech- niques. However, alongside a commitment to social leverage is the need for a longer-term commitment to empirical work designed to track social outcomes over an extended period of time, across levels of governance and through event phases (i.e. from bidding, through management, to legacy/impact evalu- ation). It is difficult to measure the value of events in strengthening the social fabric or as a tool for the exploration of identity (local, national and international), to explore social concerns of the time and to symbolically explore the existing social order. However, by adopting more innovative and creative meth- odological approaches it is possible to under- stand more about how events can enable greater cross-community sociability by provid- ing opportunities for sharing time, space and activities at venues and in the wider cityscape and by facilitating informal social opportunities (e.g. by creating cultural festivities apart from the main venues). This task also requires us to look further into how lasting social networks are forged through events. While the burge- oning social capital (see Putnam, 1993, 2000) literature is clear on the benefits of social net- works on health, community development and entrepreneurial success, there has been little detailed investigation of the role events can play in building sustainable community capac- ity. There is some evidence to suggest that events can permit dialogue and relationships to form across age, gender, social class and ethnic categories that are otherwise very diffi- cult to bridge. If events policy and planning permits the social leverage to begin at the very earliest stage of the event production process (especially with respect to peripatetic sports events), then the foundations can be laid for community learning and well-being to be meaningfully practised around the vehicle of events. However, the challenge facing event policy makers is that, ‘if events are mere enter- tainments, and audiences are crowds that need to be managed and controlled, then social lev- erage is not possible’ (Chalip, 2006, p. 123). Instead, policy makers need to look beyond the economic imperative to plan in social leg- acy using a strategic approach – engaging its beneficiaries early on in the process and match- ing the city’s overarching policy drivers to the intended outcomes associated with the event. If, as the theory suggests, events can gen- erate a sense of collective responsibility by encouraging participation in community initia- tives, then their potential for long-lasting social value can be realized. The social capital litera- ture in the fields of health, community develop- ment and volunteering indicates that social well-being, community learning and commu- nity safety are achievable outcomes from the creation of productive social capital – especially when decision making is decentralized and communities are empowered to improve their own lives. In the events field, Misener and Mason (2006) have shown that Manchester was successful in using its 2002 Commonwealth Games to generate social capital in its most dis- enfranchised communities. They suggest that in order to secure these benefits: community values should be central to all decision making; various stakeholders, particularly community interest groups, should be involved in strategic activities related to events (e.g. bid process, management, legacy); collaborative action should empower local communities to become agents of change; open communication and mutual learning throughout strategic activities related to events must be maintained to mini- mize power brokering; and events need to embrace the core values of residents, commu- nity groups and neighbourhood associations. This process also needs to involve respecting community definitions of place and space and not those only of private ventures. While there are dangers in attempting to institutionalize and impose social capital on communities, it is important that local governments play a signifi- cant role in the ‘institutionalisation of group norms and values’ and the ‘formalisation of networks’ (Misener and Mason, 2006, p. 45). The development of appropriate networks must, however, take cognizance of the com- plexities of social capital. This requires a rethink on behalf of stakeholders, including academe, to move from a concentration on hardware to the much more amorphous, people-oriented approach compatible with a commitment to software.
- 41. 20 M. Foleyet al. Summary This chapter has argued for the more sustain- able approach to events policy that has emerged since the late 1980s. Community groups need to participate more meaningfully in decision-making processes with their politi- cal leaders and local government structures. Rather than being the font of all knowledge, local governments must catalyse change, a model that chimes with the emerging focus in UK local government on Community and Cultural Planning, whereby subsidiarity is a key feature and services are delivered in partner- ship by a series of public, private and voluntary associations. The vehicle of events must be used to engage and empower community groups to contribute to community building long after the ‘signature’ event itself has moved on. Creating appropriate structures is crucial here so that the usual suspects do not continue to feel marginalized as cities pursue events-led strategies. The challenge for local political lead- ers is to consider whether the existing networks and avenues to participation open to the city’s citizens are effective. Policy makers must avoid destroying ‘organic’ social capital by over- planning and power brokering and by expect- ing all social networks to open up despite the power relations at work within these groups. What is required is a much deeper commit- ment to ongoing legacy planning around a city’s events, so that policy makers can maximize social utility not only during the celebratory phase of event delivery, but for the longer term. Only then can events secure the long-lasting effects about which their patrons proselytize on a regular basis. Perhaps the call to reconsider the social and cultural in events policy can tem- per the concerns of citizens and protestors alike. The spectacle need not be opposed, but rather diluted, so that the social outcomes of event policy are shared more equally across a range of beneficiaries in a move from entrepreneurialism to social entrepreneurialism. Key Questions 1. As events management emerges as a dis- tinct field of study, why is there a need for events policy to form a more important ele- ment of this field? 2. Until recently, policy makers have been concerned primarily with the hardware of events as opposed to the software. Why is this changing? 3. What are the main differences between the concept of social impact and social leverage, and why are these important for event policy makers? References Arai, S. and Pedlar, A. (2003) Moving beyond individualism in leisure theory: a critical analysis of concepts of community and social engagement. Leisure Studies 22(3), 185–202. Brenner, N. and Theodore, N. (2005) Neoliberalism and the urban condition. City 9(1), 101–107. Chalip, L. (2006) Towards social leverage of sport events. Journal of Sport & Tourism 11(2), 109–127. Coalter, F. (2001) Realising the Value of Cultural Services: The Case for Sport. LGA, London. Debord, G. (1967) The Society of the Spectacle (English translation, 1995). Zone Books, New York. Derrett, R. (2003) Making sense of how festivals demonstrate a community sense of place. Events Management 8, 49–58. Flinn, J. and McPherson, G. (2007) Culture matters? The role of art and culture in the development of social capital. In: Collins, M., Holmes, K. and Slater, A. (eds) Sport,Leisure,Culture and Social Capital: Discourse and Practice. Leisure Studies Association, Eastbourne, UK, pp. 119–138. Foley, M. and McPherson, G. (2007) Glasgow’s Winter Festival: culture leadership for the common good? Managing Leisure 12(3), 1–16. Garcia, B. (2004) Urban regeneration, arts programming and major events. International Journal of Cultural Policy 10(1), 103–118. Getz, D. (2007) Event Studies: Theory, Research and Policy for Planned Events. Elsevier, Oxford, UK.
- 42. Policy, Politics andSustainable Events 21 Hall, C.M. (2006) Urban entrepreneurship, corporate interests, and sports mega-events: the thin policies of com- petitiveness within the hard outcomes of neo liberalism. The Sociological Review 54(Suppl. 2), 59–70. MacLeod, G. (2002) From urban entrepreneurialism to a ‘revanchist city’? On the spatial injustices of Glasgow’s renaissance. Antipode 34(3), 602–624. Maffesoli, M. (1991) The Time of the Tribes: the Decline of Individualism in Mass Society. Sage, London. McDonnell, I., Allen, J. and O’Toole, W. (1999) Festival and Special Event Management. John Wiley and Sons, Brisbane, Australia. Misener, L. and Mason, D.S. (2006) Creating community networks: can sporting events offer meaningful sources of social capital? Managing Leisure 11(1), 39–56. Putnam, R. (1993) The prosperous community: social capital and public life. The American Prospect 13. Available at: http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/DETOC/assoc/13putn.html Putnam, R. (2000) Bowling Alone – The Collapse and Revival of American Community. Simon & Schuster, New York. Roche, M. (2000) Mega-events and Modernity: Olympics and Expos in the Growth of Global Culture. Routledge, London. Veyne, P. (1990) Bread and Circuses: Historical Sociology and Political Pluralism (Brian Pearce, trans.). Penguin, London. Waitt, G. (2001) The Olympic spirit and civic boosterism: the Sydney 2000 Olympics. Tourism Geographies 3(3), 249–278. Waitt, G. (2003) Social impacts of the Sydney Olympics. Annals of Tourism Research 30(1), 194–215. Waterman, S. (1998) Carnivals for elites: the cultural politics of arts festivals. Progress in Human Geography 22(1), 54–74. Whitson, D. and Horne, J. (2006) Underestimated costs and overestimated benefits? Comparing the outcomes of sports mega-events in Canada and Japan. The Sociological Review 54(Suppl. 2), 71–89. Zukin, S. (1995) The Cultures of Cities. Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
- 43. ©CAB International 2009.Event Management and Sustainability 22 (eds Razaq Raj and James Musgrave) 3 Sustainability as a Concept within Events C. Smith-Christensen Event Research International (ERi), Oslo, Norway This chapter examines the concept of sustain- ability within the event industry, and specifi- cally assesses the contribution of the events industry to sustainable development. The pur- pose is to improve stakeholders’ ability to make informed decisions with regard to resource allocation, and to contribute to enhanced com- munication between stakeholders in fundrais- ing and marketing. Chapter outline ● Introduction ● The Concept of Sustainability within the Context of Events ● ResponsibleEvents–EventsforSustainable Development ● Sustainable Responsible Events – Trend or Passing Fad? ● Externalities and Market Failures in the Event Industry ● Development Objectives – Considering Individual and Societal Needs ● Summary ● Question Introduction ● Key Questions Introduction The term ‘sustainability’ comes from the verb ‘sustain’, which derives from the old French verb ‘sustenir’, meaning to support, keep up or maintain something. In music, for instance, sustain is a parameter of musical sound in time, denoting the period of time during which the sound is sustained before it becomes inaudible. The adjective ‘sustainable’ follows as the ability to be sustained. One of the first and most cited definitions of sustainability was created in 1987 by the Brundtland Commission, which defined sus- tainable development as development that ‘meets the needs of the present without com- promising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (UN, 1987). While the concept of sustainable develop- ment represented a new approach to societal progress, it also introduced sustainability as a buzzword to become commonly used in mana- gerial, technical, administrative and, some- times, political forums. It was later attached to a number of terms including sustainable busi- ness, sustainable living, sustainable tourism and, now, sustainable events. While buzzwords may be used to elabo- rate a text or to impress through a speech, buzzwords can also be ambiguous, making sentences difficult to dispute on account of their cloudy meaning. According to George Orwell’s Politics and the English Language (1946), a critical essay on the English lan- guage, people use buzzwords because they are convenient. It is much easier to copy the words
- 44. Sustainability as aConcept within Events 23 and phrases that someone else invented than it is to come up with one’s own. The Concept of Sustainability within the Context of Events Sustainability is characterized as a process or state that can be maintained at a certain level indefinitely; thus ‘sustainable events’ would be events that can be maintained at a certain level indefinitely. If applying the strictest definition of sustainability, the term ‘sustainable event’ would primarily make sense from a manage- ment perspective, denoting an event organized as an autonomous cyclical process, which is the only process that can be maintained over time. However, events are generally defined as transitory in nature, infrequent in occurrence and limited in time (Getz, 1991; Stiernstrand, 1996) – features opposing the general defini- tion of sustainability. Thus in the context of events the term ‘sustainability’ is ambiguous. Consequently, if not specified, use of the term sustainability in the context of events may be flawed in its logic, hence representing a poten- tial fallacy that can render an argument invalid. This should be of concern to all event stake- holders, who need an explicit vocabulary in order to make informed decisions and promote various agendas. Sustainable events – a management concept Events basically depend on three components: an organizing body; a place to host the event; and an audience. Each constituency is repre- sented by stakeholders and custodians – the event management team, host community and event-goers, respectively – each essential for the event’s existence (see Fig. 3.1). Events are not only a result of the interac- tion between event management, the host community and event-goers, but equally depend on the provision and allocation of resources, including human resources, infra- structure and funds. ● Human resources. Human resources are fundamental to the organization of events. Most events have a more or less formal event organization, with a management team including temporary employees, vol- unteers, etc. Second, human resources within the host community are also impor- tant. Events need the support of people directly or indirectly involved as product- and service-providers, people providing public services, local politicians and local residents, who not only represent a poten- tial audience but whose acceptance and support are essential for the success of an event. Third, events depend on human resources in the form of event-goers, locals and/or international visitors actively taking part in the event. ● Infrastructure. Although the events indus- try confirms that people can achieve a lot with little or no remuneration (e.g. volun- teers), there will always be the need for infrastructure. Besides the natural environ- ment, necessary infrastructure includes sites or venues providing the physical platform for hosting the event, roads and airports Proposed Definition 1 Sustainable events: events managed as an auton- omous cyclical process through the interaction between event management, host community and event-goers. Audience (local/non-local event-goers) The event organization The host community SE Fig. 3.1. Sustainable events (SE).
- 45. 24 C. Smith-Christensen providingaccess, as well as services such as parking, electricity and waste management. Even events taking place in cyberspace depend on infrastructure, such as the World Wide Web and computers. ● Funds. While some events are more costly to pull off than others, most depend on a minimum amount of financial resources for marketing, licenses, insurance, tax, etc. Furthermore, few events are able to grow or maintain a momentum without financial resources. Funds are generally provided through the event owners, paying attend- ees, private sector sponsors and/or gov- ernment allocating public resources. The ultimate task of the event manager is therefore based on the following concept: through the mobilization and allocation of resources (human resources, infrastructure and funds), to produce a programme that maintains the support of the various stakeholders and custodians. This definition of sustainable events should, however, not go unchallenged. For the concept to be meaningful it is, first of all, important to clarify how it applies to events organized one-off and events organized on a regular basis, respectively. Based on the afore- mentioned rationale, it makes little sense to talk about a sustainable one-off event. For reg- ularly organized events, the life cycle discourse can provide certain insight, specifically into the challenge of maintaining momentum. Only certain events could arguably be con- sidered truly sustainable. Examples include events embedded in cultural and religious tradi- tions (e.g. Christmas, Ramadan, Yom Kippur, Divali, New Year celebrations, etc.) and cele- bratory events based on historical dates such as constitution days, commemorations, etc. There are in addition a few other events that, due to broad international support, have managed to establish and maintain a hosting tradition. Such events include the Olympic Games and certain World Championships. These events are, despite immense cost, attractive to host owing to their prestige and the perception that they contribute to broader societal develop- ment objectives. This phenomenon leads us to the relevant question of whether an event that depends on public sector funding can be defined as sustainable. We will revert to this conundrum later in the chapter when address- ing the case of externalities and market failures in the event sector. Responsible Events – Events for Sustainable Development Until now, the concept of sustainable events has been approached from a managerial stance. If, however, the intention is to address events in the context of sustainable development, it is rel- evant to consider the impacts that events have within a host community and on its ability to contribute to development goals. Events produce impacts across the triple bottom line (TBL), which refers to the econ- omy, socioculture and the environment. Impacts can be positive as well as negative, tangible in addition to intangible. While tangi- ble impacts relate to material outcomes (e.g. venues, physical structures, etc.), intangible impacts entail non-material effects such as sociocultural benefits (e.g. community develop- ment, civic pride, etc.) and costs (e.g. disrup- tion to lifestyles, noise, crowding, etc.), as well as socio-economic benefits (e.g. promotional benefits, induced development, etc.) and costs (e.g. resident exodus, under-utilized infrastruc- ture, etc.) (Dwyer et al., 2000). Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a concept whereby organizations and businesses consider the interests of society by taking responsibility for the impacts of their activities. Today most major corporate companies emphasize their developmental commitment by promoting non-economic and societal val- ues through CSR charters, codes of conduct, statement of core values, etc. Recognizing that social responsibility can also be good for busi- ness and yield financial returns has led to an Proposed Definition 2 Sustainable events: events managed as an auton- omous cyclical process through the interaction between event management, host community and event-goers, providing human resources, infrastructure and funds.
- 46. Sustainability as aConcept within Events 25 increased reference to corporate social invest- ment (CSI). Considering its integrated nature, growth and professional evolution, it is reason- able to anticipate similar trends within the event industry, and expect an increased adop- tion of developmental strategies and arguing ‘responsibility’ accordingly. Supplementing the proposed definitions of sustainable events, the concept of ‘responsi- ble events’ is introduced to signify events that are locality-centric in nature and implement proactive measures (through resource alloca- tion) to contribute to local sustainable develop- ment across the TBL (see Fig. 3.2). Measuring the responsibility of an event The net holistic output measures the value of the gain across the TBL (i.e. economy, socioculture and environment) less the cost of enabling this extra output (adapted from Dwyer et al., 2005, p. 71). While impacts of events is a popular research topic (Formica, 1998; Getz, 2000; Hede et al., 2002), most researchers have, to date, applied a functional ‘silo-based approach’ to the evaluation of events, consid- ering economic, sociocultural and environ- mental impacts separately rather than holistically (Fredline et al., 2005; Sherwood et al., 2005). Unfortunately, the net holistic output remains a theoretical measure until an all-inclusive approach denoting fiscal, or at least measurable, values to intangible outcomes is developed and generally accepted. This chal- lenge is yet unsolved but increasingly addressed among academics. For events to contribute to sustainable develop- ment there needs to be a balance between eco- nomic, sociocultural and environmental objectives, with strategies in place for optimiz- ing positive and minimizing negative impacts. Instead of uncritically adopting CSR schemes applied in other industries, it is important to recognize the unique features of events and the events industry and develop operational strate- gies whereby event stakeholders act responsi- bly and thereby contribute to development. Ideally, programme development and resource allocation would be guided by local needs. Besides adopting responsible practices because it is ‘the right thing to do’, a responsibly organ- ized event embedded within a destination through a programme addressing local needs is more likely to gain stakeholder support, which again can contribute to recurrence and thereby its sustainability. Sustainable Responsible Events – Trend or Passing Fad? There is a clear trend of events being promoted as ‘sustainable’, ‘green’ or ‘carbon-neutral’. Up until now, sustainable events have primarily been used to flag environmental conscious- ness. Reasons for this are most likely that: the environment rates high on the public agenda; ‘best practice’ resources are available; and impacts have been relatively easy to monitor, estimate and communicate. Still emerging, the events industry can benefit from looking to associated industries like tourism. While the tourism industry has promoted environmentally sensitive tourism Proposed Definition 3 Responsible events: events sensitive to the economic, sociocultural and environmental needs within the local host community, and organized in such a way as to optimize the net holistic (positive) output. Maximizing economic impacts Minimizing environmental impacts Optimizing socio- cultural impacts RE Fig. 3.2. Responsible events (RE).
- 47. 26 C. Smith-Christensen foryears, there is an increasing demand for products and services that are not only sensi- tive to but also proactively contribute to sus- tainable development. Sustainable, pro-poor and responsible tourism are some of the many classifications adopted. Despite this positive trend, the industry’s movement towards sus- tainability and responsibility remains chal- lenged by ambiguous semantics and lack of transparency and accountability relating to the implementation of these classifications. As within the tourism industry, events are increasingly looking to certifications and brands to strategically establish and strengthen stake- holder partnerships. While certifications and brands may indicate responsibility, they do not necessarily guarantee an event’s contribution to local sustainable development. A general problem is the lack of transparency, leaving event-goers as well as funding or sponsoring partners uncertain of whether the event in question actually should be considered respon- sible through its contribution to sustainable development. A common challenge among event man- agers is to establish strategic partnerships with private sector sponsors and/or public sector funders. While many manage to secure sizeable sponsorships and maintain good and long- lasting relationships with their patrons, others struggle to secure the necessary funds. The lat- ter generally represent smaller, community- based events, often including developmental objectives. Some event managers appoint pro- fessional fundraisers, while others depend on well-connected volunteers. In competing for funds and sponsorship, even the most profes- sional event manager may find it challenging to argue the benefits, return on investment (ROI) and return on objectives (ROO) of supporting the event (see Box 3.1). A plausible explanation for these challenges may be that the fundraiser and potential funder/sponsor do not ‘speak the same language’. The lack of an explicit vocabu- lary makes it difficult for those not familiar with the event industry to understand what is meant by sustainable and/or responsible events. Thus, the intention of suggesting a stipula- tive definition of sustainable events, and intro- ducing the concept of responsible events, is to improve communication among stakeholders and to enhance the capability for making informed decisions specifically relating to resource allocation. Externalities and Market Failures in the Event Industry Most event managers strive to organize if not an autonomous, then a financially viable event attractive to its target market. While attractive- ness is a question of concept, programme and marketing, financial viability is a matter of resource allocation. The two following scenar- ios signify the importance of differentiating the concepts of sustainable events and responsible events. Events depending on funds over and above what is generated through the market and event activities: The concept and programme of an event can be more or less commercially geared. While some events are autonomous and financed entirely through participation or entrance fees, other events may offer a pro- gramme providing free access to the public (Burgan and Mules, 2001). Examples include street parades, open-air markets and religious celebrations. In the case where free access is provided, the true cost of organizing the event Box 3.1. Return on investment versus return on objectives. Return on investment (ROI) is a performance measure used to evaluate the economic efficiency of aninvestment or to compare the efficiency of a number of different investments (Investopedia, 2008). Return on objectives (ROO), on the other hand, aims to gauge an investment’s efficiency according to the achievement of more or less tangible goals, such as developmental goals across the TBL. While ROI is expressed as a percentage, measuring ROO is less straightforward, requiring the translation of intangible objectives into indicators that can be assigned a value (Burns et al., 1986; Dwyer et al., 2000; Fredline et al., 2005; Sherwood and Jago, 2005).
- 48. Sustainability as aConcept within Events 27 exceeds consumers’ provisions. Such events generally rely on a combination of private sec- tor sponsorship, public sector funding, in-kind contributions and volunteering. Potential pri- vate sector sponsors primarily consider market- ing synergies and ROI. Public sector funders, on the other hand, are generally interested in the event’s ability to support political and devel- opmental agendas, thereby optimizing ROO as well as maximizing the ROI of public funds. While recurring events may show previous impact studies, it is difficult for funders and sponsors to specifically gauge the likely ROO and ROI for first-time or one-off events. Con- templating involvement and support, both pri- vate and public sector stakeholders will be interested in the sustainability (i.e. resource allo- cation) as well as responsibility (i.e. contribution to development) of the event in question. Events where externalities create market failures: In theory, market mechanisms regu- late supply and demand. There are, however, circumstances where these mechanisms fail. In the events industry, market failures can occur when activities and economic transactions asso- ciated with the event cause externalities. An externality is an impact (positive or negative) from a given action causing costs or benefits to a third party. In other words, externalities cause market failures when the participants in an eco- nomic transaction do not bear all of the costs or reap all of the benefits of the transaction. Externalities become problematic when private sector stakeholders are incapable or unwilling to provide the resources or activities required to produce an adequate demand for infrastructure or services needed to host an event (Bauer et al., 2001, p. 71). Such unwillingness tran- spires when individuals or businesses are una- ble to capture all the benefits associated with their activities or investments (Burgan and Mules, 2000, p. 48). This is specifically an issue when impacts of an event fall into the category of public goods characterized by non- rivalling and non-excluding criteria (Solberg and Preuss, 2005, p. 139). Even if stakehold- ers collectively might want to invest in or fund an event, it is possible for the individual stake- holder to maximize his or her profit by opting out of the cooperative, allowing others to pay while enjoying the extra business the event generates. This is called the ‘free rider prob- lem’ (Burgan and Mules, 2000, p. 48; Solberg and Preuss, 2005, p. 139). While externalities caused by planning and staging events can occur across the TBL, the principal forms of market failures are dis- cussed by Bauer et al. (2001, pp. 72–73) and include: ● Market failure in destination marketing. It is not uncommon that host communities need considerable marketing in order to compete for and attract non-local visitors to an event. Such marketing campaigns are generally costly. The market can fail when event industry stakeholders are una- ble to capture the full benefits of these marketing efforts and, instead of contrib- uting to the cost, opt out and become free riders. ● Market failure in the provision of infra- structure. Some events, and specifically sports and business events, require huge investments in infrastructure such as stadia and conference and exhibition venues. Return on investment is often long-term, and the private sector, let alone the individual event manager, is sel- dom able to produce the funds required to build such facilities. Furthermore, these stakeholders are only some of the beneficiaries of the returns generated by these venues, and should therefore not carry the entire cost. ● Market failure in the bid processes. Certain events, generally major interna- tional events, entail a bid process involv- ing high costs in addition to those of planning and staging the event. For many stakeholders wanting to bid, these costs, which may occur over long peri- ods without any compensating income, can be too high and result in potential market failure. Besides tangible developmental outcomes such as new public venues, improved roads, extended transport systems and so forth, the hosting of events can also produce less tangible societal externalities including improved destination awareness, social cohesion, cultural revitaliza- tion and empowerment opportunities.
- 49. 28 C. Smith-Christensen Wherean event produces externalities resulting in market failures, the event may be forced to rely on public sector funding unless rendered financially unsustainable. In some cir- cumstances, where there is a conflict between individual and collective rationality, govern- ment might intervene to assist demand, supply and infrastructure, or otherwise reduce block- ages (Bauer et al., 2001, p. 71; Solberg and Preuss, 2005, p. 139). However, as pointed out by Solberg and Preuss (2005, p. 139), ‘in an ideal (rational) world, however, the govern- ment would only be willing to support [an] activity as long as the aggregate socio-economic return exceeds the socio-economic costs’. Yet, due to the difficulty in estimating the holistic impacts of events, and more specifi- cally the challenge of applying meaningful measures to less tangible impacts, emphasis has been put on economic aspects such as an event’s ability to attract non-local visitors who by their expenditures contribute to the local economy. This rather narrow-minded approach is not only due to inadequate evaluation meth- ods and tools, but also could be attributed to inadequate terminology. While focus has been on economic impact and ROI, the sector is still challenged by the inability to make informed decisions based on TBL developmental consid- erations and measures of ROO. Concerned with the above, it is necessary to reconsider the previously suggested defini- tions of sustainable events. If applying the strictest definition of sustainability, a truly sus- tainable event should generate sufficient funds through the market and not depend on subsi- dies from the public sector. However, consider- ing the potential of events to contribute to sustainable development, rather than requiring autonomy (Proposed Definitions 1 and 2), sus- tainable events should denote events efficiently utilizing their available resources (human resources, infrastructure and funds), thereby being self-sustaining without (or with a mini- mum of) public sector support. Development Objectives – Considering Individual and Societal Needs Besides acknowledging the call for taking a holistic approach to development, it is just as important to take into account the local needs across the TBL. This is directly in line with the Brundtland Commission’s definition of sustain- able development (see earlier). Illustrating this, it is obvious that a wealthy suburb in a devel- oped country has different development needs than a rural town in a developing country. However, needs may also vary vastly within a community and among stakeholders. In the context of events, both individual event-goers’ needs as well as societal needs within the host community should be of concern. While indi- viduals’ needs are generally psychological, societal needs are both objective as well as psychological. Psychological needs are described by Maslow (1943) through the hierarchy of needs, and include physiological needs, safety, belong- ingness, esteem and self-actualization. Besides individual variations within each stakeholder group, the psychological needs of event-goers and host community residents do not necessar- ily correspond. While event attendees may enjoy public spaces closed off from traffic, or outdoor concerts, residents may find it interfer- ing with their daily wants and needs. Objective societal needs, on the other hand, generally concern the broader economy, socioculture and environment (i.e. the TBL), and could spe- cifically entail development of a less seasonal tourism economy, improved social cohesion and resource management. While the pro- gramme of an event may demonstrate more or less sensitivity to local needs, such considera- tion should nevertheless be a parameter within the planning, design and marketing of an event, as well as within the actual implementa- tion and follow-up of an event. The ability to distinguish between the sus- tainability and responsibility of an event is spe- cifically useful when negotiating individual and societal needs. While an event’s contribution to Proposed Definition 4 Sustainable events: events efficiently utilizing available resources (human resources, infrastruc- ture and funds), thereby being self-sustaining without, or, in the case of externalities, with a minimum of, public sector support.
- 50. Another Random ScribdDocument with Unrelated Content
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- 52. Borthwick, Hon. A.M., ii. 187, 189, 210, 214, 242, iii. 276 Botha, General, i. 189, 265 Boughey, C. L. F., ii. 242, 254, iii. 28, 30, 151, 155, 276 Bowes-Lyon, G. P., i. 299, 339, ii. 1, 6, 242, 340, 342, 343, iii. 282 Boyton, H. J., ii. 158, 159, iii. 237 Brabourne, Lord, i. 190, 198, 225, 228, 230, 244, iii. 237 Bradford, Gen., V.C., ii. 302 Bradley, H. G. W., i. 359, 360, iii. 276 Brierley, H., Capt., M.C. (Coldstream Guards), ii. 337 Briscoe, R. G., M.C., ii. 179, 181, 227, 360, iii. 23, 79, 82, 83, 90, 123, 151, 179, 288, 318 Britten, C. R., M.C., i. 206, 214, 308, 344, 346, ii. 12, 132, 381, 143, 284, 286, 302, 305, iii. 273, 288 Brooke, Capt. (20th Brigade Staff), i. 133, 134 Brough, Lieut.-Col. (Royal Engineers), i. 368-9 Brown, A. M., M.C., iii. 67, 115, 116, 122, 147, 276, 288 Brown, C. C., iii. 28, 91, 95, 100 Browning, F. A. M., D.S.O., i. 335, 366, ii. 150, 165, 179, 181, 240, 250, 331, 333, 335, 336, 360, 364, 367, 369, 370, iii. 24, 27, 79, 286, 318 Bruce, R. C., M.C., ii. 238, 324, 350, 353, iii. 18, 288 Brunton, E. R., Lieut. (R.A.M.C.), i. 308, 344, 345 Brutton, C. P., iii. 22, 281 Buchanan, J. N., D.S.O., M.C., i. 206, 220, 255, 297, 329, ii. 153, 165, 179, 181, 227, 229, 230, 231, 240, iii. 286, 288 Buchanan, R. G., iii. 67, 115, 147, 171 Bulfin, Brig.-Gen., i. 11, 131, 134, 152, 159 Bullough, I., Lieut. (Coldstream Guards), iii. 201, 203 Bunbury, E. J., M.C., ii. 348, 373, iii. 28, 91, 132, 133, 159, 160, 162, 164, 183, 189, 288 Burke, J. B. M., M.C., ii. 22, 172, 191, 194, 222, 224, 243, 244, 262, 263, 264, 309, 310, 311, 313, iii. 235, 288 Burman, B., ii. 12, 13, 17, 132, 171, 173, iii. 276 Burnand, C. F., i. 192, 198, 225, 228, 230, 244, iii. 239 Burnett, Capt. (Gordon Highlanders), i. 127
- 53. Burt, G. C.,ii. 193, iii. 8, 34, 40, 47, 48, 276 Burton, J. S., i. 371, 372, iii. 240 Bury, H. S. E., i. 206, 211, iii. 240 Butler, Hon. L. J. P., Brig.-Gen., iii. 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 44, 53- 4, 56 Butt, J. G., Lieut. (R.A.M.C.), i. 88, 129 Byng, Sir J., Gen., ii. 266, 267-8, 269, iii. 27-8, 59, 60 Byng, L. G., M.C., ii. 238, 258, 260, 318, 350, iii. 17, 67, 71, 74, 237, 288 Cain, R. C., ii. 149 Calvocoressi, S., iii. 92, 130, 281 Cameron of Lochiel, D. W., Lieut-Col., C.M.G. (Cameron Highlanders), iii. 285, 318 Campbell, J. L., iii. 67, 68, 281 Campbell, J. V., Lieut.-Col., V.C., C.M.G., D.S.O. (Coldstream Guards), ii. 57-8, 59, 70, 71, 72, 102, iii. 168 Campbell, K. A., D.S.O., iii. 159, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 195, 276, 286, 318 Capper, T. B., Maj.-Gen., C.B., D.S.O., i. 83, 88, 94, 103, 104, 110, 111, 115, 118, 133-4, 136, 138, 140-41, 197, 229, 238, 244, 270-71 Carisbrooke, Marquis of, G.C.V.O., iii. 318. See Battenberg, Prince Alexander of Carrington, C. W., D.S.O., ii. 187, 189, 210, 215, 242, 341, 342, 343, 344, 346, 347, 373, 376, 378, iii. 276, 286, 318 Carson, R. H., ii. 237, iii. 240 Carstairs, C. C., M.C., ii. 107, 242, 340, 341, 346, iii. 91, 95, 133, 182, 185-6, 276, 288 Carter, H. G., i. 339, 366, 371, iii. 276 Carter, J. S., ii. 361, 367, 371, iii. 24, 79, 115, 116, 117, 122, 235 Cary, Hon. L. P., i. 87, iii. 208, 209, 294 Cary, Hon. P. P., i. 221, 255, 260, 328, 355, 361, ii. 237, 238, 318, 353, iii. 18, 67, 70, 71, 72, 208, 276 Cassy, D. W., i. 378, ii. 87, 103, 107, iii. 276
- 54. Castle, H. H.,Capt. (R.A.M.C.), ii. 317, 318, 350 Cator, A., Lieut.-Col. (Scots Guards), i. 136, 138, 250, 313, 317, 345, 346 Cavan, Earl of, Gen., K.P., K.C.B., G.C.M.G., M.V.O., i. 75, 145, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159-60, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 179, 183-4, 186, 205, 207, 212, 219, 261, 262, 267-8, 274, 281, 284, 289, 294, 295, 298, 306-7, 312, 314, 334-5, 349, 359, 368, 369, 375, ii. 9, 24, 42, 49-50, 58, 64, 83, 143, 146, 167, 195, 200, iii. 197, 230, 231, 232, 284, 285, 293, 318 Cavendish, R. H. V., M.V.O., i. 143, 144, 179, 183, 201, 203, 205, 206, 220, 274, 297, 329, 332, 333, 366, 373, ii. 372, 373-4, iii. 28, 29, 318 Cavendish, Hon. W. E., Brig.-Gen., M.V.O., iii. 318 Cecil, A. W. J., iii. 208 Cecil, Lord E. H., K.C.M.G., D.S.O., iii. 319 Cecil, G. E., i. 13, 35, 36 (note), iii. 240 Cecil, Hon. W. A., M.C., i. 12, 27, 61, 71-2, iii. 235, 288, 319 Challands, R. S., iii. 122, 141, 145, 147, 148, 172, 175 Chamberlain, N. G., ii. 176, 178, 237, 318, 323, 324, iii. 237 Chambers, A. S., M.C., ii. 176, 178, 219, 238, 258, iii. 18, 71, 74, 276, 288 Champneys, W., ii. 3, 6, 87, 107, 348, 373, iii. 276 Chapman, H. M., ii. 361, 366, iii. 281 Chapman, J., ii. 242, 254, iii. 30, 91, 95, 133 Chapman, M., M.C., i. 345, ii. 12, 17, 23, 243, 244, 261, 285, 288, 289, 290, 304, 306, 309, 310, 380, iii. 8, 11, 33, 36, 38-9, 48, 209, 235, 288 Chappie, J. W., ii. 176, 178, 219, 221, iii. 240 Charteris, Hon. I. A., i. 319, 323, 324-5, 326, iii. 209, 240 Cheylesmore, Lord, Major-Gen., K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., iii. 285, 319 Chitty, J. M., ii. 192, 193, 222, 244, 309, 313, iii. 237 Cholmeley, H. V., i. 328, 355, 358, iii. 240 Cholmeley, Sir M. R. A., Bart., i. 203, 204, iii. 235 Churchill, Rt. Hon. Winston, i. 336 Clarke, D. H., M.C., iii. 115, 118, 119, 141, 144, 282, 288
- 55. Clarke, S. T.S., M.C., ii. 325, 361, 364, 365, 367, 369, 372, iii. 24, 79, 155, 288 Clive, G. S., C.B., D.S.O., iii. 284, 285, 286, 293, 319 Clive, H. A., M.C., i. 273, 297, 329, 331, 332, 333, iii. 288, 319 Clive, P. A., i. 203, 206, 215, 220, 255, 258, 261, 278, iii. 234, 319 Clough-Taylor, E. L. F., iii. 29, 91, 95, 99, 195, 282 Clutterbuck, Major, iii. 201 Coffin, E. L., Lieut. (R.A.M.C.), iii. 152, 155, 179 Colby, L. R. V., i. 88, 95, 104, 115, 130, iii. 234, 319 Colquhoun, Sir I., Capt. (Scots Guards), ii. 103-4, 105 Colston, Hon. E. M., C.M.G., D.S.O., M.V.O., i. 12, 27, 47, 76, 78, iii. 285, 286, 293, 319 Colville, Viscount, iii. 216 Combe, T. A., i. 334, 366, 373, 374, ii. 165, 179, iii. 81, 123, 125, 209, 276, 319 Conant, R. J. E., iii. 70, 72, 282 Congleton, Lord, i. 76, 144, 167, 169, 171, 181, iii. 237, 319 Connaught, H.R.H. the Duke of, Field-Marshal, i. 196-7, 286-7, 289, ii. 149, 154, 158, 317, 339, iii. 27, 55, 292 Constable, D. O., ii. 13, 17, 18, 23, 138, 139, 143, iii. 240 Cookson, Lieut.-Col., i. 84 Cooper, A. D., D.S.O., iii. 95, 97-8, 99, 133, 286, 319 Cooper, H. St. C., ii. 340, 343, iii. 91, 281 Cooper, R. J., Brig.-Gen., C.B., C.V.O., iii. 272, 284, 319 Corbett, Hon. T. G. P., M.C., ii. 353, 359, iii. 276, 288 Corbyn, E. C., Lieut.-Col. (Bengal Lancers), ii. 336 Corkran, C. E., Brig.-Gen., C.B., C.M.G., i. 190, 245, 247, 248, 250, 251, 252, 267, 268-9, ii. 24, 109, 112, 115, 119, 120, 126, 129, 157, iii. 272, 284, 285, 293, 319 Corkran, R. S., i. 255, 274, iii. 240 Cornforth, J. C., M.C., i. 371, ii. 165, 167, 179, 181, 240, 250, 252, 331, 333, 334, iii. 26, 79, 83, 84, 87, 88, 90, 152, 153, 276, 288, 291, 319 Cornish, G. M., M.C., ii. 12, 87, 103, 107, iii. 31, 91, 130, 131, 182, 276, 289
- 56. Corry, A. V.L., M.C., i. 221, 222, 246, 255, 260, 279, ii. 108, 114, 130, iii. 237, 289, 319 Corry, N. A. L., D.S.O., i. 12, 17, 20, 21, 35, 41, 48, 51, 299, 301, 306, 339, 340, 344, ii. 1, 2 Cottle, W. E. W., Lieut. (Machine Gun Company), ii. 232, iii. 237 Coventry, St. J. H., iii. 208 Cox, P. H., iii. 36, 48, 282 Crabbe, C. T. E., i. 299, 303, 304, 306, iii. 237 Craig, D., D.S.O., iii. 276, 286, 319 Craigie, J. C., M.C., i. 206, 220, 255, 329, 330, 331, 332, ii. 169, 187, 188, 242, 254, 255, iii. 273, 289, 319 Cranborne, Viscount, i. 216, 221, 255, 260-61 Crawfurd, Lieut.-Col. (Coldstream Guards), ii. 201 Crawley, A. P., iii. 319 Creed, C. O., i. 208, 220, 255, 260, iii. 240 Crespigny, C. R. C. de, Brig.-Gen., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., i. 143, 167, 185, 217, 221, 255, 258, 286, 319, 320, 323, 355, 356, 367, 373, 375, 376, ii. 50, 52, 54, 56, 59, 60, 75, 78, 83, 134, 165, 168, 179, 181, 182, 184, 227, 228, 229, 240, 276-7, 279, 280, 327, 328, 330, 332, 362, iii. 65, 69, 81, 90, 110, 111, 120, 167, 169, 284, 285, 286, 293, 319 Crichton, H. F., Major (Irish Guards), i. 36, iii. 234 Crisp, F. E. F., i. 198-9, iii. 240 Crookshank, H. F. C., i. 275, 278, 297, 329, 335, 373, ii. 56, 63, 65, iii. 276 Crosland, C., i. 298, iii. 209, 277 Cruttenden, C., ii. 317, 318, 324, iii. 70, 75, 78, 277 Cubitt, C. C., M.C., i. 378, ii. 56, 66, iii. 56, 123, 152, 155, 179, 180, 277, 289 Cunliffe-Owen, Col., i. 177 Cunninghame, A. K. S., i. 13, 144, 201, 206, 220, 255, 297, 366, 373, ii. 56, 59, 64, 78, 80, 85, iii. 235, 319 Dalhousie, Lord, Lieut. (Scots Guards), i. 122 Dalkeith, Earl of, i. 245, 248, 319, 323, 355, 361 Dalmeny, Lord, D.S.O., M.C., iii. 277, 286, 289, 319
- 57. Dalrymple, Viscount, Major(Scots Guards), i. 117, 119 Darby, M. A. A., i. 88, 130, 138, 198, 200, 226, 231, 244, iii. 237, 319 Darrell, Lieut.-Col., i. 281, 368 Dashwood, W. J., ii. 120, 150, 162, 163, 175, 177, 218, 219, 220, iii. 237 Davies, Col. (Oxfordshire Light Infantry), i. 169, 176 Davies, Sir F. J., Lieut.-Gen., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., i. 11, 190, iii. 284, 285, 293, 319 Dawnay, H., Col. (Household Cavalry), i. 168 Dawson-Greene, C. J., ii. 316, 381, iii. 8, 12, 240 Dearden, H., Lieut. (R.A.M.C.), ii. 189, 242, 254, 341 De Cerjat, C. S., ii. 162 De Geijer, E. N., M.C., ii. 376, iii. 28, 91, 94, 95, 96, 133, 134, 183, 186, 277, 289 Delacombe, R., M.C., iii. 29, 91, 95, 99, 277, 289 De Lisle, A. P. J. M. P., ii. 363, 367, 370, iii. 81, 83, 86, 90, 277 De Lisle, Sir H. de B., Lieut.-Gen., iii. 33, 48-9 Denman, R. C., ii. 192, 193, 244, 262, 286, 309, 311, iii. 240 Denny, J. A., i. 211, iii. 277 Dent, W. H. S., M.C., ii. 150, 240, 331, 334, iii. 24, 79, 123, 124, 151, 179, 195, 277, 289 Derby, Earl of, i. 214, 268 D'Erlanger, L. F. A., iii. 67, 115, 147, 172 Derriman, G. L., i. 220, 255, 276-7, iii. 235 D'Esperey, Franchet, Gen., i. 43 Des Vœux, F. W., i. 12, 61, 62, iii. 237 Dickinson, T. M., i. 246, 248, 249, iii. 277 Diggle, W. H., D.S.O., M.C., iii. 286, 289, 319 Donnison, F. S. V., ii. 242, 373, iii. 133, 163, 164 Douglas-Pennant, Hon. A. G. S., i. 88, 130, iii. 237 Douglas-Pennant, Hon. G. H., i. 192, 198, 225, 228, 243-4, iii. 235, 319 Dowling, C. M. C., i. 144, 178, 181, 300, 304, 306, 340, 342, iii. 274
- 58. Drummond, F. H.J., M.C., ii. 182, 227, 231, 232, 234, 328, 331, 334, iii. 24, 25, 80, 123, 124, 277, 289 Drury-Lowe, W. D., D.S.O., i. 364, ii. 108, 113, 118, 123, 125, 126, iii. 235, 286, 319 Duberly, E. H. J., M.C., i. 192, 197, 225, 231, 239, 243, 248, 250, 319, 323, 355, 361, ii. 108, 123, 162, iii. 289, 319 Duberly, G. W., i. 141, 225, 228, 233, 238, 239, 240, 243, iii. 206, 234, 319 Du Cane, Sir J. P., Lieut.-Gen., iii. 32 Duckworth-King, Sir G., Bart., i. 88, 116, 130, 136-7, iii. 208, 274 Dudley-Smith, C. J., i. 246, 248, 258, 267, iii. 240 Dufferin and Ava, Marquis of, D.S.O., iii. 274 Dunlop, B. J., ii. 188, 189, 210, 213-14, iii. 237 Dunlop, L. E., ii. 189 Dunville, R. L., iii. 277 Duquenoy, M., ii. 8, 169, 187, 188, 242, iii. 319 D'Urbal, Gen., i. 187 Durbin, P., ii. 373, 374, 376, 377, iii. 240 Dury, G. A. I., M.C., ii. 187, 373, 375, iii. 28, 91, 128, 130, 277, 289 Earle, M., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., i. 87, 108, 116, 119, 121, 129, iii. 272, 284, 285, 319 Early, J. L., Capt. (U.S.M.O.R.C.), iii. 24, 80 East, G. W., Capt. (R.A.M.C.), ii. 210, 215 Eastwood, J. F., ii. 162, 176 Eaton, Hon. F. O. H., D.S.O., i. 299, 303, 305, 339, 341, ii. 1, 6, 169, 187, 188, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, iii. 286, 320 Eaton, Hon. H. E., i. 343, ii. 1, 11, 242, 254, iii. 277 Echlin, R. F. W., i. 355, 361, ii. 123, 165, 176, 178, 351, 354, iii. 17, 67, 115, 147 Edwards, G., Capt. (Coldstream Guards), i. 180 Eliot-Cornell, R. W., ii. 242, iii. 277 Ellice, A. R., ii. 135, 138, 143, iii. 237 Ellice, E. C., D.S.O., iii. 201, 202, 205, 208, 286, 320
- 59. Elliott, A. G.,M.C., ii. 187, 188, 209, 215, iii. 28, 91, 277, 289 Ellison, C. E. M., M.C., i. 307, 311, 314, 344, iii. 277, 289 Ellison, P. J. M., ii. 373, 375, 380 Ennor, F. H., ii. 237, 238, 258, 324, 350, 352 Ethelston, H. W., i. 198, 225, 228, 230, 232, 233, 239, 244, iii. 237 Evans, W. B., Lieut. (U.S.M.O.R.C.), iii. 18, 67, 71, 113 Eyre, J. B., M.B.E., i. 204, iii. 209, 277, 292 Fairbairn, S. G., M.C., iii. 92, 95, 133, 159, 183, 186, 289 Farquhar, R., M.C., ii. 26, 132, 133, 138, 142, 157, 172, 191, 193, 222, 244, iii. 209, 237, 289 Farquharson, M. G., M.C., iii. 122, 141, 147, 172, 195, 289 Feilding, G., Maj.-Gen., i. 41, 48, 57, 58, 61, 274-5, 277, 278, 280, 284, 295, 298, 336, 350-51, 368, ii. 3, 9, 24, 32, 38, 41, 58, 64, 106, 133, 146, 157, 172, 192, 195, 201, 204, 246, 249, 270, 271, 272, 276, 277, 280, 303, 326, 353, 383, iii. 62, 65, 90, 107, 197, 205 Fergusson, Sir C., Bart., Lieut.-Gen., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O., M.V.O., i. 12, 264, ii. 362, iii. 1, 284, 285, 320 Ffoulkes, Capt. (R.A.M.C.), iii. 28 Filmer, Sir R. M., Bart., M.C., i. 288, 340, 347, 348, 349, ii. 13- 14, iii. 235, 289 Filmer-Strangways-Rogers, A. E. F., iii. 159, 183, 185, 240 Finch, H. A., iii. 26, 83, 90, 240 Fish, H. C., Lieut. (U.S.R.), ii. 373, 376, 378 Fisher-Rowe, C. V., M.C., i. 141, 197, 225, 235, 238-9, 240, 244, ii. 150, 176, iii. 274, 289, 294, 320 Fisher-Rowe, L. G., M.C., i. 355, 362, ii. 108, 113, 114, 118, 162, 163, 164, 176, 177, 217, 238, 258, 318, iii. 289 Fisher-Rowe, L. R., i. 190, 197, 198-9, 225, 228, 230, 236, 243, 245, iii. 234, 320 Fitch, C. A., iii. 24, 25, 172, 282 FitzClarence, C., Brig.-Gen., V.C., i. 100, 174, 176 Fitzgerald, E. G. A., D.S.O., ii. 188, 242, 254, 257, 373, 375, 379, iii. 28, 90, 133, 159, 277, 286, 320
- 60. Fleet, W. A.,ii. 236, 237, 353, iii. 18, 19, 22, 240 Fletcher, G. H., i. 211, iii. 240 Flower, A. C., ii. 25, 132, 138, 143, iii. 240 Flower, N. A. C., ii. 123, 125, iii. 277 Foch, General, i. 43, iii. 16, 59, 105, 166 Follett, G. B. S., Brig.-Gen., ii. 328, 362, 375, iii. 63, 69, 78, 110, 114 Forbes, A. H., ii. 317, 325, iii. 98 Forbes, Lord, iii. 210 Fortune, Capt. (Black Watch), i. 176 Forgety, C. A., Lieut. (U.S.M.O.R.C.), ii. 354 Foster, A. C., i. 226, 228, 230, 244, iii. 240 Foulkes, Major (Royal Engineers), i. 215 Fox, Capt. (Scots Guards), i. 117, 119 Fox-Pitt, W. A. L., iii. 320 Fraser, J. C., M.C. (Machine Gun Company), iii. 237, 289 Freeman-Greene, H., iii. 151, 172, 175, 176 French, Sir John, Field-Marshal, i. 18, 21, 22, 29, 32, 35-6, 44-5, 46, 54-6, 68, 79, 80, 84, 97, 106, 107, 111, 141-2, 143, 149, 151, 163-4, 172, 187, 224, 244-5, 247, 282, 287, 290, 322 Frere, J. H., ii. 318, 351, 353, iii. 277 Freyberg, B. C., V.C., C.M.G., D.S.O., iii. 285, 288 Fryer, E. R. M., M.C., i. 278, 298, 329, 330, 340, ii. 1, 6, 187, 188, 209, 211, 212, 214, 215, 242, iii. 30, 91, 95, 96, 98, 99, 128, 133, 159, 160, 277, 289, 291 Gardner, C. G., ii. 12, 87, 98, 107, iii. 237 Gardner, S. Y. P., M.C., ii. 163, 176, 177, 219, 237, iii. 277, 289 Garton, W., O.B.E., iii. 225, 295, 320 Gascoigne, E. F. O., C.M.G., D.S.O., iii. 294, 320 Gascoigne, I. C., ii. 317, 352, iii. 237, 285 Gathorne-Hardy, Hon. J. F., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., iii. 284, 285, 286, 293, 320 Gault, R. A., ii. 17, 132, 134-5, iii. 240 Gelderd-Somervell, R. F. C., i. 199, 226, 231, 232, 244, iii. 240
- 61. George, S. C.K., ii. 338, 361, 367, iii. 79, 82 George V., H.M. King, i. 10, 15-16, 172, 191-2, 195, 201-2, 245, 286, 288-9, 326-7, 342, 364-5, ii. 12, 143-4, iii. 195, 196, 197, 198-9, 213, 233 Gerard, C. R., D.S.O., i. 144, 201, 206, ii. 193, 222, 244, 285, 306, 309, 313, 380, iii. 8, 33, 36, 38, 54, 55, 56, 286, 320 Gibbon, H. J., M.C., iii. 29, 91, 133, 134, 135, 159, 183, 289 Gibbs, 2nd Lieut. (Scots Guards), i. 122 Gilbey, A. J., iii. 8, 10, 282 Giles, C. C. T., ii. 338, 360, iii. 83, 87, 90, 277 Gillett, H. V., iii. 55, 56, 57 Gillilan, Major (Coldstream Guards), iii. 54 Gladwin, Lieut. (Scots Guards), i. 117 Glanusk, Lord, C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O., iii. 292, 320 Gleichen, Lord E., K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., iii. 293, 320 Glyn, A. St. L., i. 335, 336, 357, 360, 361, 363, 366, 367, 370, iii. 208, 294, 320 Godman, G. W., ii. 338, 373, iii. 28, 91, 183, 186, 277 Gordon, C. A., M.C., iii. 26, 278, 289 Gordon, H. P., iii. 92, 130, 282 Gordon-Gilmour, R. G., C.B., C.V.O., D.S.O., iii. 216, 320 Gordon-Lennox, Lord B. C., i. 12, 17, 26, 28, 40, 48, 57, 64, 70, 73, 76, 144, 148, 153, 155, 157, 161, 171, 181, 210, iii. 234, 320 Gordon-Lennox, V. C. H., ii. 150, iii. 209, 278 Gort, Viscount, V.C., D.S.O., M.V.O., M.C., i. 262, ii. 191, 193, 194, 222, 225, 226, 244, 261, 262, 274, 285, 288, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 314, 352, 354, 356, iii. 17, 21, 61, 66, 69, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 107, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117-19, 121-122, 126, 274, 284, 286, 287, 288, 289, 295, 320 Goschen, C. G., i. 192, 198, 225, 228, 231, 239, 243, 248, 269, ii. 16, 17, 18, 130, 138, 139, 143, iii. 235 Goschen, G. G., i. 204, iii. 278 Gosselin, A. B. R. R., D.S.O., i. 12, 40, 61, 62, 72, 206, 214, ii. 235, 286, 320
- 62. Gough, Capt., i.185 Gough, H., Lieut.-Gen., i. 81, 266, 270, 277, 291 Graff, J. H., Capt. (U.S.M.O.R.C.), iii. 95, 133, 159 Graham, A. C., i. 359, 362, ii. 108, 109, 113, 114, 130, iii. 235 Graham, H. A. R., i. 214, iii. 208, 274 Graham, J. W., i. 359, 360, iii. 278 Grant, A., iii. 67, 115, 120, 122, 240 Grant, J. C. B., Capt. (R.A.M.C.), i. 355, 362, ii. 162, 176, 178, 219, 236, 258 Green, G. R., M.C., ii. 191, 193, 222, 244, 381, iii. 8, 34, 35, 36, 48, 278 Greenhill, F. W. R., ii. 187, 189, 210, 242, 254, 257, iii. 240 Greenwood, J. E., iii. 8, 34, 36, 48, 56, 57, 278, 320 Greer, E. B., Lieut.-Col. (Irish Guards), ii. 206 Gregson, L. M., O.B.E., iii. 292, 320 Gregson-Ellis, P. G. S., iii. 53, 55, 56, 57 Grellier, N., Capt., M.C. (R.A.M.C.), ii. 132, 138, 172, 191, 194, 222, 245, 262, 286, 381, iii. 8, 34, 36, 56, 57 Greville, C. H., D.S.O., i. 192, 245, 246, 248, 323, ii. 172, 191, 193, 194, 222, 226, 353, iii. 17, 171, 274, 286, 320 Grey, R., D.S.O., i. 79, iii. 286, 295, 320 Grigg, E. W. M., C.M.G., D.S.O., M.C., i. 275, 297, 329, 366, ii. 93, 94, iii. 285, 286, 289, 320 Guernsey, Lord (Irish Guards), i. 62 Gunnis, G. G., M.C., i. 299, 339, 341, ii. 1, 6, 87, 98, iii. 236, 289, 320 Gunnis, I. FitzG. S., ii. 179, 180, 181, 182, 184-5, iii. 282 Gunther, G. R., M.C., iii. 91, 133, 159, 163, 182, 186, 240, 289 Guthrie, Sir C. T. R. S., K.B.E., i. 192, 198, 225, 228, 244, iii. 278, 292 Gwyer, C., iii. 25, 83, 86, 90, 237 Hague, C. N., M.C., iii. 289, 320 Haig, Sir Douglas, Field-Marshal, i. 10, 15, 48, 98, 99, 102, 113, 151, 155, 158, 184, 225, 247, 281, 290, 293, 322, 349, ii.
- 63. 27, 28, 144,145-6, 160, 266, 267, 268, 284, 339, iii. 50-51, 59, 105, 137 Haking, Lieut.-Gen., i. 11, 285, 368 Halford, C. H., iii. 208 Hall, C. A., M.C., ii. 169, 187, 189, iii. 278, 289, 320 Hall, C. B., iii. 141, 147, 150, 282 Hall-Watt, R., ii. 237, 238, 258, 261, iii. 240 Hambro, C. J., Lieut. (Coldstream Guards), ii. 201 Hamilton, Lieut. (Gordon Highlanders), i. 135 Hamilton, Maj.-Gen., i. 12 Hamilton, Lord C. N., D.S.O., M.V.O., i. 87, 109, 117, 138, 269, 273, 356, iii. 286, 320 Hamilton, G. C., C.M.G., D.S.O., i. 12, 26, 57, 59, 144, 153, 161, 166, 177, 288, 289, 307, 308, 310, 313, 318, ii. 159, 171, 190, iii. 209, 210, 273, 285, 286, 320 Hamilton, G. E. A. A. FitzG., ii. 354, iii. 18, 22, 240 Hanbury, Lieut. (Irish Guards), iii. 202 Hanham, Sir J. L., Bart., ii. 341, 344, iii. 278 Hanning, G. H., ii. 240, 241, 361, 366, iii. 278 Harbord, P. A. A., M.C., ii. 181, 227, 240, 331, 334, iii. 240, 289 Harcourt-Vemon, E. G., M.C., iii. 152, 155, 179, 289 Harcourt-Vernon, G. C. FitzH., D.S.O., M.C., i. 12, 63, 373, ii. 51, 57, 63, 78, 85, 167, 179, 181, 241, 250, 330, 331, 337, 361, 362, 367, iii. 24, 27, 79, 122, 123, 124, 125, 208, 274, 286, 289, 320 Hardinge, Hon. A. H. L., M.C., ii. 158, 172, 191, 284, 309, 311, 312, 381, iii. 34, 56, 57, 278, 289 Hargreaves, Capt. (Irish Guards), ii. 126 Hargreaves, S. J., ii. 317, 318, 350, iii. 18, 22, 240 Harrison, C. E., C.M.G., C.V.O., M.B., F.R.G.S., iii. 285, 320 Harter, H. H., iii. 238 Hartley, 2nd Lieut. (Coldstream Guards), iii. 227 Harvard, K. O'G., ii. 123, 125, 166, 167, 179, 181, 227, 231, 233, iii. 238 Harvard, L. de J., i. 356, 362, ii. 108, 179, 238, 258, 318, 320, 350, 353, 354, 358, iii. 241
- 64. Harvey, D., i.367, 373, 378, ii. 57, 66, 368, 370, iii. 241 Hasler, A., i. 378, ii. 57, 60, 65, iii. 241 Hawkesworth, E. G., M.C., ii. 258, 318, 350, 353, iii. 17, 67, 69, 70, 74, 75, 76, 78, 278, 289 Hay, Lord A. (Irish Guards), i. 62 Hay, Lord E. D. J., ii. 193, 194 Head, Major (R.H.A.), i. 109 Healy, C. H. C., ii. 120, 125, iii. 278 Heasman, F. J., M.C., ii. 7, 187, 210, 211, 215, 242, 254, 373, iii. 28, 91, 289 Henderson, K., ii. 187, 188, 209, 212-13, 215, iii. 278 Henderson, R. K., iii. 28, 91, 130, 282 Heneage, E., i. 319, 323, iii. 320 Heneage, G. C. W., D.S.O., i. 287, iii. 286, 320 Herbert, C. G. Y., M.C., iii. 289 Hermon-Hodge, Hon. L. St. L., M.C., i. 297, 329, 330, 340, ii. 1, 4, 186, iii. 27, 79, 123, 124, 155, 156, 179, 278, 289 Hermon-Hodge, Hon. R. H., D.S.O., iii. 286, 294, 320 Hervey-Bathurst, Sir F. E. W., Bart., D.S.O., i. 287, iii. 287, 321 Hewitt, C. J., iii. 278 Heywood, C. P., Brig.-Gen., ii. 35, iii. 139, 146, 168, 175 Heywood-Lonsdale, H. H., D.S.O., iii. 287 Heyworth, F. J., Brig.-Gen., D.S.O., i. 190, 227, 229, 230, 239, 252, 268, 285, 289, 295, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 315, 317, 320, 347, 360-61, 368, ii. 15, 21 Higginson, Sir G., Gen., iii. 209-10 Higginson, T. C., i. 300, iii. 238 Hilton-Parry, W., Capt. (R.A.M.C.), ii. 13 Hirst, G. F. R., M.C., i. 300, 305, 340, 342, ii. 11, 87, 169, 187, 189, 242, 254, 255, iii. 30, 91, 95, 96, 97, 128, 278, 289 Hoare, E., i. 359, 360, iii. 241 Hoare, E. R. D., i. 308, 309, 319, ii. 191, 245, 262, 286, 381, iii. 278 Hoare, G. H. R·, ii. 338, 340, 341, 342, iii. 278 Hobart, C. V. C., C.B.E., D.S.O., iii. 292, 321
- 65. Holbech, L., D.S.O.,M.C., ii. 169, 187, 189, 209, 242, 373, 375, 376, 380, iii. 151, 153, 155, 156, 157, 179, 195, 278, 287, 290, 321 Hollins, C. B., ii. 242, 340, 343, iii. 133, 159, 278 Holmes, R. E. I., iii. 18, 19, 22, 282 Home, Hon. W. S. D., Maj.-Gen., iii. 226 Hood, Viscount, O.B.E., iii. 292, 321 Hope, G. E., M.C., i. 88, 119, 130, 137, iii. 234, 290, 321 Hope, P. S., i. 362 Hopley, F. J. V. B., D.S.O., i. 336, ii. 1, 6, 87, 106, 107, iii. 209, 278, 287, 321 Hopley, G. W. V., i. 206, 212, iii. 241 Hore-Ruthven, Hon. W. P., G.S.O.I., i. 160, 368 Hornby, M. C. St. J., iii. 58 Horne, D. E. A., ii. 309, 311, iii. 282 Horne, H. S., Gen., i. 272, 277, 280-81, iii. 48, 49-50 Houstoun-Boswall, Sir G., Bart., i. 307, 310, 312, 314, 318, iii. 236 Howell, F. D. G., Capt. (R.A.M.C.), i. 72, 201, 206, 221, 255 Hubbard, B. J., M.C., ii. 172, 191, 193, 222, 223, 245, 309, 310, 311, iii. 241, 290 Hubbard, J. F., O.B.E., iii. 292 Huggan, Lieut. (R.A.M.C.), i. 70 Hughes, G., iii. 67, 69, 238 Hughes, J. S., M.C., i. 143, 144, 166, 180, 201, 206, 217, 245, 248, 250, 251, ii. 341, 343, 344, iii. 57, 274, 290, 321 Hulme, Lieut., iii. 98 Imeretinsky, Prince G., iii. 282 Ingleby, I. H., i. 297, 329, ii. 12, 17, 171, 191, 193, 222, 244, 303, 308, 380, iii. 8, 33, 55, 56, 321 Inglis, G., i. 326, 355 Inglis-Jones, J. A., iii. 126, 282 Irby, C. E., M.C., ii. 172, 191, 193, 222, 244, 285, 309, 314, 315, 381, iii. 8, 34, 55, 56, 57, 278, 290
- 66. Irvine, A. F.,i. 336, 366, 373, 374, 376, ii. 78, 80, 85, iii. 209, 278 Jackson, G. D., ii. 3, 6, 87, 103, 107, iii. 241 Jackson, H. K., Brig.-Gen., D.S.O., i. 84 Jacob, J. H., ii. 151, 179, 182, 227, 231, 234, 368, 371, iii. 278 Jeffreys, G. D., C.B., C.M.G., i. 13, 20, 35, 38, 48, 49, 59, 61, 64, 65, 67, 70, 72, 144, 163, 174, 180, 201, 206, 220, 255, 258, 261, 262, 273, 297, 329, 331, 334, 335-6, 337, 366, 367, ii. 2, 153, 208, 240, iii. 155, 272, 284, 285, 293, 294, 321 Jesper, L. C., iii. 115, 117, 122, 282 Jesper, N. McK., M.C., i. 339, 366, 373, ii. 56, 61, 66, iii. 27, 80, 83, 85, 87, 90, 278, 290 Joffre, General, i. 18, 21, 32, 44, 80, 191, 266, 290, ii. 27, 145 Johnson, H. J. G., ii. 176, 178, 219, 236, iii. 238 Johnston, C. F., ii. 107 Joicey-Cecil, J. F. J., ii. 26, 136, 138, 143, iii. 209, 238 Joicey-Cecil, Lord J. P., iii. 321 Jones, B. H., iii. 67, 115, 116, 120, 122, 278 Jones, Capt., iii. 201 Kaye, Capt. (Manchester Regiment), iii. 67 Keating, H. S., iii. 238 Keith, C. G., M.C., ii. 13, 17, 18, 132, 133, 138, 141, 142, 171, 191, 193, 194, iii. 290 Kemble, Capt. (Scots Guards), i. 122 Kendall, R. Y. T., ii. 26, 131, 240, 331, 334, iii. 209, 279 Kennaway, C. G., iii. 115, 122, 141, 142, 147, 148, 172, 173, 175 Kenyon-Slaney, R. O. R., i. 87, 130, iii. 208, 274 Kerr, C., Lieut. (Australian Infantry), iii. 51, 52 Kerry, Earl of, Lieut.-Col., D.S.O., M.V.O., (Irish Guards), iii. 321 Keyes, Sir Roger, iii. 136 King, D. L., iii. 81, 123, 152, 155, 179, 321 King, E. G. L., i. 359, 362, ii. 108, 109, 176, 177, 178, iii. 241
- 67. Kingsmill, A. deP., D.S.O., M.C., i. 208, 298, 329, 366, iii. 274, 287, 290, 321 Kinloch, Sir D. A., Bart., Brig-Gen., C.B., M.V.O., iii. 321 Kitchener, Earl, Field-Marshal, i. 9, 13-14, 172, 286, 287, 297, 354, 362, 367 Knatchbull-Hugessen, M. A., M.C., i. 275, 298, 329, 366, ii. 76, 78, 80-81, 85, iii. 238, 290, 321 Knight, D. J., ii. 193, 245, 262, 381 Knollys, A. C., M.C., ii. 242, 341, 342, 345, 346, 373, 376, 378, iii. 24, 279, 290 Lambert, R. S., M.C., i. 88, 116, 117, 130, 344, ii. 12, 17, 132, 138, 171, 190, iii. 274, 290, 321 Lambton, G., Lieut. (Coldstream Guards), i. 36 (note) Lamont, G. S., D.S.O., iii. 71, 115, 147, 172, 173, 241, 287, 321 Landon, Brig.-Gen., i. 11 Lang, A. H., i. 208, 211, iii. 241 Langley, F. J., ii. 338, 361, 367, 372, iii. 27, 79, 83, 87, 90, 241 Lascelles, Viscount, D.S.O., i. 266, 267, 319, 323, 324, 325, 355, 356, 362, 363, ii. 56, 64, 65, 177, 237, 350, 351, iii. 29, 30, 90, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 159, 160, 161, 163, 164, 182, 184, 186, 187, 189, 201, 274, 287, 321 Lawford, A. B., i. 245, 248 Lawford, R. D., M.C., i. 216, 221, 355, 362, ii. 123, 125, 162, 176, 177, 218, 219, 220, 317, 318, 320, 323, 350, 353, iii. 17, 66, 114, 279, 290 Lawford, S., Brig.-Gen., i. 83, 90 Lawrence, B. L., ii. 149, 162, 177, iii. 279 Lawrence, G. F., iii. 24, 25, 79, 82, 83, 90, 238 Lawes, R. L. M., ii. 245, 381, iii. 8, 34, 40, 54, 55, 57 Lawson, J., Capt. (R.A.M.C.), iii. 183 Lawson-Johnston, A. McW., M.C., ii. 78, 81, 165, 167-8, iii. 238, 290 Layland-Barratt, F. H. G., M.C., ii. 78, 81, 165, 179, 181, 227, 240, 328, 331, 336, iii. 279, 290
- 68. Layton, B. C.,i. 308, 316, 344, ii. 13, 17, 20, 26, 309, 315, 381, iii. 56, 57, 279 Leatham, R. E. K., D.S.O., i. 88, 116, 130, iii. 273, 287, 294, 321 Lee-Steere, J. H. G., i. 178, 179, 181, iii. 241 Leeke, C., i. 319, 323, 358, iii. 238 Legh, Hon. P. W., O.B.E., iii. 292, 321 Leigh-Pemberton, R. D., M.C., i. 308, 344, iii. 58, 290 Leslie, Sir J., Bart., Col. (R. Innis. Fusiliers), iii. 321 Lessing, A. E., O.B.E., iii. 292, 321 Lethbridge, Sir W. P. C., Bart., iii. 208 Leveson-Gower, R. H. G., ii. 172, 191, 193 Lewis, Lieut. (R.F.A.), iii. 39 Lindsay, W., Capt. (R.A.M.C.), iii. 119, 141, 147, 172 Lister, W. H., Capt., D.S.O., M.C. (R.A.M.C.), ii. 368 Llewelyn, H., ii. 109, iii. 209, 279 Lloyd, A. H. O., Brig.-Gen., C.B., C.M.G., M.V.O., iii. 285, 321 Lloyd, Sir F., Lieut.-Gen., G.C.V.O., K.C.B., D.S.O., iii. 107, 209, 293, 321 Lloyd, J. A., ii. 237, 258, 318, 350, 353, 354, iii. 17, 67, 70, 141, 171, 195, 321 Lloyd, M. K. A., i. 376, ii. 56, 59, 65, iii. 202, 203, 236 Loch, Lord, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., M.V.O., i. 12, 13, 17, iii. 284, 285, 293, 321 Loftus, D. F., iii. 208 Loftus, F. P., ii. 331, 336, 361, iii. 24, 80, 209 Logan, A. T., Lieut. (R.A.M.C.), i. 300, 340, ii. 1, 6, 87 Lomax, Major-Gen., i. 11, 100, 156 Long, E. C., ii. 338, 340, 343, iii. 279 Long, H. M., Lieut. (U.S.A.M.S.), ii. 361 Lovell, W. H., M.C., i. 365, ii. 108, 162, 176, 177, 218, 318, 350, 352, iii. 114, 116, 121, 122, 279, 290 Lowther, H. C., Brig.-Gen., i. 287 Lubbock, Hon. H. F. P., ii. 371, iii. 24-25, 238 Ludlow, E., i. 307, 344, ii. 12, 17, iii. 7 Lyautey, Gen., ii. 173 Lycett-Green, F. D., i. 299, 304, 306, iii. 279
- 69. Lygon, Hon. R.,M.V.O., M.C., i. 141, 198, 226, 231, 233, 234- 235, 239, 240, 241-242, 243, iii. 208, 290, 321 Lyon, F. C., ii. 12, 316, 381, iii. 8, 11, 34, 40, 42, 47, 48, 238 Lyttelton, Rev. Hon. C. F., M.C., ii. 182, 241, iii. 24, 80 Lyttelton, O., D.S.O., M.C., i. 216, 221, 255, 281, 341, ii. 1, 6, 86, 101, 103, 104, 105, 169, iii. 287, 290, 321 Macdonald, G. G., iii. 208 Macdonald, I., iii. 8 MacDougall, I., i. 12, 35, iii. 236 M'Ewen, Col. (Camerons), i. 176 Mackay, Lieut. (Machine Gun Guards), ii. 345, 346 Mackenzie, A. K., i. 12, 49, 63, ii. 7, 87, 97, 107, iii. 236 Mackenzie, H. W. R., i. 88, 135, 138 Mackinnon, Sir W. H., Gen., G.C.B., K.C.B., K.C.V.O., iii. 284 MacLear, B. G. H., M.C., ii. 16, 17, 18, 25-6, iii. 238, 290 MacMahon, Gen., ii. 170 Macmillan, M. H., i. 308, 316, 317, 319, 373, 375-376, ii. 51, 56, 60, 61, 65, iii. 279 Magnay, F. A., ii. 186, 240, 331, 334, iii. 28, 279 Maine, H. C. S., ii. 135, 138, 139, 143, iii. 279 Maitland, Lieut. (Scots Guards), iii. 202 Major, E. L., Lieut. (U.S. Army), iii. 83, 123 Makgill-Crichton-Maitland, M. E., D.S.O., i. 143, 144, 146, 181, 245, 248, 250, 251, 319, 323, 327, 343, 363, ii. 1, 4, 6, 11, 108, 109, 118, 123, 162, 164, 175, 176, 177, 218, 221, 237, 258, 262, 318, 321, 350, 352, iii. 210, 273, 287, 321 Malcolm, P., i. 308, 318, iii. 17, 67, 70, 75, 78, 236 Manley, W. B. L., iii. 29, 91, 130, 282 Manners, Hon. F. H., M.C., ii. 150, 165, 179, 181, 240, 250, 251, 361, 371, 372, iii. 209, 279, 290 Manners, Hon. J. N., i. 12, 34, 35, iii. 238 Marshall, Major (Manchester Regiment), iii. 67 Marshall, F. G., i. 144, 201, 206, 217, iii. 238 Marshall, Sir W. R., Gen., ii. 267, 349 Marsham, Hon. S. E., iii. 55, 56, 123
- 70. Martin, F., iii.321 Matheson, T. G., Major-Gen., C.B., i. 64, 65, iii. 108, 110, 114, 137, 146, 169 Maude, Sir S., Gen., ii. 161, 175, 236, 267 Maunoury, Gen., i. 43, 46 Maurice, F. T., ii. 176, 237, iii. 238 Maxwell, A. E., i. 86, iii. 236 Mays, C. C., ii. 237, 238, 258, 318, 350, 353, 354, 358, iii. 241 Meikle, R. M., ii. 382 Mildmay, A. S. L. St. J., M.C., i. 198, 226, 231, 244, ii. 181, 227, 230, 231, 232, 234, iii. 208, 279, 290 Miller, D., i. 78, 146 Miller, E. E., iii. 209 Miller, F. W. J. M., i. 12, 144, 181, iii. 238 Minchin, T. W., D.S.O., i. 339, 366, 373, ii. 51, 52, 57, 66, 382, iii. 8, 13, 34, 40, 41, 42, 43, 47, 279, 287, 321 Minne, Monsieur, ii. 6 Mitchell, C., D.S.O., O.B.E., i. 137, 138, 193, 198, 245, 246, 248, ii. 26, 127, iii. 287, 292, 321 Moller, A. A., M.C., i. 198, 319, 323, 355, ii. 237, 238, 258, 350, 352, iii. 17, 67, 290 Molyneux-Montgomerie, G. F., i. 299, 301, 302, 305, 339, 342, iii. 234 Monro, Sir C., Lieut.-Gen., i. 11, 37, 38, 173, 209, 272 Montagu, Hon. S. A. S., ii. 361, 367, 370, 371, iii. 24, 79 Montagu-Douglas-Scott, Lord F. G., D.S.O., iii. 210, 225 Morgan, H. B. G., M.C., ii. 239, 250, 361, 367, iii. 79, 83, 84, 88, 89, 90, 155, 156, 282, 290 Morley, Hon. C. H., i. 245, 248, 251, iii. 279, 322 Morris, A. A., iii. 55, 70, 75, 115, 120, 122, 238 Morris, Hon. G., Col. (Irish Guards), i. 20, 36 Morrison, J. A., D.S.O., i. 190, 194, 197, 198, 199, 246, 307, 309, 311, 315-316, 317, 318, 328, 344, 345, ii. 12, 16, iii. 210, 274, 287, 322 Moss, G. C. G., i. 88, 245, 248, 250, 251 Moussy, Gen., i. 146
- 71. Murray, Sir A.,Gen., ii. 161 Murray, W. R. C., i. 86, 300, 305, 306, iii. 236 Murray-Threipland, W., D.S.O., i. 311, 312, ii. 109, 110, 111, 119, iii. 287, 293, 322 Mylne, Lieut. (Irish Guards), ii. 102, 103 Nairn, E. W., i. 345, ii. 13, 17, 20, iii. 56, 57, 209 Napier, Sir A. L. M., Bart., i. 268, 319, 321, ii. 181, 227, 230, 240, 250, 252, 253, iii. 274 Napier, R. G. C., ii. 179, 181, 227, 230, 234, iii. 238 Nash, C. S., M.C., ii. 22, 172, 191, 193, 222, 245, 261, 262, 264, 286, 302, iii. 35, 36, 37, 48, 279, 290 Neale, G. D., iii. 17, 22, 241 Needham, Hon. F. E., i. 12, 34, 35, ii. 157, 171, 191, 193, 194, 222, 226, 244, iii. 53, 54, 55, 208, 274 Neill, E. M., M.C., iii. 123, 151, 155, 158, 279, 290 Nevill, J. H. G., i. 204, iii. 241 Neville, W. W. S. C., M.C., ii. 11, 169, 187, 189, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, iii. 279, 290, 291 Newey, A. F., ii. 16, 17, 132 Newton, C. N., M.C., ii. 56, 152, 239, 240, 250, 253, 361, iii. 274, 290 Nicholson, J. R., ii. 351, 357, iii. 282 Nicol, W. E., D.S.O., i. 198, 225, 237, 245, 248, 251, 319, 321, iii. 234, 287, 322 Nivelle, Gen., ii. 164 Noble, E. H., i. 275, 297, 329, 366 North, J. B., iii. 209 Northumberland, Duke of, C.B.E., iii. 292, 294, 322. See Percy, Earl Nugent, G. C., Brig.-Gen., i. 266, iii. 234 Nugent, G. G. B., i. 13, 299, 339 O'Brien, Capt. (Irish Guards), iii. 12 Ogle, H. R., ii. 189, 190, iii. 279 Oliver, F. R., ii. 192, 194, 222, 245, 286, 305, iii. 279
- 72. Oliver, R. E.H., i. 373, ii. 179, 182 Oliver, R. M., ii. 227, 231, iii. 26, 79, 83, 87, 90, 238 Orriss, W, G., ii. 169, 170, 376, 380, iii. 238 Osborn, W. S., Brig.-Gen., iii. 114 Osborne, B. R., M.C., ii. 316, 381, iii. 152, 153, 155, 179, 180, 241, 290 Osborne, R. B., M.C., iii. 8, 34, 36-7, 122, 141, 144, 147, 279, 290 Paget, F. E. H., i. 266, 319, 323, 355 Paget-Cooke, O. D. P., iii. 20, 279 Pakenham, H. A., Lieut-Col., C.B., C.M.G. (R. Irish Rifles), iii. 285, 295, 322 Palmer, Capt., i. 234 Palmer, R. H. R., M.C., ii. 239, 361, 364, 372, iii. 24, 27, 79, 123, 124, 152, 153, 179, 181, 290 Papillon, R. P., iii. 30, 91, 92, 95, 133, 159 Parker, L. E., i. 246, 248 Parker, Hon. M. B., iii. 322 Parker, R. W., i. 341, ii. 1, 3, 6, 169, 171, 187, 189, 373, 375, 378, iii. 209, 236 Parker, W., ii. 1 Parker-Jervis, T., i. 192, 198, 371, 373, 375, ii. 56, 65, iii. 208, 279 Parnell, Hon. W. A. D., M.C., i. 282, 298, 329, 337, 338, 339, 366, 373, ii. 78, 80, 85, iii. 238, 290 Parry, Capt. (R.A.M.C.), i. 346 Paton, G. H. T., V.C., M.C., ii. 25, 132, 172, 191, 193, 194, 222, 245, 286, 289, 302, 306, 309, 310, 313, iii. 236, 284, 290 Paton, J. A., iii. 24, 25, 80, 83, 90, 279 Pauling, G. F., M.C., ii. 108, 123, 126, 162, 177, 216, 218, 376, 377, iii. 238, 290 Payne, A. F., iii. 113, 282 Payne-Gallwey, M. H. F., ii. 16, 17, 20, 132, 138, 143, iii. 238 Payne-Gallwey, Sir W. T., Bart., M.V.O., i. 36, iii. 236 Paynter, Capt. (Scots Guards), i. 135
- 73. Pearce, N. A.,ii. 191, 192, 193, 222, 244, 285, 303, iii. 241 Pearson, S. H., ii. 186, 240, 250, 331, 334, iii. 241 Pearson-Gregory, P. J. S., M.C., ii. 150, 162, 164, 175, 177, 218, 238, 258, 350, 352, iii. 208, 290 Pelly, P. V., ii. 366, 371, iii. 24, 80, 123, 125, 280, 322 Pembroke, W. A., ii. 348, 373, 375, iii. 28, 151, 172 Penfold, A. H., ii. 12 Penn, A. H., M.C., i. 216, 220, 255, 258, ii. 151, 165, 179, 181, 227, 240, 328, 331, 360, 367, iii. 23, 79, 81-82, 280, 290, 322 Penn, E. F., i. 308, 316, 344, 345, 346, iii. 236, 322 Percy, Earl, iii. 294 Percy, Lord W. R., D.S.O., i. 190, 198, 226, 231, 244, iii. 274, 287, 294, 322 Pereira, G. E., Major-Gen., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., i. 368, 376, ii. 43, 60, 64, 66, 68, 82, 83, 84, 85-86, 153, iii. 272, 285, 293, 322 Petit, G., Capt. (R.A.M.C.), i. 226, 243, 248, 319, 323, 328-329 Philipps, G. P., iii. 36, 45, 48, 282 Phillimore, Rev. S., M.C., ii. 254, 257, 341, 373, iii. 28, 91, 95, 159, 183, 187-188 Phillipps, R. W., i. 324, 326, iii. 241 Pickersgill-Cunliffe, J. R., i. 13, 60, iii. 241 Pike, E. J. L., M.C., i. 12, 35, 70, 144, 174, 181, iii. 273, 290, 294, 322 Pilcher, W. S., D.S.O., i. 87, 119, 128, 130, 246, 248, 319, 323, 355, 361, ii. 171, 190, 193, 244, 309, 315, 380, 381, 383, iii. 1, 2, 8, 9, 11, 14, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 41, 43, 53, 54, 55, 56, 196, 287, 294, 322 Pixley, J. N. F., ii. 171, 191, 193, 194, 222, 223, 225-6, 244, 262, 264, iii. 236 Plumer, Sir H., Gen., i. 371 Poltimore, Lord, Capt. (R. North Devon Yeomanry), iii. 322 Ponsonby, Hon. B. B., i. 298, 329, 333, 366, 372, iii. 280 Ponsonby, Hon. C. M. B., M.V.O., i. 88, 126, 130, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313-14, 315, 318, iii. 235
- 74. Ponsonby, Rt. Hon.Sir F. E. G., K.C.B., K.C.V.O., iii. 322 Ponsonby, G. A., i. 307, 344, 348, iii. 280 Ponsonby, J., Major-Gen., i. 284, 287, 295, 301, 303, 304, 305, 306-7, 368, ii. 84, 106, 271, 272, 288, 289, 303 Ponsonby, M. H., ii. 17, 360, 363, iii. 81, 83, 84, 85, 90, 238, 280 Powell, E. G. H., i. 12, 70, 144, 153, 155-6, 161, 169, 171, 181, 300, 302, 303, 340, iii. 273, 322 Powell, J. H., i. 87, 130, iii. 274 Powney, C. du P. P., iii. 322 Pryce, T. T., V.C., M.C., ii. 191, 193, 196, 244, 262, 263, 264, 381, iii. 8, 13, 14, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 238, 284, 290, 291, 322 Pulteney, Sir W., Lieut.-Gen., i. 51, 97, 140, ii. 284 Quilter, J. A. C., i. 86, iii. 235, 322 Radcliffe, D. J. J., iii. 238 Ranney, R. van T., ii., 376, 378, iii. 241 Rasch, G. E. C., D.S.O.,i. 87, 124, 127, 128, 130, 135, 138, ii. 169, 170, 171, 187, 188, 189, 239, 240, 250, 281, 328, 330, 331, 333, 336, 337, 360, 362, 367, 371, iii. 23, 27, 79, 83, 84, 87, 89, 151, 210, 287, 294, 322 Rawlinson, Sir H., Lieut.-Gen., i. 89, 96, 103, 106, 107, 140, 291, ii. 144, 146-7, iii. 59, 60 Rennie, G., i. 88, 125, 127, 130, iii. 236 Reuter, R. C. G. de, iii. 29, 91, 93, 95, 133, 159, 182 Rhodes, A. T. G., ii. 236, 238, 258, 261, 315, 318, 320, 321, 323, 324, 351, iii. 17, 67, 275, 322 Richardson, R. D., ii. 316, 381, iii. 8, 34, 54, 241 Riddiford, D. H. S., M.C., i. 361, ii. 162, 175, 177, 238, 258, iii. 290 Ridley, Lord (Northumberland Hussars), i. 84 Ridley, E. D., M.C., i. 40, 69, 76, 78-9, 144, 152, 161, 162, 171, 176, 181, 201, 203, 206, 216-7, 308, 309, 310, 312, 344, ii. 188, 189, 242, 338, 340, iii. 275, 290, 322
- 75. Ridley, M. A.T., i. 308, 310, 314, 315, 318, iii. 280 Ritchie, A. T. A., M.C., i. 288, 299, 303, 304, 305, 306, 378, ii. 56, 62, 65, 166, 179, 181, 227, 229, 230, 234, iii. 280, 290, 322 Rocke, Major (Irish Guards), ii. 103, 104, 105 Rocke, C. O., iii. 67, 70, 72, 241 Rodney, Hon. C. C. S., ii. 316, 381, iii. 8, 34, 36, 48, 280 Rolfe, R. H., ii. 165, 176, 178, iii. 8, 34, 54, 239 Rolinson, J. C., D.C.M., iii. 206, 209, 322 Romilly, Lieut.-Col. (Scots Guards), ii. 206 Roper, W. H. S., ii. 190, 242, 254, 257, iii. 241 Rose, Capt. (Royal Engineers), i. 191 Rose, I. St. C., O.B.E., i. 143, 144, 150, 155, 181, 221, 255, ii. 151, 154, 169, iii. 275, 292 Rowley, C. S., i. 192, 299, 304, 306, iii. 275 Ruggles-Brise, Sir H. G., Major-Gen., K.C.M.G., C.B., M.V.O., i. 83, 84, 90, 108, 112, 119, 122, 132, 136, iii. 272, 285, 293, 322 Rumbold, H. C. L., i. 206, 208, iii. 209, 280 Russell, Hon. A. V. F., C.M.G., M.V.O., iii. 285, 322 Russell, G. B. A., iii. 322 St. Aubyn, F. C., i. 246, 248, 249, 324, 326, ii. 149, 162, iii. 208, 280 St. Levan, Lord, Brig.-Gen., C.V.O., C.B., iii. 323 Saltoun, Lord, C.M.G., iii. 285, 322 Samuelson, B. G., i. 365, ii. 108, 118, 119, iii. 223, 280 Sandeman, H. G. W., i. 282, 297, 329, 330, 331, 332, 366, 373, iii. 322 Sanderson, H. W., iii. 29 Sarrail, Gen., i. 354 Sartorius, E. F. F., i. 199, 226, 231, 244, iii. 236 Scott, Lord F. G. M. D., D.S.O., i. 76, iii. 273, 287, 294, 322 Scott-Kerr, R., Brig.-Gen., C.M.G., C.B., D.S.O., M.V.O., i. 19, 20, 35, iii. 215, 272, 285, 323 Scott-Russell, O., iii. 58
- 76. Selby-Lowndes, G. W.,ii. 286, 380, 383, iii. 8, 34, 55 Selby-Lowndes, J. W. F., M.C., ii. 26, 132, 138, 142, 159, iii. 280, 290 Sergison-Brooke, B. N., Brig.-Gen., C.M.G., D.S.O., ii. 2, 4, 6, 86, 91, 98, 106, 272, 274, 275, 304, 306, 339, 375, iii. 62, 63, 70, 94, 167, 273, 286, 287, 294, 323 Seymour, E., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.V.O., iii. 287, 292, 323 Seymour, E. W., ii. 151, 165, 242, 254, 373, 375, 376, iii. 280 Seymour, Lord H. C., Brig.-Gen., D.S.O., i. 212, 217, 220, 245, 255, 258, 261, 297, 329, 332, 334, 346, 349, ii. 12, 16, 18, 109, 130, 132, 134, 138, 158, 164, 170, 216, 218, 247, 280, 302, 307, 308, 320, 322, 354, iii. 1, 273, 287, 294, 323 Sharp, C. C. T., i. 363, ii. 108, 110, 112, iii. 280 Sharpe, R. T., ii. 338, 361, 371, iii. 24, 123, 126, 280 Sheldrake, E. N., iii. 293 Shelley, E. B., i. 363, ii. 108, 109, iii. 79, 113, 236, 280 Shelley, G. E., i. 307, 318, ii. 171, iii. 280 Sheppard, E., D.S.O., M.C., ii. 107, 123, 125, iii. 287, 291, 323 Sich, G. W., iii. 36, 48, 282 Siltzer, F. J., ii. 187, 188, 209 Sim, L. G. E., i. 365, ii. 118, 119, iii. 241 Simmons, P. G., M.C., ii. 165, 176, 177, 219, 238, 258, 350, iii. 17, 291 Simpson, J. H. C., M.C., iii. 55, 79, 113, 115, 116, 119, 120, 141, 142, 144, 147, 275, 291 Singh, Sir Pertab, Major-Gen., i. 191 Sitwell, F. O. S., i. 192, 198, 297, 329, 345, ii. 13, 17, iii. 208 Skidmore, J. H., i. 12, 144, 201, 206 Skinner, L. P., 2nd Lieut., M.C. (Guards Machine Gun Regiment), iii. 291 Sloane-Stanley, G. C., i. 345, ii. 13, 17, 172, 191, 193, 244, 261, 381, iii. 8, 13, 14, 34, 209 Sloane-Stanley, H. H., M.C., i. 346, ii. 12, 17, 20, 22, 23, 245, 262, 263, 285, 302, 306, 309, 310, 314, 315, 380, iii. 8, 13, 34, 35, 36, 42, 47, 48, 209, 236, 291 Smith, Capt. (Tank Corps), iii. 96
- 77. Smith, D. A.,M.C., i. 208, 220, 255, 279, 297, 329, 366, iii. 280, 291, 322 Smith, D. E., iii. 280 Smith, H. I'B., iii. 133, 159, 163 Smith, M. B., ii. 49, 73, 74-5 Smith, O. M., ii. 325, 361, 364, 367, 368, 369, 371, iii. 24, 79, 83, 84, 86, 90, 275 Smith, O. W. D., iii. 18, 23, 282 Smith, T., ii. 179 Smith, W. R. A., C.M.G., i. 75, 76, 144, 148, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, 163, 166, 169, 173, 174, 178, 183, 184, 185, 197, 201, 204, 206, 210, 218, 219, 220, 255, 257-8, 261, 272, 336, iii. 234, 286 Smith-Dorrien, Sir Horace, Gen., i. 11, 15, 24, 29, 97, 111 Smuts, J. C., Gen., i. 353, 354 Snelling, A. G., iii. 56, 57 Somerset, N. A. H., i. 88, 113, 114, 130, iii. 241 Sordet, Gen., i. 24 Spence, P. M., M.C., i. 361, ii. 123, 126, 162, 176, 177, 218, 237, 238, 315, 318, 320, 322, 323, iii. 122, 141, 142, 143, 147, 171, 172, 175, 291 Spencer-Churchill, E. G., M.C., i. 205, ii. 26, 130, 131, 132, 134, 136-7, 137-8, 143, 157, 172, 191, iii. 93, 94, 275, 291, 323 Stainton, W. A., ii. 11, 87, 103, 107, iii. 239 Stanhope, Earl, D.S.O., M.C., i. 190, 198, 199, iii. 287, 291, 323 Stanhope, Hon. R. P., i. 341, ii. 1, 5, 6, 87, 103, 107, iii. 208, 236 Stanley, Hon. F. C., Brig.-Gen., C.M.G., D.S.O., iii. 286, 294, 295, 323 Stanley, Lord, M.C., i. 245, 248, 269, 270, 319, 323, 326, 355, 361, iii. 275, 291 Stein, O. F., D.S.O., ii. 108, 110, 111, 112, 163, 176, 177, 219, 258, 350, 353, 354, 359, iii. 18, 22, 280, 287, 323 Stephen, D. C. L., i. 12, 26, 47-8, 50, iii. 236 Stephenson, P. K., i. 218, 248, 319, 323, iii. 280 Stepney, H., Major (Irish Guards), i. 49
- 78. Stewart, E. O.,i. 192, 341, ii. 150, 157, 165, 193, iii. 208 Stewart, H. W., iii. 241, 282 Stewart, W. A. L., i. 65, 72, ii. 7, 130, 132, 134, 138, 139, 143, iii. 208, 236, 291 Stirling, Lieut.-Col. (Scots Guards), iii. 168, 175 Stirling, E. G., iii. 280 Stocks, M. G., i. 12, 38, 144, 171, 181, iii. 239 Stopford, Gen., i. 287 Stourton, R. H. P. J., i. 359, 362, ii. 108, 113, 280 Stratford, H. D., ii. 240, 250, 253, iii. 36, 48, 239 Streatfeild, Sir H., K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., i. 183, 194, 210, 245, 268, 286, 288, ii. 149, 154, 158, iii. 78, 218, 224, 230, 233, 286, 323 Streatfield, H. S. J., D.S.O., iii. 287, 323 Stucley, H. St. L., i. 87, 116, 124, 126, 129, iii. 235, 323 Sutton, K. H. M., iii. 280 Swaine, F. L. V., i. 246, 248, 250, 251, 319, 323, 355, iii. 323 Swaine, Y. W., iii. 280 Swift, C. T., i. 356, 362, ii. 123, 125, iii. 280, 323 Sykes, C. A. V., i. 141 Symes-Thompson, C., i. 12, 40, 59, 76, 144, 178, 181, iii. 236 Symons, T. E. R., i. 88, 96, iii. 294, 323 Tabor, J., ii. 166, 179, 182, 241, 250, 253, iii. 280 Tate, E. D., ii. 242, 373, 375, 378, iii. 280 Taylor, G. P. du Plat, O.B.E., iii. 208, 292 Taylor, E. R., iii. 208 Teece, J., M.C., i. 87, 138, 193, 225, 248, 323, 355, 361, ii. 162, 175, 177, 238, 350, 354, iii. 17, 67, 171, 282, 291, 295, 323 Tennant, Hon. E. W., i. 308, 344, ii. 13, 17, 137, 143, iii. 239 Terrell, R., ii. 166, 167, iii. 281 Tetley, J. C. D., ii. 187, 189, 242, 254, 255, 257, iii. 239 Thomas, M. D., i. 364, ii. 382, iii. 8, 34, 36, 37, 48, 281 Thomas, O. C. (Machine Gun Company), iii. 239 Thorne, A. F. A. N., C.M.G., D.S.O., i. 359, 360, 361, ii. 120, 169, 171, 187, 189, 209, 214, 229, 242, 254, 306, 340, 341,
- 79. 344, 345, 346,372, 373, 375, 376, iii. 28, 29, 30, 90, 95, 98, 99, 126-7, 286, 287, 288, 323 Thorne, T. F. J. N., i. 288, 307, 310, 313, 314, 315, 318, iii. 226, 237 Thornhill, N., M.C., ii. 187, 189, 242, 254, 257, iii. 281, 291 Thoseby, J. N. L., Capt. (R.A.M.C.), ii. 169, 187 Thrupp, M., ii. 7, 8, 87, 103, 107, 163, 177, 218, 219, iii. 241 Thynne, Sir R., Major-Gen., i. 194, iii. 216, 218, 219, 223 Timmis, W. U., ii. 237, 238, 318, 350, 357, iii. 281 Tindal-Atkinson, J. F., ii. 237, 238, 258, 350, iii. 18, 20, 281 Tisdall, Capt. (Irish Guards), i. 36 (note) Tompson, A. H., i. 308, 316, 318, iii. 241 Tompson, R. F. C., ii. 130, iii. 239 Topham, D. B., ii. 317 Towneley-Bertie, Hon. M. H. E. C., i. 373, iii. 30, 281 Townshend, Gen., i. 354 Trench, R. P. le P., M.C., i. 248, 319, 323, 325-6, 364, ii. 108, 123, 162, 175, 178, 238, 258, 350, iii. 55, 275, 291, 323 Trotter, E. H., D.S.O., iii. 234, 323 Trotter, G. F., Brig.-Gen., C.B., C.M.G., C.B.E., D.S.O., M.V.O., i. 191, 197, 225, 234, 235-6, 243, 244, 245, 248, 252, 269, 270, 319, 320, 323, 324, 325, 355, 357, 370, iii. 272, 285, 286, 292, 294, 323 Tryon, G. C., M.P., iii. 294, 323 Tuckwell, E. H., M.C., ii. 158, 171, 191, 193, 222, 244, 262, 285, 302, 381, iii. 8, 34, 55, 291 Tudway, H. R. C., i. 171, 181, iii. 239 Tufnell, C. W., i. 144, 166, 167, 181, iii. 239 Tufnell, N. C., ii. 348, 373, iii. 91, 95, 96, 97 Turner, C. R., i. 355, iii. 323 Van Neck, P., i. 88, 118, 120, 130, iii. 239 Vaughan, E. N. E. M., D.S.O., i. 342, 373, ii. 1, 6, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 162, 175, iii. 206, 208, 287, 323 Veitch, J. J. M., ii. 192, 193, 222, 309, 311, iii. 281 Venables, Rev. C., iii. 115, 141, 147, 172
- 80. Venables, Rev. J.O., iii. 113 Vereker, G. G. M., M.C., i. 366, 373, ii. 165, 179, 240, 360, iii. 24, 27, 79, 291, 323 Vereker, R. H. M., i. 13, 28, iii. 242 Verelst, Capt. (Coldstream Guards), ii. 82 Vernon, H. B., M.C., ii. 164, 351, 360, iii. 18, 67, 70, 71, 74, 281, 291 Vernon, H. D., i. 300, iii. 239 Viand, Lieut. (Coldstream Guards), iii. 202 Villiers, G. J. T. H., i. 268, 319, 321, iii. 281 Vivian, G. N., O.B.E., i. 299, 303, 304, 306, iii. 275, 292, 323 Vivian, V., C.M.G., D.S.O., M.V.O., iii. 273, 286, 287, 294, 323 Wakeman, E. O. R., i. 246, 248, 251, iii. 242, 323 Wakeman, O., i. 248, 319, 323, 324, 325, iii. 275 Wales, H.R.H. the Prince of, K.G., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.C., i. 191, 193, 208, 219-20, 245, 269, 273, 278, 356, iii. 195, 197, 225, 285, 291, 292, 323 Walker, Gen., ii. 308 Walker, C. F. A., M.C., i. 12, 63, 299, 303, 304, 306, 339, 341, ii. 151, 165, 179, 181, 184, 227, 239, 380, 381, iii. 33, 55, 151, 153, 154, 155, 179, 275, 291, 324 Walker, Sir H. B., Major-Gen., K.C.B., D.S.O., iii. 50 Walker, P. M., M.C., i. 341, 373, ii. 56, 169, iii. 209, 281, 291 Wall, G. H., M.C., i. 299, 339, ii. 1, 6, 169, 187, 188, 242, iii. 28, 91, 291, 324 Wall, L. E. G., iii. 147 Wall, R. B. St. Q., ii. 165, 238 Wall, V. A. N., ii. 258, 325, 350 Walter, S., i. 88, 113, 114, 130, iii. 242 Ward, E. S., i. 141, 191, ii. 6, iii. 208, 275 Wardrop, Brig.-Gen., i. 368 Warner, A. A. J., iii. 67, 71, 74, 242 Warner, E. C., i. 360, ii. 117, 122 Warren, Capt. (Border Regiment), i. 135 Watts, H., Brig.-Gen., C.B., i. 83, 90, 111
- 81. Warrender, H. V.,D.S.O., iii. 287, 324 Wearne, W. R., iii. 56, 57 Webber, R. L., ii. 360, iii. 18, 67, 71, 74, 281 Webster, Sir A. F. W. E., Bart., O.B.E., iii. 208, 292, 324 Webster, G. V. G. A., ii. 189, 190, 241, iii. 242 Welby, R. W. G., i. 12, 62, 70, iii. 239, 324 Weld-Forester, Hon. A. O. W. C., M.V.O., i. 87, 104, 119, 120, 121, 126, 129, iii. 235, 324 Wellesley, Lord G., Capt., M.C. (R.A.F.), iii. 324 Wellesley, Lord R., i. 88, 95, 105, 126, 130, iii. 237, 291 Wells, P. H., Capt. (R.A.M.C.), ii. 236, 238, 317 West, R. G., M.C., ii. 192, 193, 222, 244, iii. 91, 95, 100, 281, 291 Westmacott, Brig.-Gen., i. 176 Westmacott, G. R., D.S.O., i. 192, 198, 226, 231, 233, 234, 236, 237, 238, 239-40, 243, 244, ii. 186, 241, 250, 253, 331, 333, 335, 336, 361, iii. 208, 281, 287, 324 White, G. D., iii. 206, 208, 209, 294, 324 White, H., ii. 239, 240, 250, 361, iii. 24, 79, 83, 87, 90, 242, 324 Whitehead, A. O., ii. 87, 98, 107, iii. 223, 281 Wiggins, A. F. R., i. 221, 297, 329, 366, 373, 374-5, 376, ii. 52, iii. 28, 91, 324 Wiggins, H. G., M.C., ii. 78, 80, 85, 317, 318, 323, iii. 55, 57, 281, 291 Wigram, C., i. 245, 288 Wilkinson, C., i. 328, 355, 358, ii. 149, 162, 163, 176, 237, iii. 281 Williams, A., ii. 170, 179, iii. 212, 213 Williams, E. G., i. 206, 221, 255, 279, iii. 239 Williams, H. St. J., ii. 12, 87, 98, 107, iii. 28, 281 Williams, M. G., i. 204, 206, 307, 311, 314-15, 317, 318, 344, ii. 158, 191, iii. 208, 294, 324 Williams, R., i. 190, 195-6, 299, 340, iii. 242 Williams-Bulkeley, R. G. W., M.C., iii. 324 Willoughby, Hon. C., Lieut.-Col. (Tank Corps), ii. 280 Wilson, G., Col. (Household Cavalry), i. 167-8
- 82. Wilson, G. B.,M.C., i. 328, 355, 359, ii. 338, 360, 367, 369, 370, iii. 151, 153, 155, 156, 275, 291 Wilson, H. M., ii. 166, 179, 181, 227, 240 Wilton, J. D. C., ii. 151, iii. 281 Windeler, H. W., ii. 192, 193, 222, 244, 262, 286, 305, iii. 226, 242 Windram, R., iii. 324 Wolrige-Gordon, R., M.C., i. 12, 268, 323, 340, ii. 1, 5, 7, 87, 99, 100, iii. 18, 56, 57, 67, 71, 74, 75, 77, 275, 291 Wood, Lieut.-Col. (Border Regiment), i. 238, 249 Worsley, E. G., i. 343, ii. 107, iii. 242 Worsley, J. F., ii. 1, 6, 7, 87, 98, 107, 187, 189, 210, 215, 254, 340, 343, iii. 209, 239 Wright, R. B. B., ii. 78, 85, iii. 281 Wrixon, M. P. B., M.C., ii. 191, 382, iii. 3-4, 55, 56, 57, 281, 291 Wynne, E. H. J., i. 299, 339, ii. 1, 6, 87, 97-8, 107, iii. 239 Yorke, Hon. A. E. F., ii. 1, 6, iii. 209 Yorke, B. E., i. 343
- 83. THE END Printed byR. & R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh.
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