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![Chapter 1
The Importance of Pipeline
Transportation
1.1 Introduction
Over the last few decades, rapid technological advancements or variations in
processes have removed or decreased risks related to particular specifications in oper-
ations (pipe manufacturing techniques or pipe installation processes). Some of these
advancements have happened quickly, therefore pipelines built after the advancement
display remarkably improved performance. From the viewpoint of these advance-
ments, one could properly evaluate the particular risk factors associated with the
pipeline, and with the information on once the advancements happened, one could
describe the effect of the advancement on performance. The combination can create
an approach for pipeline operators to evaluate risk factors in their networks and to
give priority to mitigation programs.
1.2 History
Two thousand years ago, the ancient Romans used great conduits for transporting
water from high altitudes by constructing the conduits in graduated sections that
permitted gravity to force the water to move along until it arrived its destination.
Hundreds of these systems had been constructed all over Europe and in other places,
and along with four mills of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the past people in
China used conduits and pipe networks for public works. The famous Han Dynasty
court eunuch Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) one time commanded the engineer Bi Lan
to build a system of square-pallet chain pumps on the regions outside the country’s
capital city named Luoyang [1]. The constructed chain pumps had been used in
imperial palaces as well as living quarters of the Luoyang as the water raised with
the chain pumps was imported with an earthenware pipeline system [1].
Pipe systems were constructed more than 5000 years ago by the Egyptians who
applied copper pipelines to transfer drinking water to their cities. The primary usage
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
S. Razvarz et al., Flow Modelling and Control in Pipeline Systems, Studies in Systems,
Decision and Control 321, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59246-2_1
1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-18-2048.jpg)
![2 1 The Importance of Pipeline Transportation
of pipe systems to transfer hydrocarbons goes back to nearly 500 BC in China in
which bamboo pipes had been employed to transfer fossil gas for utilization as fuel
from drilling holes near the surface of the ground. The fossil gas had been later
applied as fuel for boiling saltwater, generating steam that had been condensed into
usable drinking water.
Pipe networks are beneficial to transfer water for drinking purpose or irrigation
at a great distance whenever it requires to go up and down hills, or where canals or
channels are wrong options because of the considerations of vaporization, pollution,
or environmental effect. The 530 km (330 mi) Goldfields Water Supply project in
Western Australia employing a 750 mm (30 in.) pipeline and ended in 1903 had been
taken to be the greatest water supply project at that time [2]. The Snowy Mountains
project [3, 4] was another example of water pipe systems in South Australia and
had been divided into two parts, the Morgan-Whyalla pipe system [5] (ended 1944)
and Mannum-Adelaide pipe system [6] (ended 1955). There exist two projects for
a wide usage of pipe systems namely the Owens Valley Channel (ended 1913) and
the Second Los Angeles Channel (ended 1970) occurred in Los Angeles, California.
3,680,000 cubic meters of water are daily supplying to Tripoli, Benghazi, Sirte, and
many other towns in Libya by the Great Man-Made River located in Libya. The pipe
system has more than 2800 km (1700 mi) length, also is attached to wells and gets
the water from aquifers above 500 m (1600 ft) belowground [4].
Pipeline transportation is the long-way transfer of a fluid (i.e., liquid, gas, or
multiphase) through a pipe system typically from production to consumption. The
current year’s data from 2014 provides a total of slightly lower than 2,175,000 miles
(3,500,000 km) of the pipe system in 120 countries worldwide [7]. 65% of pipe
systems had been located in the United States, 8% in Russia, and 3% in Canada, there-
fore, 75% of all pipe systems had been placed in these three countries [7, 8]. Based on
worldwide pipeline construction reports 118,623 miles (190,905 km) of pipe systems
are planned and under construction. From this report, 88,976 miles (143,193 km)
refer to projects that are in the planning stage and 29,647 miles (47,712 km) refers
to projects that are in the construction stage. Fluids like liquids and gases can be
transferred in pipe systems and also every stable chemical substance can be trans-
ported through pipes [8]. The pipeline is a useful tool for transferring crude and
refined petroleum, fuels like alcohol, biodiesel and natural gas, and fluids like hot
water or steam for a short distance. It is also an effective tool for transferring water
for drinking purposes or irrigation at a great distance whenever it requires going
up and down hills, or where canals or channels are wrong options because of the
considerations of vaporization, pollution, or environmental effect [7]. It has been
stated about 400 BC wax-coated bamboo pipes were employed for bringing fossil
gas into towns, illuminating China’s capital, Peking. The latter half of the nineteenth
century was a period of great change in the structure of pipelines and their growth
in size and number.
During drilling for the purpose of extracting water, crude oil was incidentally
found in underground reservoirs. In the beginning, the crude oil was not in high
demand until simple refineries been created. The crude oil was transferred to the
refineries in wooden tanks and were even transferred by barges pulled by horses](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-19-2048.jpg)
![1.2 History 3
across rivers. The transferred crude oil was evaporated in refineries to produce the
by-products of naphtha, petroleum and benzene. The petroleum was employed as
a fuel to produce light and in the beginning, benzene was considered an undesired
item and was thrown away. Railway tanker cars were another way to transport crude
oil. Nevertheless, large railway owners used to control the oil supply. Therefore, in
order to have a cheap and independent transportation, companies began to adopt
pipelines as a more efficient and economical tool of transport. The situation altered
significantly after the creation of the automobile that immediately enhanced the
request for regular and trusty supplies of gasoline and led to the demand for many
more pipes. Nowadays pipe systems transfer a great range of materials such as coal,
crude oil, gasoline, natural gases, liquid condensate, process gases, and petroleum.
Now there exist about 1.2 million miles of pipe systems for transportation throughout
the world and also some well with more than 1000 miles longitude. The full length
of these pipe systems if laid end-to-end would circle the earth 50 times over.
1.3 Material of Pipeline
Oil pipes are composed of a variety of materials, including steel and plastic tubes and
are generally buried underground. The oil moves overall the pipe systems by pump
stations along the pipe systems. Fossil gases (also similar gaseous fuels) pressurize
into liquids and are called Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs) [9]. The pipes for trans-
porting natural gas are mainly made of carbon steel. Pipelines can be also used for
transporting hydrogen. Pipelines as the safest means of transferring materials over
long distances in comparison with road or rail are usually the target of army attacks
in time of war.
When it comes to the construction of the first crude oil pipeline, there is no specific
date [10]. However, there is a disputation on the first initiation of the pipe systems [11]
between Vladimir Shukhov and the Branobel company at the end of the nineteenth
century, and the Oil Transport Association that for the first time in the 1860s built a
2-inch (51 mm) wrought iron pipe system over a distance of 6-mile (9.7 km) from
an oil field in Pennsylvania to a railroad station in Oil Creek. Pipelines have been
the most economical way to carry tens of millions of metric tons of oil and gas
over lands. For instance, in 2014, the cost of transportation of crude oil using pipe
networks was nearly $5 per barrel, whereas the cost of rail transportation was nearly
$10 to $15 per barrel [11]. Trucking has even higher transportation costs compared
with rail transportation because of the need for labor [11]. In the United States, 70%
of crude oil and petroleum are transporting by pipes, 23% by ships, 4% by trucks,
and 3% by rails. In Canada, 97% of natural gas and petroleum are transporting by
pipes [11].
Natural gas (also similar gaseous fuels) could be turned into liquids called natural
gas liquids when it is gently pressurized. Natural gas liquid processing facilities
separate a stream of raw natural gas into methane and natural gas liquids such as
butane and propane. The butane and propane liquid under light pressure of 125 lb](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-20-2048.jpg)
![4 1 The Importance of Pipeline Transportation
per square inch (860 kPa), could be transferred by rails, trucks or pipes. Propane as
a fuel in oil fields is typically employed to heat different facilities utilized by the oil
drillers or instrument and trucks utilized in the oil patch. Propane is a compressible
gas that turns to liquid under light pressure, 100 psi, give or take based on the
temperature, and is pumping into vehicles at less than 125 psi (860 kPa) at propane
fueling stations. Pipes and rail cars employ around twice that pressure for pumping
at 250 psi (1700 kPa) [12]. Since most of the natural gas processing plants have
been placed in or around oil fields, therefore there are very short shipping distances
to markets. The majority of Bakken Basin oil companies located in North Dakota,
Montana, Manitoba and Saskatchewan gas areas divide the natural gas liquids in the
field, permitting the drillers to sell propane straightly to their customers, removing
the refinery product and price controls for propane or butane.
One of the current main pipelines is located in North America known as a Tran-
sCanada natural gas line that goes north along with the bridge crossing the Niagara
river with Marcellus shale gas from Pennsylvania and others tied in methane or
natural gas sources, into Ontario one of the biggest provinces in Canada from fall
2012, providing 16% of the total natural gas utilized in Ontario. This new supply of
natural gas has been significantly displaced the natural gas previously transferred to
Ontario from western Canada in Alberta and Manitoba, hence decreasing the govern-
ment regulated pipelines transport costs as there is a short shipping distance between
the gas source and consumer. For avoiding any delay and also to neglect the United
States government rule, many of the companies responsible for the production in
North Dakota came to a common conclusion that they set up an oil pipe system north
to Canada to grantee the Canadian oil pipeline transportation system from west to
east. This permits the Bakken Basin as well as Three Forks companies responsible
for oil production to achieve the best price for their products as they don’t need to be
restricted to only one wholesale market in the United States. The distance between
the greatest oil patch located in North Dakota, in Williston, North Dakota and the
Canada–United States border and Manitoba is nearly 85 miles or 137 km.
Mutual funds and joint ventures are now commonly used in almost all major
industries and are great investors in oil and gas pipe systems. In the fall of 2012,
the United States started exporting liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to Europe, as
wholesale fuel prices in Europe are at much higher levels in comparison with North
America. Moreover, a pipe system generally known as Dakota Access Pipeline has
been recently built from North Dakota to Illinois. The rapid increase in pipeline
constructioninNorthAmericaresultedintheincrementoftheexportationofliquefied
natural gas, propane, butane, and other natural gas products on the three coasts of
the United States. To explain, the oil production in North Dakota Bakken has been
increased by 600% between 2007 and 2015 [13]. Tanker rail car carries a massive
amount of oil from North Dakota oil companies to the market which provides the best
deal on prices. The rail cars have been utilized for avoiding a clogged oil pipeline to
take the oil to another pipeline for taking the oil to market more rapidly. Nevertheless,
transporting oil by pipeline is cheaper than rail cars.
Enbridge planned to reverse the flow of oil in its Line 9 pipeline going through
Ontario and Quebec [14, 15]. From a presently rated 250,000 barrels of petroleum](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-21-2048.jpg)
![1.3 Material of Pipeline 5
every day, it can be increased to between 1 million and 1.3 million barrels daily. New
flows on Line 9 bring western oil and feed refineries in Ontario, Michigan, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, Quebec, and New York. The Enbridge Sandpiper pipe network with
24–30 in. in diameter has been suggested to carry oil from Western North Dakota
through northwestern Minnesota such that it transports over 300,000 barrels of oil
per day having the volatility of 32 [16]. Crude oil from western Canada can also
be refined in New Brunswick and is exporting to Europe from its deep-water oil
ultra-large crude carrier loading port.
Although pipelines can be constructed under the ocean, the pipeline building
process is a complex and technically challenging one, hence most of the oil trans-
portation is usually done via tanker ships. Likewise, it is economically easy and safe
to carry natural gas in the form of liquefied natural gas, nevertheless, the breakeven
costs between liquefied natural gas and pipelines rely on the volume of natural gas and
the distance transportation of liquefied natural gas goes by pipeline [15]. The oil and
gas pipeline construction industry reported enormous growth before the economic
crisis in 2008. A year later, the amount of request for pipeline increased the next
year as fuel production grew rapidly [17]. By 2012, nearly 32,000 miles of pipe
systems in North America were being either planned or built [18]. However, when-
ever oil production industries are facing pipeline transportation constraints, truck or
rail could be good transportation options to transport products.
Oil pipes may be manufactured from steel or plastic tubes where the interior diam-
eter normally varies from 4 to 48 in. (100–1220 mm). Natural gas pipelines carrying
natural gas are made of carbon steel and change in size from 2 to 60 in. (51–1524 mm)
in diameter, based on the kind of pipe. Liquid petroleum gas and natural gas could
be pressurized using compressor stations and are odorless except that blended with
a mercaptan odorant in a case that needed by a regulating authority. The majority of
pipes are usually buried at a depth of about 3–6 feet (0.91–1.83 m) underground. For
protecting pipelines from gouge, abrasion, and penetration, a variety of techniques
have been utilized such as wood lagging (wood slats), concrete coating, rock shield,
high-density polyethylene, imported sand padding, and padding machines [19].
Crude oil has different quantities of paraffin wax and in a cold climate, the wax
buildup can be created inside a pipe. In most cases, these pipes are checked and
cleaned utilizing pigging, the practice of employing tools called “pigs” to carry out
different preserving operations on a pipe. The tools are furthermore called “scrapers”
or “Go-devils". “Smart pigs” (moreover called “intelligent” or “intelligence” pigs)
have been employed to find anomalies in the pipeline like dents, metal loss generated
by corrosion or cracking [20]. These tools could proceed from pig-launcher centers
and move through the pipe system to be captured at other centers down-stream, either
cleaning wax deposits and substance that could have gathered inside the pipeline or
checking and recording the situation of the pipeline.
In 1998 the petroleum pipe industry started a voluntary reporting initiative, called
the “Pipeline Performance Tracking System.” The aims and objectives of the industry
in developing the reporting program were to produce a device for improving safety
performance utilizing the information toward zero spills. Precise as well as detailed
data are two main factors for learning from events hence operations can be altered](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-22-2048.jpg)
![6 1 The Importance of Pipeline Transportation
for prevention and also to track progress for a period of time. This reporting program
gathers better data on spills as small as 5 gallons, indicating the initial time that infor-
mation on such small issues has been gathered in the entire industry. It furthermore
gathered novel information on the construction and infrastructure of the industry,
composed of petrol consumption by ten-year-old of building, the petrol consump-
tion by state, the petrol consumption by diameter, and further characteristics of the
foundation [21].
For dozens of years, the petroleum pipe industry has been decreased risk and
cost in operation by progress in pipeline construction technology and alterations
in pipe manufacturing practices. Some of this progress has happened over compara-
tively short periods of time, therefore, pipes built after the progress displayed notably
improved performance. Taking advantage of these advances one can easily evaluate
the specific threats to pipe, and also by having information on when the advances
could happen, one can describe the effect of the advance on performance. The accessi-
bility of the pipeline performance tracking system mileage information demonstrated
the first opportunity to study existing, publicly accessible incident data, describing
the effect of the progress in technology and practices on efficiency [22].
1.3.1 Steel
The material used for oil and gas pipes includes steel, particularly either low-carbon
steel or low-alloy steel. These two kinds of substances are mainly made of iron (98–
99%), very tiny quantities of carbon (0.001–0.30% by weight), manganese (0.30–
1.50% by weight), also some other deliberately added alloying components in tiny
quantities such as columbium, molybdenum, vanadium, and titanium could have
usefulimpactsonthestabilityandthefracturehardnessofsteel.Thefracturehardness
is the capability of the materials to resist crack propagation [23]. Low-carbon or low
alloy steels are relatively inexpensive and appropriate for production of pipe also
many steel constructions apply to all building types and bridges as they supply
a long-lasting, solid material for withstanding the service loads imposed on such
constructions. Other iron-based alloys like wrought iron consists of almost pure iron
and cast iron usually with a high carbon content are either too weak or too breakable to
perform well as building materials. Rustproof or high-material steels are necessary
for particular usages like in high-temperature service and pressure vessels or tool
steels. However, they are not appropriate and cannot be manufactured economically
in the amounts required for utilization in structures like pipelines. Low-carbon steels
or low-alloy steels have good enough strength, toughness, ductility, and weldability
for building frames in the construction industry. Line-pipe steels are a category of
low-carbon or low-alloy steels and are cost-effective and durable materials. Within
a specified temperature range in which these materials are generally used [24] (−20
to +250°F), their characteristics and stability do not change through time. Tensile
tests or hardness tests performed nowadays on a low-carbon-steel, one of the most](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-23-2048.jpg)
![1.3 Material of Pipeline 7
useful materials in the industry, made in 1910 will lead to similar outcomes as tests
that could have been performed on the same material back in 1910.
Low-carbon and low-alloy steels are highly sensitive to corrosion in natural envi-
ronments such as air, water, and soil. However, appropriate coating materials and the
usage of a suitable amount of electrical direct current often referred to as cathodic
protection could provide satisfactory corrosion protection. Corrosion takes place on
the surface of the iron due to the formation of electrochemical cells and causes the
iron to become oxidized. Iron oxides are weak and breakable and do not have the
ability to carry the loads that are considerably produced by the steel construction.
Therefore, corrosion may decrease the strength of a low-carbon or low-alloy steel
construction like a pipeline. Providing a sufficient quantity of cathodic protection
to an exposed steel surface, can reduce the loss of electrons and slow down the
corrosion to a negligible amount. A coat of a protective material applied to steel can
successfully prevent corrosion by removing exposed surfaces. Periodic pipe-to-soil
potential surveys could be utilized to maintain the cathodic protection of the pipe.
Therefore, the risk of corrosion is insignificant in pipelines that are sufficiently coated
and cathodically protected [25].
1.3.2 Stress Cycles
Low-carbon and low-alloy steels could survive the infinite number of load/unload
cycles in the ranges of stress. When there are a fault or defect, frequent loadings,
normally many thousands of cycles could generate fatigue crack development that
can cause eventual failure of the construction. However, in-service inspections can be
used to detect the presence, location, and size of different kinds of defects that should
be immediately repaired before they cause fatal or in-service operations failures [25].
1.3.3 Manufacture and Fabrication
Manufacturingprocessesforline-pipesteelsaswellaslinepipeshavechangedsignif-
icantly over the past century, resulting in significant increases in strength, toughness,
ductility, and weldability. Current strategies to improve materials manufacturing
processes and quality control measures have resulted in the production of very few
manufacturing flaws. Pipeline hydrostatic pressure testing has been used since the
late 1960s of the newly made pipeline to present that the pipeline is fit for service.
Moreover, by rules, pipelines shall be abandoned or taken temporarily out of service
if they have not been tested at the moment of installation hence pressure tightness can
be tested. Pipeline hydrostatic pressure testing is a damaging test representing flaws
that cause failure at the pressure testing or demonstrates that those defects staying
after the test are very small for withstanding the maximum pressure capacity [26].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-24-2048.jpg)
![8 1 The Importance of Pipeline Transportation
1.3.4 Inspection and Testing
Nondestructive testing that employs sensor and imaging technology and “in-line”
inspection tools have been used for more than four decades to recognize irregularities
and defects in the pipeline or the coating. Before delivery, the operator monitors
the coating for any problems and damages that could have happened during the
installation process. The initial in-line inspection device was called an inspection pig
or a smart pig and constructed in the mid-1960s. Smart pigs are devices that travel
through the pipeline by fluid flow. The devices record cracks and flaws utilizing either
ultrasonic wall thickness evaluations or magnetic field disturbances [27]. Advances
in technologies led to the design of instrumented pigs smarter, the best way to access
and interpret data. The position of a pipeline wall anomaly could be marked by a
global positioning system (GPS), showing where increased coatings or even repair
would be justified. Further enhanced devices now can recognize specialized defects
like fatigue cracks, dents, and mechanical damages [28].
1.4 Implications for Pipeline Safety
The key issues regarding the strength and stability of steel as they impact the safety
of pipelines are as follows [29]. The first criteria are that the steel itself does not
deteriorate over a long time. With proper protection eighty-year-old pipe displays
similar characteristics if analyzed at present as it would have if analyzed 80 years
ago.
New construction technologies developed in recent years confirm that a line-
pipe material constructed with new technology has high-performance properties
compared to that constructed techniques that were used 80 years ago. Nevertheless,
effective preservation techniques have appeared in the intervening years. Second,
althoughthelowperformingpropertiesofagedmaterialsandtheirdegradationduring
service (prior to cathodic maintenance, for example) is of particular concern, recent
detections and examination of pipelines made of aged materials have been applied to
find possible problems prior to the damage. Third, the successive acceptable opera-
tion of any pipeline, aged or recent, needs levels of detection and preservation suitable
to the operating properties of the materials and the causative factors of degradation
to which the pipeline is subjected in its functioning environment. Eventually, novel
technology is able to recognize and detect small flaws, hence increasing efficiency
further.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-25-2048.jpg)
![1.5 Evolution of Pipeline Technology 9
1.5 Evolution of Pipeline Technology
The first pipe systems in the United States were laid early in the nineteenth century
to transfer manufactured gas for gas-lighting aims in big cities. The pipe systems
were commonly made of cast-iron pipe that was a pipe made predominantly from
gray cast iron manufactured in the United States in 1834. Pipelines manufactured of
wrought iron and connected by screwed collars were as well utilized in gas usages.
Soon after oil had been found in Pennsylvania in 1858, a completely new application
for pipeline systems appeared. The earliest oil pipe system, a 2–1/2- miles long and
in diameter of 2 in. worked successfully in 1863 such that was transferring 800
barrels of oil daily [30]. The threaded parts of the pipeline had been connected by
screwed couplings. Techniques have improved in recent years and led to the reduction
of many different types of risks in manufacturing and construction issues [29, 31].
These improvements are:
• Advances in the efficiency of the material and efficient means for pipe manufacture
decreased the probability of damages in the pipeline material or the constructed
longitudinal seam;
• Advances in the installation of pipe systems decreased the probability of damages
in the connection points in the distance around the pipe;
• Advances in controlling the operators that generate flaw and damage in the
service environment decreased the probability of damages because of the exterior
corrosion;
• Advances in the examination, checking, and preserve pipes decreased the prob-
ability of damages because of a variety of reasons, even third-party flaws, the
highest reason for pipeline safety accidents.
1.6 Evolution of Pipeline
For years, pipe systems have been made around the world to transfer water for
drinking as well as irrigation purposes. This covers olden usage in China of pipeline
constructed of hollow bamboo also the usage of flumes by the Romans as well as
Persians. The Chinese furthermore applied bamboo pipes for transferring natural
gas to their capital for lighting purposes. An important advance of piping device
happened in the eighteenth century, while cast-iron pipes were widely manufactured
and utilized. A further main milestone was the appearance of the steel pipeline in the
nineteenth century that extremely increased the mechanical hardness of the piping
material. The growth of steel pipelines with high hardness made it feasible to transfer
natural gas as well as oil over vast distances. At first, the entire pipes made of steel
needed to be threaded to fasten together. However, that was hard to perform on large
pipelines, as they could leak under great pressure. In the 1920s, the welding machines
were commonly utilized for making leakproof, high-pressure, large-diameter pipe](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-26-2048.jpg)
![10 1 The Importance of Pipeline Transportation
systems. Nowadays, the majority of high-pressure pipeline systems are made of steel
pipe with welded connections [1, 32].
Since 1950 most developments have been focused on the origination of the ductile
iron as well as concrete pressure pipe systems with large diameter for water; appli-
cation of polyvinyl chloride pipes for underground conduits; application of smart
pig to remove dirt from the inside of pipes and to carry out other responsibilities;
arranging various petroleum productions in a general pipe system; usage of cathodic
preservation to decrease corrosion and increase the life of pipe system; application
of space-age devices like computers for controlling the pipe systems and satellites
for communicating between the enteral stations and the field; also modern devices
and wide measures for preventing as well as identifying leakages in pipe systems.
Moreover, many modern technologies have been developed or introduced to simplify
pipeline structure for example application of new devices for drilling below rivers
and roads to cross, application of new devices for bending extensive pipe systems in
the field, and application of X-ray machines to identify welding damages [33].
1.6.1 Types of Pipeline
Pipelines have been classified in various ways based on the commodity transferred
and also the kind of fluid flow.
1.6.1.1 Water and Sewer Lines
Pipeline systems have been utilized commonly to transfer water from treatment plants
into the household or industry. Underground pipe networks are placed under the city
streets and convey the water to almost every house. Water pipe systems are typically
buried underground and the depth of cover is only a few feet, relying on the freezing
depth of the position and the requirement for maintenance against unexpected injury
by digging or manufacturing operations.
In recent water technology, when copper pipes have been typically utilized for
indoor plumbing, outdoor water service lines with big diameter could utilize steel,
ductile cast iron, or concrete pressure pipes. Outdoor water service lines with small
diametercouldutilizesteel,ductilecastiron,orpolyvinylchloridepipes.Inacasethat
metal pipelines are applied for transferring drinking water, the inside of the pipeline
is usually made of a plastic or cement lining for preventing rusting, which could cause
decay in water quality. The outside of metal pipelines is moreover covered with an
asphalt material and twisted with a specific tape for decreasing corrosion because of
the contact with specified soils. Furthermore, a surface of electrodes under a direct
current are usually placed through steel pipes and is named cathodic preservation
[34].
A sanitary sewer or foul sewer is a system of pipe and tunnel designed to transfer
sewage from homes and buildings to treatment feasibilities or access. Foul sewers](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-27-2048.jpg)
![1.6 Evolution of Pipeline 11
are considered as a part of the total system functions named as sewage system or
sewerage. Sewage could be treated for controlling the impurity of water afore release
to surface waters [35, 36]. Foul sewers serving commercial and industrial fields
furthermorecarrysanitaryorindustrialwastes.Separatesanitarysewersystemdesign
and technology has been only used for transporting sewage. However, in municipali-
ties rendered services by sanitary sewer systems, discrete storm drains could transmit
surface runoff straightly to an outlet. Sanitary sewer systems could be identified from
merged sewers, that merge sewage with stormwater runoff in a single pipe. These
systems are useful as they evade merged sewer overflows [37].
Domestic sewage is generally a mixture of 98% water and 2% solids. Transporting
sewage by pipelines cause a slightly reduction on the internal diameter of the pipe,
however it is below low pressure. Culvert or storm sewer with large diameter usually
utilize corrugated steel pipe [38]. According to the pressure in the pipeline and further
situations, sewer pipelines are composed of concrete, polyvinyl chloride, cast iron,
or clay. Polyvinyl chloride is mainly desired for sizes smaller than 12 in. (30 cm) in
diameter.
1.6.1.2 Oil Pipelines
There exist two kinds of oil pipe systems, namely: crude oil pipe system and product
pipe system. Crude oil pipe system transfers crude oil to oil refining and refined
product markets, and the product pipe system transfers refined products like gasoline,
kerosene, jet fuel, and heating oil from oil refining and refined product markets
to the market. Various types of crude oil or various refined products have been
typically transferred via the same pipe system in various batches. Sometimes mixing
is done in batches that are small and could be controlled. This can be done either by
applying big batches or by keeping a ball among batches for splitting them. Crude
oil and refined petroleum products transferring via pipe systems usually have a tiny
quantity of preservatives to decrease interior corrosion of pipeline and diminish the
loss of energy (drag- reduction preservative). The most widely known types of drag-
reduction preservatives are polymers like polyethylene oxides. Oil pipe systems
particularly utilize steel pipes without coatings. However, an exterior coating and
cathodic preservation could be used to decrease exterior corrosion. They are welded
together and bent to shape in the field. These pipes are joined together and curved to
form in the field.
The Big Inch and Little Big Inch were two-pipe systems placed from Texas to
New Jersey while World War II to combat the strike of German submarine tanker
assaults on the coast. A long product pipe system placed from the Houston area
to Linden, New Jersey, and constructed by the Colonial Pipeline Company in the
1960s to combat the threat of the maritime union. The Trans Alaska pipe system was
constructed to carry crude oil from the North Slope to Prudhoe Bay to meet the 1973
oil crisis caused by the Arab oil embargo.
Subsea pipe systems are required to transfer oil as well as gas production from
subsea oil and gas wells to onshore pipe systems that moreover transfer the oil to](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-28-2048.jpg)
![12 1 The Importance of Pipeline Transportation
refineries and tanker loading facilities or the gas to a processing plant. Subsea pipe
systems are more costly and complicated to construct compared with onshore pipe
systems. Subsea manufacturing generally applies a barge on which pipe portions
are successively joined together and attached to the onshore pipe endpoint. Because
more portions are joined to the end of the pipeline, the barge goes to the oil or gas
platforms, and the ending section of the pipeline is constantly moved down into the
ocean at the back of the barge. Manufacturing advances up to the barge have arrived
at the platform and the pipeline is attached to the oil or gas well. In deep oceans
with rogue waves, ships in place of barges are employed for laying and setting of
pipelines on the ocean floor. One of the most significant subsea oil pipe systems is
located in the North Sea and connects the United Kingdom North Sea oil fields to
the Shetland Islands.
1.6.1.3 Gas Pipelines
The gas pipeline transportation system is a system utilized to transfer gas from gas
wells to the processing plants and subsequently to a gas distribution network. Natural
gas is straightly transferred to homes or buildings via an extensive network of gas
pipe systems. In practice, all onshore transport of natural gas has been done using
a pipe system. Transportation of natural gas using other means like truck, train, or
barge is extremely unsafe and costly. When gas gathering and transfer networks are
constructed of steel, the majority of distribution systems, for example, small trans-
mission line connection means joining the principle or transfer lines to consumers
constructed in the United States since 1980 employ pliable plastic pipelines that
could easily lay and also, they do not oxidize. The United States runs the greatest
and most advanced natural gas pipeline distribution system in the world. Natural gas
consumption has also increased considerably in other countries around the world.
1.6.1.4 Pipelines for Transporting Other Fluids
Pipe systems have been constructed for transporting several types of fluids. For
example, liquid fertilizers can be traveled significant distances through pipe systems.
The blend of oil and natural gas extracting from a well should be travelled as
gas–liquid two-phase flows by pipe systems to onshore process plant before final
oil/gas separation. Liquefied natural gas travelled by tanker ships with temperature-
controlled tanks moreover needs small pipe systems to attach the tanker ships to
supply tanks on land. There are 180-mile pipe systems in the United States to carry
carbon dioxide to oil fields in West Texas to enhance production. Eventually, on a
specific scope such as pharmaceutical or specialty chemicals production, pipelines
have been used to carry different fluids and gases within the plants. As these liquids
cannot stand impurities such as chlorides therefore, the pipeline should be made of
inert materials [39].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-29-2048.jpg)
![1.6 Evolution of Pipeline 13
1.6.1.5 Slurry Pipelines
A slurry pipeline is a pipe system that is engineered to carry ores, like coal or
gold, or copper, over vast distances. The slurry is a mix of the ore particles and
water and is pumped to its destination. At its destination, the coal is removed from
the water. Because of the corrosive features of slurry, the pipe systems could be
constructed totally from high-density polyethylene pipes [40]. However, this may
need an extremely thick-walled pipe. Slurry pipe systems have been employed as a
replacement for railroad transport in a case that mines are placed in far, out of reach
regions [41].
Investigators at the University of Alberta, located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
are studying the application of slurry pipe systems to take agricultural and forestry
residues from many dispersed resources to a central biofuel plant. For distances
greater than 100 km pipelines option was found to be more viable to transport biomass
(i.e., charcoal, pellets). In comparison with an identically sized oil pipe system, a
biomass slurry pipe can transport nearly 8% of the product [42].
The slurry is a mix of the solid particles of iron ore and a liquid, typically water.
Typically, particles lie within the range in size from larger than 4 in. in identical
diameter to under 1/1000 of an inch. If the solid particles of iron ore in the water are
tiny the blend is usually named fine slurry, also if the solid particles of iron ore in
the water are big the blend is usually named coarse slurry. The conventional mining
companies have used pipe systems to carry mine wastes to the waste disposal site in
the form of a slurry, employing water as the liquid. Sometimes sand, clay, or silt is
dredged from the seabed with water via a pipe system to a manufacturing site that is
some distance from.
Generally, in a case that pipe systems are employed to carry coarse slurry, the
slurry speed should be comparatively great for delaying the solids. This kind of slurry
transportation is extremely corrosive to the pipeline, also the energy consumption is
roughly at a high level. Accordingly, coarse slurry pipe systems are cost-effective on
short journeys and are not reasonable for long distances. Ultimately, at the endpoint
of the pipe, an industrial filter press is used to separate solid particles in a slurry from
water. Generally, this water needs to undergo a wastewater treatment process before
that goes back to the mine site. There is a considerable cost advantage of slurry pipe
systems over railroad transportation. Furthermore, slurry pipe systems provide high
noise reductions compared to railroad transportation, especially in a case that mines
are located in far regions.
Pipe networks should be efficiently designed to have good abrasion resistance as
well as high corrosion stability. High-density polyethylene pipe lining systems can
be used for internal pipeline protection. Slurry transfer pipe systems are normally
used to carry coal, copper concentrate, iron concentrates, limestone, lead, kaolin, salt
in the brine, and oil sands [43]. Slurry pipe systems have been moreover employed
to carry waste from a mineral processing plant to a tailings storage facility after ore
extraction. A mixture of oil sand and process water from ore preparation plants could
be pumped through a long-distance hydrotransport pipeline system. Usually, long-
distance transportation of solids using a slurry pipe system would need to employ](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-30-2048.jpg)
![14 1 The Importance of Pipeline Transportation
relatively fine slurry. Current Hypothetical coal slurry pipe systems transport fine
slurry composed of approximately 50% coal as well as 50% water by weight. Initially,
the solid forms a paste when it is crushed and blended with water. The slurry afterward
goes into a blending tank, that is made of one or more big rotating wheels to make the
particles uniformly blended. As a next step, the slurry goes into the pipe system. The
specific type of pumps (e.g., plunger or piston pumps) can be utilized to transport
the slurry over long distances.
1.6.1.6 Pneumatic Pipelines
The pneumatic tube system is technical equipment in which cylindrical containers
are propelled through the system tubes using pressurized air or partial vacuum [44].
These systems have been utilized to transport solid materials, as opposed to ordi-
nary pipe systems that carry fluids. Pneumatic tube systems achieved acceptance
around 1900 for offices that wanted to send medicines, cash packets, and other small
items over very small distances, such as within a building or the inner-city area.
Some installations grew to high intricacy, however, they were mainly replaced. More
recently, the usage of pneumatic tube systems in some settings, such as hospitals
have been remarkably extended [45].
There exist two common kinds of pneumatic pipe systems [46]. The initial kind
uses suction lines to produce suction in the pipeline by keeping the air compressor
close to the downstream termination of the pipeline. The latter kind is pressure
lines, and have compressors placed close to the upstream termination of the pipeline.
This generates a pressure in the line and makes the air as well as the solids to be
traveled overall the pipeline. Pressure transmission lines have been employed for
greater distances and in cases that solids concentrated at one place are sent to various
distinct places applying an individual blower or compressor. Conversely, suction
lines have been employed for smaller distances and in cases that solids from various
places are sent to a general destination using an ordinary blower or compressor [47].
A pneumatic pipe network should further contain a tank or hopper joint near the pipe
entry to supply solid particles into the pipe system and a tank close to the pipe exit
to split the conveyed solids from the airstream. The outlet air moreover should be
filtered to stop air impurity.
Systems of pneumatic pipelines could be used to carry combustible solids such as
grain, flour, coal, or gunpowder, however, if they handle incorrectly, could lead to fire
or even explosion. This is due to the accumulation of electric charges on fine particles
transported pneumatically. The electric charges accumulated on solid particles can
cause such fire or explosion. To prevent such fire or explosion some schemes can be
used such as using metal pipelines instead of plastic pipelines, installing underground
pipelines, cleaning the inside of the pipeline to remove the dust, and enhancing the
humidity of the air employed for pneumatic transportation.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-31-2048.jpg)
![1.6 Evolution of Pipeline 15
1.6.1.7 Capsule Pipelines
Capsule pipelines technology can transport freight such as coal and solid waste which
uses air to push the capsules through the pipeline. The capsule pipe systems can carry
large amounts of freight for great distances in both horizontal and vertical directions
having lower operating costs than its competitors. The wheeled capsules are regularly
filled with ore, concentrate, coal, solid waste, and directed via a pipe system to
be automatically stopped to drop off their contents at the receiving terminal [48].
Wheeled capsules are attached in trains and run within the pipe system concurrently
therefore the transportation system is continuous. Typically, wheeled capsules can
transfer multiple products without mixing and with a very low operating cost.
Capsule pipe systems carry freight in capsules directed by a fluid proceeding via a
pipe system. If the conveying fluid is a gas (namely air), the technology can be named
pneumatic capsule pipeline [49], and, if the conveying fluid is water, the technology
can be named hydraulic capsule pipeline [49]. Due to the low air density, capsules in
the pneumatic capsule pipeline may not be stopped by air at normal velocities. Alter-
natively, capsules (wheeled vehicles) roll throughout the pipe systems. Conversely,
as water is heavy, the capsules in the hydraulic capsule pipeline do not need wheels.
The pneumatic capsule pipeline and hydraulic capsule pipeline are both moved and
stopped by water under normal operating velocities. Hydraulic capsule pipeline
systems typically function at a velocity of 6–10 feet per second, whilst the functional
velocity of pneumatic capsule pipeline is typically much greater—20 to 50 feet per
second. Due to high friction losses at high speeds, pneumatic capsule pipelines use
more energy in operation in comparison with hydraulic capsule pipelines [50].
Pneumatic capsule pipelines have been employed since the nineteenth century
to transport a wide variety of products such as mail, printed telegraph messages,
machine segments, and samples of blood (in hospitals). Since 1970, great wheeled
pneumatic capsule pipelines have been produced to transport weighty cargo over
comparatively great distances. The greatest pneumatic capsule pipeline in the world
is LILO-2 placed in the republic of Georgia about 11 miles long and 48 in. diameter
and is mainly constructed to transport rock [1, 51].
There’s a striking contrast between pneumatic capsule pipeline systems which
are widely used and hydraulic capsule pipeline systems which is in its early stage of
growth or development. Hydraulic capsule pipeline systems were initially employed
by the British army to transport military equipment in East Asia while the Second
World War. Extensive research was carried out on capsule pipeline technology in
Canada at the Alberta Research Council from 1958 to 1975. The spread of this new
technology within countries was significantly high. In 1991, the National Science
Foundation in the United States created a Capsule Pipeline Research Center at the
University of Missouri-Columbia [52]. A new structure of the hydraulic capsule
pipeline system is the coal-log pipeline [53], which carries compacted coal logs.
The coal-log pipeline removes the usage of capsules for enclosing coal and the
requirement to have a distinct pipe system for returning vacant capsules. For the
same diameter, the coal-log pipe system carries more coal utilizing less water in
comparison with the coal-slurry pipe system [1, 54].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-32-2048.jpg)
![16 1 The Importance of Pipeline Transportation
Large-diameter capsule pipe systems have been successfully employed to carry
most types of cargo typically transported by trucks or trains. In both Europe and the
United States, capsule pipe systems of large diameter (mainly pneumatic capsule
pipelines) are suggested for freight transportation services [51, 55]. Such capsule
pipe systems for freight transportation services not just permit the face of the earth
to be utilized for other aims but they as well decrease the number of trucks as well
as trains required, which for their part decrease air impurity, accidents, and harm to
highway and rail foundations due to the heavy traffic [56].
1.7 Design and Operation
Many factors affect the pipeline design such as the choice of the path traveled by the
pipeline, specification of the construction and the functioning speed, computing of
pressure gradient, the choice of pumps and other instruments, and determining the
pipe sizes and equipment. The design experts should give serious consideration to
security, preventing leak, blockage and damage, government laws and regulations,
and environmental challenges and impacts.
1.7.1 Components
The pipe systems are made of various pieces of materiel that function simultaneously
to carry products from one place to another place. The major components of a pipe
network are primary injection building, compressor and pumping buildings, partial
delivery or intermediate building, block valve building, regulator building, terminal
delivery building. Particular pipe systems that carry cryogenic liquids, for example
liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, and liquid carbon dioxide, should have refrigeration
systems to maintain the liquid in the pipeline under the lower critical temperature
[57, 58].
1.7.2 Construction
The preparation and design of pipe systems require a detailed survey of the route,
ditching, and excavation, hauling the pipes, and other equipment to the location,
placing pipes in assembly position alongside the ditch centerline, curving steel pipes
in the field to fit a required alignment using the pipe-bending machine, coating of
steel pipes and fittings for corrosion protection, welding pipes together before or
after being placed in the trench, ensuring the satisfactory performance of a welded
structure, and then refilling the trench by soil and restoration to return the land to its
original condition. Long-distance pipelines have to be made in segments therefore,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-33-2048.jpg)
![1.7 Design and Operation 17
construction of the second segment starts once the construction of the first segment
is completed and so on. Hence, the time that any given place is allocated during
construction activities would be minimized. Even when the pipe systems are great,
building for any segment is normally ended within six months and mostly in a short
time. Small pipe systems could be built in days. Typically, while passing a pipeline
through a river or stream, the pipeline can be either connected to a bridge structure,
placed along the stream bed or bored through the soil below the stream. A tunnel
boring machine can be used when pipelines need to cross rivers and roads.
1.7.3 Operation
Large modern pipe systems are designed to operate automatically by a centralized
computer network control system at the pipeline company. The centralized computer
network control system observes the rate of flow, pressure, discharge of liquids
or gasses and other parameters at different places along the pipeline, carries out
numerous online calculations and sends corrective signals to the field devices to
control the function of the valves and compressors. Human intervention is often
required to changing operating modes, whenever various batches of fuels are sent
to various containers designed for the temporary storage of fuels, or whenever the
system should be turn off or turn on.
1.7.4 Safety
The safety and reliability of pipe networks rely heavily on the materials transported.
Recently, for making proper decisions about the safety and integrity of the pipes, the
risk values and risk factors are mainly important issues to be discussed. Nevertheless,
the challenge is the validity of the models used to obtain the risk data. Hence, there
is a requirement for a potent device to deal well with that uncertainty. Possibly the
best device for coping with uncertainty is the application of artificial intelligence
techniques utilizing fuzzy logic. Artificial intelligence technique has proven to be
highly effective in many fields [59–80] especially in manufacturing systems. Pipeline
operators employ several techniques for pipeline safety and also to detect faults in the
pipelines [81–85]. Pipe networks that carry water or employ water to carry coarse-
grain solids, like hydraulic capsule pipe systems, do not cause any environmental
pollution in case that the pipe breaks or tears. The rupture of crude oil (petroleum)
pipes does not result in a fire, however, they can deposit the pollution into water and
soil. Natural gas pipes and product pipes that carry highly volatile liquids, such as
butane, ethane, propane can be easily exploded because of a pipeline leak, therefore
they deserve special consideration and regulatory treatment. Despite the fact that
there are many different risk factors or threats for pipelines, they are proven to be the
safest way to transport petroleum and natural gas products. Apparently using other](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-34-2048.jpg)
![18 1 The Importance of Pipeline Transportation
modes of transportation such as truck or railroad to move such fuel on land are very
risky and expensive.
DuringthedecadeaftertheSecondWorldWar,numerouslargepipenetworkswere
built. The boom in pipe manufacturing led to numerous inventions and technological
progress in pipeline construction and building. Longitudinal submerged arc welded
pipes manufacturing process was one the most common approach to construct large
diameter pipes [86]. Later double submerged arc welding was used that mechanically
expanded the pipe. The double submerged arc welding showed to be more valid
and was widely accepted as the unique tools of constructing submerged arc welded
pipes. Immediately after welding, the cold expansion was applied to every piece of
submerged arc welded pipe to make the diameter of the pipe uniform [30].
Although pipelines have had a good record than other transportation modes, in
the United States there is a great concern about pipe safety as spills and incidents still
happening. In the United States the main emphasis has been placed on pipeline safety.
Much research has been carried out to prevent pipeline rupture or leak accidents and
also to rectify problems anytime they happen. Analysis of pipeline accidents in the
United States has been shown that the third-party damage has become the main cause
of nearly half of all pipeline incidents, as, for example, a builder could damage the
pipe when digging the home’s foundation. As a result, pipeline companies have a
specific education program for the public on pipeline security and share information
to building and infrastructure groups on the places of buried pipelines for decreasing
third-party damage.
Pipeline corrosion is the number one factor in pipeline failure, which is an electro-
chemical process resulting from an electrochemical reaction between metal surfaces
with wet soil. Pipeline security and other actions taken by pipeline companies to
combat corrosion are coating buried pipes with tape and employing cathodic protec-
tion to protect outer corrosion also inserting specific chemicals to the fluid against
inner corrosion. Hydrazine and sodium sulfite are the two most widely used chem-
icals for controlling corrosion in water pipelines. The decrease in corrosion is due
to the reaction of these chemicals and therefore eliminating most of the dissolved
oxygen from water.
Eventually, the leakage detection can be carried out by computer observation of
unusual flow rates and pressure also using light aircraft or helicopters along the
pipeline route for visual detection. Furthermore, Smart pigs can be sent through
pipelines to identify corrosion, weak welds, and other signs of damage.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-35-2048.jpg)
![Chapter 2
A Review on Different Pipeline Defect
Detection Techniques
2.1 Introduction
Piping systems are the safest and most efficient and cost-effective way for fluid
transportation around the world. Pipelines act as the most important type of transport
infrastructure to keep our country moving. There exist 2.4 million miles of pipeline
for transportation around the world. Pipe networks have been normally employed to
transport crude oil from the production regions to distribution centres. Pipe systems
are not only safer but need less energy to function than alternative transportation
options. Nevertheless, apart from the industrial production processes, pipelines have
been further used in aircraft hydraulic and fuel systems. Normally, transmission
pipelines function up to 5000 psi [1], and up to 1400 PSIG for natural gas pipe systems
[2]. As a result, circular pipe sections are often utilized because of the stability,
strength, and rigidity of the structure and the uniform shape of the cross-section.
Pipe networks are beneficial to transfer water for drinking purpose or irrigation at
a great distance whenever it requires to go up and down hills, or where canals or
channels are wrong options because of the considerations of vaporization, pollution,
or environmental effect. Oil leaks in pipelines could cause a lot of damage to the
environment and accordingly lead to explosions, fires, or injuries of the pipeline
network. Direct impacts resulting from pipeline damage are production loss, loss of
life, injury, or other health impacts. Moreover, blockage of pipeline network systems
will lead to pressure build-up along the line and eventual rupture and explosion in
case that it is not properly checked and fixed.
Leakages and blockages in pipe systems can be caused by several potential
causal factors like using imperfect and substandard materials in the construction
of pipelines, extreme functioning temperature of the pipeline, and fluid pollution
caused by excessive biofilm build-up. Other types of pipeline damage include oper-
ations and production outside design basis, corrosion and wear, indeliberate third-
party injury, and deliberate injury [3]. Corrosion is recognized as a main cause of
failure in onshore gas, crude oil and refined fuels transferring pipe systems in the
United States and was responsible for almost 18 percent of pipe accidents (both
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
S. Razvarz et al., Flow Modelling and Control in Pipeline Systems, Studies in Systems,
Decision and Control 321, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59246-2_2
25](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-42-2048.jpg)
![26 2 A Review on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques
onshore and offshore) between 1988 and 2008 [4]. Hence, pipe networks should
be constructed with leakage and blockage inspection devices so that operators can
be notified when the systems require detection [5]. To minimise the occurrence of
pipe failure, leakage and blockage must be identified in their early stages therefore,
necessary actions could be identified and implemented in a timely manner.
2.2 Non-destructive Testing Techniques for Flaw
Identification in Pipelines
There exist several different non-destructive testing techniques recently utilized for
the inspection of leakage and blockage faults in pipe networks and without having
to interfere with the operating of the pipelines. However, those techniques have
their limitations and weaknesses. Some recent non-destructive testing techniques
employed to identify the fault in the pipeline are [6] ultrasonic, magnetic particle
inspection, pressure transients, and acoustic wave approaches. Some approaches are
positioning methods, and focus on sensors or dye scanning over each section of the
surface of the pipeline during the detection process. However, it can be a daunting
task with a time-consuming process. Moreover, some of those techniques are not
always capable to detect leaks effectively and may fall in predicting the size and
position of a defect [7]. Besides, radiography and safety equipment and facilities for
the detection process are highly costly. It is important to note that apart from the
equipment expense, radiography is a high-cost non-destructive testing technique,
both in capital items, consumables, and manpower [8].
The pressure transients [9–17] and acoustic wave approaches [18–22] are remark-
ably inexpensive and effective techniques that can observe the impact of a flaw in a
pipe network via observing the pipe reply. Accordingly, the acoustic wave propaga-
tion technique in a joint time–frequency domain has been employed to identify leaks
and blockages in a pipe network filled with fluid. The acoustic wave reflectometry
is a time domain-based approach and the roving mass is a frequency domain-based
approach. The roving mass technique has been effectively utilized for crack, leakage,
and blockage inspection in a pipe network filled with fluid.
2.3 Acoustic Wave Reflectometry and Roving-Mass
Technique
The acoustic wave reflectometry technique involves the introduction of a pulse of
pressure into the pipeline filled with fluid. The impacted pressure pulse causes the
pipe system to shake, sometimes violently, and consequently generates wave propa-
gation through the pipe such that the speed of propagation depends basically on the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-43-2048.jpg)
![2.3 Acoustic Wave Reflectometry and Roving-Mass Technique 27
medium’s characteristics. Nevertheless, if there exist any discontinuities in the cross-
sectional area of the pipeline, from any cause like leakage, obstruction, and elbows, it
willgiverisetotheoccurrenceofpartialreflectionandtransmissionofthesoundwave
on the joining points. At the same time, microphones that are installed throughout
the pipeline have been employed to evaluate the transmission and reflection acoustic
waves as they travel through the pipelines.
The roving mass technique is based on traveling the roving mass throughout the
pipeline filled with fluid under acoustic excitation. At every position of the roving
mass, the model frequencies of the fluid in the pipeline can be calculated. The modal
frequencyifisplottedwilldemonstratethechangesinthemodelfrequencydepending
upon the positions of the roving mass. The measured signals by a roving mass of a
healthy pipeline filled with air are different from the measured signals by a roving
mass of a pipeline with leakage and blockage faults and can be used to detect the
position and the size of leakage and blockage in the defected pipeline. It is note-
worthy that the acoustic wave technique is usually determined by how severe the
measurements are polluted with noise. However, signal improvement methods can
be used to improve the acoustic wave reflectometry technique and the roving mass
technique to effectively identify blockages and leakage in a pipeline.
Artificial intelligence has become the most effective approach which attracts many
investigators to deeply research [23–66]. It has been successfully used for leak detec-
tion. The amplitude or velocity of signal propagation will change when a pipe has a
leak. In [67] and [68] neural network technique has been utilized to detect the leak in
a pipeline and has been provided promising results. In [69] artificial neural network
has been utilized to detect the leak in a pipeline such that the sound noise data has
been gathered through several microphones placed within a specific distance from
the damaged part. The fast Fourier transform algorithm has been performed on data
and supplied to a feed-forward network for making a final decision. In [70] neural
network technique has been used for pattern recognition in oil pipe networks. After
preprocessing the experimental data extracted from the acoustic sensors, it passed
through a filter to produce different frequencies. The noisy data were then passed as
inputtotheneuralnetwork.Twotypesofdataextractedfromthehealthyanddamaged
pipe are fed to neural networks. The approach provides satisfactory results for short
pipes. For long-distance pipelines, the approach is not recommended as numerous
microphones are needed to place through the pipes which make the approach highly
expensive. In [71] a real-time sonic leak detection system is suggested to detect leaks
in oil pipelines. The wavelet transform technique has been used to extract features and
also the neural network approach has been applied for making a final decision. The
leak detection system is made of two digital signal processors, four piezoresistive
pressure sensors, and two global positioning systems. The piezoresistive pressure
sensors have been fixed at both pipe ends. The piezoresistive pressure sensors are
highly susceptible to tiny variations and their measurement is based on a variation
in resistance because of strain on a material. Two piezoresistive pressure sensors are
applied to distinguish the signal direction during a sudden drop in pressure produced
by the leak. The wavelet decomposition technique is applied to the signal obtained
after preprocessing and the result is supplied as an input to the neural network. As](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-44-2048.jpg)
![28 2 A Review on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques
leaks are recognized by a sudden drop in pressure, hence the cases where the pressure
increases or is fixed have already been largely abandoned. However, the key tech-
nical challenge was determining an optimum sampling rate which was determined
after testing some sampling rate. This technique can efficiently differentiate leakage
in the pipeline and operates accordingly by turning off the pump. Nevertheless, this
technique is not suitable for long-distance transportation pipeline system and it is
not able to recognize the position of leakage in the pipeline. Using this technique,
it is possible to monitor the system continuously. Moreover, acoustic signals sensed
by sensors can successfully identify the leakage position and as well approximate
the size of leakage [72]. Nevertheless, often environmental noise can generate prob-
lems in identifying the real leakage signal. This technique is not applicable for long
pipelines as it requires a great number of sensors for leakage detection which is not
economically beneficial.
2.4 Risk Assessment in Pipeline Failure Event
The risk corresponding to fire and explosion hazards as a consequence of leak and
blockages in pipelines could not be negligent. The incidents of pipeline failure which
include pipeline corrosion, human negligence could be traced back to more than fifty
years ago. Pipe-failure incidents from 1959 made a quick and regulatory requirement
for research and development of inspection and monitoring devices. The designed
devices apart from identifying flaws, they should be able to identify the size and
also the position of the leaks and blockages even under noisy environmental status.
Furthermore, a tool or inspection technique that has the ability to identify a defect at
its early phase is very important to the pipeline industries.
In July 1959, a fire happened in a petroleum pipeline in Vernet, Mexico, which
led to the death of people and the destruction of production. In that accident at least
eleven people were believed killed and forty were injured [73]. On January 17, 1962,
a fire happened in a gas pipeline in Edson, Alberta which led to the death of eight
people [73]. On October 12, 1965, a gas line explosion in LaSalle, Quebec, Canada
demolished a number of buildings and also led to the death of twenty-eight people
[74]. On the same date, a natural gas line exploded in Sundre, Alberta, Canada,
and led to the death of two people [75]. In 1978 a gas line explosion in Colonia
Benito, Mexico led to the death of fifty-two people [76]. On September 19, 2012,
a fire happened in a natural gas pipeline in northern Mexico and led to the death
of twenty-six people and injuries of forty-eight people [77, 78] as demonstrated in
Fig. 2.1.
On June 6, 1989, a powerful gas pipeline explosion happened in Ufa, Russia, and
destroyed a great part of the forest [78]. An investigation into the incident found that
the workers by ignoring gas regulations pumped gas into a pipeline which had an
undetected leakage so that caused an explosion and fire. Although there were pressure
fluctuations in the gas chamber and dumping rates, the workers carried on pumping
and caused a great exploration which led to the destruction of two passing trains and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-45-2048.jpg)
![2.4 Risk Assessment in Pipeline Failure Event 29
Fig. 2.1 The blast of a natural gas pipe distribution centre in Reynosa, Mexico [79]
the death of nearly eight hundred people. The United States has reported the largest
number of pipeline ignitions and explosions in the world as it is the world’s largest
oil producer with over 2.6 million miles of oil and gas pipelines. However, a majority
of these accidents happen because of aging pipe systems and the limitation in the
valid and efficient pipe monitoring technology. Table 2.1 demonstrates accident cases
from 1959 to 2019 with the number of deaths and injuries.
The Pipeline explosions and fires are still happening up to now. The most recent
accident to our knowledge has occurred in Sissonville, West Virginia [94, 95], on
December 12, 2012, led to huge explosions as demonstrated in Fig. 2.2.
In the United States alone there were eighty-one accident reports for natural gas
transmission and gathering pipelines in just one year [96]. However, the lack of
adequate and efficient transmission line monitoring systems is one of the leading
causes of pipeline accidents in the world. Even though no one died in the Sissonville
pipeline accident, it resulted in seven injuries and $44 million of damage. Further-
more, in that same year in the United States, approximately seventy-one accidents
of pipelines occurred which killed nine people and led to the injuring of twenty-
one people. Likewise, in 2010, the explosion of the pipeline system in San Bruno,
California, left eight people dead and destroyed twenty-eight houses [97]. As it
was reported it took a long time to shut off the gas spewing from the pipeline in
San Bruno because of the lack of automatic shut-off valves and valves that can be
closed remotely. However, the reason for these failures is the lack of efficient moni-
toring devices for observing leakage in pipelines. Early detection and effective alarm
systems will increase the time available for repairing the damage and decrease the
number of fatalities. On March 12, 2014, an explosion happened in New York by
a gas leak, and two buildings were destroyed, see Fig. 2.3. In that accident, eight
people died and more than seventy people injured [98]. A preliminary investigation](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-46-2048.jpg)
![30 2 A Review on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques
Table 2.1 Pipeline blast with the number of deaths and injuries [80–93]
Year Date Region Incident report Amount of
fatalities
Amount of
injuries
1959 01/07/59 Mexico
(Coatzacoalcos)
A blast of a crude
oil pipeline
12 + 100
1962 17/01/62 Canada
(Edson, Alberta)
A blast of a gas
lateral line
8 0
1965 05/11/65 Canada
(LaSalle, Quebec)
A blast of a gas
pipeline
28 0
1970 03/09/70 United States
(Jacksonville)
A blast of a
petroleum
products pipe
system
0 5
1970 09/12/70 United States
(Missouri)
A blast of
propane gas line
0 0
1971 17/11/71 United States
(Pittsburgh)
A blast of natural
gas line
6 0
1972 24/03/72 United States
(Annandale,
Virginia)
A blast of natural
gas line
3 1
1972 14/05/72 United States
(Annandale,
Virginia)
A blast of crude
oil line
1 2
1973 22/02/73 United States
(Texas)
A blast of natural
gas liquids line
0 0
1973 06/12/73 United States
(Conway)
A leak in an
ammonia pipe
network
0 0
1974 15/03/74 United States
(Farmington)
Transmission
pipeline failure of
Southern Union
Gas Company
0 0
1974 22/04/74 United States
(New York)
A blast of gas line 0 0
1974 21/05/74 United States
(Texas)
A blast of natural
gas gathering line
0 0
1974 06/09/74 United States
(Texas)
A blast of gas line 0 0
1975 17/01/75 United States
(Lima)
Crude oil
terminal fire
0 0
1975 12/12/75 United States
(Devers)
A blast of natural
gas line
4 0
1975 02/08/75 United States
(Romulus)
A blast of gas line 0 9
(continued)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-47-2048.jpg)
![32 2 A Review on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques
Table 2.1 (continued)
Year Date Region Incident report Amount of
fatalities
Amount of
injuries
2004 30/07/2004 Belgium
(Ghislenghien)
A blast of natural
gas line
24 122
2006 18/10/2006 Indonesia
(East Java)
A blast of gas line 0 0
2010 19/12/2010 Mexico
(San Martín
Texmelucan de
Labastida)
A blast of oil line 27 + 50
2011 12/11/2011 Kenya
(Nairobi)
A blast of the fuel
pipeline
100 120
2012 18/09/2012 Mexico
(Reynosa,
Tamaulipas)
A blast of gas line 22 0
2013 22/11/2013 China
(Huangdao,
Qingdao)
A blast of oil line 55 0
2014 14/06/2014 Malaysia
(Sarawak)
A blast of gas line 0 0
2014 27/06/2014 India
(Andhra Pradesh)
An explosion of
the gas pipeline
22 37
2017 29/04/2017 India
(Jamnagar)
A blast of gas line 0 0
2019 18/01/2019 Mexico
(Tlahuelilpan)
A blast of the
gasoline pipeline
96 0
of the New York accident concluded the blast was because of the aging of a pipeline
system and general negligence. As it was reported the pipeline was not checked for
so long because of negligence.
There are fierce objections to pipeline incidents from landowners and environ-
mental groups in the United States. Examples of these objections include the pipeline
development to move crude oil from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico in 2012 [100]. The
nature and extent of the pipeline was an environmental threat that drew national and
presidential attention. Therefore, the safe pipeline system needed to be developed
and checked before they start work.
The cumulative reported damage and fatalities caused by pipeline accidents and
explosions have risen through the world. On July 17, 2010, oil from the Dalian
pipeline explosion in China threatened marine animals, sea birds, and water quality
as slick had spread to 430 km2
[101]. According to the government reports the
explosion resulted in a serious ecological disaster, releasing 15,000 barrels of oil
into the Yellow sea [102]. Oil pipeline vandalism is a threat to Nigeria’s national
security. Nigeria lost approximately six to twelve billion dollars every year for the
past thirty years as a result of pipeline vandalism and over 29,000 lives have been lost](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-49-2048.jpg)
![2.4 Risk Assessment in Pipeline Failure Event 33
Fig. 2.2 The explosion of a gas pipeline in the United States [95]
Fig. 2.3 A gas pipe system explosion in New York, United States [99]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-50-2048.jpg)
![34 2 A Review on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques
from pipeline accidents and explosions [103]. The fire caused by pipeline vandalism
in Nigeria apart from the loss of human lives it causes huge economic damage. As
seen today vandals have created a major national security threat. According to the
Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation on February 4, 2016, the fire caused by
vandals at Arepo in Owode area of Ogun State led to the death of five pipeline security
operatives [104].
Injuries and deaths due to pipeline accidents and explosions have been happened
throughout the developed and developing countries all around the world [105–115].
Since the United States, Canada and Russia are three primary countries with most
miles of pipelines, therefore they have the highest number of pipeline explosions.
Most pipeline explosions have been in the United States, while Russia has the highest
death rates in pipeline accidents. However, pipelines are regarded as the least risky
way of transportation compared to trucks and tankers. They are 40 times safer than
rail tanks, as well as 100 times safer than road tanks. Thus, risks associated with
transmission pipelines is lower compared with other devices such as it is similar
to risks associated with air travel. If a pipeline build fails, it can have catastrophic
effects such as fire, explosions. Pipeline faults like leakage and blockage can result
in serious ecological disasters, therefore efficient leakage and blockage awareness
techniques should be developed.
2.5 The Most Common Causes of Leaking Pipes
Typically, many of the welds and protective coatings on the pipelines do not meet
current safety standards and result in leakages in pipelines. Furthermore, leakages
in pipelines arise from corrosion and excavation damage while pipe manufacturing.
Manufacturing flaws in pipe systems may include girth or seam weld flaws by lack
of fill, misalignment or, cracking. In addition, other types of leakage flaws could
be corrosion at the girth welds, damage to the external pipe coating, dent stress
concentration factor on the external pipe surface, and mechanical damage due to
third party activities. All these factors have been described below.
2.5.1 Pipeline Damage Caused by the Stress Concentration
Cracking in pipelines can be due to stress concentration in a pipe network. It is
typically associated with areas of stress concentration. For instance, polyethylene
pipes are widely utilized in natural gas distribution lines and joined together. Joining
is usually done by thermal fusing—heating and melting the pipe ends. Nevertheless,
fusion can be the source of crack initiation such that if there exists stress concentration
in the fusion area, it can result in crack initiation. In the beginning, the cracks are
small but it won’t take so long for a crack to grow from a certain initial size if it is
not detected which could cause a leakage in the pipeline [116].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-51-2048.jpg)
![2.5 The Most Common Causes of Leaking Pipes 35
2.5.2 Pipeline Damage Caused by Third-Party Activities
Third-party damage has been the most common cause of pipeline failure which highly
affects the performance of a pipeline. Third-party damage can result in pipeline leaks
and ruptures. Typically, this includes mechanical damage like pipe coating damage,
dent in the pipe, and gouge which may result in reduced wall thickness or distortion
of pipeline cross-section. Other types of damage involve terrorist acts, sabotage, theft
of the product from the pipeline, and other malevolent acts.
2.5.3 Pipeline Damage Caused by Corrosion
Fluids in pipelines influence the corrosion rate. For instance, pipelines that carry
the steam around the plant and process industries, including petroleum refineries,
are subject to higher rates of erosion-corrosion. Passing such fluids through steel
pipelines without any internal corrosion protection can cause corrosion of the pipe
wall. If left undetected, these corrosions will propagate through the wall and result
in leakage. Likewise, corrosion attack upon the outside of the pipes can occur on
both above-ground and underground steel pipes [117]. Often low-alloy steel pipelines
havepoorresistancetocorrosion.Accordingly,thesoilenvironmentisresponsiblefor
stress corrosion cracking of underground stainless-steel pipelines. Stress corrosion
cracking is defined as the growth of cracks under the combined influence of tensile
stress and corrosive environments. There are two types of stress corrosion cracking
normally developed at the surface of underground pipelines, and known as high pH
stress corrosion cracking and near-neutral pH stress corrosion cracking. When these
cracks appeared, they would grow in the longitudinal direction of the pipe and link
up to form long shallow faults, that can lead to ruptures. In some cases, growth and
interlinking of the stress-corrosion cracks produce flaws that are of sufficient size to
cause leakages and subsequent pipeline ruptures. Typical growth and developments
of the stress-corrosion cracks will result in subsequent failure (leakage or rupture).
2.5.4 Pipeline Damage Caused by the Operational Limitation
Depending on the circumstances, there are some operating limits for pipelines such
as maximum operating pressure and the minimum pipe sizes. However, in some
developing countries, there are no local regulations and laws to control the pipeline
design, maintenance standards, and functions of fluid transmitting pipeline networks.
Alargenumberofpipelineshavebeeninserviceformanyyearswithnoregardforany
possible mechanical variations happening in the pipeline. Sometimes, some operators
use the same pipelines to ship different types of hazardous liquids. However, many
of the welds and protective coatings on these pipelines do not meet with the corrosive](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-52-2048.jpg)
![36 2 A Review on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques
nature of the fluids. The consequences could have resulted in sever wall thickness
reduction on the internal pipeline surface and pipeline rupture. Also, the pressure
for the piping could exceed the pressure rating or the allowable stress for pressure
design that can pass the minimum wall thickness of the pipeline. As a result, a crack
could initiate which may be developed into a fracture [118].
2.6 The Most Common Causes of Blocked Pipes
Many factors influence blockage formation in pipes like the reaction of hydrocarbons
with the presence of water for hydrate formation, wax deposition to the formation
and eventual growth of solid layers, and deposition of suspended solid particles
in the fluids (dirt, silt, clay, rust). Other factors for the formation of blockage in
pipelines could be the formation of a plug, the formation of wax on pipeline walls,
and other foreign materials that are produced during the crude oil refinery process.
Furthermore, the inside of an aging pipe could become heavily encrusted leading to
a blockage in the pipeline. All these factors have been described below.
2.6.1 Pipeline Blockage Caused by Hydrate Formation
Under the high-pressure condition, problems can arise in gas pipe systems, due to
the possible presence of condensable hydrocarbons in transmission lines, particularly
during extremely cold weather conditions. In ultra-deep water depth, water can enter
the natural gas pipe network through the porosity of the pipe walls [119]. In ocean-
bottom, the gas hydrates can be formed when water and natural gas cool in the pipes.
Gas hydrates are ice-like crystalline compounds that can block pipelines in deep-sea
and cause explosion in pipes [120].
In2008acrackedpipecausedpropanefireatValeroMckeerefineryinTexas[119],
see Fig. 2.4. Fire is believed to have started after a leak in the propane deasphalting
unit and extended quickly, due in part to rapid fracture of the main pipe rack trans-
ferring flammable hydrocarbons. As vapour travelled in wind direction and found
an ignition source, the ensuing flash fire spread. The subsequent fire injured workers
and damaged unit piping and equipment [121]. Three workers suffered serious burns
and several others suffered minor injuries. The fire was so large that it resulted in the
evacuation and total shutdown of the McKee refinery for two months. The price of
a gallon of gas went up nine cents in the west. The United States Chemical Safety
Board made a safety recommendation that piping systems in refineries should be
subject to formal periodic inspection and monitoring. To prevent the pipeline inci-
dents an efficient defect inspection system, needs to be installed rather than only
surface detection technique.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11248617-250515060719-c67c2a7f/75/Flow-Modelling-And-Control-In-Pipeline-Systems-A-Formal-Systematic-Approach-1st-Ed-Sina-Razvarz-53-2048.jpg)
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- 5. Studies in Systems,Decision and Control 321 Sina Razvarz Raheleh Jafari Alexander Gegov Flow Modelling and Control in Pipeline Systems A Formal Systematic Approach
- 6. Studies in Systems,Decision and Control Volume 321 Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
- 7. The series “Studiesin Systems, Decision and Control” (SSDC) covers both new developments and advances, as well as the state of the art, in the various areas of broadly perceived systems, decision making and control–quickly, up to date and with a high quality. The intent is to cover the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. The series contains monographs, textbooks, lecture notes and edited volumes in systems, decision making and control spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. ** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI, SCOPUS, DBLP, Ulrichs, MathSciNet, Current Mathematical Publications, Mathematical Reviews, Zentralblatt Math: MetaPress and Springerlink. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13304
- 8. Sina Razvarz •Raheleh Jafari • Alexander Gegov Flow Modelling and Control in Pipeline Systems A Formal Systematic Approach 123
- 9. Sina Razvarz Departamento deControl Automatico CINVESTAV-IPN (National Polytechnic Institute) Mexico City, Mexico Alexander Gegov School of Computing University of Portsmouth Portsmouth, UK Raheleh Jafari School of design University of Leeds Leeds, UK ISSN 2198-4182 ISSN 2198-4190 (electronic) Studies in Systems, Decision and Control ISBN 978-3-030-59245-5 ISBN 978-3-030-59246-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59246-2 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
- 10. To my lovelywife and our newborn baby Artin Sina Razvarz ————————— To my parents, parents in law, my brothers and specially my husband For their endless love, support and encouragement Raheleh Jafari ——————————– To the visionaries for the United States of Europe Alexander Gegov
- 11. Preface A pipeline systemas one of the effective tools for transporting fluids despite the cost of proper maintenance, has been taken to be a complex system accompanied by several kinds of components and consumers. Hence, pipeline systems have been taken as one of the most important tools for transmission around the world. It will be important for industrial society that pipeline systems function appro- priately by taking into consideration the growing requirement for effective inter- connecting fluid networks. However, this task is difficult as someone should simultaneously certify a secure fluid supply and the fulfillment of the various requirements of consumers. Even this task could become more difficult with the appearance of leakage, blockage, and fault in sensors and actuators that could produce the degradation and glitch of the whole system. Leakage and blockage in the system of pipes that transport process fluids such as oil, industrial gas, water could result in crucial environmental, social, economic, health and safety problems. Leakage in the pipeline can be caused from poor mechanism or from any devastating reason because of unexpected alterations of pressure, corrosion, fractures, faults in pipelines or absence of preservation. There exist various non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques to detect these faults in pipe networks like radiographic, ultrasonic, magnetic particle inspection, pressure tran- sient and acoustic wave techniques. The model structure of flow in pipe or pump could be designed by various techniques. One well-known technique is to present flow in pipe using two partial differential equations. In general, the closed-form solution of this method is not known, but it may be obtained based on numerical techniques. Another method of modeling is based on the use of the hydro-electrical analogy. Over the past few years, various techniques involving uncertainties have been used for detecting flaws in pipelines. Various numerical tests have been carried out for improving the current approaches by taking into consideration parametric studies. The theoretical research focuses on evaluation the precision, robustness, calculational ability, applicability and limitations of the methodology. To achieve the safe operation of pipeline systems, special software tools have been produced in the past decades that are supplementary to the conventional supervisory control and vii
- 12. data acquisition systems(SCADA). Generally, those tools are made of fault detection, location and diagnosis algorithms, based on fluid mechanics for signal processing and also, they consider a finite number of existing variables from the pipe. It should be noted that some defects to be identified need active recognition, for instance, the requirement of supervision systems upon the pipeline system in reg- ular intervals or at acute time by applying test signals for generating, for example, transitory answers of the fluid to detect unusual occurrences. Hence, there exist a great number of research groups throughout the world with various backgrounds who are attempting to develop efficient automated monitoring and supervision systems for pipelines. The background material needed for understanding this book is fluid dynamic and linear and nonlinear systems. This book will provide a good basis for those students who are interested in numerical analysis and partial differential equations. This book is mainly written for graduate and advanced undergraduate students of sciences, technology, engineering, and mathematics. It is organized as a textbook for a course on control and modeling. This book could be used for self-learning. In this book we have rather attempted to unify the theory as far as possible with the practice by focusing attention on the most important methods to deal with the general problem. Our aim in this book is to introduce new methods using auxiliary systems called “observers” for solving the defect detection and identification problem in pipe networks and also develop the nonlinear equations for pipe net- works. In reading this book, a reader who wants a general knowledge about fluid dynamic and pipeline should read Chaps. 1–5. These chapters provide an under- standing of why pipelines are important (Chap. 1), a review on different pipeline fault detection techniques (Chap. 2), mechanisms of fluid flows in pipes (Chap. 3), flow control of fluid in pipelines using fuzzy logic controllers (Chap. 4), flow control of fluid in pipelines using neural networks and deep learning (Chap. 5), model structure of leakage in pipes (Chap. 6). The latter half of the book delves into some introduction to flow control techniques, model structure of blockage in pipes (Chap. 7) leakage detection in pipeline based on observation techniques (Chap. 8) flow control of fluid in pipelines using proportional-derivative (PD) and propor- tional–integral–derivative (PID) controllers (Chap. 9) The authors contributed to shape the substance of this book are from computer science and engineering backgrounds. The first author, Sina Razvarz, would like to express his sincere gratitude to his advisor Prof. Cristobal Vargas for his continuous support of his Ph.D. study and research, and for his patience, motivation, enthu- siasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped him throughout his research and writing of this book. Also, he would like to thank his wife for her time and dedication. Without her this book would not have been possible. The second author, Raheleh Jafari would like to thank her husband for his time and dedication. Without him this book would not have been possible. The third author, Alexander Gegov would like to thank his family members for their spiritual support during the work on this book. viii Preface
- 13. The authors ofthis book would like to thank the editors for their effective cooperation and great care making possible the publication of this book. Mexico City, Mexico Sina Razvarz Leeds, UK Raheleh Jafari Portsmouth, UK July 2020 Alexander Gegov Preface ix
- 14. Contents 1 The Importanceof Pipeline Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.3 Material of Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.3.2 Stress Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.3 Manufacture and Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.4 Inspection and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.4 Implications for Pipeline Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.5 Evolution of Pipeline Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.6 Evolution of Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.6.1 Types of Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.7 Design and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.7.1 Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.7.2 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.7.3 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.7.4 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.8 Pipeline Milestones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2 A Review on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques . . . . . . 25 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.2 Non-destructive Testing Techniques for Flaw Identification in Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.3 Acoustic Wave Reflectometry and Roving-Mass Technique . . . . . 26 2.4 Risk Assessment in Pipeline Failure Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.5 The Most Common Causes of Leaking Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.5.1 Pipeline Damage Caused by the Stress Concentration. . . . 34 2.5.2 Pipeline Damage Caused by Third-Party Activities . . . . . 35 xi
- 15. 2.5.3 Pipeline DamageCaused by Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.5.4 Pipeline Damage Caused by the Operational Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.6 The Most Common Causes of Blocked Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.6.1 Pipeline Blockage Caused by Hydrate Formation . . . . . . . 36 2.6.2 Pipeline Blockage Caused by the Agglomeration of Sand and Debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.6.3 Pipeline Blockage Caused by Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.6.4 Pipeline Blockage Caused by Grease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.7 Non-destructive Testing Methods for Leakage and Blockage Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.7.1 Visual Inspection of Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.7.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection of Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.7.3 Ultrasonic Inspection Method for Damage Detection . . . . 39 2.7.4 Radiographic Technique for Damage Detection . . . . . . . . 40 2.7.5 Pig Monitoring Systems for Damage Detection . . . . . . . . 40 2.7.6 Boiling Water Reactor for Damage Detection . . . . . . . . . 42 2.7.7 Adding an Odourant to the Fluid for Damage Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.7.8 Mass-Volume Balance Technique for Damage Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.7.9 Real Time Transient Technique for Damage Detection . . . 43 2.7.10 Supervisory Controls and Data Acquisition System for Damage Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.7.11 Acoustic Emission Technique for Damage Detection . . . . 45 2.7.12 Acoustic Pulse Reflectometry Technique for Damage Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.8 Signal Processing Methods for Damage Identification . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.8.1 Cepstral Analysis Technique for Damage Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.8.2 Fast Fourier Transform Technique for Damage Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.8.3 Wavelet Transform Technique for Damage Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3 Modelling of Pipeline Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.2 Lagrangian and Eulerian Specification of the Flow Field. . . . . . . . 60 3.2.1 Lagrangian Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.2.2 Eulerian Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.2.3 Modeling of Liquid Flow in the Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.2.4 Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.2.5 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 xii Contents
- 16. 3.3 Modeling ofFlow in Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.4 Steady State Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.4.1 Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.4.2 Case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.4.3 Case 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.4.4 Case 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.4.5 Case 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.4.6 Case 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.5 Observability and Controllability Analysis of Linear System . . . . . 80 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4 Theory and Applications of Fuzzy Logic Controller for Flowing Fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.1 Mathematical Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.2 Fuzzy Logic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.2.1 Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.2.2 Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.2.3 Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.2.4 Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5 Basic Concepts of Neural Networks and Deep Learning and Their Applications for Pipeline Damage Detection . . . . . . . . . . . 101 5.1 Different Types of Threats Occurring in Pipeline Systems . . . . . . . 101 5.2 Neural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.3 Memory Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 5.4.1 Example 0.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 5.4.2 Example 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 6 Leakage Modelling for Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 6.2 Leak Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 6.3 The Model Modification of the Pipeline with Leakage . . . . . . . . . 123 6.4 Observer Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 6.5 Luenberger Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.5.1 Linear Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 6.5.2 Nonlinear Approaches Luenberger Extension . . . . . . . . . . 129 6.6 Lie Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 6.7 Example (Model for Pipe with Two Sections) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 6.8 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 6.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Contents xiii
- 17. 7 Blockage Detectionin Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 7.2 Blockage Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 7.3 Observer Design by Using the Extended Kalman Filter . . . . . . . . 152 7.3.1 Observer Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 7.4 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 7.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 8 Leakage Detection in Pipeline Based on Second Order Extended Kalman Filter Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 8.2 Pipeline Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 8.3 Observer Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 8.3.1 Nonlinear State Space Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 8.3.2 System Approximation by Taylor Expansion . . . . . . . . . . 166 8.3.3 Second Order Extended Kalman Filter Recursions . . . . . . 167 8.4 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 8.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 9 Control of Flow Rate in Heavy-Oil Pipelines Using PD and PID Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 9.2 Materials and Methods for Modelling of the System . . . . . . . . . . . 176 9.2.1 Modelling of the Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 9.2.2 Modelling of the Actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 9.2.3 Modelling of the Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 9.3 The Tuning Method Based on PD and PID Controller . . . . . . . . . 181 9.3.1 PD Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 9.3.2 PID Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 9.4 Numerical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 9.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 xiv Contents
- 18. Chapter 1 The Importanceof Pipeline Transportation 1.1 Introduction Over the last few decades, rapid technological advancements or variations in processes have removed or decreased risks related to particular specifications in oper- ations (pipe manufacturing techniques or pipe installation processes). Some of these advancements have happened quickly, therefore pipelines built after the advancement display remarkably improved performance. From the viewpoint of these advance- ments, one could properly evaluate the particular risk factors associated with the pipeline, and with the information on once the advancements happened, one could describe the effect of the advancement on performance. The combination can create an approach for pipeline operators to evaluate risk factors in their networks and to give priority to mitigation programs. 1.2 History Two thousand years ago, the ancient Romans used great conduits for transporting water from high altitudes by constructing the conduits in graduated sections that permitted gravity to force the water to move along until it arrived its destination. Hundreds of these systems had been constructed all over Europe and in other places, and along with four mills of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the past people in China used conduits and pipe networks for public works. The famous Han Dynasty court eunuch Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) one time commanded the engineer Bi Lan to build a system of square-pallet chain pumps on the regions outside the country’s capital city named Luoyang [1]. The constructed chain pumps had been used in imperial palaces as well as living quarters of the Luoyang as the water raised with the chain pumps was imported with an earthenware pipeline system [1]. Pipe systems were constructed more than 5000 years ago by the Egyptians who applied copper pipelines to transfer drinking water to their cities. The primary usage © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Razvarz et al., Flow Modelling and Control in Pipeline Systems, Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 321, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59246-2_1 1
- 19. 2 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation of pipe systems to transfer hydrocarbons goes back to nearly 500 BC in China in which bamboo pipes had been employed to transfer fossil gas for utilization as fuel from drilling holes near the surface of the ground. The fossil gas had been later applied as fuel for boiling saltwater, generating steam that had been condensed into usable drinking water. Pipe networks are beneficial to transfer water for drinking purpose or irrigation at a great distance whenever it requires to go up and down hills, or where canals or channels are wrong options because of the considerations of vaporization, pollution, or environmental effect. The 530 km (330 mi) Goldfields Water Supply project in Western Australia employing a 750 mm (30 in.) pipeline and ended in 1903 had been taken to be the greatest water supply project at that time [2]. The Snowy Mountains project [3, 4] was another example of water pipe systems in South Australia and had been divided into two parts, the Morgan-Whyalla pipe system [5] (ended 1944) and Mannum-Adelaide pipe system [6] (ended 1955). There exist two projects for a wide usage of pipe systems namely the Owens Valley Channel (ended 1913) and the Second Los Angeles Channel (ended 1970) occurred in Los Angeles, California. 3,680,000 cubic meters of water are daily supplying to Tripoli, Benghazi, Sirte, and many other towns in Libya by the Great Man-Made River located in Libya. The pipe system has more than 2800 km (1700 mi) length, also is attached to wells and gets the water from aquifers above 500 m (1600 ft) belowground [4]. Pipeline transportation is the long-way transfer of a fluid (i.e., liquid, gas, or multiphase) through a pipe system typically from production to consumption. The current year’s data from 2014 provides a total of slightly lower than 2,175,000 miles (3,500,000 km) of the pipe system in 120 countries worldwide [7]. 65% of pipe systems had been located in the United States, 8% in Russia, and 3% in Canada, there- fore, 75% of all pipe systems had been placed in these three countries [7, 8]. Based on worldwide pipeline construction reports 118,623 miles (190,905 km) of pipe systems are planned and under construction. From this report, 88,976 miles (143,193 km) refer to projects that are in the planning stage and 29,647 miles (47,712 km) refers to projects that are in the construction stage. Fluids like liquids and gases can be transferred in pipe systems and also every stable chemical substance can be trans- ported through pipes [8]. The pipeline is a useful tool for transferring crude and refined petroleum, fuels like alcohol, biodiesel and natural gas, and fluids like hot water or steam for a short distance. It is also an effective tool for transferring water for drinking purposes or irrigation at a great distance whenever it requires going up and down hills, or where canals or channels are wrong options because of the considerations of vaporization, pollution, or environmental effect [7]. It has been stated about 400 BC wax-coated bamboo pipes were employed for bringing fossil gas into towns, illuminating China’s capital, Peking. The latter half of the nineteenth century was a period of great change in the structure of pipelines and their growth in size and number. During drilling for the purpose of extracting water, crude oil was incidentally found in underground reservoirs. In the beginning, the crude oil was not in high demand until simple refineries been created. The crude oil was transferred to the refineries in wooden tanks and were even transferred by barges pulled by horses
- 20. 1.2 History 3 acrossrivers. The transferred crude oil was evaporated in refineries to produce the by-products of naphtha, petroleum and benzene. The petroleum was employed as a fuel to produce light and in the beginning, benzene was considered an undesired item and was thrown away. Railway tanker cars were another way to transport crude oil. Nevertheless, large railway owners used to control the oil supply. Therefore, in order to have a cheap and independent transportation, companies began to adopt pipelines as a more efficient and economical tool of transport. The situation altered significantly after the creation of the automobile that immediately enhanced the request for regular and trusty supplies of gasoline and led to the demand for many more pipes. Nowadays pipe systems transfer a great range of materials such as coal, crude oil, gasoline, natural gases, liquid condensate, process gases, and petroleum. Now there exist about 1.2 million miles of pipe systems for transportation throughout the world and also some well with more than 1000 miles longitude. The full length of these pipe systems if laid end-to-end would circle the earth 50 times over. 1.3 Material of Pipeline Oil pipes are composed of a variety of materials, including steel and plastic tubes and are generally buried underground. The oil moves overall the pipe systems by pump stations along the pipe systems. Fossil gases (also similar gaseous fuels) pressurize into liquids and are called Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs) [9]. The pipes for trans- porting natural gas are mainly made of carbon steel. Pipelines can be also used for transporting hydrogen. Pipelines as the safest means of transferring materials over long distances in comparison with road or rail are usually the target of army attacks in time of war. When it comes to the construction of the first crude oil pipeline, there is no specific date [10]. However, there is a disputation on the first initiation of the pipe systems [11] between Vladimir Shukhov and the Branobel company at the end of the nineteenth century, and the Oil Transport Association that for the first time in the 1860s built a 2-inch (51 mm) wrought iron pipe system over a distance of 6-mile (9.7 km) from an oil field in Pennsylvania to a railroad station in Oil Creek. Pipelines have been the most economical way to carry tens of millions of metric tons of oil and gas over lands. For instance, in 2014, the cost of transportation of crude oil using pipe networks was nearly $5 per barrel, whereas the cost of rail transportation was nearly $10 to $15 per barrel [11]. Trucking has even higher transportation costs compared with rail transportation because of the need for labor [11]. In the United States, 70% of crude oil and petroleum are transporting by pipes, 23% by ships, 4% by trucks, and 3% by rails. In Canada, 97% of natural gas and petroleum are transporting by pipes [11]. Natural gas (also similar gaseous fuels) could be turned into liquids called natural gas liquids when it is gently pressurized. Natural gas liquid processing facilities separate a stream of raw natural gas into methane and natural gas liquids such as butane and propane. The butane and propane liquid under light pressure of 125 lb
- 21. 4 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation per square inch (860 kPa), could be transferred by rails, trucks or pipes. Propane as a fuel in oil fields is typically employed to heat different facilities utilized by the oil drillers or instrument and trucks utilized in the oil patch. Propane is a compressible gas that turns to liquid under light pressure, 100 psi, give or take based on the temperature, and is pumping into vehicles at less than 125 psi (860 kPa) at propane fueling stations. Pipes and rail cars employ around twice that pressure for pumping at 250 psi (1700 kPa) [12]. Since most of the natural gas processing plants have been placed in or around oil fields, therefore there are very short shipping distances to markets. The majority of Bakken Basin oil companies located in North Dakota, Montana, Manitoba and Saskatchewan gas areas divide the natural gas liquids in the field, permitting the drillers to sell propane straightly to their customers, removing the refinery product and price controls for propane or butane. One of the current main pipelines is located in North America known as a Tran- sCanada natural gas line that goes north along with the bridge crossing the Niagara river with Marcellus shale gas from Pennsylvania and others tied in methane or natural gas sources, into Ontario one of the biggest provinces in Canada from fall 2012, providing 16% of the total natural gas utilized in Ontario. This new supply of natural gas has been significantly displaced the natural gas previously transferred to Ontario from western Canada in Alberta and Manitoba, hence decreasing the govern- ment regulated pipelines transport costs as there is a short shipping distance between the gas source and consumer. For avoiding any delay and also to neglect the United States government rule, many of the companies responsible for the production in North Dakota came to a common conclusion that they set up an oil pipe system north to Canada to grantee the Canadian oil pipeline transportation system from west to east. This permits the Bakken Basin as well as Three Forks companies responsible for oil production to achieve the best price for their products as they don’t need to be restricted to only one wholesale market in the United States. The distance between the greatest oil patch located in North Dakota, in Williston, North Dakota and the Canada–United States border and Manitoba is nearly 85 miles or 137 km. Mutual funds and joint ventures are now commonly used in almost all major industries and are great investors in oil and gas pipe systems. In the fall of 2012, the United States started exporting liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to Europe, as wholesale fuel prices in Europe are at much higher levels in comparison with North America. Moreover, a pipe system generally known as Dakota Access Pipeline has been recently built from North Dakota to Illinois. The rapid increase in pipeline constructioninNorthAmericaresultedintheincrementoftheexportationofliquefied natural gas, propane, butane, and other natural gas products on the three coasts of the United States. To explain, the oil production in North Dakota Bakken has been increased by 600% between 2007 and 2015 [13]. Tanker rail car carries a massive amount of oil from North Dakota oil companies to the market which provides the best deal on prices. The rail cars have been utilized for avoiding a clogged oil pipeline to take the oil to another pipeline for taking the oil to market more rapidly. Nevertheless, transporting oil by pipeline is cheaper than rail cars. Enbridge planned to reverse the flow of oil in its Line 9 pipeline going through Ontario and Quebec [14, 15]. From a presently rated 250,000 barrels of petroleum
- 22. 1.3 Material ofPipeline 5 every day, it can be increased to between 1 million and 1.3 million barrels daily. New flows on Line 9 bring western oil and feed refineries in Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Quebec, and New York. The Enbridge Sandpiper pipe network with 24–30 in. in diameter has been suggested to carry oil from Western North Dakota through northwestern Minnesota such that it transports over 300,000 barrels of oil per day having the volatility of 32 [16]. Crude oil from western Canada can also be refined in New Brunswick and is exporting to Europe from its deep-water oil ultra-large crude carrier loading port. Although pipelines can be constructed under the ocean, the pipeline building process is a complex and technically challenging one, hence most of the oil trans- portation is usually done via tanker ships. Likewise, it is economically easy and safe to carry natural gas in the form of liquefied natural gas, nevertheless, the breakeven costs between liquefied natural gas and pipelines rely on the volume of natural gas and the distance transportation of liquefied natural gas goes by pipeline [15]. The oil and gas pipeline construction industry reported enormous growth before the economic crisis in 2008. A year later, the amount of request for pipeline increased the next year as fuel production grew rapidly [17]. By 2012, nearly 32,000 miles of pipe systems in North America were being either planned or built [18]. However, when- ever oil production industries are facing pipeline transportation constraints, truck or rail could be good transportation options to transport products. Oil pipes may be manufactured from steel or plastic tubes where the interior diam- eter normally varies from 4 to 48 in. (100–1220 mm). Natural gas pipelines carrying natural gas are made of carbon steel and change in size from 2 to 60 in. (51–1524 mm) in diameter, based on the kind of pipe. Liquid petroleum gas and natural gas could be pressurized using compressor stations and are odorless except that blended with a mercaptan odorant in a case that needed by a regulating authority. The majority of pipes are usually buried at a depth of about 3–6 feet (0.91–1.83 m) underground. For protecting pipelines from gouge, abrasion, and penetration, a variety of techniques have been utilized such as wood lagging (wood slats), concrete coating, rock shield, high-density polyethylene, imported sand padding, and padding machines [19]. Crude oil has different quantities of paraffin wax and in a cold climate, the wax buildup can be created inside a pipe. In most cases, these pipes are checked and cleaned utilizing pigging, the practice of employing tools called “pigs” to carry out different preserving operations on a pipe. The tools are furthermore called “scrapers” or “Go-devils". “Smart pigs” (moreover called “intelligent” or “intelligence” pigs) have been employed to find anomalies in the pipeline like dents, metal loss generated by corrosion or cracking [20]. These tools could proceed from pig-launcher centers and move through the pipe system to be captured at other centers down-stream, either cleaning wax deposits and substance that could have gathered inside the pipeline or checking and recording the situation of the pipeline. In 1998 the petroleum pipe industry started a voluntary reporting initiative, called the “Pipeline Performance Tracking System.” The aims and objectives of the industry in developing the reporting program were to produce a device for improving safety performance utilizing the information toward zero spills. Precise as well as detailed data are two main factors for learning from events hence operations can be altered
- 23. 6 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation for prevention and also to track progress for a period of time. This reporting program gathers better data on spills as small as 5 gallons, indicating the initial time that infor- mation on such small issues has been gathered in the entire industry. It furthermore gathered novel information on the construction and infrastructure of the industry, composed of petrol consumption by ten-year-old of building, the petrol consump- tion by state, the petrol consumption by diameter, and further characteristics of the foundation [21]. For dozens of years, the petroleum pipe industry has been decreased risk and cost in operation by progress in pipeline construction technology and alterations in pipe manufacturing practices. Some of this progress has happened over compara- tively short periods of time, therefore, pipes built after the progress displayed notably improved performance. Taking advantage of these advances one can easily evaluate the specific threats to pipe, and also by having information on when the advances could happen, one can describe the effect of the advance on performance. The accessi- bility of the pipeline performance tracking system mileage information demonstrated the first opportunity to study existing, publicly accessible incident data, describing the effect of the progress in technology and practices on efficiency [22]. 1.3.1 Steel The material used for oil and gas pipes includes steel, particularly either low-carbon steel or low-alloy steel. These two kinds of substances are mainly made of iron (98– 99%), very tiny quantities of carbon (0.001–0.30% by weight), manganese (0.30– 1.50% by weight), also some other deliberately added alloying components in tiny quantities such as columbium, molybdenum, vanadium, and titanium could have usefulimpactsonthestabilityandthefracturehardnessofsteel.Thefracturehardness is the capability of the materials to resist crack propagation [23]. Low-carbon or low alloy steels are relatively inexpensive and appropriate for production of pipe also many steel constructions apply to all building types and bridges as they supply a long-lasting, solid material for withstanding the service loads imposed on such constructions. Other iron-based alloys like wrought iron consists of almost pure iron and cast iron usually with a high carbon content are either too weak or too breakable to perform well as building materials. Rustproof or high-material steels are necessary for particular usages like in high-temperature service and pressure vessels or tool steels. However, they are not appropriate and cannot be manufactured economically in the amounts required for utilization in structures like pipelines. Low-carbon steels or low-alloy steels have good enough strength, toughness, ductility, and weldability for building frames in the construction industry. Line-pipe steels are a category of low-carbon or low-alloy steels and are cost-effective and durable materials. Within a specified temperature range in which these materials are generally used [24] (−20 to +250°F), their characteristics and stability do not change through time. Tensile tests or hardness tests performed nowadays on a low-carbon-steel, one of the most
- 24. 1.3 Material ofPipeline 7 useful materials in the industry, made in 1910 will lead to similar outcomes as tests that could have been performed on the same material back in 1910. Low-carbon and low-alloy steels are highly sensitive to corrosion in natural envi- ronments such as air, water, and soil. However, appropriate coating materials and the usage of a suitable amount of electrical direct current often referred to as cathodic protection could provide satisfactory corrosion protection. Corrosion takes place on the surface of the iron due to the formation of electrochemical cells and causes the iron to become oxidized. Iron oxides are weak and breakable and do not have the ability to carry the loads that are considerably produced by the steel construction. Therefore, corrosion may decrease the strength of a low-carbon or low-alloy steel construction like a pipeline. Providing a sufficient quantity of cathodic protection to an exposed steel surface, can reduce the loss of electrons and slow down the corrosion to a negligible amount. A coat of a protective material applied to steel can successfully prevent corrosion by removing exposed surfaces. Periodic pipe-to-soil potential surveys could be utilized to maintain the cathodic protection of the pipe. Therefore, the risk of corrosion is insignificant in pipelines that are sufficiently coated and cathodically protected [25]. 1.3.2 Stress Cycles Low-carbon and low-alloy steels could survive the infinite number of load/unload cycles in the ranges of stress. When there are a fault or defect, frequent loadings, normally many thousands of cycles could generate fatigue crack development that can cause eventual failure of the construction. However, in-service inspections can be used to detect the presence, location, and size of different kinds of defects that should be immediately repaired before they cause fatal or in-service operations failures [25]. 1.3.3 Manufacture and Fabrication Manufacturingprocessesforline-pipesteelsaswellaslinepipeshavechangedsignif- icantly over the past century, resulting in significant increases in strength, toughness, ductility, and weldability. Current strategies to improve materials manufacturing processes and quality control measures have resulted in the production of very few manufacturing flaws. Pipeline hydrostatic pressure testing has been used since the late 1960s of the newly made pipeline to present that the pipeline is fit for service. Moreover, by rules, pipelines shall be abandoned or taken temporarily out of service if they have not been tested at the moment of installation hence pressure tightness can be tested. Pipeline hydrostatic pressure testing is a damaging test representing flaws that cause failure at the pressure testing or demonstrates that those defects staying after the test are very small for withstanding the maximum pressure capacity [26].
- 25. 8 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation 1.3.4 Inspection and Testing Nondestructive testing that employs sensor and imaging technology and “in-line” inspection tools have been used for more than four decades to recognize irregularities and defects in the pipeline or the coating. Before delivery, the operator monitors the coating for any problems and damages that could have happened during the installation process. The initial in-line inspection device was called an inspection pig or a smart pig and constructed in the mid-1960s. Smart pigs are devices that travel through the pipeline by fluid flow. The devices record cracks and flaws utilizing either ultrasonic wall thickness evaluations or magnetic field disturbances [27]. Advances in technologies led to the design of instrumented pigs smarter, the best way to access and interpret data. The position of a pipeline wall anomaly could be marked by a global positioning system (GPS), showing where increased coatings or even repair would be justified. Further enhanced devices now can recognize specialized defects like fatigue cracks, dents, and mechanical damages [28]. 1.4 Implications for Pipeline Safety The key issues regarding the strength and stability of steel as they impact the safety of pipelines are as follows [29]. The first criteria are that the steel itself does not deteriorate over a long time. With proper protection eighty-year-old pipe displays similar characteristics if analyzed at present as it would have if analyzed 80 years ago. New construction technologies developed in recent years confirm that a line- pipe material constructed with new technology has high-performance properties compared to that constructed techniques that were used 80 years ago. Nevertheless, effective preservation techniques have appeared in the intervening years. Second, althoughthelowperformingpropertiesofagedmaterialsandtheirdegradationduring service (prior to cathodic maintenance, for example) is of particular concern, recent detections and examination of pipelines made of aged materials have been applied to find possible problems prior to the damage. Third, the successive acceptable opera- tion of any pipeline, aged or recent, needs levels of detection and preservation suitable to the operating properties of the materials and the causative factors of degradation to which the pipeline is subjected in its functioning environment. Eventually, novel technology is able to recognize and detect small flaws, hence increasing efficiency further.
- 26. 1.5 Evolution ofPipeline Technology 9 1.5 Evolution of Pipeline Technology The first pipe systems in the United States were laid early in the nineteenth century to transfer manufactured gas for gas-lighting aims in big cities. The pipe systems were commonly made of cast-iron pipe that was a pipe made predominantly from gray cast iron manufactured in the United States in 1834. Pipelines manufactured of wrought iron and connected by screwed collars were as well utilized in gas usages. Soon after oil had been found in Pennsylvania in 1858, a completely new application for pipeline systems appeared. The earliest oil pipe system, a 2–1/2- miles long and in diameter of 2 in. worked successfully in 1863 such that was transferring 800 barrels of oil daily [30]. The threaded parts of the pipeline had been connected by screwed couplings. Techniques have improved in recent years and led to the reduction of many different types of risks in manufacturing and construction issues [29, 31]. These improvements are: • Advances in the efficiency of the material and efficient means for pipe manufacture decreased the probability of damages in the pipeline material or the constructed longitudinal seam; • Advances in the installation of pipe systems decreased the probability of damages in the connection points in the distance around the pipe; • Advances in controlling the operators that generate flaw and damage in the service environment decreased the probability of damages because of the exterior corrosion; • Advances in the examination, checking, and preserve pipes decreased the prob- ability of damages because of a variety of reasons, even third-party flaws, the highest reason for pipeline safety accidents. 1.6 Evolution of Pipeline For years, pipe systems have been made around the world to transfer water for drinking as well as irrigation purposes. This covers olden usage in China of pipeline constructed of hollow bamboo also the usage of flumes by the Romans as well as Persians. The Chinese furthermore applied bamboo pipes for transferring natural gas to their capital for lighting purposes. An important advance of piping device happened in the eighteenth century, while cast-iron pipes were widely manufactured and utilized. A further main milestone was the appearance of the steel pipeline in the nineteenth century that extremely increased the mechanical hardness of the piping material. The growth of steel pipelines with high hardness made it feasible to transfer natural gas as well as oil over vast distances. At first, the entire pipes made of steel needed to be threaded to fasten together. However, that was hard to perform on large pipelines, as they could leak under great pressure. In the 1920s, the welding machines were commonly utilized for making leakproof, high-pressure, large-diameter pipe
- 27. 10 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation systems. Nowadays, the majority of high-pressure pipeline systems are made of steel pipe with welded connections [1, 32]. Since 1950 most developments have been focused on the origination of the ductile iron as well as concrete pressure pipe systems with large diameter for water; appli- cation of polyvinyl chloride pipes for underground conduits; application of smart pig to remove dirt from the inside of pipes and to carry out other responsibilities; arranging various petroleum productions in a general pipe system; usage of cathodic preservation to decrease corrosion and increase the life of pipe system; application of space-age devices like computers for controlling the pipe systems and satellites for communicating between the enteral stations and the field; also modern devices and wide measures for preventing as well as identifying leakages in pipe systems. Moreover, many modern technologies have been developed or introduced to simplify pipeline structure for example application of new devices for drilling below rivers and roads to cross, application of new devices for bending extensive pipe systems in the field, and application of X-ray machines to identify welding damages [33]. 1.6.1 Types of Pipeline Pipelines have been classified in various ways based on the commodity transferred and also the kind of fluid flow. 1.6.1.1 Water and Sewer Lines Pipeline systems have been utilized commonly to transfer water from treatment plants into the household or industry. Underground pipe networks are placed under the city streets and convey the water to almost every house. Water pipe systems are typically buried underground and the depth of cover is only a few feet, relying on the freezing depth of the position and the requirement for maintenance against unexpected injury by digging or manufacturing operations. In recent water technology, when copper pipes have been typically utilized for indoor plumbing, outdoor water service lines with big diameter could utilize steel, ductile cast iron, or concrete pressure pipes. Outdoor water service lines with small diametercouldutilizesteel,ductilecastiron,orpolyvinylchloridepipes.Inacasethat metal pipelines are applied for transferring drinking water, the inside of the pipeline is usually made of a plastic or cement lining for preventing rusting, which could cause decay in water quality. The outside of metal pipelines is moreover covered with an asphalt material and twisted with a specific tape for decreasing corrosion because of the contact with specified soils. Furthermore, a surface of electrodes under a direct current are usually placed through steel pipes and is named cathodic preservation [34]. A sanitary sewer or foul sewer is a system of pipe and tunnel designed to transfer sewage from homes and buildings to treatment feasibilities or access. Foul sewers
- 28. 1.6 Evolution ofPipeline 11 are considered as a part of the total system functions named as sewage system or sewerage. Sewage could be treated for controlling the impurity of water afore release to surface waters [35, 36]. Foul sewers serving commercial and industrial fields furthermorecarrysanitaryorindustrialwastes.Separatesanitarysewersystemdesign and technology has been only used for transporting sewage. However, in municipali- ties rendered services by sanitary sewer systems, discrete storm drains could transmit surface runoff straightly to an outlet. Sanitary sewer systems could be identified from merged sewers, that merge sewage with stormwater runoff in a single pipe. These systems are useful as they evade merged sewer overflows [37]. Domestic sewage is generally a mixture of 98% water and 2% solids. Transporting sewage by pipelines cause a slightly reduction on the internal diameter of the pipe, however it is below low pressure. Culvert or storm sewer with large diameter usually utilize corrugated steel pipe [38]. According to the pressure in the pipeline and further situations, sewer pipelines are composed of concrete, polyvinyl chloride, cast iron, or clay. Polyvinyl chloride is mainly desired for sizes smaller than 12 in. (30 cm) in diameter. 1.6.1.2 Oil Pipelines There exist two kinds of oil pipe systems, namely: crude oil pipe system and product pipe system. Crude oil pipe system transfers crude oil to oil refining and refined product markets, and the product pipe system transfers refined products like gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, and heating oil from oil refining and refined product markets to the market. Various types of crude oil or various refined products have been typically transferred via the same pipe system in various batches. Sometimes mixing is done in batches that are small and could be controlled. This can be done either by applying big batches or by keeping a ball among batches for splitting them. Crude oil and refined petroleum products transferring via pipe systems usually have a tiny quantity of preservatives to decrease interior corrosion of pipeline and diminish the loss of energy (drag- reduction preservative). The most widely known types of drag- reduction preservatives are polymers like polyethylene oxides. Oil pipe systems particularly utilize steel pipes without coatings. However, an exterior coating and cathodic preservation could be used to decrease exterior corrosion. They are welded together and bent to shape in the field. These pipes are joined together and curved to form in the field. The Big Inch and Little Big Inch were two-pipe systems placed from Texas to New Jersey while World War II to combat the strike of German submarine tanker assaults on the coast. A long product pipe system placed from the Houston area to Linden, New Jersey, and constructed by the Colonial Pipeline Company in the 1960s to combat the threat of the maritime union. The Trans Alaska pipe system was constructed to carry crude oil from the North Slope to Prudhoe Bay to meet the 1973 oil crisis caused by the Arab oil embargo. Subsea pipe systems are required to transfer oil as well as gas production from subsea oil and gas wells to onshore pipe systems that moreover transfer the oil to
- 29. 12 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation refineries and tanker loading facilities or the gas to a processing plant. Subsea pipe systems are more costly and complicated to construct compared with onshore pipe systems. Subsea manufacturing generally applies a barge on which pipe portions are successively joined together and attached to the onshore pipe endpoint. Because more portions are joined to the end of the pipeline, the barge goes to the oil or gas platforms, and the ending section of the pipeline is constantly moved down into the ocean at the back of the barge. Manufacturing advances up to the barge have arrived at the platform and the pipeline is attached to the oil or gas well. In deep oceans with rogue waves, ships in place of barges are employed for laying and setting of pipelines on the ocean floor. One of the most significant subsea oil pipe systems is located in the North Sea and connects the United Kingdom North Sea oil fields to the Shetland Islands. 1.6.1.3 Gas Pipelines The gas pipeline transportation system is a system utilized to transfer gas from gas wells to the processing plants and subsequently to a gas distribution network. Natural gas is straightly transferred to homes or buildings via an extensive network of gas pipe systems. In practice, all onshore transport of natural gas has been done using a pipe system. Transportation of natural gas using other means like truck, train, or barge is extremely unsafe and costly. When gas gathering and transfer networks are constructed of steel, the majority of distribution systems, for example, small trans- mission line connection means joining the principle or transfer lines to consumers constructed in the United States since 1980 employ pliable plastic pipelines that could easily lay and also, they do not oxidize. The United States runs the greatest and most advanced natural gas pipeline distribution system in the world. Natural gas consumption has also increased considerably in other countries around the world. 1.6.1.4 Pipelines for Transporting Other Fluids Pipe systems have been constructed for transporting several types of fluids. For example, liquid fertilizers can be traveled significant distances through pipe systems. The blend of oil and natural gas extracting from a well should be travelled as gas–liquid two-phase flows by pipe systems to onshore process plant before final oil/gas separation. Liquefied natural gas travelled by tanker ships with temperature- controlled tanks moreover needs small pipe systems to attach the tanker ships to supply tanks on land. There are 180-mile pipe systems in the United States to carry carbon dioxide to oil fields in West Texas to enhance production. Eventually, on a specific scope such as pharmaceutical or specialty chemicals production, pipelines have been used to carry different fluids and gases within the plants. As these liquids cannot stand impurities such as chlorides therefore, the pipeline should be made of inert materials [39].
- 30. 1.6 Evolution ofPipeline 13 1.6.1.5 Slurry Pipelines A slurry pipeline is a pipe system that is engineered to carry ores, like coal or gold, or copper, over vast distances. The slurry is a mix of the ore particles and water and is pumped to its destination. At its destination, the coal is removed from the water. Because of the corrosive features of slurry, the pipe systems could be constructed totally from high-density polyethylene pipes [40]. However, this may need an extremely thick-walled pipe. Slurry pipe systems have been employed as a replacement for railroad transport in a case that mines are placed in far, out of reach regions [41]. Investigators at the University of Alberta, located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada are studying the application of slurry pipe systems to take agricultural and forestry residues from many dispersed resources to a central biofuel plant. For distances greater than 100 km pipelines option was found to be more viable to transport biomass (i.e., charcoal, pellets). In comparison with an identically sized oil pipe system, a biomass slurry pipe can transport nearly 8% of the product [42]. The slurry is a mix of the solid particles of iron ore and a liquid, typically water. Typically, particles lie within the range in size from larger than 4 in. in identical diameter to under 1/1000 of an inch. If the solid particles of iron ore in the water are tiny the blend is usually named fine slurry, also if the solid particles of iron ore in the water are big the blend is usually named coarse slurry. The conventional mining companies have used pipe systems to carry mine wastes to the waste disposal site in the form of a slurry, employing water as the liquid. Sometimes sand, clay, or silt is dredged from the seabed with water via a pipe system to a manufacturing site that is some distance from. Generally, in a case that pipe systems are employed to carry coarse slurry, the slurry speed should be comparatively great for delaying the solids. This kind of slurry transportation is extremely corrosive to the pipeline, also the energy consumption is roughly at a high level. Accordingly, coarse slurry pipe systems are cost-effective on short journeys and are not reasonable for long distances. Ultimately, at the endpoint of the pipe, an industrial filter press is used to separate solid particles in a slurry from water. Generally, this water needs to undergo a wastewater treatment process before that goes back to the mine site. There is a considerable cost advantage of slurry pipe systems over railroad transportation. Furthermore, slurry pipe systems provide high noise reductions compared to railroad transportation, especially in a case that mines are located in far regions. Pipe networks should be efficiently designed to have good abrasion resistance as well as high corrosion stability. High-density polyethylene pipe lining systems can be used for internal pipeline protection. Slurry transfer pipe systems are normally used to carry coal, copper concentrate, iron concentrates, limestone, lead, kaolin, salt in the brine, and oil sands [43]. Slurry pipe systems have been moreover employed to carry waste from a mineral processing plant to a tailings storage facility after ore extraction. A mixture of oil sand and process water from ore preparation plants could be pumped through a long-distance hydrotransport pipeline system. Usually, long- distance transportation of solids using a slurry pipe system would need to employ
- 31. 14 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation relatively fine slurry. Current Hypothetical coal slurry pipe systems transport fine slurry composed of approximately 50% coal as well as 50% water by weight. Initially, the solid forms a paste when it is crushed and blended with water. The slurry afterward goes into a blending tank, that is made of one or more big rotating wheels to make the particles uniformly blended. As a next step, the slurry goes into the pipe system. The specific type of pumps (e.g., plunger or piston pumps) can be utilized to transport the slurry over long distances. 1.6.1.6 Pneumatic Pipelines The pneumatic tube system is technical equipment in which cylindrical containers are propelled through the system tubes using pressurized air or partial vacuum [44]. These systems have been utilized to transport solid materials, as opposed to ordi- nary pipe systems that carry fluids. Pneumatic tube systems achieved acceptance around 1900 for offices that wanted to send medicines, cash packets, and other small items over very small distances, such as within a building or the inner-city area. Some installations grew to high intricacy, however, they were mainly replaced. More recently, the usage of pneumatic tube systems in some settings, such as hospitals have been remarkably extended [45]. There exist two common kinds of pneumatic pipe systems [46]. The initial kind uses suction lines to produce suction in the pipeline by keeping the air compressor close to the downstream termination of the pipeline. The latter kind is pressure lines, and have compressors placed close to the upstream termination of the pipeline. This generates a pressure in the line and makes the air as well as the solids to be traveled overall the pipeline. Pressure transmission lines have been employed for greater distances and in cases that solids concentrated at one place are sent to various distinct places applying an individual blower or compressor. Conversely, suction lines have been employed for smaller distances and in cases that solids from various places are sent to a general destination using an ordinary blower or compressor [47]. A pneumatic pipe network should further contain a tank or hopper joint near the pipe entry to supply solid particles into the pipe system and a tank close to the pipe exit to split the conveyed solids from the airstream. The outlet air moreover should be filtered to stop air impurity. Systems of pneumatic pipelines could be used to carry combustible solids such as grain, flour, coal, or gunpowder, however, if they handle incorrectly, could lead to fire or even explosion. This is due to the accumulation of electric charges on fine particles transported pneumatically. The electric charges accumulated on solid particles can cause such fire or explosion. To prevent such fire or explosion some schemes can be used such as using metal pipelines instead of plastic pipelines, installing underground pipelines, cleaning the inside of the pipeline to remove the dust, and enhancing the humidity of the air employed for pneumatic transportation.
- 32. 1.6 Evolution ofPipeline 15 1.6.1.7 Capsule Pipelines Capsule pipelines technology can transport freight such as coal and solid waste which uses air to push the capsules through the pipeline. The capsule pipe systems can carry large amounts of freight for great distances in both horizontal and vertical directions having lower operating costs than its competitors. The wheeled capsules are regularly filled with ore, concentrate, coal, solid waste, and directed via a pipe system to be automatically stopped to drop off their contents at the receiving terminal [48]. Wheeled capsules are attached in trains and run within the pipe system concurrently therefore the transportation system is continuous. Typically, wheeled capsules can transfer multiple products without mixing and with a very low operating cost. Capsule pipe systems carry freight in capsules directed by a fluid proceeding via a pipe system. If the conveying fluid is a gas (namely air), the technology can be named pneumatic capsule pipeline [49], and, if the conveying fluid is water, the technology can be named hydraulic capsule pipeline [49]. Due to the low air density, capsules in the pneumatic capsule pipeline may not be stopped by air at normal velocities. Alter- natively, capsules (wheeled vehicles) roll throughout the pipe systems. Conversely, as water is heavy, the capsules in the hydraulic capsule pipeline do not need wheels. The pneumatic capsule pipeline and hydraulic capsule pipeline are both moved and stopped by water under normal operating velocities. Hydraulic capsule pipeline systems typically function at a velocity of 6–10 feet per second, whilst the functional velocity of pneumatic capsule pipeline is typically much greater—20 to 50 feet per second. Due to high friction losses at high speeds, pneumatic capsule pipelines use more energy in operation in comparison with hydraulic capsule pipelines [50]. Pneumatic capsule pipelines have been employed since the nineteenth century to transport a wide variety of products such as mail, printed telegraph messages, machine segments, and samples of blood (in hospitals). Since 1970, great wheeled pneumatic capsule pipelines have been produced to transport weighty cargo over comparatively great distances. The greatest pneumatic capsule pipeline in the world is LILO-2 placed in the republic of Georgia about 11 miles long and 48 in. diameter and is mainly constructed to transport rock [1, 51]. There’s a striking contrast between pneumatic capsule pipeline systems which are widely used and hydraulic capsule pipeline systems which is in its early stage of growth or development. Hydraulic capsule pipeline systems were initially employed by the British army to transport military equipment in East Asia while the Second World War. Extensive research was carried out on capsule pipeline technology in Canada at the Alberta Research Council from 1958 to 1975. The spread of this new technology within countries was significantly high. In 1991, the National Science Foundation in the United States created a Capsule Pipeline Research Center at the University of Missouri-Columbia [52]. A new structure of the hydraulic capsule pipeline system is the coal-log pipeline [53], which carries compacted coal logs. The coal-log pipeline removes the usage of capsules for enclosing coal and the requirement to have a distinct pipe system for returning vacant capsules. For the same diameter, the coal-log pipe system carries more coal utilizing less water in comparison with the coal-slurry pipe system [1, 54].
- 33. 16 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation Large-diameter capsule pipe systems have been successfully employed to carry most types of cargo typically transported by trucks or trains. In both Europe and the United States, capsule pipe systems of large diameter (mainly pneumatic capsule pipelines) are suggested for freight transportation services [51, 55]. Such capsule pipe systems for freight transportation services not just permit the face of the earth to be utilized for other aims but they as well decrease the number of trucks as well as trains required, which for their part decrease air impurity, accidents, and harm to highway and rail foundations due to the heavy traffic [56]. 1.7 Design and Operation Many factors affect the pipeline design such as the choice of the path traveled by the pipeline, specification of the construction and the functioning speed, computing of pressure gradient, the choice of pumps and other instruments, and determining the pipe sizes and equipment. The design experts should give serious consideration to security, preventing leak, blockage and damage, government laws and regulations, and environmental challenges and impacts. 1.7.1 Components The pipe systems are made of various pieces of materiel that function simultaneously to carry products from one place to another place. The major components of a pipe network are primary injection building, compressor and pumping buildings, partial delivery or intermediate building, block valve building, regulator building, terminal delivery building. Particular pipe systems that carry cryogenic liquids, for example liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, and liquid carbon dioxide, should have refrigeration systems to maintain the liquid in the pipeline under the lower critical temperature [57, 58]. 1.7.2 Construction The preparation and design of pipe systems require a detailed survey of the route, ditching, and excavation, hauling the pipes, and other equipment to the location, placing pipes in assembly position alongside the ditch centerline, curving steel pipes in the field to fit a required alignment using the pipe-bending machine, coating of steel pipes and fittings for corrosion protection, welding pipes together before or after being placed in the trench, ensuring the satisfactory performance of a welded structure, and then refilling the trench by soil and restoration to return the land to its original condition. Long-distance pipelines have to be made in segments therefore,
- 34. 1.7 Design andOperation 17 construction of the second segment starts once the construction of the first segment is completed and so on. Hence, the time that any given place is allocated during construction activities would be minimized. Even when the pipe systems are great, building for any segment is normally ended within six months and mostly in a short time. Small pipe systems could be built in days. Typically, while passing a pipeline through a river or stream, the pipeline can be either connected to a bridge structure, placed along the stream bed or bored through the soil below the stream. A tunnel boring machine can be used when pipelines need to cross rivers and roads. 1.7.3 Operation Large modern pipe systems are designed to operate automatically by a centralized computer network control system at the pipeline company. The centralized computer network control system observes the rate of flow, pressure, discharge of liquids or gasses and other parameters at different places along the pipeline, carries out numerous online calculations and sends corrective signals to the field devices to control the function of the valves and compressors. Human intervention is often required to changing operating modes, whenever various batches of fuels are sent to various containers designed for the temporary storage of fuels, or whenever the system should be turn off or turn on. 1.7.4 Safety The safety and reliability of pipe networks rely heavily on the materials transported. Recently, for making proper decisions about the safety and integrity of the pipes, the risk values and risk factors are mainly important issues to be discussed. Nevertheless, the challenge is the validity of the models used to obtain the risk data. Hence, there is a requirement for a potent device to deal well with that uncertainty. Possibly the best device for coping with uncertainty is the application of artificial intelligence techniques utilizing fuzzy logic. Artificial intelligence technique has proven to be highly effective in many fields [59–80] especially in manufacturing systems. Pipeline operators employ several techniques for pipeline safety and also to detect faults in the pipelines [81–85]. Pipe networks that carry water or employ water to carry coarse- grain solids, like hydraulic capsule pipe systems, do not cause any environmental pollution in case that the pipe breaks or tears. The rupture of crude oil (petroleum) pipes does not result in a fire, however, they can deposit the pollution into water and soil. Natural gas pipes and product pipes that carry highly volatile liquids, such as butane, ethane, propane can be easily exploded because of a pipeline leak, therefore they deserve special consideration and regulatory treatment. Despite the fact that there are many different risk factors or threats for pipelines, they are proven to be the safest way to transport petroleum and natural gas products. Apparently using other
- 35. 18 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation modes of transportation such as truck or railroad to move such fuel on land are very risky and expensive. DuringthedecadeaftertheSecondWorldWar,numerouslargepipenetworkswere built. The boom in pipe manufacturing led to numerous inventions and technological progress in pipeline construction and building. Longitudinal submerged arc welded pipes manufacturing process was one the most common approach to construct large diameter pipes [86]. Later double submerged arc welding was used that mechanically expanded the pipe. The double submerged arc welding showed to be more valid and was widely accepted as the unique tools of constructing submerged arc welded pipes. Immediately after welding, the cold expansion was applied to every piece of submerged arc welded pipe to make the diameter of the pipe uniform [30]. Although pipelines have had a good record than other transportation modes, in the United States there is a great concern about pipe safety as spills and incidents still happening. In the United States the main emphasis has been placed on pipeline safety. Much research has been carried out to prevent pipeline rupture or leak accidents and also to rectify problems anytime they happen. Analysis of pipeline accidents in the United States has been shown that the third-party damage has become the main cause of nearly half of all pipeline incidents, as, for example, a builder could damage the pipe when digging the home’s foundation. As a result, pipeline companies have a specific education program for the public on pipeline security and share information to building and infrastructure groups on the places of buried pipelines for decreasing third-party damage. Pipeline corrosion is the number one factor in pipeline failure, which is an electro- chemical process resulting from an electrochemical reaction between metal surfaces with wet soil. Pipeline security and other actions taken by pipeline companies to combat corrosion are coating buried pipes with tape and employing cathodic protec- tion to protect outer corrosion also inserting specific chemicals to the fluid against inner corrosion. Hydrazine and sodium sulfite are the two most widely used chem- icals for controlling corrosion in water pipelines. The decrease in corrosion is due to the reaction of these chemicals and therefore eliminating most of the dissolved oxygen from water. Eventually, the leakage detection can be carried out by computer observation of unusual flow rates and pressure also using light aircraft or helicopters along the pipeline route for visual detection. Furthermore, Smart pigs can be sent through pipelines to identify corrosion, weak welds, and other signs of damage.
- 36. 1.8 Pipeline Milestones19 1.8 Pipeline Milestones 1834 Initial North American cast iron pipeline made at Millville, New Jersey 1856 Development of the Bessemer steel 1858 Initial American oil well made at Titusville, Pennsylvania 1863 Initial oil pipe network transported 800 tanks of crude oil daily 1863 Screwed couplings used to join pipes and fittings 1863 Development of wrought iron piping 1869 Development of pipeline hydrostatic testing to maintain the quality and safety of the pipe 1871 Displacement of wrought iron by the adoption of Bessemer steel 1891 Development of Dresser coupling for joining two pieces of pipes 1897 Construction of the initial 30 diameters lap-welded pipeline 1899 Construction of the initial 20 diameters seamless pipeline 1900 Maximum of lap-welded pipelines were formed from steel sheets 1904 The initial large-diameter gas transportation pipe network 1911 Acetylene girth welds were used to build a 1-mile pipe network 1914 Acetylene girth welds were used to build a 35-mile pipe network 1917 Electric metal arc welding was used to build an 11-mile pipe network 1919 American Petroleum Institute, the major trade association of the oil industry established 1924 Low-frequency electric resistance welding current was used to build pipeline 1925 Development of large-diameter seamless pipeline 1927 Electric flash welded pipeline was manufactured 1928 Development of American Petroleum Institute Standard 5L (Electric Fusion Welding, electric resistance welding, spiral submerged arc welding, longitudinal submerged arc welded) for manufacturing pipeline 1930 Electric arc girth welding was used to build the first long-distance pipe network 1931 An extension occurred, upon American Petroleum Institute Standard 5L that was including electric resistance-welded pipe 1933 Maximum of pipe networks were welded with electric arc girth welding 1935 Publishing of initial American tentative pressure piping code 1942 An extension occurred, upon American Petroleum Institute Standard 5L that was including hydrostatic testing of pipeline 1942 Publishing of American standard pressure piping code 1942–1943 Construction of crude oil line and products line from Texas to New Jersey during the Second World War 1944 An extension occurred, upon American Petroleum Institute Standard 5L that was including electric flash-welded pipeline 1946 Construction of single submerged arc welding pipeline (continued)
- 37. 20 1 TheImportance of Pipeline Transportation (continued) 1834 Initial North American cast iron pipeline made at Millville, New Jersey 1948 Introduction of radiographic testing for the inspection of girth welds 1948 Construction of double submerged arc welding pipeline 1948 Development of American Petroleum Institute Tentative Standard 5LX for manufacturing pipeline 1951 Pressure piping code was approved by the American National Standards Institute 1953 American piping products in grades X46 and X52 were presented 1956 Hydrostatic mill test was presented 1959 First distinct code for oil pipeline transportation 1962 Manufacturing of furnace lap welded pipeline was discontinued and process deleted from American Petroleum Institute 5L 1962 Oxygen converter process accepted in American Petroleum Institute 5L 1963 Pipe body nondestructive examinations started to use in American Petroleum Institute 5L pipe specification 1965 Initial application of intelligent pig in the pipe system 1966 Development of American Petroleum Institute 5L grade X60 pipeline 1967 Development of American Petroleum Institute 5L grade X65 pipeline 1969 Manufacturing of furnace lap-welded pipeline discontinued and process deleted from American Petroleum Institute 5L 1969 Supplementary fracture toughness tests added in American Petroleum Institute 5L 1970 Manufacturing of Bessemer steel discontinued and process deleted from American Petroleum Institute 5L 1970 Federal liquid pipeline safety standards were published 1973 Development of American Petroleum Institute 5L grade X70 pipeline 1977 Trans-Alaska pipeline system began operation 1980 Application of high-resolution intelligent pig in the pipe system 1982 Intelligent pig inspection tested 1983 American Petroleum Institute 5L and American Petroleum Institute 5LX merged in American Petroleum Institute 5L 1985 Development of American Petroleum Institute 5L grade X80 pipeline 1992–95 Testing crack inspection devices in a variety of applications 2000 The lowest fracture toughness value was proposed in American Petroleum Institute 5L 2001 Initiating pipeline integrity management system design for dangerous liquid carrying pipe systems
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- 42. Chapter 2 A Reviewon Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques 2.1 Introduction Piping systems are the safest and most efficient and cost-effective way for fluid transportation around the world. Pipelines act as the most important type of transport infrastructure to keep our country moving. There exist 2.4 million miles of pipeline for transportation around the world. Pipe networks have been normally employed to transport crude oil from the production regions to distribution centres. Pipe systems are not only safer but need less energy to function than alternative transportation options. Nevertheless, apart from the industrial production processes, pipelines have been further used in aircraft hydraulic and fuel systems. Normally, transmission pipelines function up to 5000 psi [1], and up to 1400 PSIG for natural gas pipe systems [2]. As a result, circular pipe sections are often utilized because of the stability, strength, and rigidity of the structure and the uniform shape of the cross-section. Pipe networks are beneficial to transfer water for drinking purpose or irrigation at a great distance whenever it requires to go up and down hills, or where canals or channels are wrong options because of the considerations of vaporization, pollution, or environmental effect. Oil leaks in pipelines could cause a lot of damage to the environment and accordingly lead to explosions, fires, or injuries of the pipeline network. Direct impacts resulting from pipeline damage are production loss, loss of life, injury, or other health impacts. Moreover, blockage of pipeline network systems will lead to pressure build-up along the line and eventual rupture and explosion in case that it is not properly checked and fixed. Leakages and blockages in pipe systems can be caused by several potential causal factors like using imperfect and substandard materials in the construction of pipelines, extreme functioning temperature of the pipeline, and fluid pollution caused by excessive biofilm build-up. Other types of pipeline damage include oper- ations and production outside design basis, corrosion and wear, indeliberate third- party injury, and deliberate injury [3]. Corrosion is recognized as a main cause of failure in onshore gas, crude oil and refined fuels transferring pipe systems in the United States and was responsible for almost 18 percent of pipe accidents (both © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 S. Razvarz et al., Flow Modelling and Control in Pipeline Systems, Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 321, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59246-2_2 25
- 43. 26 2 AReview on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques onshore and offshore) between 1988 and 2008 [4]. Hence, pipe networks should be constructed with leakage and blockage inspection devices so that operators can be notified when the systems require detection [5]. To minimise the occurrence of pipe failure, leakage and blockage must be identified in their early stages therefore, necessary actions could be identified and implemented in a timely manner. 2.2 Non-destructive Testing Techniques for Flaw Identification in Pipelines There exist several different non-destructive testing techniques recently utilized for the inspection of leakage and blockage faults in pipe networks and without having to interfere with the operating of the pipelines. However, those techniques have their limitations and weaknesses. Some recent non-destructive testing techniques employed to identify the fault in the pipeline are [6] ultrasonic, magnetic particle inspection, pressure transients, and acoustic wave approaches. Some approaches are positioning methods, and focus on sensors or dye scanning over each section of the surface of the pipeline during the detection process. However, it can be a daunting task with a time-consuming process. Moreover, some of those techniques are not always capable to detect leaks effectively and may fall in predicting the size and position of a defect [7]. Besides, radiography and safety equipment and facilities for the detection process are highly costly. It is important to note that apart from the equipment expense, radiography is a high-cost non-destructive testing technique, both in capital items, consumables, and manpower [8]. The pressure transients [9–17] and acoustic wave approaches [18–22] are remark- ably inexpensive and effective techniques that can observe the impact of a flaw in a pipe network via observing the pipe reply. Accordingly, the acoustic wave propaga- tion technique in a joint time–frequency domain has been employed to identify leaks and blockages in a pipe network filled with fluid. The acoustic wave reflectometry is a time domain-based approach and the roving mass is a frequency domain-based approach. The roving mass technique has been effectively utilized for crack, leakage, and blockage inspection in a pipe network filled with fluid. 2.3 Acoustic Wave Reflectometry and Roving-Mass Technique The acoustic wave reflectometry technique involves the introduction of a pulse of pressure into the pipeline filled with fluid. The impacted pressure pulse causes the pipe system to shake, sometimes violently, and consequently generates wave propa- gation through the pipe such that the speed of propagation depends basically on the
- 44. 2.3 Acoustic WaveReflectometry and Roving-Mass Technique 27 medium’s characteristics. Nevertheless, if there exist any discontinuities in the cross- sectional area of the pipeline, from any cause like leakage, obstruction, and elbows, it willgiverisetotheoccurrenceofpartialreflectionandtransmissionofthesoundwave on the joining points. At the same time, microphones that are installed throughout the pipeline have been employed to evaluate the transmission and reflection acoustic waves as they travel through the pipelines. The roving mass technique is based on traveling the roving mass throughout the pipeline filled with fluid under acoustic excitation. At every position of the roving mass, the model frequencies of the fluid in the pipeline can be calculated. The modal frequencyifisplottedwilldemonstratethechangesinthemodelfrequencydepending upon the positions of the roving mass. The measured signals by a roving mass of a healthy pipeline filled with air are different from the measured signals by a roving mass of a pipeline with leakage and blockage faults and can be used to detect the position and the size of leakage and blockage in the defected pipeline. It is note- worthy that the acoustic wave technique is usually determined by how severe the measurements are polluted with noise. However, signal improvement methods can be used to improve the acoustic wave reflectometry technique and the roving mass technique to effectively identify blockages and leakage in a pipeline. Artificial intelligence has become the most effective approach which attracts many investigators to deeply research [23–66]. It has been successfully used for leak detec- tion. The amplitude or velocity of signal propagation will change when a pipe has a leak. In [67] and [68] neural network technique has been utilized to detect the leak in a pipeline and has been provided promising results. In [69] artificial neural network has been utilized to detect the leak in a pipeline such that the sound noise data has been gathered through several microphones placed within a specific distance from the damaged part. The fast Fourier transform algorithm has been performed on data and supplied to a feed-forward network for making a final decision. In [70] neural network technique has been used for pattern recognition in oil pipe networks. After preprocessing the experimental data extracted from the acoustic sensors, it passed through a filter to produce different frequencies. The noisy data were then passed as inputtotheneuralnetwork.Twotypesofdataextractedfromthehealthyanddamaged pipe are fed to neural networks. The approach provides satisfactory results for short pipes. For long-distance pipelines, the approach is not recommended as numerous microphones are needed to place through the pipes which make the approach highly expensive. In [71] a real-time sonic leak detection system is suggested to detect leaks in oil pipelines. The wavelet transform technique has been used to extract features and also the neural network approach has been applied for making a final decision. The leak detection system is made of two digital signal processors, four piezoresistive pressure sensors, and two global positioning systems. The piezoresistive pressure sensors have been fixed at both pipe ends. The piezoresistive pressure sensors are highly susceptible to tiny variations and their measurement is based on a variation in resistance because of strain on a material. Two piezoresistive pressure sensors are applied to distinguish the signal direction during a sudden drop in pressure produced by the leak. The wavelet decomposition technique is applied to the signal obtained after preprocessing and the result is supplied as an input to the neural network. As
- 45. 28 2 AReview on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques leaks are recognized by a sudden drop in pressure, hence the cases where the pressure increases or is fixed have already been largely abandoned. However, the key tech- nical challenge was determining an optimum sampling rate which was determined after testing some sampling rate. This technique can efficiently differentiate leakage in the pipeline and operates accordingly by turning off the pump. Nevertheless, this technique is not suitable for long-distance transportation pipeline system and it is not able to recognize the position of leakage in the pipeline. Using this technique, it is possible to monitor the system continuously. Moreover, acoustic signals sensed by sensors can successfully identify the leakage position and as well approximate the size of leakage [72]. Nevertheless, often environmental noise can generate prob- lems in identifying the real leakage signal. This technique is not applicable for long pipelines as it requires a great number of sensors for leakage detection which is not economically beneficial. 2.4 Risk Assessment in Pipeline Failure Event The risk corresponding to fire and explosion hazards as a consequence of leak and blockages in pipelines could not be negligent. The incidents of pipeline failure which include pipeline corrosion, human negligence could be traced back to more than fifty years ago. Pipe-failure incidents from 1959 made a quick and regulatory requirement for research and development of inspection and monitoring devices. The designed devices apart from identifying flaws, they should be able to identify the size and also the position of the leaks and blockages even under noisy environmental status. Furthermore, a tool or inspection technique that has the ability to identify a defect at its early phase is very important to the pipeline industries. In July 1959, a fire happened in a petroleum pipeline in Vernet, Mexico, which led to the death of people and the destruction of production. In that accident at least eleven people were believed killed and forty were injured [73]. On January 17, 1962, a fire happened in a gas pipeline in Edson, Alberta which led to the death of eight people [73]. On October 12, 1965, a gas line explosion in LaSalle, Quebec, Canada demolished a number of buildings and also led to the death of twenty-eight people [74]. On the same date, a natural gas line exploded in Sundre, Alberta, Canada, and led to the death of two people [75]. In 1978 a gas line explosion in Colonia Benito, Mexico led to the death of fifty-two people [76]. On September 19, 2012, a fire happened in a natural gas pipeline in northern Mexico and led to the death of twenty-six people and injuries of forty-eight people [77, 78] as demonstrated in Fig. 2.1. On June 6, 1989, a powerful gas pipeline explosion happened in Ufa, Russia, and destroyed a great part of the forest [78]. An investigation into the incident found that the workers by ignoring gas regulations pumped gas into a pipeline which had an undetected leakage so that caused an explosion and fire. Although there were pressure fluctuations in the gas chamber and dumping rates, the workers carried on pumping and caused a great exploration which led to the destruction of two passing trains and
- 46. 2.4 Risk Assessmentin Pipeline Failure Event 29 Fig. 2.1 The blast of a natural gas pipe distribution centre in Reynosa, Mexico [79] the death of nearly eight hundred people. The United States has reported the largest number of pipeline ignitions and explosions in the world as it is the world’s largest oil producer with over 2.6 million miles of oil and gas pipelines. However, a majority of these accidents happen because of aging pipe systems and the limitation in the valid and efficient pipe monitoring technology. Table 2.1 demonstrates accident cases from 1959 to 2019 with the number of deaths and injuries. The Pipeline explosions and fires are still happening up to now. The most recent accident to our knowledge has occurred in Sissonville, West Virginia [94, 95], on December 12, 2012, led to huge explosions as demonstrated in Fig. 2.2. In the United States alone there were eighty-one accident reports for natural gas transmission and gathering pipelines in just one year [96]. However, the lack of adequate and efficient transmission line monitoring systems is one of the leading causes of pipeline accidents in the world. Even though no one died in the Sissonville pipeline accident, it resulted in seven injuries and $44 million of damage. Further- more, in that same year in the United States, approximately seventy-one accidents of pipelines occurred which killed nine people and led to the injuring of twenty- one people. Likewise, in 2010, the explosion of the pipeline system in San Bruno, California, left eight people dead and destroyed twenty-eight houses [97]. As it was reported it took a long time to shut off the gas spewing from the pipeline in San Bruno because of the lack of automatic shut-off valves and valves that can be closed remotely. However, the reason for these failures is the lack of efficient moni- toring devices for observing leakage in pipelines. Early detection and effective alarm systems will increase the time available for repairing the damage and decrease the number of fatalities. On March 12, 2014, an explosion happened in New York by a gas leak, and two buildings were destroyed, see Fig. 2.3. In that accident, eight people died and more than seventy people injured [98]. A preliminary investigation
- 47. 30 2 AReview on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques Table 2.1 Pipeline blast with the number of deaths and injuries [80–93] Year Date Region Incident report Amount of fatalities Amount of injuries 1959 01/07/59 Mexico (Coatzacoalcos) A blast of a crude oil pipeline 12 + 100 1962 17/01/62 Canada (Edson, Alberta) A blast of a gas lateral line 8 0 1965 05/11/65 Canada (LaSalle, Quebec) A blast of a gas pipeline 28 0 1970 03/09/70 United States (Jacksonville) A blast of a petroleum products pipe system 0 5 1970 09/12/70 United States (Missouri) A blast of propane gas line 0 0 1971 17/11/71 United States (Pittsburgh) A blast of natural gas line 6 0 1972 24/03/72 United States (Annandale, Virginia) A blast of natural gas line 3 1 1972 14/05/72 United States (Annandale, Virginia) A blast of crude oil line 1 2 1973 22/02/73 United States (Texas) A blast of natural gas liquids line 0 0 1973 06/12/73 United States (Conway) A leak in an ammonia pipe network 0 0 1974 15/03/74 United States (Farmington) Transmission pipeline failure of Southern Union Gas Company 0 0 1974 22/04/74 United States (New York) A blast of gas line 0 0 1974 21/05/74 United States (Texas) A blast of natural gas gathering line 0 0 1974 06/09/74 United States (Texas) A blast of gas line 0 0 1975 17/01/75 United States (Lima) Crude oil terminal fire 0 0 1975 12/12/75 United States (Devers) A blast of natural gas line 4 0 1975 02/08/75 United States (Romulus) A blast of gas line 0 9 (continued)
- 48. 2.4 Risk Assessmentin Pipeline Failure Event 31 Table 2.1 (continued) Year Date Region Incident report Amount of fatalities Amount of injuries 1976 10/01/76 United States (Fremont) A blast of natural gas line 20 39 1976 16/06/76 United States (Los Angeles) A blast of oil transmission line 9 14 1976 08/08/76 United States (Allentown) A blast of natural gas transmission line 2 14 1976 09/08/76 United States (Mediapolis) A blast of gas transmission line 6 1 1976 07/12/76 United States (Robstown, Texas) A blast of natural gas transmission line 1 2 1977 25/01/77 United States (Williamsport) A blast of natural gas transmission line 2 19 1977 20/07/77 United States (Creek) A blast of gas line 2 0 1977 01/12/77 United States (Atlanta) Rupturing of natural gas line 0 0 1977 15/12/77 United States (Lawrence) An explosion of natural gas pipeline 2 2 1978 01/11/78 Mexico (colonia Benito Juarez) A blast of gas line 52 11 1978 12/06/78 United States (Kansas City, Missouri) A blast of natural gas line 0 2 1978 04/08/78 United States (Donnellson, Iowa) A blast of gas line 2 3 1979 11/05/79 United States (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) A blast of natural gas line 8 19 1979 24/10/79 United States (Stanardsville, Virginia) A blast of gas line 0 13 1986 27/10/86 Canada (Sarnia, Ontario) A blast of gas line 0 4 2003 15/11/2003 Canada (Etobicoke, Ontario) An explosion of the oil pipeline 7 0 (continued)
- 49. 32 2 AReview on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques Table 2.1 (continued) Year Date Region Incident report Amount of fatalities Amount of injuries 2004 30/07/2004 Belgium (Ghislenghien) A blast of natural gas line 24 122 2006 18/10/2006 Indonesia (East Java) A blast of gas line 0 0 2010 19/12/2010 Mexico (San Martín Texmelucan de Labastida) A blast of oil line 27 + 50 2011 12/11/2011 Kenya (Nairobi) A blast of the fuel pipeline 100 120 2012 18/09/2012 Mexico (Reynosa, Tamaulipas) A blast of gas line 22 0 2013 22/11/2013 China (Huangdao, Qingdao) A blast of oil line 55 0 2014 14/06/2014 Malaysia (Sarawak) A blast of gas line 0 0 2014 27/06/2014 India (Andhra Pradesh) An explosion of the gas pipeline 22 37 2017 29/04/2017 India (Jamnagar) A blast of gas line 0 0 2019 18/01/2019 Mexico (Tlahuelilpan) A blast of the gasoline pipeline 96 0 of the New York accident concluded the blast was because of the aging of a pipeline system and general negligence. As it was reported the pipeline was not checked for so long because of negligence. There are fierce objections to pipeline incidents from landowners and environ- mental groups in the United States. Examples of these objections include the pipeline development to move crude oil from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico in 2012 [100]. The nature and extent of the pipeline was an environmental threat that drew national and presidential attention. Therefore, the safe pipeline system needed to be developed and checked before they start work. The cumulative reported damage and fatalities caused by pipeline accidents and explosions have risen through the world. On July 17, 2010, oil from the Dalian pipeline explosion in China threatened marine animals, sea birds, and water quality as slick had spread to 430 km2 [101]. According to the government reports the explosion resulted in a serious ecological disaster, releasing 15,000 barrels of oil into the Yellow sea [102]. Oil pipeline vandalism is a threat to Nigeria’s national security. Nigeria lost approximately six to twelve billion dollars every year for the past thirty years as a result of pipeline vandalism and over 29,000 lives have been lost
- 50. 2.4 Risk Assessmentin Pipeline Failure Event 33 Fig. 2.2 The explosion of a gas pipeline in the United States [95] Fig. 2.3 A gas pipe system explosion in New York, United States [99]
- 51. 34 2 AReview on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques from pipeline accidents and explosions [103]. The fire caused by pipeline vandalism in Nigeria apart from the loss of human lives it causes huge economic damage. As seen today vandals have created a major national security threat. According to the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation on February 4, 2016, the fire caused by vandals at Arepo in Owode area of Ogun State led to the death of five pipeline security operatives [104]. Injuries and deaths due to pipeline accidents and explosions have been happened throughout the developed and developing countries all around the world [105–115]. Since the United States, Canada and Russia are three primary countries with most miles of pipelines, therefore they have the highest number of pipeline explosions. Most pipeline explosions have been in the United States, while Russia has the highest death rates in pipeline accidents. However, pipelines are regarded as the least risky way of transportation compared to trucks and tankers. They are 40 times safer than rail tanks, as well as 100 times safer than road tanks. Thus, risks associated with transmission pipelines is lower compared with other devices such as it is similar to risks associated with air travel. If a pipeline build fails, it can have catastrophic effects such as fire, explosions. Pipeline faults like leakage and blockage can result in serious ecological disasters, therefore efficient leakage and blockage awareness techniques should be developed. 2.5 The Most Common Causes of Leaking Pipes Typically, many of the welds and protective coatings on the pipelines do not meet current safety standards and result in leakages in pipelines. Furthermore, leakages in pipelines arise from corrosion and excavation damage while pipe manufacturing. Manufacturing flaws in pipe systems may include girth or seam weld flaws by lack of fill, misalignment or, cracking. In addition, other types of leakage flaws could be corrosion at the girth welds, damage to the external pipe coating, dent stress concentration factor on the external pipe surface, and mechanical damage due to third party activities. All these factors have been described below. 2.5.1 Pipeline Damage Caused by the Stress Concentration Cracking in pipelines can be due to stress concentration in a pipe network. It is typically associated with areas of stress concentration. For instance, polyethylene pipes are widely utilized in natural gas distribution lines and joined together. Joining is usually done by thermal fusing—heating and melting the pipe ends. Nevertheless, fusion can be the source of crack initiation such that if there exists stress concentration in the fusion area, it can result in crack initiation. In the beginning, the cracks are small but it won’t take so long for a crack to grow from a certain initial size if it is not detected which could cause a leakage in the pipeline [116].
- 52. 2.5 The MostCommon Causes of Leaking Pipes 35 2.5.2 Pipeline Damage Caused by Third-Party Activities Third-party damage has been the most common cause of pipeline failure which highly affects the performance of a pipeline. Third-party damage can result in pipeline leaks and ruptures. Typically, this includes mechanical damage like pipe coating damage, dent in the pipe, and gouge which may result in reduced wall thickness or distortion of pipeline cross-section. Other types of damage involve terrorist acts, sabotage, theft of the product from the pipeline, and other malevolent acts. 2.5.3 Pipeline Damage Caused by Corrosion Fluids in pipelines influence the corrosion rate. For instance, pipelines that carry the steam around the plant and process industries, including petroleum refineries, are subject to higher rates of erosion-corrosion. Passing such fluids through steel pipelines without any internal corrosion protection can cause corrosion of the pipe wall. If left undetected, these corrosions will propagate through the wall and result in leakage. Likewise, corrosion attack upon the outside of the pipes can occur on both above-ground and underground steel pipes [117]. Often low-alloy steel pipelines havepoorresistancetocorrosion.Accordingly,thesoilenvironmentisresponsiblefor stress corrosion cracking of underground stainless-steel pipelines. Stress corrosion cracking is defined as the growth of cracks under the combined influence of tensile stress and corrosive environments. There are two types of stress corrosion cracking normally developed at the surface of underground pipelines, and known as high pH stress corrosion cracking and near-neutral pH stress corrosion cracking. When these cracks appeared, they would grow in the longitudinal direction of the pipe and link up to form long shallow faults, that can lead to ruptures. In some cases, growth and interlinking of the stress-corrosion cracks produce flaws that are of sufficient size to cause leakages and subsequent pipeline ruptures. Typical growth and developments of the stress-corrosion cracks will result in subsequent failure (leakage or rupture). 2.5.4 Pipeline Damage Caused by the Operational Limitation Depending on the circumstances, there are some operating limits for pipelines such as maximum operating pressure and the minimum pipe sizes. However, in some developing countries, there are no local regulations and laws to control the pipeline design, maintenance standards, and functions of fluid transmitting pipeline networks. Alargenumberofpipelineshavebeeninserviceformanyyearswithnoregardforany possible mechanical variations happening in the pipeline. Sometimes, some operators use the same pipelines to ship different types of hazardous liquids. However, many of the welds and protective coatings on these pipelines do not meet with the corrosive
- 53. 36 2 AReview on Different Pipeline Defect Detection Techniques nature of the fluids. The consequences could have resulted in sever wall thickness reduction on the internal pipeline surface and pipeline rupture. Also, the pressure for the piping could exceed the pressure rating or the allowable stress for pressure design that can pass the minimum wall thickness of the pipeline. As a result, a crack could initiate which may be developed into a fracture [118]. 2.6 The Most Common Causes of Blocked Pipes Many factors influence blockage formation in pipes like the reaction of hydrocarbons with the presence of water for hydrate formation, wax deposition to the formation and eventual growth of solid layers, and deposition of suspended solid particles in the fluids (dirt, silt, clay, rust). Other factors for the formation of blockage in pipelines could be the formation of a plug, the formation of wax on pipeline walls, and other foreign materials that are produced during the crude oil refinery process. Furthermore, the inside of an aging pipe could become heavily encrusted leading to a blockage in the pipeline. All these factors have been described below. 2.6.1 Pipeline Blockage Caused by Hydrate Formation Under the high-pressure condition, problems can arise in gas pipe systems, due to the possible presence of condensable hydrocarbons in transmission lines, particularly during extremely cold weather conditions. In ultra-deep water depth, water can enter the natural gas pipe network through the porosity of the pipe walls [119]. In ocean- bottom, the gas hydrates can be formed when water and natural gas cool in the pipes. Gas hydrates are ice-like crystalline compounds that can block pipelines in deep-sea and cause explosion in pipes [120]. In2008acrackedpipecausedpropanefireatValeroMckeerefineryinTexas[119], see Fig. 2.4. Fire is believed to have started after a leak in the propane deasphalting unit and extended quickly, due in part to rapid fracture of the main pipe rack trans- ferring flammable hydrocarbons. As vapour travelled in wind direction and found an ignition source, the ensuing flash fire spread. The subsequent fire injured workers and damaged unit piping and equipment [121]. Three workers suffered serious burns and several others suffered minor injuries. The fire was so large that it resulted in the evacuation and total shutdown of the McKee refinery for two months. The price of a gallon of gas went up nine cents in the west. The United States Chemical Safety Board made a safety recommendation that piping systems in refineries should be subject to formal periodic inspection and monitoring. To prevent the pipeline inci- dents an efficient defect inspection system, needs to be installed rather than only surface detection technique.
- 54. 2.6 The MostCommon Causes of Blocked Pipes 37 Fig. 2.4 Fire at Valero Mckee Refinery due to ice expansion 2.6.2 Pipeline Blockage Caused by the Agglomeration of Sand and Debris Themajorityof pipenetworks employedtocarrycrudeoil or natural gas fromproduc- tion areas are inclined to deposit sand and other impurities, like debris. In a case that these particles could pile up for a long time, they could result in pipeline block- ages. Pipeline blockages may lead to some serious problems such as interruptions in production and pipeline damages. 2.6.3 Pipeline Blockage Caused by Roots As roots grow, they could occasionally break the pipelines and enter the cracks. When a root finds a leak, it will form root balls that block the pipeline. The chemical treatment can be used to kill plants and tree roots that have found their way into pipelines.
- 55. Exploring the Varietyof Random Documents with Different Content
- 56. worst, when thetwo nurses stood one on each side of the bed and freely discussed her state, in utter indifference to the husband standing miserably by, with Gerty's little sharp face peeping from behind him. "Eh, pore thing, I'm sure!" with a sniff and a sob, "it is 'ard at 'er age to go i' this way--pore thing, it is 'ard. Which ring did you say Gerty was to 'ave, love?" bending down over the sick woman, who was just conscious enough to know that some one was speaking to her--"the keeper? Yes, love; I'll see to it. And which is for Ada Elizabeth?" "Her breathing's getting much harder," put in the woman on the other side; "it won't be long now. T' doctor said there was a chance with care, but I know better. I've seen so many, and if it's the Lord's will to take her, He'll take her. We may do all we can, but it's no use, for I've seen so many." Mr. Dicki'son gave a smothered groan, and turning sharply round went out of the room and down the narrow creaking stairs, with a great lump in his throat and a thick mist in front of his eyes. A fretful wail from little Mirry had fallen upon his ear, and he found her sobbing piteously, while Ada Elizabeth tried in vain to pacify her. She was more quiet when she found herself in his arms; and then he noticed, with a sudden and awful fear knocking at his heart, that there was something wrong with his right hand, Ada Elizabeth--that she looked fagged and white, and that there was a brilliancy in her dull grey eyes such as he had never seen there before. "Ada Elizabeth, what ails you?" he asked anxiously.
- 57. "Ada Elizabeth, whatails you?" he asked anxiously. "Nought, Father; I'm a bit tired, that's all," she answered, pushing her heavy hair away from her forehead. "Mirry was awake all night nearly, and I couldn't keep her quiet hardly." Mr. Dicki'son looked closely at Mirry; but though the child was evidently heavy and inclined to be fretful, there was not the same glitter in her eyes as there was in her sister's. "Here, Gerty," he said, "nurse Mirry a bit. I want to go upstairs for a minute." "Can't Ada Elizabeth have her?" asked Gerty, who always wanted to be in the sick-room, so that she might know the latest
- 58. news of hermother and be to the front whoever came--for in those dark days, between the rector and the doctors and the neighbours who came in and out, there were a good many visitors to the little house. "Our Ada Elizabeth always keeps Mirry quiet better than I can, father." "Do as I bid you," returned Mr. Dicki'son sharply; and thus rebuked, Gerty sat crossly down and bumped little Mirry on to her knee with a burst of temper, which set the child wailing again. Mr. Dicki'son had already reached the sick-room, where the nurses were still standing over his half-unconscious wife's bed. "I want you a minute, missus," he said to the one who had been so anxious concerning the disposal of Mrs. Dicki'son's few bits of jewellery. "Just come downstairs a minute." The woman followed him, wondering what he could want. "Just look at this little lass," he said, taking Ada Elizabeth by the hand and leading her to the window. "Do you think there is aught amiss with her?" There is little or no reserve among the poor, they speak their minds, and they tell ill news with a terrible bluntness which is simply appalling to those of a higher station; and this woman did not hesitate to say what she thought, notwithstanding the fact that she knew that the man was utterly overwrought, and that the child's fever-bright eyes were fixed earnestly upon her. "Mr. Dicki'son," she cried, "I'll not deceive you, no; some folks would tell you as nought ailed, but not me--wi' her pore mother dying upstairs. I couldn't find it in my 'eart to do it; I couldn't indeed. Pore Ada Elizabeth's took, and you'd better run round to Widow Martin's and see if t' doctor's been there this morning. He
- 59. telled me Imight send there for him up to one o'clock, and it's only ten minutes past. Ada Elizabeth, lie down on t' sofa, honey, and keep yourself quiet. Gerty, can't you keep Mirry at t' window? Ada Elizabeth's took with the fever, and can't bear being tewed about wi' her." Mr. Dicki'son was off after the doctor like a shot, and less than a quarter of an hour brought him back to see if the nurse's fiat was a true one. Alas! it proved to be too true, and the kind-hearted doctor drew the grief-stricken man on one side. "Look here, Dicki'son," he said, "your wife is very ill indeed; it's no use my deceiving you--her life hangs on a thread, and it will be only by the greatest care if she is pulled through this. The child has undoubtedly got the fever upon her, and she cannot have the attention she ought to have here. There is not room enough nor quiet enough, and there's nobody to attend to her. Get her off to the hospital at once." "The hospital!" repeated Mr. Dicki'son blankly. He had all the horror of a hospital that so many of his class have. "It's the child's best chance," answered the doctor. "Of course, it may turn out only a mild attack. All the better that she should be in the hospital, in any case; in fact, I wish your wife was there this minute." "Doctor," said Mr. Dicki'son hoarsely, "I don't like my little lass going to the hospital. I don't like it." "But there is no help for it, and she'll be far better off there than she would be at home," the doctor answered; "but, all the same, they'd better not talk about it before your wife. Even when she is delirious or half-unconscious she knows a good deal of what's going
- 60. on about her.I'll step up and have a look at her, and will speak to the women myself." Before a couple of hours were over, Ada Elizabeth was comfortably in bed in the quiet and shady ward of the well-managed hospital, and in the little house in Gardener's Lane the struggle between life and death went on, while Gerty had to devote herself as best she could to the children. Gerty felt that it was desperately hard upon her, for Mirry and six-year-old Georgie fretted without ceasing for "our Ada Elizabeth," and would not be comforted; not, all the same, that Gerty's ideas of comfort were very soothing ones--a bump and a shake, and divers threatenings of Bogle-Bo, and a black man who came down chimneys to carry naughty children away, being about her form; and little Mirry and Georgie found it but a poor substitute for the tender if dull patience of "our Ada Elizabeth." However, in spite of all the very real drawbacks which she had to fight against, Mrs. Dicki'son did not die; slowly and painfully she struggled back to her own senses again, with a dim realization of how very near the gate of death she had wandered. But, alas! by the time the doctor had, with a kindly pat upon his shoulder, told Mr. Dicki'son that his wife would live if no very serious relapse took place, the fever had fastened on another victim, and little Mirry was tossing to and fro with fever-flushed face, and the same unnatural brilliancy in her bonny blue eyes as had lighted up Ada Elizabeth's dull, grey ones. They had not taken her to the hospital; it was so full that only urgent cases were admitted now: and since the mother was on the road to recovery, there was time to attend to the child. And so she
- 61. lay in thenext room to her mother, whose weakened senses gradually awoke to the knowledge of what was going on about her. "Is that Mirry crying?" she asked, on the morning when the child was at its worst. "Now don't you fret yourself, love," returned the nurse evasively. "T' bairn's being took care of right enough; they will cry a bit sometimes, you know"; and then she shut the door, and the mother dozed off to sleep again. But in the evening the pitiful wail reached her ears again. "I want our Ada 'Liz'bet'," the child's fretful voice cried; "Mirry do want our Ada 'Liz'bet' so bad-a-ly--me want our Ada 'Liz'bet'." Mrs. Dicki'son started nervously and tried to lift herself in her bed. "I'm sure Mirry's ill," she gasped. "Mrs. Barker, don't deceive me. Tell me, is she ill?" "Well, my dear, I won't deceive yer," the nurse answered; "poor little Mirry's been took with the fever--yes, but don't you go and fret yourself. Mrs. Bell's waiting of her, and she wants for nought, and t' doctor says it's only a mild attack; only children runs up and down so quick, and she's a bit more fretful than usual to-night, that's all." "Mirry do want our Ada 'Liz'bet'," wailed the sick child in the next room. Mrs. Dicki'son turned her head weakly from side to side and trembled in every limb. "Why can't Ada Elizabeth go to her?" she burst out at last. The nurse coughed awkwardly. "Well, my dear," she began, "poor Ada Elizabeth isn't 'ere." "Isn't 'ere!" repeated Mrs. Dicki'son wildly, and just then her husband walked into the room and up to the bedside.
- 62. She clutched holdof him with frantic eagerness. "Father," she cried hysterically, "is it true our Mirry's took with the fever?" "Yes, Em'ly; but it's a very mild case," he answered, feeling that it was best in her excited and nervous condition to tell her the exact truth at once. "She's fretty to-night, but she's not so ill that you need worry about her; she's being took every care of." "But she's crying for our Ada Elizabeth," Mrs. Dicki'son persisted. "Hark! There she is again. Why can't Ada Elizabeth be quick and go to her? Where is she? What does Mrs. Barker mean by saying she isn't 'ere?" Mr. Dicki'son cast a wrathful glance at the nurse, but he did not attempt to hide from his wife any longer the fact that Ada Elizabeth was not in the house. "You know you was very ill, Em'ly, a bit back," he said, with an air and tone of humble apology, "and our Ada Elizabeth was taken with the fever just the day you was at the worst; and there was no one to wait on her, and the doctor would have her go to the hospital, and--what was I to do, Em'ly? It went against my very heart to let the little lass go, but she was willing, and you was taking all our time. I was very near beside myself, Em'ly I was, or I'd never have consented." Mrs. Dicki'son lay for some minutes in silence, exhausted by the violence of her agitation; then the fretful wail in the adjoining room broke the stillness again. "I do want our Ada 'Liz'bet'," the child cried piteously. Mrs. Dicki'son burst out into passionate sobbing. "I lie 'ere and I can't lift my finger for 'er," she gasped out, "and--and--it was just like Ada Elizabeth to go and get the fever when she was most wanted; she always was the contrariest child that I had, always."
- 63. Mr. Dicki'son drewhis breath sharply, as if some one had struck him in the face, but with an effort he pulled himself together and answered her gently: "Nay, wife--Emily, don't say that. The little lass held up until she couldn't hold up no longer. I'll go and quiet Mirry. She's always quiet enough with me. Keep yourself still, and I'll stop with the bairn until she's asleep"; and then he bent and kissed her forehead, and passed softly out of the room, only whispering, "Not one word" to the nurse as he passed her. But, dear Heaven! how that man's heart ached as he sat soothing his little fever-flushed child into quietness! I said but now that he drew his breath sharply as if some one had struck him in the face. Alas! it was worse than that, for the wife of his bosom, the mother of his children, had struck him, stabbed him, to the lowest depths of his heart by her querulous complaint against the child who had gone from him only a few hours before, on whose little white, plain face he had just looked for the last time, and on which his scalding tears had fallen, for he knew that, plain, and dull, and unobtrusive as she had always been--the butt of her sister's sharp tongue, the trial of his wife's whole existence--he knew that with the closing of the heavy eyes the brightest light of his life had gone out. And little Mirry, wrapped in a blanket, lay upon his breast soothed into slumber. Did something fall from his eyes upon her face, that she started and looked up at him? She must have mistaken the one plain face for the other, for she put up her little hot hand and stroked his cheek. "You tum back, Ada 'Liz'bet'?" she murmured, as she sank off to sleep again; "Mirry did want you so bad-a-ly." The sick child's tender words took away half the bitterness of the sting which his wife had thrust into his heart, and his whole
- 64. soul seemed tooverflow with a great gush of love as he swayed her gently to and fro. She had loved the unattractive face, and missed it bitterly; she had wearied for the rare, patient smile and the slow, gentle voice, and, to Mr. Dicki'son's dull mind, the child's craving had bound Ada Elizabeth's heavy brows with a crown of pure gold, with the truest proof that "affection never was wasted."
- 65. "You tum back,Ada 'Liz'bet'?" she murmured. Halt! "Halt! Who goes there?" cried a man's voice through the thick gloom of the dark night.
- 66. There was noanswer save silence; and, after listening for a moment, Private Flinders turned, and began to tramp once more along the ten paces which extended from his sentry-box. "I could have sworn I heard a footstep," he said to himself. "It's curious how one's ears deceive one on a night like this." Ten paces one way, ten paces the other; turn, and back again, and begin your ten paces over again. Yes, it is monotonous, there is no doubt of that; but it is the bounden duty of a sentry, unless he happens to prefer standing still in his box, getting stiff and chill, and perhaps running the risk of being caught asleep at his post--no light offence in a barrack, I can tell you. Ten paces one way, ten paces the other--a rustling, a mere movement, such as would scarcely have attracted the attention of most people, but which caught Private Flinders' sharp ears, and brought him up to a standstill again in an attitude of strict watchfulness. "Halt! Who goes there?" he cried again, and listened once more. Again silence met him, and again he stood, alert and suspicious, waiting for the reply, "Friend." "By Gum, this is queer," he thought, as he stood listening. "I'll search to the bottom of it though. I daresay it's only some of the chaps getting at me; but I'll be even with 'em, if it is." He groped about in rather an aimless sort of way, for the night was black as pitch; and his eyes, though they had grown used to the inky want of light, could distinguish nothing of his surroundings. "Now, where are you, you beggar?" he remarked, beginning to lose his habitual serenity, and laying about him with his carbine. After a stroke or two the weapon touched something, though not heavily, and a howl followed--a howl which was unmistakably that of
- 67. a small child.It conveyed both fear and bodily pain. Private Flinders followed up the howl by feeling cautiously in the part whence the sounds had come. His hand closed upon something soft and shrinking, and the howls were redoubled. "Hollo! what the deuce are you?" he exclaimed, drawing the shrieking captive nearer to him. "Why, I'm blessed if it ain't a kid-- and a girl, too. Well, I'm blowed! And where did you happen to come from?" The howl by this time had developed into a faint sniffing, for Private Flinders' voice was neither harsh nor forbidding. But the creature did not venture on speech. "Where did you come from, and what are you doing here?" he asked. "Do you belong to the barricks, and has your mammy been wollopping of you? Or did you stray in from outside?" "Lost my mammy," the small creature burst out, finding that she was expected to say something. "What's your mammy's name?" Flinders asked. "Mammy, of course," was the reply. "And what's your name?" "Susy." "Susy. Aye, but Susy what?" "Susy," repeated the little person, beginning to whimper again. "Where do you live?" "At home," said Susy, in an insulted tone, as if all these questions were quite superfluous. "Well! blest if I know what to do with you," said Flinders, pushing his busby on one side, and scratching his head vigorously. "I don't believe you belong to the barricks--your speech haven't got the
- 68. twang of it.And if you've strayed in from outside, Gord knows what 'll become of you. Certain it is that you won't be let to stop here." "Susy so cold," whimpered the mite pitifully. "I should think you was cold," returned Private Flinders sympathetically. "I'm none too warm myself; and the fog seems to fair eat into one's bones. Well, little 'un, I can't carry you back to where you came from, that's very certain. I can't even take you round to the guard-room. Now, what the deuce am I to do with you? And I shan't be relieved for over a hour." Private Flinders being one of the most good-natured men in creation, it ended by his gathering the child in his arms, and carrying her up and down on his beat until the relief came. "Why, what's the meaning of this?" demanded the corporal of the guard, when he perceived the unusual encumbrance to the private's movements. "Ah! Corporal, that's more than I can tell you," responded the other promptly. "This here kid toddled along over a hour ago; and as she don't seem to know what her name is, or where she come from, I just walked about with her, that she mightn't be froze to death. I suppose we'd best carry her to the guard-room fire, and keep her warm till morning." "And then?" asked the corporal, with a twinkle in his eye, which the dark night effectually hid. "Gord knows," was the private's quick reply. Eventually, the mite who rejoiced in the name of Susy, and did not know whence she had come or whither she was going, was carried off to the guard-room and made as comfortable as circumstances would permit--that being the only course, indeed, at
- 69. that hour ofthe night, or, to be quite correct, of the morning--which could with reason be followed. She slept, as healthy children do, like a top or dog, and when she awoke in the morning she expressed no fear or very much surprise, and, having enquired in a casual kind of way for her mammy, she partook of a very good breakfast of bread and milk, followed by a drink of coffee and a taste or two of such other provisions as were going round. Later on Private Flinders was sent for to the orderly-room, and told to give the commanding officer such information as he was in possession of concerning the stray mite, who was still in the warm guard-room. Now it happened that the commanding officer of the 9th Hussars was a gentleman to whom routine was a religion and discipline a salvation, and he expressed himself sharply enough as to the only course which could possibly be pursued under the present circumstances. "We had better send down to the workhouse people to come and remove the child at once. Otherwise, we may have endless trouble with the mother; and, moreover, if it once got about that these barracks were open to that kind of thing, the regiment would soon be turned into a regular foundling hospital. Let the workhouse people be sent for at once. What did you say, Mr. Jervis? That the child might be quartered for a few hours among the married people. Yes, I daresay, but if the mother is on the look-out, which is very doubtful, she is more likely to go to the police-station than she is to come here. As to any stigma, the mother should have borne that in mind when she lost the child. On second thoughts, I think it is to the
- 70. police-station that weshould send; yes, that will be quite the best thing to do." A few hours later the child Susy was transferred from the guard- room to the police-station, and there she made herself equally at home, only asking occasionally, in a perfunctory kind of way, for "Mammy," and being quite easily satisfied when she was told that she would be coming along by-and-by. During the few hours that she was at the police-station she became quite a favourite, and made friends with all the stalwart constables, just as she had done with one and all of the strapping Hussars at the cavalry barracks. She was not shy, for she answered the magistrate in quite a friendly way, though she gave no information as to her belongings, simply because she had no information to give. And the end was that she was condemned to the workhouse, and was carried off to that undesirable haven as soon as the interview with the magistrate was over. "A blooming shame, I call it, poor little kid," said Private Flinders that evening to a group of his friends, in the comfortable safety of the troop-room. "She was a jolly little lass; and if I'd been a married man, I'd have kept her myself, dashed if I wouldn't!" "Perhaps your missis might 'ave 'ad a word or two to say to that, Flinders," cried a natty fellow, just up to the standard in height, and no more. "Oh, I'd have made it all right with her," returned Flinders, with that easy assurance of everything good that want of experience gives. "But to send it to the workhouse--it's a blooming shame! They treat kids anyhow in them places. Now then, Thomson, what are you
- 71. a-grinning at? Perhapsyou know as much about workhouses as I can tell you." "Perhaps I do, and perhaps I don't," replied Thomson, with provoking good temper. "I wasn't a-laughing at the workhouse; cussing them is more like what one feels. But to think of you, old chap, tramping up and down with the blessed kid asleep--well, it beats everything I ever heard tell of, blame me if it don't." Private Flinders, however, was not to be laughed out of his interest in the little child Susy; and regularly every week he walked down to the workhouse, and asked to see her taking always a few sweeties, bought out of his scanty pay, the cost of which meant his going without some small luxury for himself. And Susy, who was miserably unhappy in that abode of sorrow which we provide in this country for the destitute, grew to look eagerly for his visits, and sobbed out all her little troubles and trials to his sympathetic ears. "Susy don't like her," she confided to him one day when the matron had left them alone together. "She slaps me. Susy don't love her." "But Susy will learn to be a good girl, and not get slapped," the soldier said, with something suspiciously like a lump in his throat. "See, I've brought you some lollipops--you'll like them, won't you?" He happened to run up against the matron as he walked away toward the door. "She's a tender little thing, missis," he remarked, with a vague kind of notion that even workhouse matrons have hearts sometimes. And so some of them have, though not many. This particular one was among the many.
- 72. "She's a tenderlittle thing, missis," he remarked. "A very self-willed child," she remarked sharply, "considering that she's so young. We have a great deal of trouble with her. She does not seem to know the meaning of the word obedience." "She is but a baby," ventured the soldier apologetically. "Baby, or no baby, she'll have to learn it here," snapped the matron viciously; and then Flinders went on his way, feeling sadder than ever, and yet more and more regretful that he was not married, or had at least a mother in a position to adopt a little child.
- 73. The next timehe went they had cut the child's lovely long, curling locks, indeed, she had been shorn like a sheep in spring- time. Flinders' soft heart gave a great throb, and he cuddled the mite to his broad breast, as if by so doing he could undo the indignity that had been put upon her. "Susy," he said, when he had handed over his sweets and she was busily munching them up, "I want you to try and remember something." Susy looked at him doubtfully, but nodded her cropped head with an air of wise acquiescence. Flinders went on talking quietly. "You remember before you came here--you had a home and a mammy, don't you?" "Yes," said Susy promptly. "What sort of a house was it?" "Where my mammy was?" she asked. "Yes." "Big," replied Susy briefly, selecting another sweetie with care. "And what was it called?" "The house," said the child, in a matter-of-fact tone. Flinders gave a sigh. "Yes, I dare say it was. Don't you remember, though, what your mammy was called?" "Why mammy, of course," said Susy, as if the question was too utterly foolish for serious consideration. "Yes, but other people didn't call her mammy--it was only you did that," said Flinders desperately. "What did other people call her? Can't you remember that?" It happened that Susy not only remembered, but immediately gave utterance to her recollections in such a way as fairly made the
- 74. soldier jump. "Theycalled my mammy 'my lady,'" she said simply. Private Flinders gave the child a great hug, and put her down off his knee. "Gord bless you, little 'un," he ejaculated. "And see if I don't ferret that mammy of yours out before I'm many days older-- see if I don't." He met the matron as he went towards the entrance. "Missis," he said, stopping, "I've got a clue to that little 'un's belongings. I'm off to the police station now about it. I'd advise you to treat her as tender as you can. It'll come home to you, mark my words." "Dear me," snapped the matron; "is she going to turn out a princess in disguise, then?" "It'll perhaps turn out a pity you was in such a hurry to crop her hair," said Private Flinders, with dignity. In the face of that sudden recollection of the child's, he felt that he could afford to be, to a certain extent, stand-offish to the cold- eyed, unloving woman before him. "Oh, rules are rules," said the matron, with an air of fine disdain; "and, in an institution like ours, all must be served alike. It would be a pretty thing if we had to spend half of every day curling the children's hair. Good-day to you." He felt that he had got the worst of it, and that it was more than possible that little Susy would pay the penalty of his indiscretion. Fool that he had been not to hold his tongue until he had something more tangible to say. Well, it was done now, and could not be undone, and it behoved him to lose no time, but to find out the truth as soon as possible. The inspector whom he found in charge of the police-station listened to his tale with a strictly professional demeanour.
- 75. "Yes, I rememberthe little girl coming in and being taken to the workhouse. I remember the case right enough. You'd better leave it to us, and we will find out whether such a child is missing anywhere in the country." I need hardly say that in Private Flinders' mind there lurked that deep-rooted distrust of a policeman that lives somewhere or other in the heart of every soldier. It came uppermost in his mind at that moment. "You'll do your best?" he said, a little wistfully. "You'll not let time go by, and--and----?" "We shall be in communication with every police-station in the kingdom in a few hours," returned the inspector, who knew pretty well what was passing in the soldier's mind. "But, all the same, you mustn't be over-much disappointed if there proves to be nothing in it. You see, if such a child was being inquired for, we should have heard of it before this. However, we'll do our best; you may be very sure of that." With that Private Flinders was obliged to rest content. He made inquiries from day to day, and eventually this advertisement appeared in the leading daily papers:-- TO PARENTS AND GUARDIANS.--A little girl, apparently about three years old, is in charge of the police at Bridbrook. She says her name is Susy, and appears to be the child of well-to-do parents. Very fair hair, blue eyes, features small and pretty. Clothes very good, but much soiled.--Address, POLICE STATION, BRIDBROOK. A few hours after the appearance of the advertisement, a telegram arrived at the police-station:--
- 76. "Keep child. Willcome as soon as possible.--JACKSON." * * * * * Less than three hours afterwards, an excited woman rushed into the station, having precipitated herself out of a cab, and almost flung herself upon the astonished inspector. "I've come for the child--the little girl," she gasped, as if she had run at racing speed direct from the place indicated by the telegram. "Oh, she belongs to you, does she?" remarked the inspector coolly. "Well, you've no call to be in such a 'urry; you've been very comfortable about her for the last six weeks." "Comfortable!" echoed the excited one; "why, I've been very near out of my mind. I thought she was drowned, and I was so frightened, I daren't say a word to any one about it. And my lady away----" "Then you're not the mother?" said the inspector sharply. "The mother!--my goodness, no! I'm the head nurse. My young lady's mother is the Countess of Morecambe." "Then what does she say to all this, pray?" he asked. "My lady went abroad two months ago to one of those foreign cure places, and she doesn't know but what Lady Susy is safe with me at this minute," the woman replied. The inspector gave a prolonged whistle. "Well, you're a pretty sort of nurse to leave in charge of a child," he remarked. "I shouldn't wonder if you get the sack for this. Do you know the child's at the workhouse, and that they've cropped her head as bare as mine?"
- 77. At this thewoman simply sat down and sobbed aloud. "Aye, you may well cry," said the inspector grimly. "I should if I was in your shoes." She finally told how the child had been missed; how she had refrained from giving notice to the police through fear of publicity, and believing she could find her by diligent search in the locality; how "my lady" was a widow, with only this one little child; how she had been advised to go for this cure; how she had consented to the nurse taking Lady Susy to the seaside meantime, well knowing that she would be safe and happy with her. "Yes, you may laugh at that," she wound up; "but my dear lamb has often called me 'mammy' as anything else, and my lady has often said she was quite jealous of me." "All the same, I shouldn't wonder if you get the sack," repeated the inspector, who was not troubled with much sentiment. I scarcely know how to tell the rest--how Jackson went off to the workhouse, and enlightened the matron and others as to the child's station in life; how she seized her little ladyship, and almost smothered her with kisses; how she bewailed her shorn locks, and wondered and conjectured as to how she could possibly have got to a place so far from her home as Bridbrook. But, a few weeks later, a lovely woman in mourning came to the cavalry barracks, and inquired for Private Flinders. She wept during the interview, this lovely lady; and when she had gone away, Private Flinders opened the packet she had put into his hands, to find a cheque for a hundred pounds, and a handsome gold watch and chain. And at the end of the chain was a plain gold locket, on one
- 78. side of whichwas engraved Private Flinders' initials, whilst on the other was written the single word, "Halt!" The Little Lady with the Voice A FAIRY TALE Marjory Drummond was sitting on the bank of the river, and, if the whole truth must be owned, she was crying. She was not crying loudly or passionately, but as she rested her cheek on her hand, the sad salt tears slowly gathered in her eyes, and brimmed over one by one, falling each with a separate splash upon the blue cotton gown which she wore.
- 79. The sad salttears slowly gathered in her eyes. The sun was shining high in the blue heavens, the river danced and sang merrily as it went rippling by, and all the hedgerows were alive with flowers, and the air was full of the scent of the new-cut hay. Yet Marjory was very miserable, and for her the skies looked dark and dull, the river only gave her even sadder thoughts than she already had, and the new-cut hay seemed quite scentless and dead. And all because a man had failed her--a man had proved to be clay instead of gold. And so she sat there in the gay summer sunshine and wished that she had never been born, or that she were dead, or
- 80. some such folly,and the butterflies fluttered about, and the bees hummed, and all nature, excepting herself, seemed to be radiant and joyous. An old water-vole came out of his hiding-place by the river and watched her with a wise air, and a dragon-fly whizzed past and hovered over the surface of the sunlit water, but Marjory's eyes were blind to each and all of these things, and still the tears welled up and overflowed their bounds, and she wept on. "What is the matter?" said a voice just at her ear. Marjory gave a jump, and dashed her tears away; it was one thing to indulge herself in her grief, but it was quite another to let any one else, and that a stranger, see her. "What is wrong with you, Marjory?" said the voice once more. "Nothing!" answered Marjory shortly. "I may, perhaps, be able to help you," the gentle little voice persisted. "Nobody can help me," said Marjory, with a great sigh, "nobody can help me--nobody." "Don't be so sure of that," said the voice. "Why do you keep this curl of hair? Why do you turn so persistently away from me? Why don't you look at me?" Marjory turned her head, but she could see no one near. "Who are you? Why do you hide?" she asked in turn. "You look too high," said the voice. "Look lower; yes--ah, how d'you do?" Marjory almost jumped into the river in her fright, for there, standing under the shade of a big dandelion, was the smallest being she had ever seen in her life. Yet, as she sat staring at her, this tiny woman seemed to increase in size, and to assume a shape which
- 81. was somehow familiarto her. "You know me now?" asked the little woman, smiling at her again. "N--o," replied Marjory, stammering a little. "Oh, yes, you do. You remember the old woman whose part you took a few weeks ago--down by the old church, when some boys were teasing her? Well, that was me--me--and now I'm going to do something for you. I am going to make you happy." "Are you a witch?" asked Marjory, in a very awed voice. "Hu--sh--sh! We never use such an uncomplimentary word in our world. But you poor mortals are often very rude, even without knowing it. I am not what is called a witch, young lady. I am a familiar." Marjory's eyes opened wider than ever; she bent forward and asked an earnest question: "Are you my familiar?" she said. "Perhaps, perhaps," answered the little woman, nodding her head wisely. "That all depends on yourself. If you are good, yes; if you are bad, no--most emphatically, no. I am much too important a person to be familiar to worthless people." "I'm sure you are very kind," said Marjory meekly. "But what will you do to make me happy? You cannot give me back my Jack, because he has married some one else--the wretch!" she added under her breath, but the ejaculation was for the woman whom Jack had married, not for Jack himself. "You will learn to live without your Jack, as you call him," said the little woman with the soft voice, sagely, "and to feel thankful that he chose elsewhere. You once did me a service, and that is a thing that a familiar never, never forgets. I have been watching you ever since that time, and now I will reward you. Marjory Drummond,
- 82. from this timehenceforth everything shall prosper with you; everything you touch shall turn to gold, everything you wish shall come to pass; what you strive after you shall have; your greatest desires shall be realised; and you shall have power to draw tears from all eyes whenever you choose. This last I give you in compensation for the tears that you have shed this day. Farewell!" "Stay!" cried Marjory. "Won't you even tell me your name? May I not thank you?" "No. The thanks are mine," said the little lady. "When we meet again I will tell you my name--not before." In a moment she was gone, and so quickly and mysteriously did she go that Marjory did not see her disappear. She rubbed her eyes and looked round. "I must have been asleep!" she exclaimed. "I must have dreamt it." * * * * * Several years had gone by. With Marjory Drummond everything had prospered, and she was on the high road to success, and fame, and fortune. Whenever her name was spoken, people nodded their heads wisely, and said: "A wonderful girl, nothing she cannot do"; and they mostly said it as if each one of them had had a hand in making her the clever girl that she was. As an artist she was extremely gifted, being well hung in the Academy of the year; as an actress, though only playing with that form of art, she was hard to beat; and she had written stories and tales which were so infinitely above the average that editors were one and all delighted at any time to have the chance of a story signed with the initials "M.D.," initials which the world thought and
- 83. declared were thoseof one of the most fashionable doctors of the day. And at last the world of letters woke up and rubbed its eyes very much as Marjory had rubbed her eyes that day on the river's bank, and the world said, "We have a great and gifted man among us." "'M.D.' is the writer of the time." And slowly, little by little, the secret crept out, and Marjory was fêted and flattered, and made the star of the season. Her name was in every one's mouth, and her work was sought after eagerly and read by all. And among those who worshipped at her shrine was the "Jack" who had flouted her in the old days, yet not quite the same, but a "Jack" very much altered and world-worn, so that Marjory could no longer regret or wish that the lines of her life had fallen otherwise than they had done. And often and often, as the years rolled by, and she was still the darling star of the people who love to live in the realms of fiction, did Marjory ponder over that vivid dream by the riverside, and try to satisfy herself that it really was no more than a dream, and that the old lady with the sweet clear voice had had no being except in her excited brain. "I wish," she said aloud one day, when she was sitting by the fire after finishing the most important work that had ever yet come from her pen, "I wish that she would come back and satisfy me about it. It seemed so real, so vivid, so distinct, and yet it is so impossible----" "Not impossible at all," said a familiar voice at her elbow. Marjory looked round with a start. "Oh! is it you?" she cried. "Then it was all true! I have never been able to make up my mind whether it was true or only a dream. Now I know that it was quite real, and everything that you promised me has come about. I am
- 84. the happiest womanin all the world to-day, and, dear friend, if ever I did a service to you, you have amply repaid me." "We never stint thanks in our world," said the little old lady, smiling. "Then there is nothing more that you want?" "Yes, kind friend, just one thing," said Marjory. "You promised me that when we met again you would tell me your name." The little woman melted away instantly, but somewhere out of the shadows came a small sweet sighing voice, which said softly, "My name is--Genius!" Jewels to Wear "Torches are made to burn; jewels to wear."--Shakespeare CHAPTER I "I can't think, Nancy, why you cannot get something useful to occupy yourself with. It seems to me that I have slaved and sacrificed myself all my life, in every possible direction, simply that you may waste your whole time spoiling good paper, scribbling, scribbling, scribbling, from morning till night, with your fingers inky, and your thoughts in the clouds, and your attention on nothing that I want you to attend to. I don't call it a good reward to make to me.
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