Ewrt1A Reader Writing Resources

Table of Contents—EWRT resources
THE WRITING PROCESS...................................................................................................................................................................... 3
TYPES OF MAIN IDEAS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4
MAIN IDEA EXERCISES........................................................................................................................................................................... 5
PRACTICE FINDING THE TOPIC AND THEN THE MAIN IDEA IN THE FOLLOWING PARAGRAPHS:............................................... 6
PRACTICE FINDING THE TOPIC & MAIN IDEA ................................................................................................................................... 7
IMPLIED MAIN IDEAS ............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
SUPPORTING DETAILS .........................................................................................................................................................................11
SUPPORTING DETAILS EXERCISES ...............................................................................................................................................13
TEMPLATE FOR DRAFTING AN AUTHOR’S MAIN IDEA OR THESIS ..............................................................................................15
MAPPING AN ARTICLE .........................................................................................................................................................................16
MAPPING AN ARTICLE .........................................................................................................................................................................17
ANALYSIS: RESPONDING TO WHAT YOU READ................................................................................................................ 18
CRITICAL THINKING: ANALYZING THE TEXT...................................................................................................................................19
THE READING COMPREHENSION PROCESS......................................................................................................................................20
LEVELS OF QUESTIONING....................................................................................................................................................................21
LEVELS OF QUESTIONS PRACTICE .....................................................................................................................................................22
LEVELS OF QUESTIONS PRACTICE .....................................................................................................................................................23
TONE .......................................................................................................................................................................................................24
THE RHETORICAL TRIANGLE .............................................................................................................................................................25
PARAGRAPH AND ESSAY STRUCTURE................................................................................................................................... 26
THE PARAGRAPH ..................................................................................................................................................................................27
NARRATIVE VS. EXPOSITORY WRITING............................................................................................................................................28
PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION IN WRITING: ...................................................................................................................................30
PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION EXERCISES.......................................................................................................................................31
GUIDELINES FOR TOPIC SENTENCES.................................................................................................................................................35
TOPIC SENTENCES ................................................................................................................................................................................34
PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT ..............................................................................................................................................................38
PIE PARAGRAPHS........................................................................................................................................................................... 40
IDENTIFY P.I.E. ELEMENTS -- PRACTICE ...................................................................................................................................42
F.R.I.E.D. P.I.E. PARAGRAPHS...........................................................................................................................................................44
P.I.E. REVIEW + F.R.I.E.D. ELEMENTS ............................................................................................................................................45
F.R.I.E.D. PARAGRAPHS......................................................................................................................................................................46
THE P. I. E. PARAGRAPH + QUOTE SANDWICH........................................................................................................................48
THE "I" IN YOUR PIE…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..50
DO YOU HAVE ENOUGH E IN YOUR PIE?.........................................................................................................................................51
ELEMENTS OF AN ESSAY ......................................................................................................................................................................52
THE STRUCTURE OF AN ARGUMENT ...........................................................................................................................................53
THESIS STATEMENTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..54-59
THE SIX "MOVES" OF ARGUMENT .....................................................................................................................................................60
HOW TO WRITE GOOD INTRODUCTIONS .........................................................................................................................................62
HOW TO WRITE GOOD CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................................................63
TRANSITIONS.........................................................................................................................................................................................65
PRE-WRITING STRATEGIES ......................................................................................................................................................... 66
PREWRITING: CLUSTERING.................................................................................................................................................................67
BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUE ............................................................................................................................................................68
FREEWRITING........................................................................................................................................................................................69
CUBING ...................................................................................................................................................................................................70

JOURNALISTIC QUESTIONS...................................................................................................................................................................72
ESSAY OUTLINE #1 ..............................................................................................................................................................................73
ESSAY OUTLINE #2 ..............................................................................................................................................................................74
ESSAY OUTLINE #3 ..............................................................................................................................................................................75
ESSAY OUTLINE #4 ..............................................................................................................................................................................76
ESSAY OUTLINE #5 ..............................................................................................................................................................................77
ESSAY OUTLINE #6 ..............................................................................................................................................................................78
KWL worksheets---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80-82
REVISION STRATEGIES ................................................................................................................................................................... 83
PEER REVIEW COMMUNICATION: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS ..................................................................................................84
PEER REVIEW SHEET FOR ESSAY #1-4…………………………………………………………………………85-88
WRITING CENTER TUTORIAL SESSION.............................................................................................................................................89
THESIS CLINIC .......................................................................................................................................................................................95
QUOTATIONS............................................................................................................................................................................................ 100
THE LEAST YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT USING DIRECT QUOTES......................................................................... 105
IDENTIFYING EFFECTIVE OR INEFFECTIVE QUOTE SANDWICHES............................................................................................ 106
MLA FORMATTING GUIDELINES .................................................................................................................................................... 107
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The Writing Process
There are many steps to writing, and there is no perfect or sanctioned order—play around until you
find the process that works best for you. Remember, breaks are important! Don’t jam all the steps into
one night—try to leave time between the steps (anywhere from a few hours to a day or two) to give
yourself time to re-focus your efforts and reduce your stress so you can make the most of your time.
Break help you avoid the dangerous condition of “Mushy Brain” that can ruin an essay.
Pr e wr i t i ng —Brainstorm, Free-write, Cluster
1. Collect Information. Make a list of all your impressions about the topic. The list doesn’t have to be
in complete sentences, and don’t worry about spelling, grammar or punctuation-just get all of your
ideas down. Don’t censor yourself and be as specific and detailed as possible.
2. Focus. Ask yourself, “What is the dominant impression I want to give my reader? What point do I
want to make?” (This will help you create your thesis statement.) Choose the descriptions which
convey your dominant impression. Pick the descriptions and information that work best.
Organizing—Writing Plans & Outlines
Think about how to organize your descriptions and ideas-what order will be the easiest for your reader
to follow? Which main ideas are most important and relevant?
Drafting: Speed Draft, Rough Draft, Peer Review Draft
Try a “speed draft” first, one in which you try to follow your organizational plan, but don’t worry
about mechanics (spelling, grammar, punctuation). A speed draft may be handwritten or composed on
the computer. In a rough draft you can rewrite/type your speed draft, making any changes you think
are needed. This, or a third, or fourth draft, will be the “good faith draft” you bring to peer review.
Revising: Rearrange, Tighten Up, Join Sentences, Explain, Give Examples!
Revision doesn’t just mean “correcting” grammar or “fixing” sentences. Give yourself permission to
make significant changes, even to change your opinion about your topic. Think of revising as looking
at your paper in a whole new way—a re-visioning of your work—not just looking at small or
inconsequential parts of your essay, such as grammar or mechanics.
Look over the notes from peer response and re-read the essay to yourself with a pen or pencil in hand,
making notes to yourself. Revise your draft as often as necessary to make it clearer and more fully
developed. Make sure your paragraphs have topic sentences and you have a main point that you stick
to throughout the essay. Make sure you have fulfilled the requirements of the assignment.
You are in control; you can make whatever changes you want. But in the end, don’t forget to ensure
that it all hangs together, that the end matches the middle and the beginning.
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Types of Main Ideas
Purpose: Being able to identify and state the main idea of paragraph, article, or long passage
is the basis for comprehension. When you understand what the author is saying, you can
then respond to him/her and doing better on writing and reading activities.
Types of Main Ideas
On a basic level, there are three types of main ideas that you will encounter when reading.
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1) Topic sentence
2) Thesis
3) Implied (inferred/unstated) main idea
Below is a brief definition of each type of main idea
1) Topic Sentence
A topic sentence is the main idea of a paragraph. It ties the whole paragraph together. In
writing classes we are taught to make the topic sentence the first sentence of our paragraph.
However, in professional writing, the topic sentence can be the second sentence or even the
last sentence of the paragraph. Thus, sometimes you need to read the whole paragraph to
find the topic sentence.
2) Thesis Statement(s)
A thesis statement is the main idea of a long passage or an article. It ties the whole piece of
writing together. In writing classes we are taught to make this the last sentence of our
introduction. However, professional writers may put this in the second paragraph or even at
the end of the article, in the conclusion.
3) Implied, Inferred, or Unstated
This is the most common type of main idea that you will encounter when reading professional
writing and other academic texts. An implied main idea is a main idea that is not directly
stated by the author for stylistic effect. This means that there is no topic sentence that is
directly stated in the paragraph or no thesis directly stated in the article. We aren’t taught to
use them in writing because teachers want you to use structure.

Main Idea Exercises
Definition: A main idea is the main point or topic that the writer of an essay or story is trying
to make. Sometimes main ideas are also called thesis statements. Since main ideas sum up
the writer’s ideas, they are usually only a few sentences long.
Purpose: Why should we care about main ideas? Because they are the key to good reading
comprehension. If you can’t find the main idea of an essay, that means you are having
trouble understanding it and remembering it, which means that you’ll have trouble taking a
quiz, writing an essay, or discussing the material.
How to Find Them: In basic terms, main ideas consist of two parts:
1) The topic 2) The author’s opinion on the topic
How long Should They Be? Because they sum up the writer’s ideas, main ideas are usually
only a few sentences long (depending on how long the writing is).
For example: Read the following paragraph to better understand this:
Spanking is a poor way to shape a child’s behavior. For one thing, the spanking will
result in feelings of anger and frustration. The child, then, will not learn anything positive
from the punishment. In addition, the spanking may actually lead to more bad behavior.
Having learned that hitting is okay, the child may attack smaller children. Finally, the
spanking teaches children to hide certain actions from their parents. Once out of their
parents’ sight, children may feel they can get away with the bad behavior.
What is the topic of this paragraph? (To find the topic ask: “Who or What is this topic about?”)
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What is the author’s o pinion o f this topic?
Put those two together and you have the main idea! 1
1 Of course, it can be more complicated than that, but we’ll go over that as we practice more.

Practice finding the topic and then the main idea in the following
paragraphs:
Extrasensory perception, or ESP, is an area that fascinates people. However, ESP is not
documented by any convincing evidence. For instance, it would seem that ESP would be an
excellent way of winning at games of chance, such as are played at gambling casinos. But
casino owners in Las Vegas and Atlantic City report no problem with “psychics” winning great
sums of money. For another thing, although great publicity is generated when a psychic
seems to help police solve a crime, the value of such help has never been scientifically
proven. Psychics’ tips are usually worthless, and a case is solved through traditional police
work. And while audiences may be amazed at the feats of “mind readers,” the fact is that
mind readers use simple psychological tricks to exploit their audiences’ willingness to believe.
1) What is the topic of this paragraph? (Circle what you think the answer is.)
A. Psychics
B. ESP is not documented by any convincing evidence.
C. Crimes are solved by police work, not psychics tips.
In response to customers’ bitter complaints about long lines, banks are trying new ways
to shorten the wait or at least to make it more pleasant. One bank provides coffee and cookies
so customers can munch while they wait. Other banks show action movies on a large video
screen. One daring bank in California will pay a customer five dollars if he or she must wait
more than five minutes for service. Still other banks offer the most obvious solution of all—
they simply hire more bank tellers.
1) What is the topic of this paragraph? (circle the answer.)
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A. Waiting in line
B. Waiting in bank lines
C. Hiring more bank tellers
Bonus Questions:
1) Is a main idea “general” or “specific” information?
2) Is there a sentence(s) in each paragraphs that tell you what the main idea is or will be?

Practice Finding the topic & Main Idea
Directions: After each paragraph are three subjects. One is the topic, another is too general to
be the topic, and the third is too specific to be the topic. Label each subject with one of the
following:
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T= Topic of the paragraph
G= Too general to be the topic
S= Too specific to be the topic
Afterwards, practice writing a main idea for each paragraph.
1) Before clocks were made, people kept track of time by other means. In ancient Egypt,
people used a water clock. Water dripped slowly from one clay pot into another. People
measured time according to how long it took one pot to empty and the other one to fill.
Candle clocks were common during the Middle Ages. As such a candle burned, marks on its
side showed about how much time had passed. A final ancient way to measure time was the
sundial, which used the movement of the sun across the sky. The shadows moving across the
face of the sundial showed what time it was.
__ Water clocks
__ Measuring time before clocks
__ Ancient inventions
Main Idea:
2) Have you ever wondered why the food in television advertisements often looks more
mouth-watering than the same food at home? The reason is that TV advertisers use
imaginative techniques to make food in ads look very appealing. According to one TV food
stylist, Elmer’s glue is often added to milk in television ads to make it look white and
delightful. Similarly, the steaming roasted chickens in many fast-food commercials rely on
spray paint, not seasonings, to get that rich brown color. Likewise, Ivory Soap is sued to give
coffee a fresh-brewed look.
__ Milk in TV ads
__ Food in TV ads
__ Television
Main Idea:
3) To reduce absenteeism, some businesses are using inventive techniques. One
manufacturing company had each present worker pick a playing card each day. In each
department, the employee with the best poker hand at the end of the week won twenty
dollars. Attendance improved by 18 percent and remained high as long as poker hands were
dealt. Another manufacturing plant distributed daily bingo numbers. When their bingo
cards were filled, workers could spin a wheel and win from five to twenty-five dollars. This
program was effective in reducing absenteeism and tardiness.
__ Business problems
__ Using bingo to reduce absenteeism
__ Reducing absenteeism.

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Main Idea:
4) For most of human history, societies were very small, usually having only fifty
members. Based on how they made their living, there were several kinds of simple societies.
The majority were hunting and gathering societies. Rather than living in a fixed spot, they
moved in search of game and edible plants. Slightly more advanced simple societies lived by
herding animals. They too, moved about as their animals required new grazing areas. Other
simple societies mastered elementary gardening and thus tended to be less nomadic than the
herders or the hunter-gatherers were. Nevertheless, they tended to stay in one spot just long
enough to grow one crop and then moved on.
__ Human history
__ Early societies
__ Hunting societies
Main Idea:

Implied Main Ideas
Directions: Sometimes the main idea is not directly stated in the paragraph. But all the ideas in the
reading add up to the general point that the writer wants you to understand. In this case, the main
idea is implied. Whether the main idea is stated or implied, you can construct a main idea sentence
based on the wording of the topic you have identified.
For example, read the following paragraph about the vegetarian diet:
Studies show that vegetarians’ cholesterol levels are low, and vegetarians are seldom overweight. As a
result, they’re less apt to be candidates for heart disease than those who consume large quantities of
meat. Vegetarians also have lower incidences of breast, colon, and prostate cancer; high blood
pressure; and osteoporosis. When combined with exercise and stress reduction, vegetarian diets have
led to reductions in the buildup of harmful plaque within the blood vessels of the heart. (Hales, An
Invitation to Health)
What is the topic? You probably decided “vegetarians’ health” or “the benefits of a vegetarian diet.”
Y ou need to ask, “What is the point the author is trying to make about this topic? What is the main
idea?” Y ou might say that her overall point is, “The vegetarian diet is beneficia l.” Or, if you wanted to
be more specific, you might say, “The vegetarian diet has a variety of proven health benefits.”
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Identify Implied Main Ideas
Read the following paragraphs about food. For each paragraph, write the topic on the line provided,
and then select the best statement of the main idea from the choices given.
1. From 1859 until 1875, the annual per capita consumption of raw sugar in the United States had
varied from a low 18.6 pounds (during the Civil War) to a high of 42.6 pounds. By 1898, the year of
the Spanish-American War, it has risen to 65.4 pounds per person per year. But ten years later, the
figure was over 86 or nearly four ounces daily. The consumption of sucrose—processed sugar from
cane and beet—reached around 115 pounds in the 1920s; but the present-day consumption of all
processed sugars in the United States is higher than that. In the last three decades, sweetener called
high-fructose corn syrup has captured an important portion of the sweetener marked. (Mintz,
“Pleasure, Profit, and Satiation”)
Topic:
Implied main idea:
a. Because of political pressures, corn sweeteners have captured an important portion of the sweetener
market.
b. From 1859 until 1875, the annual per capita consumption of raw sugar in the United States went
from a low of 18.6 pounds to a high of 42.6 pounds.
c. The consumption of sugar per person in the United States increased steadily from 1859 to the
present.
2. The statistics about food additive consumption in the United States are interesting. The average
American consumes over 140 pounds of sweeteners every year. We eat over 15 pounds of table salt.
And by eating processed and fast-foods, we also put a number of chemicals in our bodies that we are
not at all aware of—between 5 to 10 pounds. (Adapted from Hales, An Invitation to Health)
Topic:

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Implied Main Idea:
a. We eat a huge quantity of additives, especially if we include the sugar and salt.
b. We eat between five and ten pounds of chemicals per year that we are not aware of.
c. The average American consumes more than 140 pound of sweeteners every year.
3. Nitrites—additives used in bacon and lunch meats—add color and inhibit spoilage, but they have
been identified as contributing to the development of cancer. Sulfites—additives used to prevent food
such as dried apricots from turning brown—can cause severe allergic reactions.
Topic:
Implied Main Idea:
a. Nitrites can cause cancer
b. Sulfites can cause allergic reactions.
c. Some additives, such as nitrites and sulfites, pose health risks.

Supporting Details2
Also known as the “I” of PIE or “Information” or “Evidence”
Definition:
A paragraph, essay, or book contains facts, statements, examples-specifics which guide us
to a full understanding of the main idea. They clarify, illuminate, explain, describe, expand
and illustrate the main idea and are supporting details.
Purpose:
In looking at supporting details, we can better understand the author’s main idea and
argument. We can also form an opinion about the argument and whether or not we agree
with it.
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Types of Supporting Details:
1. COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS in which one thing is shown to be like another OR in
which one thing is show to differ from another.
EXAMPLE: Skilled college students are like the unskilled students in their desire for a
diploma. OR: Skilled students are different from unskilled students in that they use a method
to read a textbook.
2. DEFINITIONS Explain what something means. Look for signal words like “is,” “or,”
means,” “called,” “also known as,” consists of,” etc.
3. STATISTICS, FACTS, AND GRAPHS from scientific studies and research reports. Facts
are provable.
EXAMPLE: 75 percent of the students who do not attend class regularly receive grades of C
or worse.
4. PERSONAL EXAMPLES AND OBSERVATIONS specific information that illustrates the
point based on the writer’s own experience or reading; details that represent one piece of a
whole concept. Look for signal words “such as,” “also,” “next,” and “for example.”
5. QUOTATIONS OR TESTIMONY from authorities or experts on the material; sometimes
called informed opinion.
EXAMPLE: Professor Smity admits, “I tell students they don’t need to attend my class if they
don’t want to. I know, however, that if they don’t come, they won’t pass.”
6. VIVID DESCRIPTIONS words or phrases telling how something looks, smells, tastes,
sounds, or feels. Descriptions use sensory words to help readers get a mental picture of
2 Inspired by Natalie Panfili

what they are reading. This also includes figures of speech (similes, metaphors,
personification, and hyperbole).
EXAMPLE: The students took the exam from the professor’s hand, quickly looked at the
grade, gave a sigh or relief and began to smile.
7. GOOD REASONS OR LOGIC rational explanations that answer the question “why.” Look
for signal words like “because,” “since,” “due to,” “if…then,” and “however.”
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Supporting Details Exercises3
Read the paragraph below and then answer the questions.
Today, many people strive for optimal health, but a century ago, such a goal was unknown—people
counted themselves lucky just to survive. A child born in 1890, for example, could expect to live only
about 40 years. Killers such as polio, measles, and smallpox took the lives of a tragic number of
infants and children in the days before vaccinations. Youngsters who escaped these threats still risked
death from infectious diseases such as tuberculosis or typhus. In 1918 alone, 20 million people died in
a flu epidemic. Millions more lost their lives to common bacterial infections like strep in the era
before antibiotics. Environmental conditions—unrefrigerated food, poor sanitation, and air polluted by
coal-burning factories—contributed to the spread and deadliness of these diseases. (Insel et al. Core
Concepts in Health)
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1. Underline the main idea.
2. List two different supporting details that support the main idea. Also tell which type of detail each
one is.
Detail: Type:
a.
b.
3 Many Thanks to Natalie Panifili!

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Main Ideas vs. Supporting Details
Sample Sentence
This would work better
as…
1. Preserving local food traditions is an important component of maintaining
cultural diversity even as world food production becomes more
industrialized and standardized.
 Main Idea
 Supporting Detail
2. The “locavores” are a San Francisco-based group that challenges people to
try and eat food grown and produced within a 100-mile radius of their
homes.
 Main Idea
3. Eating local, seasonal produce is better not only for the environment, but
also for your taste buds.
 Main Idea
4. Alice Walker’s restaurant Chez Panisse first opened in Berkeley,
California in 1971.
 Main Idea
5. Alice Waters writes that “food is the one central thing about human
experience which can open up both our senses and our consciences to our
place in the world.”
 Main Idea
6. Joining a CSA(Community Supported Agriculture) program is an easy,
cost-effective way to enjoy seasonal produce from local farms.
 Main Idea
7. The popularity of organic food is a good indication of the significant
changes that are taking place in the American diet.
 Main Idea
8. Former weeds now considered delicacies include dandelions, ramps (wild
leeks), and fiddlehead ferns.
 Main Idea
9. The CSA that I belong to, Eatwell Farms, is located in Winters, CA and is
renowned for their heirloom tomatoes.
 Main Idea

Template for Drafting an Author’s Main Idea or Thesis
In “ ,”
(article title)
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the author
(author’s name goes here)
argues, disputes, contends, maintains, claims, makes a case, reports,
reasons, says, writes, finds, realizes, discovers, determines, notices,
ascertains, discerns, finds (circle one) that
.
(thesis)

Mapping an Article
Use the graphic organizer below to make a map to show the thesis statement (or main idea) and
how three major points support it. This map can help organize your ideas for writing a paper.
Remember, no two people will map a reading exactly the same.
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Essay Title:
Author’s Name:
TOPIC:
AUTHOR’S MAIN IDEA/THESIS:
SUPPORTING SUPPORTING DETAIL: SUPPORTING DETAIL: DETAIL:

Mapping an Article
Use the graphic organizer below to make a map to show the thesis statement (or main idea) and
how three major points support it. This map can help organize your ideas for writing a paper.
Remember, no two people will map a reading exactly the same.
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Essay Title:
Author’s Name:
TOPIC:
AUTHOR’S MAIN IDEA/THESIS:
SUPPORTING SUPPORTING DETAIL: SUPPORTING DETAIL: DETAIL:

Analysis: Responding to What You Read
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Critical Thinking: Analyzing the Text
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Analyzing the text involves:
Questioning, evaluating, and responding to both the author’s ideas and the writing. Here are
some questions of a nonfiction reading:
1. What is the author’s purpose in writing the article? (Why did the author write this article?)
2. Who do you think is the author’s audience?
3. What is the author’s tone?
4. What questions do I have about some of the ideas or points in the article?
5. How successful is the piece? Do I agree as a reader or do I take issue with some of the
writer’s ideas? For example, how do my life experiences support or refute the author’s points
(try to differentiate between statistics and ideas)?

The Reading Comprehension Process
The Complex Task of Reading
Critical Thinking
Comprehension
Analyzing, Applying, Synthesizing,
Interpretive Comprehension
Understanding why and how the
author said something
Tone and Author’s purpos e
Literal Comprehension
Who, What, Where, When
The author’s main idea
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Evaluating
Comprehension

Levels of Questioning
Background:
In class you’ve been learning about how important questions are to act ive reading and learning. Questions help you discover and
clarify information (such as on the first day of class when you worked on asking specific questions to get specific information from
your partners). As well, we’ve also talked about how questions help you ref lect on your processes as a reader and a writer so that
you can improve your reading and writing skills.
Procedure:
Though many times in class I have asked you questions to help get discussions started or to help you reflect on the assignments, you
are going to work on creating your own questions , so that you can become more independent readers and writers. Of course, most
of you already ask questions all the time; we, however, will be working on a specific type of questions.
Types of Questions: On a basic level, questions fall into three different categories: f actual, inferential and interpretive, and cri tical and
evaluative. Don’t worry too much about these names right now; we will be discussing them further throughout the quarter.
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Level 1
Factual
Level 2
Inf erent ial and Interpret ive
Level 3
Cri t ical and Evaluat ive
Exact Words:
Skim the Text for the Answer.
Who?
What?
Where?
When?
Reader & Text :
Skim and searching can help, but the
reader needs to interpret the text to get
the answer.
Why?
How?
Summarize
Compare
Reader Moves Beyond The Text :
The text can help, but the reader also
uses past experiences to find the answer.
Agree/Disagree & Why
Critique
What if...

Levels of Questions Practice
LEVEL 1: FACTUAL
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Write Your factual question here:
Write the answer, cite the page number, explain its importance below.
LEVEL 2: INTERPRETIVE
Write your interpretative/inferential question here:
Write the answer, provide examples, and explain its importance below.
LEVEL 3: EVALUATIVE
Write your critical and evaluative question here:
Write the answer, provide examples, and explain its importance here:

Levels of Questions Practice
LEVEL 1: FACTUAL
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Write Your factual question here:
Write the answer, cite the page number, explain its importance below.
LEVEL 2: INTERPRETIVE
Write your interpretative/inferential question here:
Write the answer, provide examples, and explain its importance below.
LEVEL 3: EVALUATIVE
Write your critical and evaluative question here:
Write the answer, provide examples, and explain its importance here:

Tone4
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SERIOUS OR NEUTRAL
Straightforward and objective.
Typically in textbooks, news
stories and magazine articles.
4 Many thanks to Natalie Panifili
SOLEMN
Formal language. Dignified and
grave. Used in eulogies and
important government facts.
HUMOROUS
Amusing or comical
(Witty=sophisticated,
clever)
CRTICAL
Judges what is good or bad
about a subject. Can be
positive or negative. Typical
in editorials.
CYNICAL
Believes humans are
selfish and corrupt.
Words are angry and
pessimistic; no hope.
SARCASTIC
A direct personal attack to
hurt or belittle. Words are
harsh and bitter.
SATIRIC
Does not state directly
what is meant. Often
uses exaggeration.
Ridicules to show
disapproval. Seeks
change in actions and
attitudes. May include
ironcy, sarcasm, wit,
humor.
IRONIC
Says the opposite of
what is really meant.
Maybe in the language
or the situation. Often
added to other tones.
TONE
The manner in which the writer expresses his or her
feelings or attitude. Writers often combine a few
tones. Determining the main tone can help you
identify purpose and main idea.

The Rhetorical Triangle
This triangle is a strategy for you, as a writer, to figure out what the overall message of
your essay will be. This strategy is used in the disciplines of composition, philosophy and
speech and dates back to Plato.
Answering the three questions below helps you to figure out the relationships between
you, your readers, and your topic so that you can better define your goals for a particular
piece of writing and gain a better sense of purpose as a writer.
SUBJECT
(topic)
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3. What does my audience
1. What do I know about my subject? need to know to understand the
subject?
2. What else might I need to know
to discuss this subject? 4. What does my
audience
MESSAGE already know about the
(purpose) subject?
WRITER READER
(speaker) (audience)
5. Who is my
audience?
6. How do I want to
portray myself to my audience?

Paragraph and Essay Structure
26

The Paragraph
In American academic writing, a paragraph is the basic unit of writing. It is a series of related
sentences about one idea called the topic. A paragraph usually begins with a general
sentence that introduces the topic and often sets up a claim or analysis related to the thesis
statement that needs to be developed within the paragraph. This sentence is commonly
referred to as the topic sentence, and it tells what the paragraph is going to be about.
The rest of the sentences in the paragraph provide the reader with specific support for the
general topic sentence; that is, they either explain, describe, or illustrates the main ideas in
the topic sentences. The main idea is called the controlling idea because it controls the
information that is provided in the paragraph.
A paragraph has no specific length. It may be as short as five sentences or as long as fifteen
sentences; it need only be long enough to support the topic clearly and completely.
Often a paragraph ends in a concluding sentence which signals the end of the paragraph and
leaves the reader with important points to remember. Concluding sentences can also help
transition from one main idea to the next.
27
A paragraph will look like this:
Topic sentence (includes topic and opinion)
Several sentences that support the topic sentence

analyze
explain
describe
illustrate
comment
concluding sentence

Narrative vs. Expository Writing
Version 1
One very hot summer morning, Little Red Riding Hood’s mother interrupted Red from her play in
the brightly-colored flowers in the garden, telling her to deliver a basket of goodies to her
grandmother, who was very ill. Red’s mother warned her not to talk to strangers on her way through
the woods to her granny’s house, for she had recently read in the newspaper that a wolf disguised as
a narcotics agent was lurking in the woods, waiting to accost little girls as they passed by. Striding
through the woods, Red was approached by a man who introduced himself as Mr. Wolf, the local
narcotics agent. “Where are you going, little girl? And what do you have in that basket?” he asked in
the most threatening manner. “I’m bringing some goodies to my grandma,” she said. “Delivering
goodies?” he said. “Do you know what the penalties are for selling goodies in this state?” “But it’s not
what you think,” she protested. “Just tell me where you’re going so I can investigate further,” he
demanded. “But—” she tried to say. “Tell me where you’re going or I’ll throw the book at you,” he
snarled. “To my granny’s, down at the end of the pass,” Red said. “Aha,” said Mr. Wolf, who then got
into his private helicopter he had hidden behind the trees. When Red arrived at her grandmother’s ,
Mr. Wolf was already waiting for her. “Darn,” she said, as he pounced on her and gobbled her up.
28
 What is the point of this paragraph?
 How is this paragraph organized?

Version 2
Little Red Riding Hood is gobbled up by a wolf because of her own stupidity. First, she does not
listen to her mother’s warning about not talking to strangers. When her mother asks Red to deliver
goodies to her sick Granny who lived on the other side of the woods, she specifically tells her not to
talk to strangers along the way, but when Red is stopped by Mr. Wolf in the woods, she does indeed
talk to him. Her protests and distress demonstrate that she speaks to him out of fear, fear Mr. Wolf
creates by telling her that he is a narcotics agent and by speaking to her in a threatening manner. Her
response to him also indicates her stupidity. She believes the man is an officer of the law simply
because he tells her he is, but she neglects to ask to see his credentials. And believing him to be an
officer, she tells him exactly where she is going. This, of course, is her greatest act of stupidity. She
could have avoided her miserable fate by simply not telling him where she was going. Knowing her
destination, Mr. Wolf is able to get to Granny’s house before she does, waits for her in that secluded
place, and pounces on her when she arrives, safe from witnesses. Thus Red helps set the trap for
herself, realizing what a fatal mistake she had made only when the wolf actually gobbles her up.
29
 What is the point of this paragraph?
 How is this paragraph organized?
 How is version 2 different from version 1?
 What effect does each paragraph have on you as a reader?

Patterns of Organization in Writing:
Signal Words
30
Classification Sequence Simple
List
Compare Contrast Cause Effect Definitio
n
Example
Categories First,
second,
third, etc.
1,2,3,
etc.
Compare,
in
compariso
n
Although Because/caus
e
As a result Define For
example
Characteristic
s
Next A,b,c,
etc.
In the
same way
/ manner
As opposed
to
Due to Consequentl
y
Is/is
defined
as
For
instance
Classes Most
important
First,
second
Like /
alike /
likewise
But For this
reason
Hence Known as To
illustrate
Elements Last Also Parallels Conversely On account
of
In effect That is Specificall
y
Features Now Next Resembles Difference Since Results in Means Such as
Groups Finally In
additio
n
Similar
(ly)
However Why The
outcome is
Or
Kinds Furthermor
e
As In contrast
to
Therefore We can
state
Numbers Later Instead Thus
Parts Stages Nevertheles
s
Sorts Steps On the
contrary
Types Then On the
other hand
Ways When Rather than
Unlike
Whereas
Yet

Patterns of Organization Exercises
Directions: Please read the following paragraphs and circle signal words you notice and answer the questions after the paragraph.
1. Sexual harassment in the workplace is defined as a form of sex discrimination that violates the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It applies
to employers with 15 or employees, as well as employment agencies, labor organizations, and the federal government. It is known as
unwelcome sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. Sexual harassment means when it affects a
person’s employment, interferers with their work performance, or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment.
a. What is the organizational pattern of this paragraph?___________________________________
b. What is the topic of this paragraph?____________________________________________________
c. What is the main idea of this paragraph?_______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. If you feel you are the victim of sexual harassment at work, there are several routes you can take to file a complaint. Don’t keep it
to yourself. One avenue is a hotline that is set up for such a purpose. Call it. A second option is to contact the human resources
department within your company or institution. Thirdly, you may also want to speak to your boss or supervisor. As an employee,
you should have the option of talking with a male or female company representative. Lastly, it’s always a good idea to document the
harassment by writing down the incident or incidents.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. In keeping with the belief that the body is an important and sacred entity, both alcohol and drugs have no place in the life of
college students. Consequences for their use will be dealt with similarly. We are a drug-free and alcohol-free work and educational
environment. The possession and/or use of intoxicating beverages and illegal drugs is strictly prohibited. Students may not engage
in drinking, handling, possessing, or giving away intoxicants including beer, wine, ale, etc. Likewise, the possession and/or use of
drugs not prescribed by a physician or the possession of drug paraphernalia is strictly prohibited. Violation of these restrictions will
result in the same penalty: automatic suspension from the college. Students will not be reinstated for at least the remainder of the
semester.
31

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
32

The Interior Logic of a Paragraph
These are real paragraphs by real writers, but they have been scrambled. Try to reach
agreement in your group on how the sentences should be ordered for each paragraph. Figure
out how you know what the order should be. Is one harder than the other?
33
Paragraph #1
a) They keep track of blooming dogwood in the spring—the more abundant the blooms, the more
bitter the cold in January.
b) They watch the acorn crop—the more acorns, the more severe the season.
c) They examine the size and shape and color of the spleens of butchered hogs for clues to the
severity of the season.
d) They observe where white-faced hornets place their paper nests—the higher they are, the deeper
will be the snow.
e) Back country farmers use numerous superstitions to predict winter weather.
f) They examine their corn husks–the thicker the husk, the colder the winter.
Paragraph #2
a) Then they will find that the food in no way resembles Mom’s cooking.
b) The furnishings look as though they were bought at a Motel 6 warehouse sale.
c) The lucky student finds his roommate snores or hangs dirty socks on the lampshade; the unlucky
student discovers his roommate is a practicing steel drum enthusiast.
d) New dorm residents usually make several unpleasant discoveries during their first week.
e) Finally, their roommates are likely to be as irritating as siblings, but in unfamiliar and eccentric
ways.
f) Instead of Beef Wellington and Cherries Jubilee, the students choke down thin, cold hamburgers
followed by coconut cream pie that tastes like gluey cotton.
g) First, they will notice that their rooms are no larger than the average dog house, and
are equally as barren.

Topic Sentences
Topic sentences are the “thesis statements” of paragraphs; therefore, they are both a part
of keeping the promise made by the thesis, as well as a sub-promise that should be kept by
the paragraphs. They are usually the first sentence in the paragraph. The reader expects
topic sentences to provide proof of one aspect of the thesis sentence as well as to provide
an indication of what will follow in the paragraph.
A topic sentence is NOT simply a statement of fact. A fact does not contain any controlling
ideas that can be easily explained, described, illustrated or analyzed.
34
There are two kinds of topic sentences:
1. A statement of opinion
A statement of opinion contains some form of judgment and the paragraph will
support the opinion in the topic sentence.
Example: The computer is the greatest invention of the twentieth century.
2. A statement of intent
A statement of intent contains no opinion; instead, it informs the reader of what will
be objectively explained in the paragraph.
Example: The common seasoning monosodium glutamate (MSG) has negative side
effects.
Topic Sentence Functions
An effective topic sentence:
 Relates to the thesis.
 Sets up a claim, assertion, argument, evaluation, analysis.
 Contains controlling ideas about the topic that need to be developed in the sentences
that follow.
 Is the most general sentence in the paragraph.
 Orients the reader.
 Provides a context for understanding what follows.
 Explains the relationships among elements.
 Summarizes the rest of the paragraph.
 Promises what will follow.

Guidelines for Topic Sentences
A topic sentence must be a complete sentence to perform all the necessary functions.
 Weak: The type of birth control that should be provided by schools.
 Better: To prevent unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases,
schools should provide every form of non-prescription birth control
35
available.
A topic sentence must predict or promise what follows, so it cannot be a question.
 Weak: Should schools provide free computers for their students?
 Better: Since schools should assist students in their studies and prepare them for their
future careers, they must offer students the technological advantage of
free and easy access to computers.
Phrases such as “I think” or “in my opinion” may muddle or weaken topic sentences. Your
writing is always your opinion, so you don’t need these phrases unless they are central to
the idea that you are trying to convey.
 Weak: I think that it is important for every woman to carry mace or pepper
spray.
 Better: As violent criminals take over the city streets, women must carry mace
or pepper spray to protect themselves.
The topic sentence should provide clear relationships among all of its elements so that it
can provide a framework for understanding the rest of the paragraph.
 Weak: Historians record only dry statistics; we should read novels.
 Better: Accurate historical novels give us a deeper understanding of the past than
do the dry collection of facts and statistics that pass for history texts.
A topic sentence needs to be clear and specific enough that it can predict and
summarize the rest of the paragraph for the reader.
 Weak: Public transit is terrible.
 Better: Incapable of providing reliable, comfortable service, the San Francisco
Municipal Transit system is failing its ridership.

Because the topic sentence is a reference for the rest of the paragraph, it needs to be
exceptionally clear. If there is figurative language in a topic sentence, the wording
should be such that the reader does not need to understand the allusion to understand
the sentence.
 Weak: The Surgeon General must be the Hercules that slays the Hydra of chemical
36
addictions.
 Better: As Hercules slew Hydra, the Surgeon General must defeat the many-headed
monster that is chemical addiction.
Other Sentence Functions
The rest of the paragraph must:
 Fulfill the promise set by the topic sentence.
 Be on the same topic.
 Relate to each other and the topic sentence in a manner established by the topic
sentence.

Topic Sentences
In expository prose — writing that informs, explains or analyzes — the main point of a
paragraph is usually indicated in a single sentence at the beginning of the paragraph, and
this sentence is called the topic sentence. Because it will have to hold all the following
sentences together in unity, the topic sentence will be the paragraph’s most general and
inclusive sentence. In short, it tells the reader what the paragraph is about and the
information that follows — specific examples, details, explanations — must be related to
the idea or assertion introduced by the topic sentence.
The key to writing good topic sentences is not to make them too broad (all-encompassing)
or too specific (restrictive). Good topic sentences assist the reader in understanding and
following the direction of the writer’s ideas.
Exercise: The topic sentence of the paragraph below has been removed. Read the
paragraph carefully and then choose the best topic sentence among the four choices
below. Be prepared to explain your choice.
___________________________________________. This belief is especially common
among weightlifters who often consume large quantities of high-protein foods and dietary
supplements, thinking it will improve their athletic performance. Like weightlifters,
football players consume too much protein, expecting it to produce additional muscle
energy. Although it is true that muscles contain more protein than other tissues, there is no
evidence that a high-protein diet actually constructs more muscle tissue than a normal
diet. Nutritionists point out that muscle cells grow not from excess protein but from
exercise: when a muscle is used, it pulls in protein for its consumption. This is how a
muscle grows and strengthens. If athletes want to increase their muscle mass, then they
must exercise in addition to following a well-balanced, normal diet.
1. Many people believe in false ideas.
2. I don’t believe anything the nutritionists say because they are always
changing their minds about what is good and bad for our health.
3. Many athletes falsely believe that protein improves athletic performance by
37
increasing muscle mass.
4. My brother, a weightlifter, is an example of someone who consumes a lot of
protein because he thinks it will make him bulky.

Paragraph Development
Directions: Read the following response to an article, and then answer the questions below.
One experience I had is a good example of this. My best friend, Michelle, and I went to the
beach. A man who was about twenty years older than us approached us and asked if we would put
suntan lotion on his back. I was not about to touch that man’s wrinkled back but Michelle agreed to
put the lotion on him. I thought she was crazy. After we put the lotion on his back, he asked if we
wanted to join him for dinner that night. We politely said, “No,” but he wouldn’t leave us alone. He
kept asking us personal questions such as, “Are you married?” and making comments like, “If you
were my girlfriends, I would send you flowers everyday.” We didn’t say anything to him. We tried to
ignore him but he wouldn’t take the hint. Finally, we gathered our belongings and left the beach even
though we had been there for only half an hour.
38
1. What is the writer trying to prove?
2. What is this paragraph an example of?
3. What did the writer learn from this experience?
4. Does the writer tell us why she gave the example?

Directions: Read the following paragraph and answer the questions below.
I believe that Jacoby is right when she states, “The code of feminine politeness, instilled in
girlhood, is no help in dealing with the unwanted approaches of strange men. Our mothers didn’t
teach us to tell a man to get lost…” One experience I had is a good example of this. My best friend,
Michelle, and I went to the beach. A man who was about twenty years older than us approached us
and asked if we would put suntan lotion on his back. I was not about to touch that man’s wrinkled
back but Michelle agreed to put lotion on him. I thought she was crazy. After we put the lotion on his
back, he asked if we wanted to join him for dinner that night. We politely said, “No,” but he wouldn’t
leave us alone. He kept asking us personal questions such as, “Are you married?” and making
comments like, “If you were my girlfriends, I would send you flowers everyday.” We didn’t say
anything to him. We tried to ignore him, but he wouldn’t take the hint. Finally, we gathered our
belongings and left the beach even though we had been there for only half an hour. Later, when I
asked Michelle why she agreed to put lotion on his back, she said, “I couldn’t be rude.” At first, I was
angry at Michelle for not saying anything to him but now I realize I was just as guilty as her. Instead of
being rude and telling him to get lost, I, along with Michelle, left the beach. If I had said something to
him, if I had broken the “code of feminine politeness,” we might have had an enjoyable time and
gotten a great tan.
1. How are the two paragraphs different?
2. What is the main point of this second paragraph?
3. What is used to support the main point?
4. How does the writer connect the example back to the main point?
39

40
PIE
Point Tell Me!
 Topic Sentence
Information Show Me!
Information from the readings or class discussions
Personal Experience
Representations in mass media
Elements from popular culture
Definitions
Statistics
*Wikipedia is not a valid source to use.
Explanation So What?
 How does this information relate to your thesis?

PIE PARAGRAPHS
The Point Information Explanation Paragraph
Point
Main point, main idea, topic sentence, overall message of the paragraph.
41
Supports the thesis statement.
What is the point of this paragraph?
Information Facts, data, examples, quotes, paraphrases, personal observations &
experience.
What information does the writer provide to support the point?
Explanation Commentary, analysis, evaluation.
How does the writer explain the connection between the information and
the point or the thesis statement? What does the writer learn from the
information? How does the writer react to the information? What does
the writer think about the information?
PIE Strategies
How to make a Point
Decide what you want to say to support your thesis based on your reaction to the
text. Try categorizing your ideas and make a comment on a reoccurring theme or
pattern you’ve found.
Where to find Information
Paraphrases or short quotes from the readings/research.
Personal experiences (anecdotes, stories, examples from your life)
Representations from mass media (newspapers, magazines, television, radio)
Elements from popular culture (song lyrics, movie lines, TV characters,
celebrities)
Statistics (polls, percentages, data)
Definitions (from the dictionary, readings, another sources)
How to craft an Explanation
Interpret the information – what does it mean? Why is it important?
Explain what you or a reader can learn from the information.
State your opinion about or evaluate the information.
Comment on the accuracy or inaccuracy of the information.
Suggest how the information relates to your thesis.

Identify P.I.E. Elements -- Practice
After reading each of the following paragraphs, identify and label the P.I.E. elements. Note which
sentences make a clear point, which illustrate the point, and which explain the illustration.
Paragraph A
TV misleads us into believing that what is false is true. As a 5th grade teacher and a driver’s
education instructor, I encounter students all the time who believe that if they see it on TV, it must be
so. I shared one of my pet peeves about TV’s artificiality in a recent workshop by recalling how cars
explode every time they have an accident on TV, but do not do so in reality. One of the teens attending
told us how she believed this was truth, so after the car her parent was driving flipped onto its roof, she
ran down the road leaving her mother trapped. Of course the car didn’t explode, and her mother was
able to get help and recovered, but the extra time that it took to get help on the scene and for her to be
reassured made the situation much more traumatic for her. This is consistent with the experiences of
emergency personnel who report that their most difficult task when arriving at an accident scene is to
deal with victims trapped in the car because the victims panic in fear of an explosion. What TV has
done is to cause people to react with fear in accident situations when instead they need to use their
heads.
Paragraph B
Contrary to what government officials are saying, the United States government seems to be
heading for a reinstatement of a military draft. Thom Shanker, writing in the May 3, 2005 New York
Times, reports that Gen. Richard B. Myers, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, told Congress
that the ongoing military effort in Iraq “limits ability to fight other conflicts.” This report, combined
with the May 2 announcement on NPR News that the United States has failed to meet its recruitment
quota for the third month in a row, suggests that eventually a draft will be necessary. Surprisingly,
Gen. Myers also asserts that “the armed forces are fully capable of meeting all Washington’s military
objectives,” but where will the military get the recruits? One source of more soldiers could be to loosen
requirements for enlistment. Another article in the May 3 2005 New York Times reveals that army
recruiters are “bending rules” and accepting enlistees with medical conditions and police records, but
this method of meeting personnel needs is not promising. Because reports from newspapers, television,
and radio all emphasize that our military lacks the personnel to continue our operations in Afghanistan
and Iraq and still be able to provide soldiers in new areas of military action, a draft must soon be
proposed. So far the Pentagon insists that a draft is not on the way, but how else can the necessary
bodies be provided for the bags?
Paragraph C
Fast food has become a reflection of our American life-style, not merely a satisfaction of
biological needs. What we consume, and how we eat our food, is a reflection of our culture. And what
we do in our daily lives molds and shapes culture. What are we doing every day? We’re eating fast
food. The average American eats out at a fast food restaurant four to five times a week. In fact,
“ninety-six out of every one hundred Americans eat fast food on some kind of regular basis.” (The
Negative Sides of Fast Food). As most people are aware, fast food is high in fat. Many favorite items,
42

like French fries, are cooked in lots of oil, which can lead to heart disease, obesity, and early stroke. It
would be one thing if we were all walking to KFC and Taco Bell, but as Americans we’re not only
driving, we’re not even getting out of our cars. The drive-through window is one of the most
compelling reasons to eat fast food. The customer can just drive up and eat, which also caters to the
American cultural notions of speed and efficiency. People eat fast food on their way to work, on the
highway, in a parking lot and never have to move an inch. But isn’t fast food just an eating option that
can simply be ignored? Not exactly. McDonalds spends $1.4 billion a year on advertising. Often these
advertisements rely on sports figures or celebrities to encourage potential customers to take advantage
of their services. Because American culture is obsessed with celebrities, people like Justin Timberlake
and Michael Jordan have an important and powerful voice. And if they eat McDonalds, the consumer
unconsciously believes the product—fast food—must be cool, fun, and exciting! The food itself
becomes familiar and comforting, even empowered, just like these celebrities. The experience of eating
at McDonald’s has become a way of life: a philosophy of consumerism that is intrusive and subtle.
American culture is in peril because of the influx of fast food. Americans are becoming unhealthy and
lazy with every Big Mac. But the ads keep telling me “I’m loving it!”
43
Fabulous Fast Food
While there has been a lot of criticism lately about fast food, there is no denying that it is
deservedly popular for many reasons, and one major reason is that it makes life easier for a lot of
people. The first way it makes life easier is by living up to its title of being “fast.” There is usually
little waiting in line or in your car to place your order and the food is ready to be handed over to the
customer right away. For people on the go like “soccer moms,” there is no beating the fact that you can
get what you need and be on your way with little delay. Life in general seems to be more fast-paced
that it used to be. Keeping at least one task, meal purchases or preparation, to a minimum saves time
for other important activities. Thus the speed of delivery for this service is, indeed, one way to make
our lives easier and less complicated. Another benefit of fast food is that it is so convenient. You can
find your favorite fast food place almost anywhere without having to travel very far. Even if one is in
unfamiliar territory or has just moved from one location to another, you are almost bound to run across
McDonald’s or Wendy’s. In fact, the franchises’ choices of location are so convenient and predictab le
that you can easily find the kind of road or street where these establishments will be in almost any
town or city. So whether at home or on the road, you can easily find your favorite place, and this
convenience is another reason for their popularity. Finally, for making lives simpler and less stressful,
there is the benefit of reliability. Whether you go to the McDonald’s on the corner of Madison and
Wells in Chicago or to the one on any Main Street USA, you know your Big Mac is going to taste just
like the one you had last week in another town. For a while my job was traveling throughout
metropolitan Chicago with technicians or alone visiting customers’ sites. If with the local technician,
when it came time for lunch, we could go to one of his favorite places to eat, which is part of “knowing
the territory.” When alone, however, it was much safer to hit a Burger King than to trust the reliability
of “Harry’s Hot Dogs.” The same is true for moms trying to keep the kids happy. Why try something
new when you know you can trust that the meal will be just the same as the one they enjoyed the last
time? Life is easier when you can deal with the things you know you can count on. Lifestyles vary, and
for some people fast food serves little purpose. However, for the majority of us, fast food does indeed
make our lives better by providing speedy service, very available locations and the kind of reliable
offerings we have grown to appreciate. Fast food can be fabulous!

F.R.I.E.D. P.I.E. Paragraphs
The Point of a paragraph is usually expressed in one or two specific sentences. The
Illustration part is the majority of the paragraph; it is the filling for the pie. When
thinking about the different kinds of filling you can use, consider these different types.
F = Facts:………………………statistics, dates, numbers, things we know are true
R = Reasons:………………..why the point is important or true
I = Instances……………..your experience or experiences of others (people
you know or heard about on TV, in books, etc.
E = Experts:…………………statements of people who know about the topic
D = Descriptive.…………color, shape, size, smell, taste, sound, or feel of
44
Details something.

P.I.E. Review + F.R.I.E.D. Elements
Exercise 1:
Read the paragraph below. Find and identify the P.I.E. elements. Which element is missing?
How could you add it?
Some Americans view Mount Rushmore, the world’s largest sculpture, as a symbol of
some negative aspects of American life. In 1924 Doane Robinson, who wanted a permanent
tourist attraction for South Dakota, suggested a “colossal monument” of Buffalo Bill or Chief
Red Cloud. But John Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum, chosen to be the sculptor, proposed
Presidents Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln and Theodore Roosevelt because he wanted a
tribute to great national leaders. Not everyone agreed that the monument was a tribute to our
ideals. For one thing, it was built in the Black Hills, sacred lands of the Sioux Indians dating
back to 1868. Another problem was that the sculptor was a Ku Klux Klan supporter and an
active anti-Semite. According to an Oglala Sioux spokesperson, many Native Americans feel
the presidents chosen for the monument “committed acts of atrocity against our people.” In
1980, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed that the land belongs to the Sioux and ordered the
government to pay 263 million in fines and interest. But the Sioux refused the money, which
sits in a bank. They say it is not possible to pay for the violations represented by this
sculpture. They want their land back.
Missing P.I.E. element:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
45

F.R.I.E.D. Paragraphs
The point of a paragraph is usually expressed in one or two specific sentences. The
illustration part is the majority of the paragraph; it is the filling for the PIE. When thinking
about the different kinds of filling you can use, consider these different types:
F = Facts: statistics, dates, numbers, things we know are true
R = Reasons why the point is important or true
I = Instances your experience or experiences of others (people you know
or heard on TV, in books, etc.)
E = Experts statements of people who know about the topic
D = Descriptive Details color, shape, size, smell, taste, sound or feel of something
Most writers use a combination of these F.R.I.E.D. fillings to support the points of the
paragraphs they write. A writer may choose to include an instance that she heard about on
the radio, a fact read in a book, and the reasons this point is important. All of these combine
to make a well-filled F.R.I.E.D. P.I.E.!
46
Exercise 2:
Find an example of each type of F.R.I.E.D. element in the paragraph on the previous page.
Facts:
Reasons:
Instances:
Experts:
Descriptive Details:

47
Exercise 3:
Look at the following point and come up with each type of FRIED element to illustrate it:
Social Networking is a form of community because it allows people to interact daily.
Fact:
Reason:
Instance:
Expert:
Descriptive Detail:

The P. I. E. Paragraph + Quote Sandwich
P = Point What is the main idea of this paragraph? The Point may be called the topic
sentence. The Point is the claim or assertion (or opinion) you will make in your
paragraph and prove to your audience. Remember, each paragraph should only
have one main idea.
I = Illustration Where is the Point supported with specific information? The Illustration consists
of supporting material. Consider using a variety of kinds of illustrations to
support your point, like the following:
F = Facts statistics, dates, numbers, things we know to be true
R = Reasons why the point is important or true
I = Instances your experiences or that of others you know about personally or from your
48
readings.
E = Experts* statements of people who know about the topic
D = Descriptive color, shape, size, smell, taste, sound or feel of
Details something
*One technique for using Experts in your Illustration is to cite experts by quoting them using a
Quote Sandwich.
Quote Sandwich
Bread #1 Briefly introduce the quote and why you are using it.
Meat The quote. (Meat = I in PIE)
Bread #2 Explain what the quote means and how you interpret the details of the quote.
Consider how the quote supports the Point. (Bread #2 = E in PIE.)
E = Explanation Where does the writer elaborate, evaluate, and/or explain why or how this
Illustration, (information), connects to the Point and what this information means? Explain all
your thinking fully.
Practicing Revising For Unity
While writing you may sometime drift away from your topic and include information that does not
belong in the paragraph. Hence, it is important to revise your paragraphs for unity; that is, to drop any
ideas or sentences that don’t relate to the POINT.

Before peer editing each other’s paragraphs for unity, please practice reviewing some sample
paragraphs for unity. Read the following paragraph, looking for unity, and answer the questions
afterward.
1. (1) Transport authorities in Brazil have caught up with a speed-loving Brazilian driver who
clocked up nearly $2 million in fines. (2) Police intercepted the driver of a 12-year-old car in
Sao Paulo at the spot he most frequently committed infractions. (3) For seven years, he had
been speeding and running red lights but was not arrested earlier because he never registered
the car in his own name. (4) He said his favorite color was blue. (5) The car, worth around
$6,500, would be auctioned if the driver, unnamed, did not pay the $1.8 million in fines in 90
days.
 What is the point:________________________________________
 Which sentence or sentences don’t relate to the point? _____________
 Which sentences should be dropped and why? __________________________
2. (1) Personalized license plates have become very popular. (2) These “vanity plates” allow car
owners to express their sense of humor, marital status, pet peeves, or ethnic pride. (3) I don’t
have a personalized license plate. (4) Driver’s have created messages such as ROCK ON, NT
GUILTY, and (on a tow truck) ITZ GONE. (5) In some states, as many as one in seven autos
has a personalized plate. (6) Recently, Parade chose the nation’s top ten vanity plates,
including XQQSME on a Massachusetts plate, ULIV1S on an Arkansas plate, and on an SUV
in Missouri, a message read in the rear-view mirror – TI-3VOM.
 What is the point:________________________________________
 Which sentence or sentences don’t relate to the point? _____________
 Which sentences should be dropped and why? __________________________
49

The “I” of PIE:
Guidelines for Quotations: The Quote Sandwich
In class, we discussed the importance of using information or evidence to support our ideas;
evidence helps show and convince readers of your arguments so that they better understand
your writing. PIE is one method that can help you organize your paragraphs so that they are
easy to follow. Whether you chose to use PIE or another not, quotations are an effective way
of adding evidence to your writing (the “I” of PIE). (As a general rule you should use at least
one quote per paragraph.)
To ensure that your reader fully understands how the quote you are using supports your
thesis, you must smoothly incorporate the quote into your paragraph; otherwise, your reader
maybe left unsure of why you used the quote. The “quote sandwich” is a method, similar to
PIE, that aides you in effectively adding quotes. See below for a further explanation.
Introduce It!
Before adding in your quote introduce it with a signal
phrase and a reporting verb (See the previous page)
Ex: Robin Lakoff argues that….
Quotation
After you have introduced your quote with a signal phrase or reporting verb add
in your quote! Ex: Robin Lakoff argues that “[c]ultural bias was built into the
language we were allowed to speak about, and the ways were spoken of” (152).
Explain It!
Now that you’ve added in your quote, explain why the quote
is important. What do you think it means? How does it
connect with your thesis? (Your explanation should be at
least as long, or longer that the quote itself)
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Do You Have Enough E in Your PIE?
Worried you don’t have enough E in your PIE? Asking (and answering) yourself how, why, and what
questions can lead you to the E you need.
 What is the most important idea that the readers should get from this paragraph?
 Why is this information important? What does it suggest to me? To readers?
 How do my examples help me prove my point to the readers?
 Why did I choose that quote? How does it help me?
 How can I introduce my quote or example to help readers see where I’m going with it?
 How can I state this idea another way to make sure the readers understand my point?
 What are some consequences/results/implications/ramifications of the information I just gave
51
the reader?
 How is the information I’ve presented related to my overall point for this paragraph?
 Is the idea in the topic sentence fully explained? Do I need another sentence ot elaborate on
what I mean?
 How is this information related to my overall thesis, or to other points I make in this paper?

Elements of an Essay
Title
The title is the reader’s first impression of the essay – the first words the reader reads. The title can do
any of the following:
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 Convey the topic to the reader.
 Convey the writer’s attitude.
 Be thought-provoking, insightful.
 Engage the reader’s attention.
Introduction
 Introduces the subject or topic of the essay to the reader in a general way.
 Creates interests – grabs the reader’s attention.
 Indicates the writer’s stance.
 Includes a thesis statement.
The title, introduction and thesis statement form a promise to the reader. All three indicate to the reader
what the essay will be about – all three enable the reader to make predictions about what territory the
essay will cover. The promise that the title, intro, and thesis give must be consistent and clear, and it
must be fulfilled throughout the essay by the body paragraphs and finally, by the conclusion.
Body Paragraphs
Body paragraphs are the meat of the essay. Each paragraph must:
 Support the thesis statement.
 Have one main idea or point expressed in a topic sentence.
 Include information (examples, data, facts, quotes, paraphrases, personal observations) which
support the main point of the paragraph.
 Provide commentary, or explanation, which connects the information to the point and thus to
the thesis.
Consciously or subconsciously, readers make predictions about what will be in the paragraph based on
the topic sentence. The topic sentence carries the point of the paragraph and is a promise as well. The
paragraph must fulfill the promise of the topic sentence.
Conclusion
The conclusion is the last impression the reader has of the essay and can function in a variety of ways.
A conclusion can:
 Restate the main message of the essay.
 Summarize the main points of the essay.
 Give the thesis a larger application – connect it to the world at large.
 Solve a problem raised in the essay.
 Make a call to action – encourage or command the reader to take some action related to the
thesis.

The Structure of an Argument
53
The Beginning….
Hooks your audience (attention getter)
States the problem
Establishes your position
Presents your thesis statement
The Middle/ Body Paragraphs….
Provides background information
Responds to other points of view
Presents arguments supporting your main claim
Anticipates possible objections
The End/ Conclusion….
Summarizes your position and implications
Invites readers to share your conclusion and/ or take action

Directed Learning Activity: Thesis Statements
What are three things you know about thesis statements?
54
1.
WHAT IS IT?
The basic point or main idea of the whole essay is its thesis. A thesis is often an assertion that you argue or
support in the essay. Having a thesis is useful to both the writer and the reader as it links the main ideas of the
essay and explains the writer's opinion on those ideas. If you have problems with your thesis, try to follow these
two conventions:
1. A thesis statement is often (but not always) one sentence and is most often placed in the introductory
paragraph.
2. A thesis statement is an arguable assertion that can be proven with evidence and
opinions.
WHAT IS IT GOOD FOR?
• A thesis helps you narrow down the more general topic and find your own angle on the topic and
express your opinion.
• A thesis lets the reader know what to expect or look for in the essay.
• A well-formed thesis helps you develop and cover all parts of an assignment, helps you know when you
are "done," and keeps you organized, helping you determine if you are wandering off in unrelated
directions.
WHAT DO EFFECTIVE THESIS STATEMENTS LOOK LIKE?
An Effective Thesis: An effective thesis should be an argument, not a fact; it should be limited, not too broad;
and it should be sharply focused, not too vague.
Too Factual: The first polygraph was developed by Dr. John A. Larson in 1921.
Revised: Because the polygraph has not been proved reliable, even under controlled conditions, its use by
private employers should be banned.
Hint: If i t sounds like a Wikipedia or Encyclopedia entry, i t is too factual.
Too Broad: Being overly materialistic will cause many problems.

Revised: Being overly materialistic will cause many problems because you lose sight of what matters to you. .
Too Vague: Many of the hip-hop songs are disgusting.
Revised: Many hip-hop songs are sexist because they make women look like pretty pictures with no substance.
55

56
HOW DO I CREATE A THESIS STATEMENT?
There are many approaches…here are some methods:
• Answer the question or respond to the writing task directly: One way to create a thesis statement is to
directly answer the assigned question or if the writing assignment is not in the form of a question, then
by responding to the task. When responding to a writing assignment, be sure that you have responded
directly to what is being asked. Make sure that you address all parts of the assignment.
• Brainstorm and freewrite to discover your argument: If there is no specific writing assignment, begin
by brainstorming (listing key words and concepts) and freewriting (writing informally) on your topic.
See what emerges as to what specific aspects interest you. State your opinion one of these aspects and
examine the significance. Why is this important? What are the implications?
• Connect your ideas under one joining sentence: If you have done some brainstorming, freewriting,
outlining or drafting of the paper, and have many ideas but not a thesis yet, look at your main ideas or
main supporting points. What do these ideas have in common? What overall argument connects those
ideas? What do all the topic sentences suggest? Answer this to create a thesis. Make
WHERE DO I PUT IT?
DO:
Academic and business writing uses the thesis as a power play, letting the reader know what the writer has set
out to do, so as the reader reads, he or she will think, "Wow, this writer sure has good insight and support for her
argument." In this kind of writing, the thesis appears in the introduction or very soon after.
DON’T :
Some writers have the thesis at the end of the essay on purpose, thinking that if they save the main point until
the end of the essay, the reader is forced to read the entire essay to discover the main point. While it's true that
this happens in a lot of narratives (stories) and fiction, this is rarely the most effective place for the thesis in
expository writing.
Thesis Check-In Quiz:
1. True/False: A Thesis should be a fact.
2. What are one ways to come up with a thesis?
3. Where in an essay does your thesis go?

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Directions:
 Write down one question you still have about thesis statements:
 Check in with a tutor/IST to get your question answered and find out how you did on the quiz

YOUR QUESTION:
Student Name______________________
IST/Peer Tutor Name________________
Date Completed and Hours:____________________
Thesis Statements Practice #1:
Practice Finding Opinion Words
Thesis: As you explore your subject, you will begin to see possible ways to connect your ideas. A sentence that
links all your main ideas and explains your opinion on those ideas is called a thesis statement . Generally, you
will want to put your thesis in the opening paragraph of your essay.
Opinion: A thesis should contain a topic (what you are writing about), an opinion about the topic (what your
attitude is toward the topic), and reasons why you hold that view (explanations answering “why? ” or “so what? ”).
In other words, a thesis needs to be an arguable assertion that can be proven with facts and opinions. To check to
see if a thesis is arguable, locate the opinion words.
Locating the Opinion in a Thesis:
When you look for the opinion in a thesis, ask yourself what the writer’s attitude is towards the topic.
For example, in the sentence: “Many hip-hop songs are sexist because they make women look like pretty
pictures with no substance.”
In the thesis, the topic is “hip-hop songs” and the controlling idea is that these songs are “sexist”
Another person might have had a different attitude and may have found the hip-hop songs “empowering to
women”.
Therefore, “sexist” reveals the writer’s attitude and also indicates what the essay with this thesis statement will be
focused on: demonstrating why hip-hop songs are “sexist.” This thesis statement limits the writer’s focus and
clearly tells the reader what the essay will be about. Underline the opinion words below; if there are no
opinion words, it is not a thesis:
1) In this essay I will discuss abortion.
2) Television is destroying the unity of the modern family.

3) In her essay, Erlich shows that there is a balance of community and isolation in her
hometown.
4) While text messaging can be a handy way to stay in touch with friends and family, many
people text compulsively causing them to be distracted.
5) Similar to Andrew Lamb’s experience in Trash, my uncle has taught me the best lesson
that the importance of putting family first.
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Student Name______________________
59
Thesis Statements –Practice #2
Developing Thesis Statements in Response to Questions
You will frequently need to formulate your thesis statements in response to questions provided by your
instructors. The following questions or statements are designed to give you practice in developing such thesis
statements.
Example: Question: What well known person do you admire?
Answer: Barbara Lee should be commended for embracing her responsibilities as a US, representative,
particularly when she would not grant the relatively inexperienced President George Bush full power in
declaring war.
Exercise 4: Answer the follow questions and create strong thesis statements.
1) How do you account for the rise of sports figures as superstars?
2) What arguments are there for or against single parenting?
3) What does it mean to be poor?
4) Should racial profiling be legalized? Why or why not?
6) What place has television in your life?
7) Is there more or less racism in America now than there was twenty years ago?
8) If you could live in some age other than your own, which would it be and why?

Student Name______________________
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Thesis Statements- Practice #3
Creating Your Own Argument (Thesis) on a Topic
Exercise: Brainstorm various issues and ideas connected with your topic:
Creating a thesis: Remember: every thesis and topic sentence must contain not only a topic but also opinion
words that tell us the attitude of the writer toward the topic.
(1) Form questions using (2) Create a thesis; (3) Deepen the thesis by asking
words from the brainstorm answer the questions "so what"? Why should we
(use the journalists' questions: (seek opinions that need to be concerned? How is this
who, what, how, why, where, when) be proven not unarguable facts) important? What can be
learned from this?
Practice in creating a thesis:
(1) Create questions using words from the brainstorm:
(2) Answer your best questions:
(3) Deepen several of your answers to #2; take them a step further by asking "so what"? Why should we be
concerned? How is this important?

Thesis Statements: The Most Important Sentence(s) in your Essay5
As we’ve learned, the thesis is the 1-3 sentence central argument your essay will work to defend. All of
the PIE paragraphs will work to support and ultimately prove your argument. Remember, the thesis for
an essay should A) present an argument about gender in response to a text* and 2) the argument should
analyze and evaluate the text. Effective college thesis statements include critical thinking about
absolutist positions. Words like however and which and phrases like on the other hand and as a result
help to construct these kinds of arguments. In class we discussed the importance of verbs in your thesis
statement. Here are some verbs to consider as you write your thesis: demonstrates, reveals,
exemplifies, illustrates, characterizes, shows, constructs, relies, contends, determines, notices, finds,
disputes, argues, realizes, discovers, discerns, claims, reasons.
*Text can include any of our class readings (poems, short stories, essays) or text can include cultural or
societal signifiers, like women’s bodies in hip-hop videos or Disney princesses.
Consider the following thesis statement constructions when responding to one of the reading
assignments.
The thesis may be:
1. Complete agreement with the author
2. Complete disagreement with the author
3. Partial agreement with the author, but disagreement on one or two issues
4. Partial agreement with the author, but you think the author MISSED one or two essential points
5. Partial disagreement with the author, but agreement on one or two issues
6. Partial disagreement with the author, and you think the author MISSED one or two essential
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points
Consider the following thesis statement constructions with responding to other kinds of text, like
media.
1. Present a specific observation about how gender is used in the media and evaluate how that has
an influence on gender identity.
2. Present a specific observation about gender expectations and what effect these expectations
have on individuals or society.
3. Present a specific observation about family and gender, and examine how the role of family
history influences (or doesn’t influence) gender constructions.
4. Present a specific observation about gender identity in culture and what effects this observation
has on gender relationships and/or power structures.
5 Thanks to Jill Quigley for this handout!

The Six "Moves" of Argument
An essay is not an introduction, a thesis, supporting paragraphs, and a conclusion. Those are merely the things
writers use to create an essay. But a true essay is more of a testing or advancing of an idea. It is a writer coming
forward in writing and saying, "Based on the information I have, I think THIS represents the best way of
thinking about this topic." That's really all an essay is.
Of course, in order to convince readers that the idea advanced in the essay (i.e. the idea expressed in the thesis)
is, in fact, the best way (or at least a reasonable way) of thinking about the topic, the writer must DO particular
things. This is key. Writers do not create arguments by simply pasting a thesis to an intro and then following it
with paragraphs. Rather, writers create written arguments by doing the following.
1. Orienting Readers to a Question at Issue: Imagine a group of people in the college quad arguing. You step
into the circle, and it’s a flurry of arguments and voices. You don't know what's going on or what the
focus is. You pull a friend out of the group and asked to be filled in. When you do, you'll get the
following:
What group is arguing about (i.e. the topic).
A description of the topic (if you don't already know it).
An indication of the controversy involving the topic (the question at issue).
A brief description of what each side is saying in response to the question at issue.
A brief description of why the group can't seem to reach agreement.
A brief description of why the group is taking the time to argue (i.e. why the question at issue matters).
Proposing A Specific Argument/Thesis: Once you know what the question at issue is and you feel oriented
to the controversy, you can, if you know about the issue, offer your own answer to the question at issue
participate in the conversation. Your answer is your argument or thesis.
3. Defining Key Terms: If your argument hinges on people accepting or understanding particular concepts, you
need to define them. You'll want to be careful how you do this, though. You'll want to briefly define
terms, not exhaustively (unless it is a term that is, itself, driving the controversy), and you'll want to
define the terms in the context of your argument. In other words, you wouldn't, in this college quad
conversation, bring the conversation to a screeching halt by taking the floor to define a concept that you
plan to use in ten minutes. You'll define the concept as it is relevant to the immediate point you're
making.
4. Offering Reasons, Evidence, Explanations, and Examples that Support Your Thesis: The people
gathered in the circle listening to you will want you to offer information and reasons that will help them
understand why you have offered the argument you have. Your goal is to get them see your thinking
process—i.e. the process by which you’ve come to your conclusion—and the help them understand why
they should think similarly to you. You'll do whatever you can (without ever lying or misleading) to
help them "see" the reasonableness of your answer to the question at issue.
5. Acknowledging, Accommodating, and Refuting Differing points of view. You know many of the people
in your conversation circle have their own ideas about the topic. They have concerns, they have fears,
they have interests. And to protect these, they have positions. They may be content to listen to your
different ideas while holding fast to their positions. To get them to "let go" of some of their concerns,
fears, and interests (or to at least get them to think differently about them so they don't prevent them
from entertaining your ideas), you have to
• Acknowledge that you are aware of these concerns, fears, interests, and positions. This means simply that
you let them know that you are aware of and understand what's on their minds.
• Accommodate their concerns, fears, interests, and positions WHEN YOU CAN. The people in your
conversation circle will let their guard down and listen to you with a much more open mind when you
not only acknowledge their point of view, but also grant that some of what they think is actually correct
and/or well-intentioned. Do this whenever you can--even if you only say something like, "The
intentions behind my opponents' position is good." Sometimes, though, there is nothing about your
opponents' arguments that you can accommodate. When this is the case, don't pretend like there is.
• Refute their positions. In refuting, you are trying to get them to "let go" of the concerns, fears, and/or
interests that are causing them to take their position. You can do this by showing them that their
62

position is the wrong one to protect their concerns or interests; or that their fears or interests are based
on bad information or bad values; or that there are other concerns or interests greater than their own that
they should embrace.
Ending your argument. If after you've informed the people in your conversation circle of your position and
your reasons for it you simply turn and walk away, they'll feel "cut off" and slighted. They'll wonder what
you're problem is. With essays readers can have a similarly discomforting experience if the writer doesn't end
smoothly. All a writer needs to do to eliminate that discomfort the reader may feel is let readers know the essay
is over. You can do this by "winding down" and letting readers see that you are done supporting your argument
and coming back to sit with it.
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How to Write Good Introductions
64
What is the function of an introduction?
An introduction
 captures your audience's attention.
 gives background/context on your topic.
 develops interest in your topic by explaining various positions on your topic.
 guides your reader to your thesis.
 ends with a strong thesis.
There are three basic ways to write an introduction:
 You can write the introduction after you write the body of your essay.
 You can write the introduction before you write the body of your essay.
 You can rough out the introduction first and then focus and revise it once you have written your essay.
Many people write a rough draft and from that find out what their purpose really is and what they really believe.
Then they revise the focus, language, or order of their introduction. This sequence -- of drafting an introduction
and then revising and refining it once the body of the paper is sketched out -- is very common.*
* This information was courtesy of LEO: Literacy Education Online

How To Write Good Conclusions
65
A Good Conclusions
 stress the importance of the thesis statement,
 give the essay a sense of completeness, and leave a final impression on the reader.
Suggestions for How to Write Conclusions:
 Answer the question "So What?" Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that
your paper was meaningful and useful.
 Synthesize, don't summarize
 Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you
made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
 Redirect your readers
 Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your
introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think
globally.
 Create a new meaning
 You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas
work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
Strategies:
Strategy #1: Echoing the introduction:
Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by
describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new
understanding. Example
Introduction
From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue
sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds
of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned
small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built
for children, but it brings out the child in adults.
Conclusion
I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front
gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and
struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the
parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a
couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to
think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.
What did you like about this strategy?

Strategy #2: Challenging the reader:
By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they
may apply it to their own lives.
Example
Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still
view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of
America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible
citizens.
Strategy #3: Looking to the future:
Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It
may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.
66
Example
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers
continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the
teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the
future suffers.
Strategy #4: Posing questions:
Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic,
which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to
create a new meaning.
Example
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues.
Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the
candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an
informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?
*This information was courtesy of LEO: Literacy Education Online
Questions:
Now that you have read about introductions and conclusions, what questions do you still have?
1.
2.

Transitions
What is the Function of Transitional Words?
Single words can signal levels of importance, connections, and the direction of thoughts. For example,
after a friend begins a sentence with "I like you very much," would you prefer that the next word be
"and" or "however"? The word "and" signals more of the same, hinting that you could anticipate
another pleasant compliment. On the other hand, "however" signals a change of thought, so brace
yourself for a negative remark. If the next word were "consequently" or "therefore," you could
anticipate a positive result or reward for the positive feelings.
Such words are transitions or signal words that connect parts of the sentences and lead readers to
anticipate a continuation or a change in the writer's thoughts. Transitions also reveal organizational
patterns.
Patterns of Organization and Their Signal Words:
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Addition (providing additional examples):
furthermore, again, also, further, moreover, besides,
likewise, and, indeed, in addition, too, next, first,
second
Cause and Effect (showing one element as
producing or causing a result or effect):
because, for this reason, consequently, hence,
as a result, thus, due to, therefore, if, so, since
Concession (acknowledging the merits of the
counter argument before reasserting an opinion):
whereas, granted that, even though, though, yet,
while, although
Illustration (explaining using examples):
that is, for example, to illustrate, for instance, in fact,
specifically, as seen in
Comparison (listing similarities among items):
in a similar way, similarly, parallels, likewise, in a
like manner, also, in the same manner
Contrast (listing differences among items):
on the other hand, more than, but, however,
conversely, on the contrary, although, nevertheless,
still, in contrast, yet, even though
Definition (defining a concept and expanding with
examples and restatements):
can be defined, means, for example, like, in short,
specifically
Description (listing characteristics or details
Using vivid language):
is, as, like, could be described (using adjectives,
adverbs and language that touches on the senses)
Location or Spatial Order (identifying the
whereabouts of objects or people):
next to, near, below, above, close by, within,
without, beside, around, to the right or left, opposite
Narration or Time Order (listing events in order
of occurrence):
first, second, finally, after, before, next, later, now, at
last, until, thereupon, while, during, as, meanwhile,
then, while, immediately
Simple Listing (randomly listing items in a
series):
also, another, several, for example
Summary (condensing major points):
in conclusion, to restate, briefly, to sum up,
in short, in a nutshell, in other words, therefore,
in summary

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Prewriting: Clustering
by Melanie Dawson & Joe Essid
Clustering is a type of prewriting that allows you to explore many ideas as soon as they occur to you. Like brainstorming
or free associating, clustering allows you to begin without clear ideas.
To begin to cluster, choose a word that is central to your assignment. For example, if you were writing a paper about the
value of a college education, you might choose the word "expectations" and write that word in the middle of your sheet
of paper. Circle "expectations," then write words all around it--words that occur to you as you think of "expectations."
Write down all words that you associate with "expectations," words that at first may seem to be random. Write quickly,
circling each word, grouping words around your the central word. Connect your new words to previous ones with lines;
when you feel you have exhausted a particular avenue of associations, go back to your central word and begin again.
For example, "expectations" might lead you to consider "the social aspects of college," which may lead you to consider
"career networking." You may then find yourself writing down words that compare the types of jobs you might get
through career networking. You may end up asking yourself questions such as "What sorts of jobs do I want? Not want?"
Have fun with this exercise; even silly questions can open avenues to explore, such as "What if I ended up waiting tables
at Buddy's?" "Would I rather be a lion-tamer or an accountant?" "What about my brilliant career as a stand-up comedian?"
Some words will take you nowhere; with other words you may discover that you have many related words to write.
Random associations eventually become patterns of logic as you look over your work. After looking over the clustering exercise above, you exciting career as a performer of some type, rather than a job in the service sector or behind a desk.
Now your sample paper about the value of a college education has some focus: how you expect college to lead to an
interesting career that involves creativity, skill, and performance. You might then want to return to the phrase "Job
Skills" and develop that part of your cluster, noting the skills that you'd need to reach your ideal career.
Clustering does not take the place of a linear, traditional outline; but, as the example shows, it allows you to explore
ideas before committing them to a particular order.
Example:

Brainstorming Technique
What follows are great ideas on how to brainstorm—ideas from professional writers, novice writers, people who
would rather avoid writing, and people who spend a lot of time brainstorming about…well, how to brainstorm.
Try out several of these options and challenge yourself to vary the techniques you rely on; some techniques
might suit a particular writer, academic discipline, or assignment better than others. If the technique you try first
doesn't seem to help you, move right along and try some others.
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Example:
Topic: Success
 Money
 Power
 Status
 People looking up to you
 People hating you
 People loving you
 The Donald
 My mom
 A college degree
 A car I own
 Being able to choose the job I work at
 Owning a house
 Having a lot of savings
 Being happy
Practice:
Topic:

Freewriting
When you freewrite, you let your thoughts flow as they will, putting pen to paper and writing down whatever
comes into your mind. You don't judge the quality of what you write and you don't worry about style or any
surface-level issues, like spelling, grammar, or punctuation. If you can't think of what to say, you write that
down—really. The advantage of this technique is that you free up your internal critic and allow yourself to write
things you might not write if you were being too self-conscious.
When you freewrite you can set a time limit ("I'll write for 15 minutes!") and even use a kitchen timer or alarm
clock or you can set a space limit ("I'll write until I fill four full notebook pages, no matter what tries to interrupt
me!") and just write until you reach that goal. You might do this on the computer or on paper, and you can even
try it with your eyes shut or the monitor off, which encourages speed and freedom of thought.
The crucial point is that you keep on writing even if you believe you are saying nothing. Word must follow
word, no matter the relevance. Your freewriting might even look like this:
"This paper is supposed to be on the politics of tobacco production but even though I went to all the lectures and
read the book I can't think of what to say and I've felt this way for four minutes now and I have 11 minutes left
and I wonder if I'll keep thinking nothing during every minute but I'm not sure if it matters that I am babbling
and I don't know what else to say about this topic and it is rainy today and I never noticed the number of cracks
in that wall before and those cracks remind me of the walls in my grandfather's study and he smoked and he
farmed and I wonder why he didn't farm tobacco..."
When you're done with your set number of minutes or have reached your page goal, read back over the text.
Yes, there will be a lot of filler and unusable thoughts but there also will be little gems, discoveries, and insights.
When you find these gems, highlight them or cut and paste them into your draft or onto an "ideas" sheet so you
can use them in your paper. Even if you don't find any diamonds in there, you will have either quieted some of
the noisy chaos or greased the writing gears so that you can now face the assigned paper topic.
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Cubing
Cubing enables you to consider your topic from six different directions; just as a cube is
six-sided, your cubing brainstorming will result in six "sides" or approaches to the topic.
Take a sheet of paper, consider your topic, and respond to these six commands.
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1. Describe it.
2. Compare it.
3. Associate it.
4. Analyze it.
5. Apply it.
6. Argue for and against it.
Look over what you've written. Do any of the responses suggest anything new about
your topic? What interactions do you notice among the "sides"? That is, do you see
patterns repeating, or a theme emerging that you could use to approach the topic or
draft a thesis? Does one side seem particularly fruitful in getting your brain moving?
Could that one side help you draft your thesis statement? Use this technique in a way
that serves your topic. It should, at least, give you a broader awareness of the topic's
complexities, if not a sharper focus on what you will do with it.

Journalistic questions
In this technique you would use the "big six" questions that journalists rely on to thoroughly research a story.
The six are:
73
 Who?
 What?
 When?
 Where?
 Why?
 How?
Write each question word on a sheet of paper, leaving space between them. Then, write out some sentences or
phrases in answer, as they fit your particular topic. You might also answer into a tape recorder if you'd rather
talk out your ideas.
Now look over your batch of responses. Do you see that you have more to say about one or two of the
questions? Or, are your answers for each question pretty well balanced in depth and content? Was there one
question that you had absolutely no answer for? How might this awareness help you to decide how to frame
your thesis claim or to organize your paper? Or, how might it reveal what you must work on further, doing
library research or interviews or further note-taking?
For example, if your answers reveal that you know a lot more about "where" and "why" something happened
than you know about "what" and "when," how could you use this lack of balance to direct your research or to
shape your paper? How might you organize your paper so that it emphasizes the known versus the unknown
aspects of evidence in the field of study? What else might you do with your results?
Practice:
Who?
What?
When?
Where?
Why?
How?

Consider Purpose and Audience
Think about the parts of communication involved in any writing or speaking event act: purpose and
audience.
What is your purpose? What are you trying to do? What verb captures your intent? Are you trying to
inform? Convince? Describe? Each purpose will lead you to a different set of information and help you
shape material to include and exclude in a draft. Write about why you are writing this draft in this
form.
Who is your audience? Who are you communicating with beyond the grader? What does that
audience need to know? What do they already know? What information does that audience need
first, second, third? Write about who you are writing to and what they need
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Practice:
What do they
look like:
What do they
know about
your topic
What info do
they need to
know
What biases do
they have?
What are five
things you can
use to grab
their attention?
What is Your Purpose With This Audience?:

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Essay Outline #1
1. Introduction
a. ______________________________
b. THESIS: __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
2. Main Points
a. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
b. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
c. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
d. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
e. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
f. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
g. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
3. Conclusion
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________

Essay Outline #2
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Introduction
c. ______________________________
d. THESIS: __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Main Points
e. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
f. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
g. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
h. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
j. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
k. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
ii. ______________________________
iii. ______________________________
Conclusion
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________

Essay Outline #3
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Introduction
a. ______________________________
b. THESIS: __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Main Points
c. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
d. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
e. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
f. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
g. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
h. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
 Conclusion
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________

Essay Outline #4
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Introduction
a. ______________________________
b. THESIS: __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Main Points
c. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
d. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________
6. ______________________________
e. ______________________________
7. ______________________________
8. ______________________________
9. ______________________________
f. ______________________________
10. ______________________________
11. ______________________________
12. ______________________________
g. ______________________________
13. ______________________________
14. ______________________________
15. ______________________________
h. ______________________________
16. ______________________________
17. ______________________________
18. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
19. ______________________________
20. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
 Conclusion
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________

Essay Outline #5
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Introduction
a. ______________________________
b. THESIS: __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Main Points
c. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
d. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________
6. ______________________________
e. ______________________________
7. ______________________________
8. ______________________________
9. ______________________________
f. ______________________________
10. ______________________________
11. ______________________________
12. ______________________________
g. ______________________________
13. ______________________________
14. ______________________________
15. ______________________________
h. ______________________________
16. ______________________________
17. ______________________________
18. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
19. ______________________________
20. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
 Conclusion
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________

Essay Outline #6
80
Introduction
a. ______________________________
b. THESIS: __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Main Points
c. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
d. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________
6. ______________________________
e. ______________________________
7. ______________________________
8. ______________________________
9. ______________________________
f. ______________________________
10. ______________________________
11. ______________________________
12. ______________________________
g. ______________________________
13. ______________________________
14. ______________________________
15. ______________________________
h. ______________________________
16. ______________________________
17. ______________________________
18. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
19. ______________________________
20. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
 Conclusion
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________

Essay Outline #7
81
Introduction
a. ______________________________
b. THESIS: __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Main Points
c. ______________________________
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
d. ______________________________
4. ______________________________
5. ______________________________
6. ______________________________
e. ______________________________
7. ______________________________
8. ______________________________
9. ______________________________
f. ______________________________
10. ______________________________
11. ______________________________
12. ______________________________
g. ______________________________
13. ______________________________
14. ______________________________
15. ______________________________
h. ______________________________
16. ______________________________
17. ______________________________
18. ______________________________
i. ______________________________
19. ______________________________
20. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
 Conclusion
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________

TOPIC: _______________________________________________________________________
What I Know What I Want to Know What I Learned
82
What I Still Want to Know:

TOPIC: _______________________________________________________________________
83

TOPIC: _______________________________________________________________________
84

Peer Review Communication: Problems and Solutions
86
Directions:
Step 1: Pair up with a partner(s) and decide who will be
the recorder, the person who writes down your answers,
and who will be the reporter, the person who reports your
findings to the class.
Step 2: Read the situation assigned to your group
Step 3: Identify what problems might occur for your
situation and write them in the problems section.
Step 4: As a group, brainstorm two specific ways of
solving the communication problem(s) described and write
them in the solutions area.
Step 5: Report your findings to the class.
Situation One:
In peer review, Juan and Rosa, your partners, only praise your work. They always say nice things,
complimenting you on what you write. Because of this feedback, you don’t do much revising of your essay and
end up getting a C- because your work, according to your teacher, “lacks detail, doesn’t address the assigned
topic, and has many confusing spots.” You know you should do more yourself, but you also think perhaps your
peer response partners aren’t being honest with you. You want more substantial feedback from them. What
would you say to get more direct, constructive feedback from them to help you revise more effectively (and
probably get a better grade)?
Situation Two:
In peer review, Shawna, a member of your group, gives you direct, honest feedback, but you end up feeling
stung by her abrupt, forceful style of talking. She says things like, “You have a lousy main idea—where’s the
insight?” or, “This part doesn’t make any sense; it sounds childish.” How could Shawna change her way of
talking so that she stays truthful to herself but doesn’t hurt others?
Situation Three:
In peer review, Rajeev feels that his fellow students don’t know more about writing than he does. He feels that if
they are too uninformed or are not good writers, then they can’t help him with his essay. What could you say to
Rajeev to make him see that peer review is still a useful activity?
Situation Four:
In peer review, your partners, Judy and Raymond, are more interested in talking about Facebook and how many
friends they have than in reading each other’s papers. You are worried about not doing well because you aren’t
getting any feedback. How do you respond so that your group takes peer review seriously and you get the
feedback you want?
Problem(s) Solutions

PEER REVIEW SHEET for Essay Draft
#1
Reviewer ____________________________________
Writer _____________________________________
Please answer the following questions about the essay. Pay close attention to ideas, organization,
development, and support. Write on this sheet and on the rough draft. Make clear, helpful suggestions.
1. Does the introduction get your attention? Explain how.
2. In the introduction: Is/are the topic and the main text(s) being analyzed clearly introduced?
3. What is the thesis? Is it clear in the paper? Underline it on the rough draft. Is this truly an OPINION that you can
disagree with? If so, write what you think is a CONTRASTING opinion here:
4. Does each paragraph have a topic sentence? Underline each “P” topic sentence. Put squiggle lines under “I”
support/evidence. Check to make sure EACH quote has an in-text citation. Draw a box around the “E”
explanation/interpretations.
4. Are there strong/interesting transitions? Circle the transitions. Does the essay flow smoothly or do sentences seem
“jumpy”?
5. Does the essay have a strong conclusion (e.g. answers the question, “Now that I’ve proved my thesis, so what?
What can we still think about?”) OR does the conclusion just repeat what was already stated before?
6. Ultimately, does the author prove his/her thesis?
7. Do you notice more than 3 grammar, punctuation, or spelling errors as you read this essay?
8. What part of the essay do you think is least effective and needs work? Please make AT LEAST TWO helpful
88
suggestions for improvement.
9. What part do you think is most effective? Describe AT LEAST TWO effective things in the essay.
DISCUSS YOUR COMMENTS WITH YOUR PARTNER. HELP YOUR PARTNER WRITE A REVISION PLAN
ON THE BACK/BOTTOM OF THEIR DRAFT

PEER REVIEW SHEET for Essay Draft #2
Reviewer ____________________________________
Writer _____________________________________
“jumpy”?
89

Reviewer ____________________________________
Writer _____________________________________
“jumpy”?
90

Reviewer ____________________________________
Writer _____________________________________
“jumpy”?
91

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Writing Center Tutorial Session
Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
Assignment Topic: ___________________________ Assignment Title: _______________________
Directions: Answer question #1 on this sheet before going to the Writing Center. Then, after
your tutorial session, answer questions 2 & 3 and have your tutor sign and date the sheet. Don’t
forget to take the assignment sheet/handout with you to your tutorial session!!
1. What stage of the drafting process are you currently working on? (For example: “Prewriting,”
“Drafting,” “Revising,” “Editing,” etc.)
In the space below, please write the specific area of the assignment you would like to discuss with
your writing tutor:
2. What specific recommendations did your tutor make about the above area?
3. Based on your tutor’s recommendations, what will you work on next in your assignment? (Be
as detailed as possible to help you remember later.)
Tutor’s Printed Name: _________________________________________ Date: ______________
Tutor’s Signature:__________________________________________________________________
(By s igning, you’re ve rifying that the above information accurate ly re fle cts your tutorial s e s s ion)

Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
your writing tutor:
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Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
your writing tutor:
94

Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
your writing tutor:
95

Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
your writing tutor:
96

Name: _______________________________________________ English __________
your writing tutor:
97

Thesis Clinic
98
Name:____________________
Expert #1: After reading the thesis/topic, please write one question about the topic in each of the
following categories:
Who:
What:
Where:
Why:
When:
How:
Expert #2: After reading the topic/thesis, please look through the readings we read in this unit and
suggest 3 quotes that might be used to support the topic/thesis. Remember to explain why you think
the quote would help!
Expert #3: After reading the topic/thesis, please suggest three “real world” examples the author
might reference to support their thesis. Remember to explain why you think the example would help!

Expert #4: After reading the author’s thesis/topic, suggest 3 different audiences that the author might
target the message of their paper to. Remember to explain why each audience would be interested in
the topic.
Expert #5: Read the author’s thesis and make three suggestions for how the author can
make it stronger and more focused.
The Author: After reading the expert’s comments, please decide:
1. What audience you will target for your paper and why?
2. What two real world examples you will use in the paper? Why these?
3. What are two articles you will reference in the paper? Why?
4. Answer each of the who/what/where/when/why/how questions.
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3. Re-write your thesis to be more focused:

Thesis Clinic
Name:________________
Expert #1: After reading the thesis/topic, please write one question about the topic in each of the
following categories:
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Who:
What:
Where:
Why:
When:
How:
Expert #2: After reading the topic/thesis, please look through the essays we read in this unit and
suggest 3 quotes that might be used to support the topic/thesis. Remember to explain why you think
the article would help!
Expert #3: After reading the topic/thesis, please suggest three “real world” examples the author
might reference to support their thesis. Remember to explain why you think the article would help!

Expert #4: After reading the author’s thesis/topic, suggest 3 different audiences that the author might
target the message of their paper to. Remember to explain why each audience would be interested in
the topic.
Expert #5: Read the author’s thesis and make three suggestions for how the author can make it
stronger and more focused.
The Author: After reading the expert’s comments, please decide:
1. What audience you will target for your paper and why?
2. What two real world examples you will use in the paper? Why these?
3. What are two articles you will reference in the paper? Why?
4. Answer each of the who/what/where/when/why/how questions.
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3. Re-write your thesis to be more focused:

Quotations
Writing from sources is a sophisticated skill that includes being able to distinguish when to quote and when to paraphrase
and how to integrate direct quotations smoothly into your writing. Whether quoting or paraphrasing, you always need to
give your source(s) credit.
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A Warning on Plagiarism:
To be fair and ethical, you must always acknowledge your debt to the writers of the sources you
use. If you don’t, you are guilty of plagiarism, a serious academic offense.
Four different acts are considered plagiarism:
(1) failing to cite quotations and borrowed ideas;
(2) failing to enclose borrowed language in quotation marks;
(3) failing to put summaries and paraphrases in your own words;
(4) mixing an author's phrases with your own without citation or quotes.
1. Smoothly integrate direct quotes into sentences of your own
Avoid Dropping Quotes:
Sometimes writers will make the mistake of simply dropping a quotation into their paragraph without integrating it into a
sentence of their own. For example:
Dropped quote: A number of journalists have been critical of genetic engineering. “The problem is, no one really
knows the long-term effects of such complex genetic manipulation—and the potential dangers to humans and the
environment are substantial” (Turner, 21).
Why is this so bad?
 An un-integrated direct quote interrupts the flow of your writing, as the reader must jump abruptly from your words
to someone else’s and back again
 If you’re not integrating direct quotations into your own writing, you’re probably
not giving your reader the context they need to understand the quote.
In order to successfully integrate quotations into your writing, you need to introduce or in some way lead into the quotation
so that readers know whose words are being quoted or can understand why the quotation is important. For example:
Integrated quote: A number of journalists have been critical of genetic engineering. Lisa Turner, in an article for the
magazine Better Nutrition, targets the unpredictable nature of this new technology : “The problem is, no one really
knows the long-term effects of such complex genetic manipulation—and the potential dangers to humans and the
environment are substantial” (21).
Provide Contextual Information for the Quote:
When connecting the quote into your sentence, consider how to convey the key pieces of information you might want to
include so the quote and its source are clear:
 The title of the text the quote comes from
 The page number in parenthesis (this is required)
 The speaker of the quote if different from the author (for example, a character speaking in a story)
 The author's name: generally include the full name in the first reference. Afterwards, refer to authors by last name.
If you don't include the name in the sentence, put it in the parenthetical citation. For example:

Author Named in the sentence:
For example: Flora Davis reports that a chimp at the Yerkes Primate Research Center “has combined words into new
sentences that she was never taught” (67).
Author Not Named in the sentence:
If the sentence connecting the quote does not include the author’s name, the author’s last name must appear in
parenthesis along with the page number. For example: The novel Monster: The Autobigraphy of an L.A. Gang
Member ends with these words of perseverance, "Gangsterism continues. But more importantly, the st ruggle to
eradicate the causes of gangsterism continues. And it is this struggle to which I am dedicated" (Scott 377).
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Different Methods to Integrate Quotes into Your Sentences:
1) Identify the speaker and context of the quote
Example: Dee protests to her mother that her sister does not know the true value of the quilts, “Maggie can’t appreciate
these quilts! She’d probably be backward enough to put them to everyday use” (Walker 490).
2) Lead in with your own idea
Example: Miss Emily Grierson’s house is a reflection of her being out of sync with the times: “But garages and cotton gins
had encroached and obliterated even the august names of that neighborhood; only Miss Emily’s house was left, lifting its
stubborn and coquettish decay above the cotton wagons and gasoline pumps —an eyesore among eyesores”(Faulkner 459).
3) Formulas
• In (title of source), (author) writes/ argues/ explains/ describes, "quote" (#).
Example: In I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Maya Angelou writes, "In Stamps the segregation was so
complete that most Black children didn't really absolutely know what whites looked like" (20).
• According to (author) in (title), "quote" (#).
To avoid monotony, try to vary your formulas. The following models suggest a range of possibilities:
In the words of researcher Herbert Terrace, “…”
Jason Applegate, Smith’s trainer, points out, “…”
“…,” claims linguist Noam Chomsky.
Psychologist H.S. Terrace offers an odd argument for this view, “…”
Also, by choosing an appropriate verb, you can make your stance clear:
acknowledges condemns distinguishes observes thinks
adds confirms emphasizes objects writes
admits contends endorses points out wonders
agrees contrasts explains reasons
argues criticizes grants refutes
asserts declares identifies rejects
believes defends illustrates reports
characterizes demonstrates implies responds
claims denies insists shows
comments describes justifies suggests
compares disputes notes supports

Exercise: For each quote below, create a sentence that smoothly integrates the quote. Try a few different methods:
Method #1: Identify the speaker and context of the quote:
Quote: "On this island, you walk too far and people speak a different language. Their own words reveal who belongs on
what side"
Background information: From The Farming of Bones by Edwidge Danticat, the speaker is Senora Valencia, page 304.
Senora Valencia is referring to the island of Hispanola, which the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic share.
She is speaking during the times that the dictator Trujillo had many Haitians murdered in and exiled from the Dominican
Republic
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Quote integrated into a sentence:
Method #2: Lead in with your own idea:
Quote: "They did not have the tanates to go up north and break through the wall of electric fences and enter the land of
plenty, the U.S. of A., a land so rich that what garbage they throw away in one day could feed entire pueblos."
Background information: From Macho! By Victor Villasenor, page 31. The book tells the story of young man named
Roberto from Michoacan who risks himself to go north to California to work as an illegal alien picking fruit in California.
Method #3: Formula (try using a good and dynamic verb):
Quote: "Racial targeting and abuse by police is costly. U.S. taxpayers have paid tens of millions of dollars in police
brutality lawsuits. Between 1992 and 1993, Los Angeles county alone paid more than $30 million to citizens victimized by
police brutality."
Background information: From The Color of Crime by Katheryn K. Russell , page 45 who writes about the ways in which
African-Americans are misrepresented by the media and mistreated within the criminal system.

3. Properly Punctuate Sentences that Integrate Quotations:
1. Use quotations marks at the beginning and end of any word, phrase, line, or passage you
106
quote.
“A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds,” wrote Ralph Waldo Emerson.
2. Commas and periods go inside quotations marks.
After the professor stood up quietly and said, "I do not expect to continue at this position any longer," the other
professors at the meeting stared at her in amazement.
3. Periods go outside of parenthetical citations.
Malcolm X asserted, “Most students are potential revolutionaries…when you have an illegal, immoral, and unjust
situation, it should be changed" (54).
4. Semi-colons, colons, and dashes go outside quotation marks.
Baker focuses on two choices that cause young women "to be unclear about their goals": their interest in family life
and their desire for professional success.
4. Question marks and exclamation points go: inside quotation marks, if they are part of the original quotation, but
outside, if they are part of the sentence.
It was not all clear however, after the president exclaimed, “That is not an acceptable altern ative!”
Did you ever hear of someone suggesting that we remove all windmills “super fast or immediately, which ever comes
first”?
5. Use square brackets whenever you need to substitute or add words to a quotation. You can change individual words
and then put them in brackets [ ] so that the quote fits your sentence grammatically. For example:
Sonny would “as soon as he came in from school, or wherever he had been when he was suppose to be at school [go]
straight to that piano and [stay] there until s uppertime” (Baldwin 275).
6. Single quotation marks are placed inside regular quotation marks when you have a quote within a quote.
Professor Stevens claimed that he "always asks his students Professor Begley's question about 'the meaning of a
college education’ in order to start off the discussion.”
7. Sometimes you will want to leave out material in the middle of a passage, quoting the most important words. When
you do this, use an ellipsis (...). Use three dots if the omitted passage does not contain a period and four dots if it does.
Fadiman observes that the doctors at MCMC “could hardly be expected to ‘respect’ their patients’ system of health
beliefs…since the medical schools they attended never informed them that diseases are caused by fugitive souls
and cured by jugulated chickens” (61).
8. If you decide to use a quotation of more than three lines, set it off from the rest of your essay by indenting about ten
spaces from either side and single-spacing the quotation. You do not need to put quotation marks around this block
quotation, unless it is actual dialogue.

In the essay "A Room Of One's Own," Woolf elaborates her argument for psychological androgyny:
And I went on amateurishly to sketch a plan of the soul so that in each of us two powers preside,
one male, one female. . . . The normal and comfortable state of being is that when the two live in
harmony together, spiritually cooperating. (Woolf 98)
This passage resonates distinctly with Freud's own theories on...
9. In deciding whether to quote or underline text titles, use the following guidelines:
 Use quotation marks (“ ”) around the titles of shorter works such as short stories, essays, articles, poems,
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chapter names, song names.
SHORT STORY: Richard Christian Matheson's "Red"
ESSAY: "A Tale of Two Sitcoms" by Steven D. Stark
ARTICLE: "Generation Next" by Chris Smith
POEM : Lois-Ann Yamanaka's "Haupu Mountain"
CHAPTER NAME: "Let's Go Mexico!" from How to Be a Chicana Role Model by Michele Serros
SONG: "Livin' La Vida Loca" by Ricky Martin
 Italicize/Underline or italicize the titles of longer works such as books, novels, periodicals, newspapers, plays, movies, TV
series, and album names.
BOOK: Errors & Expectations by Mina Shaughnessy
NOVEL: Island of the Sequined Love Nun by Christopher Moore
PERIODICAL: Newsweek
NEWSPAPER: The San Francisco Bay Guardian
PLAY: Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard
MOVIE: Chicken Run
TV SERIES: Buffy the Vampire Slayer
ALBUM: Less Than Jake's Losing Streak

THE LEAST YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT USING DIRECT
QUOTES
108
We use direct quotes for a number of reasons:
 To avoid plagiarism – using other people’s words without giving them credit
 To support and illustrate our claims
 To increase our credibility
 To validate all our points
Direct quotes do not substitute for your ideas; they enhance them!
INTIGRATING QUOTES INTO YOUR WRITING WITH A QUOTE SANDWICH:
1. TOP BREAD/The LEAD-IN introduces or leads into the quotation so that the readers know whose
words are being quoted and why the quotation is important.
2. THE MEAT/QUOTE AND CITATION: “to be or not be that is the question” (Shakespeare
22).
3. BOTTOM BREAD/The EXPLANTAION: After every quote, you must comment on the quotation so
that the reader understands its connection to the point you are making in your topic sentence.
Quote Sandwich Recipe:
LEAD-IN + QUOTE + CITATION + PERIOD + 1-3 sentences analyzing the quote’s importance.
Example: In “Meanings of Community” Thomas Bender asserts, “The sense of self and community may be
hard to distinguish”(1). What Bender means is that individuals no longer see themselves as a single person, but,
instead, an individual takes on the identity of the people they hang around.
Now it’s your turn:
Directions:
 For each of the quotes below, use the quote sandwich to complete the quote.
1. In
2. Astrid Alauda: “Te levision is an ane s thetic for the pain of the mode rn world”(444).

Identifying Effective or Ineffective Quote Sandwiches
Directions:
 In your group, discuss whether each quote effectively or ineffectively uses the quote formula.
 Circle your answer.
 Write down one reason why you made that choice.
According to Henry Miller, “Writing, like life itself, is a voyage of self-discovery”(437). What Miller means is
that every time we sit down to write we discover something new about ourselves and our perception of the
world.
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Effective or Ineffective:
Why?
Grace says, “Don’t be afraid your life will end; be afraid your life will never begin”(Hansen 436).
This quote by Korita Kent asserts, “Flowers grow out of dark moments”(436). She must have been a gardener.
“A professional writer,” Richard Bach asserts, “is an amateur who didn’t quit”(437). Bach’s advice should be in
the back of every writing student’s head because it will inspire them to keep trying even when they want to give
up.
Margaret Atwood characterizes the pain of a failed marriage by lamenting, “A divorce is like an amputation;
you survive, but there’s less of you”(434). Atwood is correct because no matter how civil people try to be in a
divorce, they always end up losing a part of themselves.

MLA Formatting Guidelines
The MLA (Modern Language Association) has specific formatting rules which primarily encompass
three areas: page layout, parenthetical citations, and the “Works Cited” page. In general, MLA is most
often used in disciplines within Liberal Arts and Humanities.
Page Layout 
Sample layout of the first page of your essay:
Peter Parker Parker 1
Leonard
English 1A
San Jose State University
Date
Assignment
Write your last name and page number in the header of every page. 
Set the page margins to one-inch on each side (top, bottom, left, and right). If you have an older
edition
of Microsoft Word, you might need to use the “page setup” function in order to set the correct margins.
Use 12-point, Times New Roman font and regular double-spacing.
The title of your essay should be in regular font and center aligned. Do not use bold or italicized
print.
Parenthetical Citations
Parenthetical citations are in-text source citations. These citations are required when you use a quote or
offer very specific paraphrased information.

Citations for quotes of four lines or less include the author’s last name and page number: “Good
writing, on the other hand, teaches the learning writer about style, graceful narration, plot
development, the creation of believable characters, and truth-telling” (King 341).

You can also refer to the author’s last name as you introduce the quote: As King says, “Good
writing, on the other hand, teaches the learning writer about style, graceful narration, plot
development, the creation of believable characters, and truth-telling” (341).
Citations for quotes of more than four typed lines also include the author’s last name and page
number. However, there are three specific formatting rules for “block quotes”:
 Indent the entire quote 1” (two tabs).
 Do not use quotation marks to enclose the quote.
 Place the period after the text of the quote and before the parenthetical citation.
110

Title
Indent one tab (0.5”) to begin each paragraph. Continue with your body paragraphs
and double-space throughout the essay.

When you paraphrase specific information, you must include a parenthetical citation. To
paraphrase is to convey the ideas of a writer or researcher in your own words. If you use three or more
consecutive words from a source, you must use quotation marks (since you are no longer
paraphrasing).
As King explains, good writing provides examples of excellent narration, interesting plot, well-drawn
characters, and sophisticated style (341).

If you come across a very lengthy quote that you would like to use portions of in your essay, you
must use ellipsis points [ . . . ] to indicate an omission within the quote:
“In other words, to read a great book for the first time in one’s maturity is an extraordinary pleasure . .
. in maturity one appreciates (or ought to appreciate) many more details and levels and meanings”
(Calvino 735-6).
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Works Cited Page
An alphabetized “Works Cited” page is required as the last page of your essay whenever you cite
anything in a paper. Titles of books, films, journals, magazines, newspapers, and lengthier works are
italicized; titles of essays, short stories, articles, poems, etc. are placed in quotation marks. For every
entry, list the publication medium (print, web, film, etc.). The second line and beyond of each entry is
indented one tab (0.5”).

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