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GitOps and Kubernetes
CONTINUOUS DEPLOYMENT WITH ARGO CD,
JENKINS X, AND FLUX
BILLY YUEN, ALEXANDER
MATYUSHENTSEV, TODD EKENSTAM, AND
JESSE SUEN
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Development editor: Dustin Archibald

Technical development editor: Al Krinker
Review editor: Aleks Dragosavljević
Production editor: Deirdre S. Hiam
Proofreader: Katie Tennant
Technical proofreader: Sam Brown
Typesetter and cover designer: Marija Tudor

contents
preface
acknowledgments
about this book
about the authors
about the cover illustration
Part 1. Background
1 Why GitOps?
1.1 Evolution to GitOps
Traditional Ops
DevOps
GitOps
1.2 Developer benefits of GitOps
Infrastructure as code
Self-service
Code reviews
Git pull requests
1.3 Operational benefits of GitOps
Declarative
Observability
Auditability and compliance
Disaster recovery
2 Kubernetes and GitOps

2.1 Kubernetes introduction
What is Kubernetes?
Other container orchestrators
Kubernetes architecture
Deploying to Kubernetes
2.2 Declarative vs. imperative object management
How declarative configuration works
2.3 Controller architecture
Controller delegation
Controller pattern
NGINX operator
2.4 Kubernetes + GitOps
2.5 Getting started with CI/CD
Basic GitOps operator
Continuous integration pipeline
Part 2. Patterns and processes
3 Environment management

3.1 Introduction to environment management
Components of an environment
Namespace management
Network isolation
Preprod and prod clusters
3.2 Git strategies
Single branch (multiple directories)
Multiple branches
Multirepo vs. monorepo
3.3 Configuration management
Helm
Kustomize
Jsonnet
Configuration management summary
3.4 Durable vs. ephemeral environments
4 Pipelines
4.1 Stages in CI/CD pipelines
GitOps continuous integration
GitOps continuous delivery
4.2 Driving promotions
Code vs. manifest vs. app config
Code and image promotion
Environment promotion
Putting it all together
4.3 Other pipelines
Rollback
Compliance pipeline
5 Deployment strategies

5.1 Deployment basics
Why ReplicaSet is not a good fit for GitOps
How Deployment works with ReplicaSets
Traffic routing
Configuring minikube for other strategies
5.2 Blue-green
Blue-green with Deployment
Blue-green with Argo Rollouts
5.3 Canary
Canary with Deployment
Canary with Argo Rollouts
5.4 Progressive delivery
Progressive delivery with Argo Rollouts
6 Access control and security
6.1 Introduction to access control
What is access control?
What to secure
Access control in GitOps
6.2 Access limitations
Git repository access
Kubernetes RBAC
Image registry access
6.3 Patterns
Full access
Deployment repo access
Code access only
6.4 Security concerns
Preventing image pull from untrusted registries
Cluster-level resources in a Git repository
7 Secrets

7.1 Kubernetes Secrets
Why use Secrets?
How to use Secrets
7.2 GitOps and Secrets
No encryption
Distributed Git repos
No granular (file-level) access control
Insecure storage
Full commit history
7.3 Secrets management strategies
Storing Secrets in Git
Baking Secrets into the container image
Out-of-band management
External Secrets management systems
Encrypting Secrets in Git
Comparison of strategies
7.4 Tooling
HashiCorp Vault
Vault Agent Sidecar Injector
Sealed Secrets
Kustomize Secret generator plugin
8 Observability

8.1 What is observability?
Event logging
Metrics
Tracing
Visualization
Importance of observability in GitOps
8.2 Application health
Resource status
Readiness and liveness
Application monitoring and alerting
8.3 GitOps observability
GitOps metrics
Application sync status
Configuration drift
GitOps change log
Part 3. Tools
9 Argo CD

9.1 What is Argo CD?
Main use cases
Core concepts
Sync and health statuses
Architecture
9.2 Deploy your first application
Deploying the first application
Inspect the application using the user interface
9.3 Deep dive into Argo CD features
GitOps-driven deployment
Resource hooks
Postdeployment verification
9.4 Enterprise features
Single sign-on
Access control
Declarative management
10 Jenkins X
10.1 What is Jenkins X?
10.2 Exploring Prow, Jenkins X pipeline operator, and Tekton
10.3 Importing projects into Jenkins X
Importing a project
Promoting a release to the production environment
11 Flux

11.1 What is Flux?
What Flux does
Docker registry scanning
Architecture
11.2 Simple application deployment
Deploying the first application
Observing application state
Upgrading the deployment image
Using Kustomize for manifest generation
Securing deployment using GPG
11.3 Multitenancy with Flux
appendix A. Setting up a test Kubernetes cluster
appendix B. Setting up GitOps tools
appendix C. Configuring GPG key
index

front matter
preface
As Intuit embarked on the journey from on-premises to
cloud-native, the journey itself presented an opportunity to
reinvent our build and deployment process. Similar to many
large enterprises, our old deployment process was data-
center-centric with separate QA, Ops, and Infrastructure
teams. Code could take weeks to get deployed, and
developers had no access to infrastructure when there were
production issues. Infrastructure issues could take a long
time to resolve and required many groups’ collaboration.
As Marianna Tessel (Intuit CTO) and Jeff Brewer (Intuit
SBSEG chief architect) decided to bet big on Kubernetes and
Docker, we were fortunate to be the first team to fully
migrate one of our production applications with Kubernetes
and Docker. Along the way, we got to reinvent our CI/CD
pipeline and adopt the GitOps process. Jesse and Alex
created Argo CD (CNCF incubator project) to address
enterprise needs for GitOps. Todd and his team created
world-class cluster management tools so we can scale out to
hundreds of clusters with ease.
Having a standard like Kubernetes and Docker enables all
engineers to speak a common language in terms of
infrastructure and deployment. Engineers can easily

contribute to other projects and deploy as soon as the
development process is complete. GitOps also allows us to
know exactly who and what gets changed in our
environments, which is especially important if you are
subject to compliance requirements. We cannot imagine
going back to the old way we did deployment, and we hope
that this book can help accelerate your journey to embrace
GitOps!
acknowledgments
This book turned out to be an 18-month journey that
required a lot of work and additional research to tell the
complete story. We believe that we have delivered what we
set out to do, and it is a great book for anyone who wants to
adopt GitOps and Kubernetes.
There are quite a few people we’d like to thank for helping
us along the way. At Manning, we would like to thank our
development editor, Dustin Archibald, project editor, Deirdre
Hiam, proofreader, Katie Tennant, and reviewing editor,
Aleks Dragosavljevic.
We want to thank Marianna Tessel and Jeff Brewer, who
provided us the opportunity and freedom to transform and
experiment with GitOps and Kubernetes. We would also like
to thank Pratik Wadher, Saradhi Sreegiriaju, Mukulika
Kupas, and Edward Lee for their guidance throughout the
process. We want to call out Viktor Farcic and Oscar Medina
for their insightful contributions to the Jenkins X chapter.

To all the reviewers: Andres Damian Sacco, Angelo Simone
Scotto, Björn Neuhaus, Chris Viner, Clifford Thurber, Conor
Redmond, Diego Casella, James Liu, Jaume López, Jeremy
Bryan, Jerome Meyer, John Guthrie, Marco Massenzio,
Matthieu Evrin, Mike Ensor, Mike Jensen, Roman Zhuzha,
Samuel Brown, Satej Kumar Sahu, Sean T. Booker, Wendell
Beckwith, and Zorodzayi Mukuya, we say thank you. Your
suggestions helped make this a better book.
For Jeff Brewer, who inspired us all for this awesome
transformation journey!
about this book
Who this book is for
This book is intended for both Kubernetes infrastructure and
operation engineers and software developers who want to
deploy applications to Kubernetes through a declarative
model using the GitOps process. It will benefit anyone
looking to improve the stability, reliability, security, and
auditability of their Kubernetes clusters while at the same
time reducing operational costs through automated
continuous software deployments.
Readers are expected to have a working knowledge of
Kubernetes (Deployment, Pod, Service, and Ingress
resources, for example) as well as an understanding of
modern software development practices including
continuous integration/continuous deployment (CI/CD),

revision control systems (such as Git), and
deployment/infrastructure automation.
Who this book is not for
Advanced users who have successfully implemented a
mature GitOps system may be better off reading a more
advanced book on their chosen tool.
This book is not intended to cover all aspects of Kubernetes
in depth. While we cover many Kubernetes concepts that
are relevant to GitOps, readers looking for a comprehensive
guide to Kubernetes should look at the other great books
and online resources available on the topic.
How this book is organized: A roadmap
This book describes the benefits of GitOps on Kubernetes,
including flexible configuration management, monitoring,
robustness, multienvironment support, and security. You will
learn the best practices, techniques, and tools to achieve
these benefits, which enable enterprises to use Kubernetes
to accelerate application development without compromising
on stability, reliability, or security.
You will also gain in-depth understanding of the following
topics:
Multiple-environment management with branching,
namespace, and configuration
Access control with Git, Kubernetes, and pipelines

Pipeline considerations with CI/CD, promotion,
push/pull, and release/rollback
Observability and drift detection
Managing Secrets
Deployment strategy selection among rolling update,
blue/green, canary, and progressive delivery
This book takes a hands-on approach with tutorials and
exercises to develop the skills you need to embrace GitOps
using Kubernetes. After reading this book, you will know
how to implement a declarative continuous delivery system
for your applications running on Kubernetes. This book
contains hands-on tutorials on
Getting started with managing Kubernetes application
deployments
Configuration and environment management using
Kustomize
Writing your own basic Kubernetes continuous delivery
(CD) operator
Implementing CI/CD using Argo CD,1 Jenkins X,2 and
Flux3
IMPERATIVE VS. DECLARATIVE There are two basic ways to deploy Kubernetes:
imperatively using many kubectl commands or declaratively by writing manifests and using
kubectl apply. The former is useful for learning and interactive experimentation. The
latter is best for reproducible deployments and tracking changes.
This book is intended for you to follow along, running the
hands-on portion of the tutorials, using your own test
Kubernetes cluster. Appendix A describes several options for
creating a test cluster.

There are many code listings contained in the book. All code
listings and additional supporting material can be found in
the publicly accessible GitHub repository for this book:
https://github.com/gitopsbook/resources
We encourage you to clone or fork this repository and use it
as you work through the tutorials and exercises in the book.
The following tools and utilities should be installed on your
workstation:
Kubectl (v1.16 or later)
Minikube (v1.4 or later)
Bash or the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL)
Most tutorials and exercises can be completed using a
minikube running on your workstation. If not, we will
mention if the cluster running on a cloud provider is needed,
and you can refer to appendix A for details on creating the
cluster.
NOTE You may incur additional costs for running a test Kubernetes cluster on a cloud
provider. While we have attempted to reduce the cost of the recommended test configuration
as much as possible, remember you are responsible for these costs. We recommend you
delete your test cluster after completing each tutorial or exercise.
This book has 3 parts that cover 11 chapters. Part 1 covers
the background and introduces GitOps and Kubernetes:
Chapter 1 walks you through the journey of software
deployment evolution and how GitOps became the latest
practice. It also covers the many key concepts and
benefits of GitOps.

Chapter 2 provides key concepts on Kubernetes and why
its declarative nature is perfect for GitOps. It also covers
the core operator concept and how to implement a
simple GitOps operator.
Part 2 goes over the patterns and processes to adopt the
GitOps process:
Chapter 3 discusses the definition of an environment
and how Kubernetes Namespaces nicely map as
environments. It also covers branching strategy and
config management to your environment
implementation.
Chapter 4 goes deep into the GitOps CI/CD pipeline with
comprehensive descriptions of all stages necessary for a
complete pipeline. It also covers code, image, and
environment promotion as well as the rollback
mechanism.
Chapter 5 describes various deployment strategies,
including rolling update, blue/green, canary, and
progressive delivery. It also covers how to implement
each strategy by using native Kubernetes resources and
other open source tools.
Chapter 6 discusses GitOps-driven deployment’s attack
surfaces and how to mitigate each area. It also reviews
Jsonnet, Kustomize, and Helm and how to choose the
right configuration management pattern for your use
cases.
Chapter 7 discusses various strategies for managing
Secrets for GitOps. It also covers several Secret
management tools as well as native Kubernetes Secrets.

Chapter 8 explains the core concepts of observability
and why it is important to GitOps. It also describes
various methods to implement observability with GitOps
and Kubernetes.
Part 3 goes over several enterprise-grade GitOps tools:
Chapter 9 discusses the intent and architecture for Argo
CD. It also covers configuring application deployment
using Argo CD and how to secure Argo CD in production.
Chapter 10 discusses the intent and architecture for
Jenkins X. It also covers configuring application
deployment and promotion to various environments.
Chapter 11 discusses the intent and motivation for Flux.
It also covers configuring application deployment using
Flux and multitenancy.

The book was organized to read all the chapters in sequential order.
However, if there is a particular area of interest you’d like to jump

into, we recommend you read the prerequisite chapters. For example,
if you would like to jump right into learning to use Argo CD, we
recommend you read chapters 1, 2, 3, and 5 before reading chapter 9.
About the code
This book contains many examples of source code both in
numbered listings and inline with normal text. In both cases,
source code is formatted in a fixed-width font to
separate it from ordinary text. Sometimes, code is also in
bold to highlight code that has changed from previous steps
in the chapter, such as when a new feature adds to an
existing line of code.
In many cases, the original source code has been
reformatted; we’ve added line breaks and reworked
indentation to accommodate the available page space in the
book. Additionally, comments in the source code have often
been removed from the listings when the code is described
in the text. Code annotations accompany many of the
listings, highlighting important concepts. Source code for the
examples in this book is available for download from
https://github.com/gitopsbook /resources.
liveBook discussion forum
Purchase of GitOps and Kubernetes includes free access to a
private web forum run by Manning Publications where you
can make comments about the book, ask technical
questions, and receive help from the authors and from other
users. To access the forum, go to

https://livebook.manning.com/book/GitOps-and-
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Manning’s commitment to our readers is to provide a venue
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remains voluntary (and unpaid). We suggest you try asking
them some challenging questions lest their interest stray!
The forum and the archives of previous discussions will be
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in print.
about the authors
Billy Yuen is a principal engineer with Intuit’s Platform team,
focusing on AWS and Kubernetes adoption, system
resiliency, and monitoring. Previously, Billy worked on
Netflix’s Edge Services team to build the next generation of
edge-service infrastructure to support millions of customers
(more than 3 billion requests per day) with high scalability,
resilience to failure, and rapid innovation. Billy was a
speaker at Java One 2016 and Velocity NY 2016 on
“Operational Excellence with Netflix Hystrix,” “CI/CD at
Lightspeed” at KubeCon 2018, and “Automated Canary
Release” at Container World 2019.

Alexander Matyushentsev is a principal engineer on the
Intuit Platform team, focusing on building tools that make it
easier to use Kubernetes. Alexander is passionate about
open source, cloud-native infrastructure, and tools that
increase developers’ productivity. He is one of the core
contributors to the Argo Workflows and Argo CD projects.
Alexander was a speaker at KubeCon 2019 on “How Intuit
Does Canary and Blue-Green Deployments with a K8s
Controller.”
Todd Ekenstam is a principal engineer at Intuit, building a
platform for secure, multitenant Kubernetes infrastructure
supporting applications serving Intuit’s approximately 50
million customers. Todd has worked on a variety of large-
scale distributed systems projects during his career of more
than 25 years, including hierarchical storage management,
peer-to-peer database replication, enterprise storage
virtualization, and two-factor authentication SaaS. Todd has
presented at academic, government, and industry
conferences, most recently as a guest speaker on
“Introduction to Open Policy Agent” at KubeCon 2018.
Jesse Suen is a principal engineer on the Intuit Platform
team, developing microservices-based, distributed
applications for Kubernetes. He was an early engineer at
Applatix (acquired by Intuit), building a platform to help
users run containerized workloads in the public cloud.
Before that, he was part of the engineering team at Tintri
and Data Domain, working on virtualized infrastructure,
storage, tooling, and automation. Jesse is one of the core

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