Fert _crop_sequence-lecs-m

What is precision farming/agriculture?
Farmers learned to reduce chemicals (which saved money as well as the
environment) by integrating other pest management practices into their
operations, by purchasing new crop seeds with greater resistance to insects
and disease, and by moving toward far more precise fertilizer application
including satellite-based GPS systems that permit what is called ‘precision
farming/agriculture’.
Agricultural intensification is often considered the primary approach to meet
rising food demand.
Food security is one of the largest concerns globally, particularly considering
increasing global food demand related to projected population growth from
6.9 billion in 2010 to 10 billion in 2060.
Crop production = cropland area × crop yield.
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Concepts and definitions
Multiple cropping systems use management practices where the total crop
production from a single piece of land is achieved by growing single crops in
close sequence, growing several crops simultaneously, or combining single and
mixed crops in some sequence. The most important aspect of multiple cropping
is the intensification of crop production into additional dimensions. Multiple
cropping includes the dimensions of time and space; for example, when two
crops share the same space at the same time.
A classification of types of multiple cropping systems is presented in table 1.
Where special emphasis is placed on the distinction between intercropping,
where two or more crops are grown at the same time, and sequential cropping,
where two or more crops are grown on the same piece of land, but one
following the other.
Some additional terms used in multiple cropping are presented in table 2. Agro-
forestry is also, as a particular type of intercropping system.
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Table 1. Definitions of the Principal Multiple Cropping Patterns
MultipleCropping: The intensification of cropping in time and space
dimensions. Growing two or more crops on the same in a year.
Intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field
per year. Crop intensification is in both time and space dimensions. There is
intercrop competition during all or part of crop growth. Farmers manage
more than one crop at a time in the same field.
—Mixed intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously with
no distinct row arrangement.
—Row intercropping: growing two or more crops simultaneously with one
or more crops planted in rows.
—Strip intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously in different
strips wide enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for
the crops to interact agronomically.
—Relay intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously during part
of each one‟s life cycle. A second crop is planted after the first crop has
reached its reproductive stage of growth, but before it is ready for harvest.
7/9/2016 Con‟td…

Con‟td…
Sequential Cropping: Growing two or more crops in sequence on the same
field per year. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding one has
been harvested. Crop intensification is only in the time dimension. There is
no intercrop competition. Farmers manage only one crop at a time.
—Double cropping: Growing two crops a year in sequence.
— Triple cropping: Growing three crops a year in sequence.
—Quadruple cropping: Growing four crops a year in sequence.
—Ratoon cropping: Cultivating crop regrowth after harvest, although
not necessarily for grain.
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Table 2: Related Terminology Used in Multiple Cropping Systems
Single Stands: The growing of one crop variety alone in pure stands at normal density.
Synonymous with „solid planting, „sole cropping‟. Opposite of „multiple cropping‟.
Monoculture: The repetitive growing of the same crop on the same land.
Rotation: The repetitive growing of two or more sole crops or multiple cropping
combinations on the same field.
Cropping pattern: The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops, or of crops
and fallow on a given area.
Cropping System: The cropping patterns used on a farm and their interactions with
farm resources, other farm enterprises, & available tech. that determine their makeup.
Mixed Farming: Cropping systems that involve the raising of crops and animals.
Cropping Index: The number of crops grown per annum on a given area of land
multiplied by 100.
Relative Yield Total (RYT): The sum of the intercropped yields divided by yields of sole
crops. The same concept as land equivalent ratios. „Yield‟ can be measured as dry
matter production, grain yield, nutrient uptake, energy, or protein production, as well as
by market value of the crops.
Land Equivalent Ratios (LER): The ratio of the area needed under sole cropping to the
one under intercropping to give equal amounts of yield at the same management level.
The LER is the sum of the fractions of the yields of the intercrops relative to their sole-
crop yields. It is equivalent to RYT, expressed in commercial yields.
Income Equivalent Ratio (IER): The ratio of the area needed under sole cropping to
produce the same gross income as is obtained from 1 ha of intercropping at the same
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management level. The IER is the conversion of the LER into economic terms.

Table 3. Biological and Physical Factors: The Advantages and Disadvantages of
Multiple Cropping Systems Compared to Sole-Cropping or Monoculture Systems
Advantages –
1. It is possible to obtain a better use of vertical space and time”, imitating natural ecological patterns
in regards to structure of the system, and permitting efficient capture of solar energy and nutrients.
2. Greater amounts of biomass (organic matter) can be returned to the system, sometimes even
of better quality.
3. There exists a more efficient circulation of nutrients, including their “pumping” from the deeper soil
profiles when deeper rooted shrubs or trees are included.
4. The damaging effects of wind sometimes can be reduced.
5. Systems can be designed that are appropriate for (but not restricted to) marginal areas because
multiple cropping systems can better take advantage of variable soil, topography, & steeper slopes.
6. Multiple cropping systems are less subject to variability in climatic conditions, especially extremes of
rainfall, temperature, or wind.
7. Reduction of water evaporation from the soil surface.
8. Increased microbial activity in the soil.
9. Avoidance or reduction of surface erosion.
10. Fertilizer use can be more efficient because of the more diverse & deeper root structure in the
system.
11. Improved soil structure, avoiding the formation of a “hard pan” and promoting better aeration and
filtration.
12. Legumes (as well as a few other plant families) are able to fix and incorporate nitrogen into the
system.
13. Heavier mulch cover aids in weed control.
14. Better opportunities for biological control of insects and diseases.
15. Crop mixtures better permit the functioning of complex mutualisms and beneficial interactions
7/9/2016between organisms.
16. Better use of time, with more crops per unit time in the same area.

Disadvantages
1. Competition between plants for light.
2. Competition between plants for soil nutrients.
3. Competition between plants for water.
4. Possibility for allelopathic influences between different crop plants due
to plant-produced toxins.
5. Harvesting of one crop component may cause damage to the others.
6. It is very difficult to incorporate a fallow period into multiple cropping
systems, especially when long lived tree species are included.
7. It is sometimes impossible, and many times very difficult, to
mechanize multiple crop systems.
8. Increased evapo-transpiration loss of water from the soil, caused by
greater root volume and larger leaf surface area.
9. Possible over-extraction of nutrients, followed by their subsequent loss from
the system with the increased exportation of agricultural or forest products.
10. Leaf, branch, fruit, or water-drop fall from taller elements in a mixed
crop system can damage shorter ones.
11. Higher relative humidity in the air can favor disease outbreak, especially
of fungi.
12. Possible proliferation of harmful animals (especially rodents and insects).
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Table 4. Social and Economic Factors: The Advantages and Disadvantages of
Multiple Cropping Systems Compared to Sole-Cropping or Monoculture Systems
Advantages
1. Dependence on one crop is avoided so that variability in prices, market, climate, and
pests and diseases do not have such drastic effects onlocal economics.
2. Less need to import energy, pay for fertilizers, pay for externally produced materials, or
depend on machinery.
3. Wildlife is favored, and with rational use it can be an important source of protein.
4. Greater flexibility of the distribution of labor over the year.
5. Recovery of investments can occur in much less time, especially where trees are
combined with short term agricultural crops.
6. Harvest is spread over a longer period of time.
7. In areas and times of high unemployment, multiple cropping systems can use much
more labor.
8. Farmers can produce a large variety of useful products, on type and complexity of the
multiple cropping systems, such as firewood, construction materials, flowers, honey,
crops for home consumption, thus lowering the outflow of funds.
9. Certain multiple cropping systems permit a gradual change from destructive farming
practices to more appropriate technologies, without a drop in productivity.
10. Multiple cropping can promote a return to the land, and its maintenance.
11. In systems which include trees and/or animals, such components can constitute a type
of “savings” for the future, while short term crops satisfy immediate needs.
12. Because of their diverse nature, multiple cropping systems promote interdisciplinary
7/9/2016activities, stimulate interchange and group activities, and lead to social cohesion
in the long term.

Disadvantages
1. The systems are more complex and less understood agronomically and
biologically. Statistical designs for expt. analysis are much more complex.
2. Yields sometimes are lower, providing only subsistence level production.
3. In many systems, multiple cropping is not considered to be
economically efficient due to the complexity of activities necessary.
4. These systems require more hand labor, which can be considered
a disadvantage in some circumstances.
5. Some mixed crop systems do not offer sufficient reward to lower
income farmers to raise their standard of living.
6. For producers with limited economic resources, it may take longer
to recover the entire initial investment.
7. Farmers initiating multiple cropping systems may encounter opposition
from the prevalent social, economic, and political system.
8. There is a shortage of trained personnel (technical and scientific)
capable of installing and managing multiple cropping systems.
9. There is a general lack of knowledge or understanding of multiple
cropping by „decision makers‟, affecting especially funding for research to
make such systems viable alternatives.
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Table 1. Overview of agricultural technologies
and impacts on ecosystem services

Con’td….Table 1. Overview of agricultural
technologies and impacts on ecosystem services

Economics of fertilizer application
The required data sets
For a simple analysis, the minimum data required for economic analysis of fertilizer
use consist of: (i) cost of fertilizer; (ii) value of the extra crop produced as a result of
using the fertilizer; and (iii) the rate of increase in yield per unit of nutrient applied
or the rate of response. For nutrients that leave a residual effect and benefit more
than one crop, the cost of nutrient should be distributed among the crops benefited.
For a detailed economic analysis, the data set required is much larger and consists
of:
cost (expenditure):
cost of fertilizer (net),
interest on loan taken to buy fertilizer (until it is repaid),
transport charges of fertilizer to the village,
fertilizer application costs (labour, machinery and energy),
harvesting, threshing, winnowing & storage cost of extra crop produced by fert. use,
cost incurred in storage of produce,
cost of transporting the extra produce to the
market, direct and indirect marketing cost,
adjustment in fertilizer cost for residual benefit credited to next crop;
income:
sale proceeds from main produce resulting from fert. use (grain, fruit, tubers, etc.),
sale proceeds from products resulting from fertilizer use (straw, stover, sticks,
etc.); gross returns: sum of items under income;
net returns: gross returns - cost;
rate of gross returns:gross returns/cost;
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rate of net returns: net returns/cost.

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