Historx

IDSA GUIDELINES

Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of
Patients with Histoplasmosis: 2007 Update by the
Infectious Diseases Society of America
L. Joseph Wheat,1 Alison G. Freifeld,3 Martin B. Kleiman,2 John W. Baddley,4,5 David S. McKinsey,6 James E. Loyd,7
and Carol A. Kauffman8
1
MiraVista Diagnostics/MiraBella Technologies and 2Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana; 3University of Nebraska Medical
Center, Omaha; 4University of Alabama at Birmingham and 5Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Alabama; 6ID Associates of Kansas City,
Missouri; 7Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; and 8Veterans Affairs Medical Center, University of Michigan Medical
School, Ann Arbor

Evidence-based guidelines for the management of patients with histoplasmosis were prepared by an Expert
Panel of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. These updated guidelines replace the previous treatment
guidelines published in 2000 (Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30:688–95). The guidelines are intended for use by health
care providers who care for patients who either have these infections or may be at risk for them. Since 2000,
several new antifungal agents have become available, and clinical trials and case series have increased our
understanding of the management of histoplasmosis. Advances in immunosuppressive treatment for inﬂam-
matory disorders have created new questions about the approach to prevention and treatment of histoplasmosis.
New information, based on publications from the period 1999–2006, are incorporated into this guideline
document. In addition, the panel added recommendations for management of histoplasmosis in children for
those aspects that differ from aspects in adults.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY have occurred within the Ohio and Mississippi River
valleys. Precise reasons for this distribution pattern of
Background
endemicity are unknown but are thought to include
Histoplasma capsulatum variety capsulatum infection is
moderate climate, humidity, and soil characteristics.
endemic in certain areas of North, Central, and South
Bird and bat excrement enhances the growth of the
America, Africa, and Asia, but cases have also been organism in soil by accelerating sporulation. These
reported from Europe. In the United States, most cases unique growth requirements explain, in part, the lo-
calization of histoplasmosis into so-called microfoci.
Activities that disturb such sites are associated with
Received 18 June 2007; accepted 19 June 2007; electronically published 27 exposure to H. capsulatum. Air currents carry the co-
August 2007.
These guidelines were developed and issued on behalf of the Infectious nidia for miles, exposing individuals who were unaware
Diseases Society of America. of contact with the contaminated site. Furthermore,
It is important to realize that guidelines cannot always account for individual
variation among patients. They are not intended to supplant physician judgment
environmental sites that are not visibly contaminated
with respect to particular patients or special clinical situations. The Infectious with droppings may harbor the organism, making it
Diseases Society of America considers adherence to these guidelines to be
voluntary, with the ultimate determination regarding their application to be made
difﬁcult to suspect histoplasmosis in most cases.
by the physician in the light of each patient’s individual circumstances. Certain forms of histoplasmosis cause life-threat-
Reprints or correspondence: Dr. L. Joseph Wheat, MiraVista Diagnositics/
ening illnesses and result in considerable morbidity,
MiraBella Technologies, 4444 Decatur Blvd., Ste. 300, Indianapolis, IN 46241
(jwheat@miravistalabs.com). whereas other manifestations cause no symptoms or
Clinical Infectious Diseases 2007; 45:807–25 minor self-limited illnesses.
2007 by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved.
1058-4838/2007/4507-0001$15.00
The objective of this guideline is to update recom-
DOI: 10.1086/521259 mendations for treating patients with histoplasmosis.

IDSA Guidelines for Management of Histoplasmosis • CID 2007:45 (1 October) • 807

Treatment of Acute and Chronic Pulmonary Histoplasmosis 12. Prednisone (0.5–1.0 mg/kg daily [maximum, 80 mg
daily] in tapering doses over 1–2 weeks) is recommended in
Moderately Severe to Severe Acute Pulmonary Histo-
severe cases (B-III).
plasmosis
13. Itraconazole (200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then
1. Lipid formulation of amphotericin B (3.0–5.0 mg/kg
once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended only if
daily intravenously for 1–2 weeks) followed by itraconazole
corticosteroids are administered (B-III).
(200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then 200 mg twice daily,
for a total of 12 weeks) is recommended (A-III). Mediastinal Lymphadenitis
2. The deoxycholate formulation of amphotericin B (0.7– 14. Treatment is usually unnecessary (A-III).
1.0 mg/kg daily intravenously) is an alternative to a lipid for- 15. Itraconazole (200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then
mulation in patients who are at a low risk for nephrotoxicity 200 mg once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended
(A-III). in patients who have symptoms that warrant treatment with
3. Methylprednisolone (0.5–1.0 mg/kg daily intrave- corticosteroids and in those who continue to have symptoms
nously) during the first 1–2 weeks of antifungal therapy is for 11 month (B-III).
recommended for patients who develop respiratory compli- 16. Prednisone (0.5–1.0 mg/kg daily [maximum, 80 mg
cations, including hypoxemia or significant respiratory distress daily] in tapering doses over 1–2 weeks) is recommended in
(B-III). severe cases with obstruction or compression of contiguous
structures (B-III).
Mild-to-Moderate Acute Pulmonary Histoplasmosis
4. Treatment is usually unnecessary (A-III). Itraconazole Mediastinal Granuloma
(200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then 200 mg once or 17. Treatment is usually unnecessary (A-III)
twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended for patients who 18. Itraconazole (200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then
continue to have symptoms for 11 month (B-III). once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended for symp-
tomatic cases (B-III).
Chronic Cavitary Pulmonary Histoplasmosis
5. Itraconazole (200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then Mediastinal Fibrosis
once or twice daily for at least 1 year) is recommended, but 19. Antifungal treatment is not recommended (A-III).
some prefer 18–24 months in view of the risk for relapse 20. The placement of intravascular stents is recommended
(A-II). for selected patients with pulmonary vessel obstruction (B-III).
6. Blood levels of itraconazole should be obtained after 21. Itraconazole (200 mg once or twice daily for 12 weeks)
the patient has been receiving this agent for at least 2 weeks is recommended if clinical findings cannot differentiate me-
to ensure adequate drug exposure (A-III). diastinal fibrosis from mediastinal granuloma (C-III).
Complications
Broncholithiasis
Pericarditis 22. Antifungal treatment is not recommended (A-III).
7. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory therapy is recom- 23. Bronchoscopic or surgical removal of the broncholith
mended in mild cases (B-III). is recommended (A-III).
8. Prednisone (0.5–1.0 mg/kg daily [maximum, 80 mg
daily] in tapering doses over 1–2 weeks) is recommended for Pulmonary Nodules (Histoplasmomas)
patients with evidence of hemodynamic compromise or un- 24. Antifungal treatment is not recommended (A-III).
remitting symptoms after several days of therapy with non-
Progressive Disseminated Histoplasmosis
steroidal anti-inflammatory therapy (B-III).
9. Pericardial fluid removal is indicated for patients with 25. For moderately severe to severe disease, liposomal am-
hemodynamic compromise (A-III). photericin B (3.0 mg/kg daily) is recommended for 1–2 weeks,
10. Itraconazole (200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then followed by oral itraconazole (200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days
once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended if corti- and then 200 mg twice daily for a total of at least 12 months)
costeroids are administered (B-III). (A-I).
26. Substitution of another lipid formulation at a dosage
Rheumatologic Syndromes of 5.0 mg/kg daily may be preferred in some patients because
11. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory therapy is recom- of cost or tolerability (A-III).
mended in mild cases (B-III). 27. The deoxycholate formulation of amphotericin B

808 • CID 2007:45 (1 October) • Wheat et al.

(0.7–1.0 mg/kg daily) is an alternative to a lipid formulation mg/kg daily) is usually well tolerated, and the lipid preparations
in patients who are at a low risk for nephrotoxicity (A-III). are not preferred (A-III).
28. For mild-to-moderate disease, itraconazole (200 mg 40. Itraconazole dosage in children is 5.0–10.0 mg/kg daily
3 times daily for 3 days and then twice daily for at least 12 in 2 divided doses (not to exceed 400 mg daily), generally using
months) is recommended (A-II). the solution formulation (A-III).
29. Lifelong suppressive therapy with itraconazole (200
mg daily) may be required in immunosuppressed patients if Progressive Disseminated Histoplasmosis
immunosuppression cannot be reversed (A-II) and in patients 41. Amphotericin B deoxycholate (1.0 mg/kg daily for 4–
who relapse despite receipt of appropriate therapy (C-III). 6 weeks) is recommended (A-III).
30. Blood levels of itraconazole should be obtained to 42. Amphotericin B deoxycholate (1.0 mg/kg daily for 2–
ensure adequate drug exposure (B-III). 4 weeks) followed by itraconazole (5.0–10.0 mg/kg daily in 2
31. Antigen levels should be measured during therapy and divided doses) to complete 3 months of therapy is an alternative
for 12 months after therapy is ended to monitor for relapse (A-III).
(B-III). Persistent low-level antigenuria may not be a reason 43. Longer therapy may be needed for patients with severe
to prolong treatment in patients who have completed appro- disease, immunosuppression, or primary immunodeficiency
priate therapy and have no evidence of active infection. syndromes (A-III).
Prophylaxis for Immunosuppressed Patients
44. Lifelong suppressive therapy with itraconazole (5.0
mg/kg daily, up to 200 mg daily) may be required in immu-
32. Prophylaxis with itraconazole (200 mg daily) is rec- nosuppressed patients if immunosuppression cannot be re-
ommended in patients with HIV infection with CD4 cell counts versed (A-II) and in patients who experience relapse despite
!150 cells/mm3 in specific areas of endemicity where the in- receipt of appropriate therapy (C-III).
cidence of histoplasmosis is 110 cases per 100 patient-years 45. Blood levels of itraconazole should be obtained to
(A-I). ensure adequate drug exposure (B-III).
33. Prophylaxis with itraconazole (200 mg daily) may be 46. Antigen levels should be monitored during therapy
appropriate in specific circumstances in other immunosup- and for 12 months after therapy is ended to monitor for relapse
pressed patients (C-III). (B-III). Persistent low-level antigenuria may not be a reason
to prolong treatment in patients who have completed appro-
CNS Histoplasmosis
priate therapy and have no evidence of active infection.
34. Liposomal amphotericin B (5.0 mg/kg daily for a total
of 175 mg/kg given over 4–6 weeks) followed by itraconazole INTRODUCTION
(200 mg 2 or 3 times daily) for at least 1 year and until res-
olution of CSF abnormalities, including Histoplasma antigen In 2000, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA)
levels, is recommended (B-III). published a clinical practice guideline on the management of
35. Blood levels of itraconazole should be obtained to patients with histoplasmosis [1]. The IDSA updates its guide-
ensure adequate drug exposure (B-III). lines when new data or publications might change a prior rec-
ommendation or when the panel feels clarification or additional
Histoplasmosis in Pregnancy guidance is warranted.
For the 2007 update, the indications for treatment and agents
36. Lipid formulation amphotericin B (3.0–5.0 mg/kg
of choice from the 2000 guideline were reviewed [1]. The pre-
daily for 4–6 weeks) is recommended (A-III).
vious document is a source for a more detailed review of earlier
37. The deoxycholate formulation of amphotericin B
studies.
(0.7–1.0 mg/kg daily) is an alternative to a lipid formulation
Areas related to several newer antifungal agents and im-
in patients who are at a low risk for nephrotoxicity (A-III).
munosuppressive regimens for chronic inflammatory disorders
38. If the newborn shows evidence for infection, treat-
were not previously covered, because there was limited infor-
ment is recommended with amphotericin B deoxycholate (1.0
mation at the time. Therefore, the panel decided to include
mg/kg daily for 4 weeks) (A-III).
them in this update. The panel addressed the following clinical
Histoplasmosis in Children questions in the 2007 update.

Acute Pulmonary Histoplasmosis 1. What is the treatment for acute and chronic pulmonary
39. Treatment indications and regimens are similar to histoplasmosis?
those for adults, except that amphotericin B deoxycholate (1.0 2. What is the treatment for complications of pulmonary


Table 1. Infectious Diseases Society of America–United States Public Health Service grading
system for ranking recommendations in clinical guidelines.

Category, grade Definition
Strength of recommendation
A Good evidence to support a recommendation for use
B Moderate evidence to support a recommendation for use
C Poor evidence to support a recommendation
Quality of evidence
I Evidence from 1 properly randomized, controlled trial
II Evidence from 1 well-designed clinical trial, without randomiza-
tion; from cohort or case-controlled analytic studies (preferably
from 11 center); from multiple time-series; or from dramatic re-
sults from uncontrolled experiments
III Evidence from opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical
experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees

NOTE. Adapted from Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination [3].

histoplasmosis (e.g., pericarditis, arthritis/erythema nodosum, toplasma” and focused on human studies but included a few
mediastinal lymphadenitis, mediastinal granuloma, mediastinal studies from experimental models of histoplasmosis.
fibrosis, broncholithiasis, and pulmonary nodule)?
3. What is the treatment for progressive disseminated Process Overview
histoplasmosis? In evaluating the evidence regarding the management of his-
4. Is prophylaxis recommended for immunocompro- toplasmosis, the panel followed a process used in the devel-
mised patients?
opment of other IDSA guidelines. The process included a sys-
5. What is the treatment for CNS histoplasmosis?
tematic weighting of the quality of the evidence and the grade
6. What is the treatment for histoplasmosis in pregnancy?
of recommendation (table 1) [3].
7. What treatment is recommended for histoplasmosis in
children?
Consensus Development Based on Evidence
The panel met on 6 occasions via teleconference to complete
PRACTICE GUIDELINES the work of the guideline. The purpose of the teleconferences
“Practice guidelines are systematically developed statements to was to discuss the questions to be addressed, make writing
assist practitioners and patients in making decisions about ap- assignments, and discuss recommendations. All members of
propriate health care for specific clinical circumstances” [2]. the panel participated in the preparation and review of the
Attributes of good guidelines include validity, reliability, re- draft guideline. Feedback from external peer reviews was ob-
producibility, clinical applicability, clinical flexibility, clarity, tained. The guideline was reviewed and approved by the IDSA
multidisciplinary process, review of evidence, and documen- Standards and Practice Guidelines Committee (SPGC) and the
tation [2]. Board of Directors prior to dissemination.

UPDATE METHODOLOGY Guidelines and Conflicts of Interest
Panel Composition All members of the expert panel complied with the IDSA policy
The IDSA Standards and Practice Guidelines Committee on conflicts of interest, which requires disclosure of any finan-
(SPGC) convened experts in the management of patients with cial or other interest that might be construed as constituting
histoplasmosis. The panel members are listed in Appendix A. an actual, potential, or apparent conflict. Members of the expert
panel were provided IDSA’s conflict of interest disclosure state-
Literature Review and Analysis ment and were asked to identify ties to companies developing
For the 2007 update, the expert panel completed the review products that might be affected by promulgation of the guide-
and analysis of data published since 1999. Computerized lit- line. Information was requested regarding employment, con-
erature searches of the PubMed database were performed. The sultancies, stock ownership, honoraria, research funding, expert
searches of the English-language literature published from 1999 testimony, and membership on company advisory committees.
through July 2006 used the terms “histoplasmosis” and “His- The panel made decisions on a case-by-case basis as to whether


an individual’s role should be limited as a result of a conflict. mosis occurs in individuals who are unable to mount a
Potential conflicts are listed in the Acknowledgements section. cell-mediated immune response to the organism and is fatal if
untreated. Progressive disseminated histoplasmosis is defined
Revision Dates as a clinical illness that does not improve after at least 3 weeks
At annual intervals, the Panel Chair, the SPGC liaison advisor, of observation and that is associated with physical or radio-
and the Chair of the SPGC will determine the need for revisions graphic findings and/or laboratory evidence of involvement of
to the guideline on the basis of an examination of current extrapulmonary tissues. Hepatosplenomegaly, mucosal ulcers
literature. If necessary, the entire panel will be reconvened to and skin lesions, gastrointestinal involvement, pancytopenia,
discuss potential changes. When appropriate, the panel will progressive elevation of hepatic enzyme levels, increased lactate
recommend revision of the guideline to the SPGC and the IDSA dehydrogenase level, and increased serum ferritin level may
Board for review and approval. provide clues to the diagnosis. Laboratory evidence of dissem-
ination includes demonstration of granulomas with yeasts re-
RESULTS sembling H. capsulatum in extrapulmonary tissues, growth in
culture of H. capsulatum, and persistent antigenuria and/or
Literature Search
antigenemia.
The literature search identified 858 potential articles. A few
Chronic chorioretinitis, referred to as “presumed ocular his-
abstracts from national meetings were included. The types of
toplasmosis syndrome,” is commonly diagnosed in areas of
studies included randomized, clinical trials; open-label clinical
endemicity [5], but it is not clearly caused by H. capsulatum.
trials; retrospective case series; case reports; reports of in vitro
In one report, presumed ocular histoplasmosis was not re-
studies; and animal model experiments. Because of the limited
sponsive to amphotericin B treatment [6].
nature of the data in many areas, the panel decided also to
Treatment is clearly indicated in severe or moderately severe
retain high-quality reviews or background papers. Panel mem-
acute pulmonary, chronic pulmonary, disseminated, and CNS
bers were assigned sections of the guideline and reviewed the
histoplasmosis (table 2). In other manifestations, the role of
relevant literature.
therapy is uncertain, and efficacy has not been assessed with
clinical trials. Treatment is not indicated in asymptomatic pa-
Limitations in the Literature
tients with certain noninfectious complications or residue of
Review of the literature revealed a paucity of clinical trials eval-
healed histoplasmosis, such as asymptomatic pulmonary nod-
uating the newer agents in histoplasmosis. Most data came from
ules, mediastinal lymphadenopathy, and splenic lesions, espe-
cohort studies; case series; small, nonrandomized clinical trials;
cially when calcified.
or case reports.
Antifungal agents. The antifungal agents that have been
proven to be effective and that are preferred for treatment of
Literature Search Results
histoplasmosis include amphotericin B [7], liposomal ampho-
Clinical manifestations. Severity of illness and disease man- tericin B [8], amphotericin B lipid complex [9], and itracon-
ifestations after primary inhalation exposure to H. capsulatum
vary, depending on the intensity of exposure and the immunity
Table 2. Indications for antifungal therapy.
of the host. Acute exposure causes a spectrum of disease ranging
from asymptomatic infection to severe pneumonitis with re- Definite indication, proven or probable efficacy
spiratory compromise. In most cases, illness resolves without Acute diffuse pulmonary infection, moderately severe symp-
therapy within 1 month [4]. Some patients, however, may ex- toms, or severe symptoms
perience protracted pulmonary complaints caused by persistent Chronic cavitary pulmonary infection
inflammation of the lung or mediastinal lymph nodes. Progressive disseminated infection
CNS infection
Acute pulmonary histoplasmosis also may be associated with
Uncertain indication, unknown efficacy
other inflammatory manifestations, including pericarditis and
Acute focal pulmonary infection, asymptomatic case, or mild
arthritis or arthralgia with erythema nodosum. Complications symptoms that persist for 11 month
of pulmonary histoplasmosis include mediastinal lymphade- Mediastinal lymphadenitis
nitis, mediastinal granuloma, chronic cavitary disease in pa- Mediastinal granuloma
tients with underlying emphysema, fibrosing mediastinitis, and Inflammatory syndromes, treated with corticosteroids
broncholithiasis [4]. Not recommended, unknown efficacy or ineffective
Hematogenous dissemination occurs in most patients during Mediastinal fibrosis
the first few weeks after acute infection, but it is rarely pro- Pulmonary nodule
gressive, resolving with the development of cell-mediated im- Broncholithiasis
Presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome
munity to H. capsulatum. Progressive disseminated histoplas-


azole [10, 11]. There is no evidence to recommend the echin- than itraconazole. In patients with disseminated histoplasmosis
ocandins as treatment for histoplasmosis; in vitro susceptibility who did not have AIDS, fluconazole (200–800 mg daily) was
studies and animal experiments have shown conflicting results effective in 70% of cases [15]. Fluconazole (800 mg daily for
[12–14], and there is no published experience regarding treat- 12 weeks as induction therapy, followed by 400 mg daily) [16]
ment of humans who have histoplasmosis with echinocandins. was less effective than itraconazole [11] for treatment of his-
Amphotericin B formulations are used for patients who have toplasmosis in patients who had AIDS, and fluconazole resis-
severe pulmonary or disseminated forms of histoplasmosis. A tance developed in patients who failed therapy [17].
multicenter, randomized, blinded clinical trial demonstrated a Ketoconazole is seldom used for histoplasmosis in the United
higher response rate (88% vs. 64%) and lower mortality rate States because of the increased number of adverse effects, com-
(2% vs. 13%) in patients who had AIDS and progressive dis- pared with itraconazole. However, it is effective and much less
seminated histoplasmosis and who were treated with liposomal expensive than itraconazole, justifying its use in some cases
amphotericin B than among recipients of amphotericin B deox- involving mild manifestations of histoplasmosis, but not in
ycholate, respectively [8]. Amphotericin B lipid complex has cases of disseminated or CNS disease.
also been used successfully for treatment of histoplasmosis [9] The newer azoles, posaconazole and voriconazole, also dem-
and may be preferred by some because of lower cost. Ampho- onstrate in vitro activity against H. capsulatum [18]. Posacon-
tericin B deoxycholate is the least expensive formulation and azole appears to be more active in vitro [18] and in experi-
is a reasonable alternative to the lipid formulations for patients mental infection [19]. Isolates that were noted to have become
who are at a low risk for nephrotoxicity. Presently, except for resistant to fluconazole when patients with AIDS were treated
children, for whom a 1-month course of amphotericin B deox- with the agent were also noted to show increased MICs to
ycholate is usually curative, it is rare to see amphotericin B voriconazole [18], suggesting that resistance may develop dur-
given for the entire course of therapy, as was recommended in ing treatment with voriconazole, as well as with fluconazole
the 2000 guidelines. However, amphotericin B, as sole therapy, [17]. Both voriconazole [20–24] and posaconazole [25–27]
is effective and may be preferred in situations precluding treat- have been used successfully in a small number of patients with
ment with itraconazole or other oral azoles. Generally, am- a variety of different forms of histoplasmosis. Data are inad-
photericin B is used initially until the patient has shown a equate to make an evidence-based recommendation, and all 4
favorable response and can take an oral antifungal agent; then, of the other available azoles (i.e., fluconazole, ketoconazole,
itraconazole is given for the remainder of the treatment course. voriconazole, and posaconazole) are second-line alternatives to
Itraconazole given orally is preferred for patients who have itraconazole.
mild-to-moderate histoplasmosis and, as noted above, as step- The azoles exert their antifungal activity by inhibition of the
down therapy after the initial response to amphotericin B. The fungal cytochrome P450 3A4-dependent enzyme lanosterol 14-
response rate for primary therapy with itraconazole in early a-demethylase. The azoles vary in their ability to inhibit mam-
studies was 100% for disseminated histoplasmosis and 80% for malian cytochrome P450 metabolism of other drugs, and sev-
pulmonary histoplasmosis [10]. The oral capsule formulation eral azoles (itraconazole and voriconazole) are extensively
or the solution can be used. Itraconazole capsules should be metabolized by hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes. Thus, drug-
taken in the setting of high gastric acidity (concomitant con- drug interactions mediated through cytochrome P450 pathways
sumption of food or a cola drink is recommended), to max- are common and vary with each azole. In addition, posacon-
imize absorption. In patients who are receiving antacids, H2 azole and itraconazole are both inhibitors and substrates of
blockers, or proton pump inhibitors, the capsules should not p-glycoprotein, and posaconazole is eliminated through glu-
be used because of decreased absorption. Itraconazole concen- curonidation, leading to other important drug-drug interac-
trations are higher with use of the solution given on an empty tions. Up-to-date prescribing information should be reviewed
stomach than with capsules; thus, the solution should be used before initiating azole therapy in patients who are taking other
whenever possible. However, some patients dislike its taste or medications.
experience unacceptable gastrointestinal side effects, reducing The azoles may be hepatotoxic. Hepatic enzyme levels should
adherence to therapy. be measured before therapy is started and at least at 1, 2, and
Some patients are intolerant of itraconazole, are unable to 4 weeks and then every 3 months during therapy.
achieve adequate blood levels with either preparation, or are Therapeutic drug monitoring. Optimization of itracona-
receiving concomitant medications that lead to serious drug zole therapy for treatment of life-threatening systemic fungal
interactions with itraconazole. Thus, there is a need for alter- infections is strongly recommended [28]. Blood concentrations
native therapies. Fluconazole has been used successfully for vary widely in patients receiving itraconazole for treatment of
treatment of histoplasmosis, but it appears to be less effective histoplasmosis [11, 29]. Blood concentrations are ∼30% higher


using the solution formulation than the capsule formulation, tected in the urine in 190% of patients and in the serum in
but wide intersubject variability persists [30]. Itraconazole con- 80% of patients who have disseminated histoplasmosis, and
centrations in serum should be determined only after steady- this measurement is commonly used as an aid to early diagnosis
state has been reached, which takes ∼2 weeks. Serum levels (MiraVista Diagnostics) [36]. The sensitivity and specificity are
should be obtained to ensure adequate absorption, to monitor increased in newer generations of the test [37, 38], but cross-
changes in the dosage of itraconazole or the addition of inter- reactions occur in patients with other endemic mycoses [36,
acting medications, to determine the cause of treatment failure, 39]. In patients with antigenuria and/or antigenemia, levels
and to assess adherence. Because of its long half-life (∼24 h), decrease during therapy [40] and increase in 90% of those who
blood concentrations of itraconazole vary little during a 24-h relapse [41]. Furthermore, failure of the antigen concentration
dosing interval. Thus, the timing of collection of the blood to decrease may indicate treatment failure. Accordingly, changes
specimen in relationship to the most recent dose of itraconazole in antigen levels can be used as indicators for response to
is not important. Histoplasma yeasts are highly susceptible to therapy. Antigen levels should be measured before treatment is
itraconazole, with MICs of !0.01 mg/mL in all strains tested. initiated, at 2 weeks, at 1 month, and then approximately every
Although a blood concentration associated with treatment fail- 3 months during therapy and for at least 6 months after treat-
ure in histoplasmosis has not been identified, random concen- ment is stopped. Antigen levels also should be measured if
trations of at least 1.0 mg/mL are recommended. Although the treatment failure or relapse is suspected.
concentration associated with an increased risk for toxicity has In the experience of the panel, some patients have done well
not been defined, concentrations of 110 mg/mL are unnecessary after receiving appropriate therapy when treatment was dis-
for treatment of histoplasmosis, are likely to be associated with continued, despite having persistent low-level antigenuria. Also,
toxicity, and should prompt dosage reduction. When measured in a study of withdrawal of suppressive therapy in patients with
by high-pressure liquid chromatography, both itraconazole and
AIDS following immune reconstitution, none had relapse, even
its bioactve hydroxy-itraconazole metabolite are reported, the
though ∼20% of patients had an antigen level of 1–3 U [42].
sum of which should be considered in assessing drug levels.
Considering the complexity of issues involved in decisions
Drug level monitoring is not recommended when using flu-
about discontinuation of therapy, the panel recommends that
conazole, because of its excellent drug exposure, even in pa-
expert opinion be sought if the physician is uncertain whether
tients with AIDS [16]. Although less information is available,
to stop treatment because of persistent antigenuria. More spe-
therapeutic drug monitoring also appears to be appropriate
cific guidance for use of antigen detection to monitor therapy
when administering voriconazole [31] and posaconazole. Both
is discussed in a recent review [36].
agents demonstrate considerable subject-to-subject variability
Salvage therapy in patients who fail standard therapy.
[32–34] related to differences in absorption and/or metabolism.
The approach to therapy in patients who fail amphotericin B
Furthermore, drug-drug interactions can lead to major changes
or itraconazole therapy is complex, and there are very limited
in the serum concentrations of voriconazole [35]. Voricona-
data on which to make evidence-based recommendations. One
zole’s half-life is 6–8 h, and blood levels vary 2-fold over a 12-
h dosing interval [32]. Accordingly, timing of obtainment of study reported response to posaconazole in 3 patients who
the blood specimen in relationship to the most recent dose of failed treatment with multiple drugs, including amphotericin
the medication is essential in assessing voriconazole drug ex- B, itraconazole, and voriconazole, and in a fourth patient who
posure. For voriconazole, the trough concentrations should be failed itraconazole treatment [25]. Whether combining am-
at least 0.5 mg/mL, and the peak concentration should be at photericin B with an azole would be effective in refractory cases
least 2.0 mg/mL. Posaconazole’s half-life is ∼12 h [33], and has not been reported. In animal models, however, the com-
concentrations vary only slightly during a 12–24-h dosing in- bination of amphotericin B and an azole was no more effective
terval [33, 34]. Random concentrations of at least 0.5 mg/mL than amphotericin B alone [43, 44]; in fact, fluconazole was
may be adequate. Voriconazole and posaconazole metabolites antagonistic to amphotericin B.
are not bioactive; thus, they are not reported by laboratories The role of immune modulator therapy in patients who fail
using high-pressure liquid chromatography. antifungal therapy for histoplasmosis is unknown. Granulocyte-
Azole blood levels are available in most of the large reference macrophage colony-stimulating factor [45], IFN-g [46], and
laboratories and several laboratories specializing in fungal di- antibodies to H. capsulatum cell surface proteins [47] have
agnostics (e.g., Fungus Testing Laboratory [San Antonio, TX] demonstrated marginal benefit in murine models but have not
and Mira Vista Diagnostics [Indianapolis, IN]). been studied in patients. A patient who had a specific defect
Use of antigen testing to monitor therapy for progressive in the IL-12/IFN-g pathway appeared to benefit from IFN-g
disseminated histoplasmosis. Histoplasma antigen can be de- after antifungal therapy failed on several occasions [48]. The


panel recommends that expert opinion be sought in refractory patients were hospitalized. In a more recent outbreak at a high
cases. school, only 3.7% of patients received antifungal therapy, and
only 2.5% of children, several of whom were immunocom-
GUIDELINE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE promised, were hospitalized [51]. However, whether therapy
TREATMENT OF HISTOPLASMOSIS could hasten recovery in such cases is unknown, because clinical
The guideline recommendations are also summarized in ta- trials of treatment for acute pulmonary histoplasmosis have not
ble 3. been conducted.
Antifungal treatment has been recommended in patients
WHAT IS THE TREATMENT FOR ACUTE AND whose symptoms do not improve within 1 month [52], but no
CHRONIC PULMONARY HISTOPLASMOSIS? clinical trials have been performed to prove efficacy in this
situation. In such cases, persistent fever, fatigue, or weight loss
Moderately Severe to Severe Acute Pulmonary Histoplasmosis
raises concern about the development of progressive dissemi-
Recommendations nated histoplasmosis, providing an additional reason for the
1. Lipid formulation of amphotericin B (3.0–5.0 mg/kg initiation of antifungal therapy. If treatment is administered, a
daily intravenously for 1–2 weeks) followed by itraconazole 6–12-week course of itraconazole (200 mg once or twice daily)
(200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then 200 mg twice daily, is recommended. In an open-label clinical trial, a small number
for a total of 12 weeks) is recommended (A-III). of patients who had persistent symptomatic pulmonary his-
2. The deoxycholate formulation of amphotericin B (0.7– toplasmosis were shown to respond to itraconazole (200 mg
1.0 mg/kg daily intravenously) is an alternative to a lipid for- once or twice daily, given for at least 6 months) [10].
mulation in patients who are at a low risk for nephrotoxicity
(A-III). Chronic Cavitary Pulmonary Histoplasmosis
3. Methylprednisolone (0.5–1.0 mg/kg daily intrave-
nously) during the first 1–2 weeks of antifungal therapy is
recommended for patients who develop respiratory compli- Recommendations
cations, including hypoxemia or significant respiratory distress 5. Itraconazole (200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then
(B-III). once or twice daily for at least 1 year) is recommended, but
some prefer 18–24 months in view of the risk for relapse
Evidence summary. The effectiveness of therapy in patients (A-II).
with acute pulmonary histoplasmosis is based on anecdotal case 6. Blood levels of itraconazole should be obtained after
reports, as recently summarized elsewhere [36], and clinical the patient has been receiving this agent for at least 2 weeks
experience. In severe cases, cases accompanied by respiratory to ensure adequate drug exposure (A-III).
insufficiency, or hypoxemia, anecdotal reports [49] suggest that
corticosteroid therapy may hasten recovery. In most patients
for whom corticosteroids are considered, hospitalization is ap- Evidence summary. Patients with underlying emphysema of-
propriate. The optimal duration of therapy is unknown, but ten develop progressive pulmonary disease, which is charac-
presumably a relatively short course of 12 weeks may suffice, terized by cavities with surrounding inflammation, after infec-
because cell-mediated immunity to Histoplasma usually devel- tion with H. capsulatum [4]. The effectiveness of therapy with
ops within the first month of infection. The pulmonary infil- either amphotericin B or itraconazole for chronic pulmonary
trates should be resolved on the chest radiograph before an- histoplasmosis has been established by clinical trials and cohort
tifungal therapy is stopped. studies [10, 53–57]. Relapses have occurred in 9%–15% of those
treated with these agents. Treatment should be continued until
Mild-to-Moderate Acute Pulmonary Histoplasmosis pulmonary imaging shows no further improvement when mon-
itored at 4–6-month intervals. In most cases, chest radiographs
Recommendation provide sufficient information for monitoring response to ther-
4. Treatment is usually unnecessary (A-III). Itraconazole
apy. Patients should continue to be monitored for relapse for
(200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then 200 mg once or
at least 1 year after they stop itraconazole treatment. Results
twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended for patients who
of tests for detection of antigen are usually negative in patients
continue to have symptoms for 11 month (B-III).
with chronic pulmonary histoplasmosis and play a limited role
Evidence summary. Antifungal treatment is unnecessary in in an assessment of response to treatment. Furthermore, al-
patients with mild symptoms caused by acute pulmonary his- though antibody levels generally decrease with recovery, in-
toplasmosis. In an outbreak in a junior high school [50], illness sufficient data are available to support measurement of anti-
resolved within 3 weeks in 195% of cases, and only 1% of body levels for assessment of response to treatment.


WHAT IS THE TREATMENT FOR THE Evidence summary. Arthritis or arthralgia with erythema no-
COMPLICATIONS FROM PULMONARY dosum occurs in 5%–10% of cases as a systemic inflammatory
HISTOPLASMOSIS (E.G., PERICARDITIS, response to acute pulmonary histoplasmosis [60, 61]. These
ARTHRITIS/ERYTHEMA NODOSUM, manifestations do not represent infection, and they respond to
MEDIASTINAL LYMPHADENITIS, MEDIASTINAL nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents without antifungal ther-
GRANULOMA, MEDIASTINAL FIBROSIS, apy. In some cases, the manifestations are moderately severe,
BRONCHOLITHIASIS, AND PULMONARY requiring treatment with corticosteroids [60]. If corticosteroids
NODULE)? are used, concurrent itraconazole treatment is recommended
to reduce the risk of progressive infection. Bone or joint in-
Pericarditis
volvement is very rare in progressive disseminated histoplas-
Recommendations mosis, but it should not be overlooked.
7. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory therapy is recom-
mended in mild cases (B-III). Mediastinal Lymphadenitis
Recommendations
daily] in tapering doses over 1–2 weeks) is recommended for
14. Treatment is usually unnecessary (A-III).
patients with evidence of hemodynamic compromise or un-
remitting symptoms after several days of therapy with non-
200 mg once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended
steroidal anti-inflammatory therapy (B-III).
in patients who have symptoms that warrant treatment with
9. Pericardial fluid removal is indicated for patients with
corticosteroids and in those who continue to have symptoms
hemodynamic compromise (A-III).
for 11 month (B-III).
once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended if corti-
costeroids are administered (B-III).
severe cases with obstruction or compression of contiguous
Evidence summary. Pericarditis occurs as a complication of structures (B-III).
inflammation in adjacent mediastinal lymph nodes in patients
Evidence summary. Antifungal treatment is unnecessary in
with acute pulmonary histoplasmosis. It represents an inflam-
most patients with symptoms due to mediastinal lymphadenitis.
matory condition rather than infection of the pericardium.
The symptoms that occur most frequently are chest pain, cough
Pericardial infection is a very rare complication of disseminated
and/or atelectasis due to bronchial compression, or dysphagia
disease. Patients respond to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
resulting from esophageal compression. Children are more
agents without antifungal therapy, often improving after only
likely than adults to present with airway obstruction. In patients
a few days of therapy [58, 59]. Large pericardial effusions may
with symptoms of compression of the airways or esophagus,
impair cardiac output, however, and thus require drainage [59].
administration of prednisone in tapering doses over 1–2 weeks
Pericardial constriction is rare and is not a basis for prophylactic
may result in prompt relief by reducing the size of the inflamed
therapy or surgical removal of the pericardium. If corticoste-
lymph nodes [62]. Itraconazole is recommended for 6–12 weeks
roids are used, concurrent itraconazole treatment is recom-
to reduce the risk of progressive disseminated disease caused
mended to reduce the risk of progressive infection. If the patient
by corticosteroid-induced immunosuppression in patients who
has symptomatic acute pulmonary histoplasmosis with features
are given corticosteroids and in patients whose symptoms last
for which treatment is recommended, in addition to pericar-
longer than 1 month.
ditis, itraconazole therapy is appropriate

Mediastinal Granuloma
Rheumatologic Syndromes
Recommendations
Recommendations
17. Treatment is usually unnecessary (A-III)
11. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory therapy is recom-
mended in mild cases (B-III).
once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended for symp-
tomatic cases (B-III).
severe cases (B-III). Evidence summary. The term mediastinal granuloma de-
13. Itraconazole (200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days and then scribes a large (3–10 cm in adults but smaller in children),
once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) is recommended only if mostly caseous mass of mediastinal lymph nodes that coalesce
corticosteroids are administered (B-III). into a single encapsulated lesion, which is usually located in


Table 3. Recommendations for the treatment of histoplasmosis.

Manifestation Treatment Class Comments
Acute pulmonary histoplasmosis
a
Moderately severe or severe Lipid AmB (3.0–5.0 mg/kg daily) or deoxycholate AmB (0.7–1.0 A-III Usually follows easily identifiable heavy exposure and is accompa-
b
mg/kg daily) for 1–2 weeks, followed by Itra (200 mg twice nied by diffuse infiltrates and hypoxemia
daily for a total of 12 weeks)
Methylprednisolone (0.5–1.0 mg/kg daily intravenously for 1–2 B-III Effectiveness is not well documented
weeks)
Mild to moderate For symptoms of !4 weeks, none A-III Whether treatment shortens the duration of illness is unknown
For symptoms of 14 weeks, Itra (200 mg once or twice daily for B-III
816

6–12 weeks)
Chronic cavitary pulmonary histoplasmosis Itrab (200 mg once or twice daily for at least 12 months) A-II Relapse occurs in ∼15% of cases
Pericarditis
Moderately severe to severe Itra (200 mg once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) only if predni- B-III Tamponade requires drainage of pericardial fluid; antifungal therapy
sone used is given to reduce possible dissemination caused by prednisone-
Prednisone (0.5–1.0 mg/kg daily in tapering doses over 1–2 B-III induced immunosuppression
weeks)
Mild Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents B-III Usually rapidly effective at reducing symptoms and pericardial
effusion
Rheumatologic histoplasmosis Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents B-III Corticosteroids are rarely needed
Mediastinal lymphadenitis Mild symptoms of !4 weeks, none A-III Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents may be given, but the ef-
Symptoms warranting treatment with prednisone, prednisone B-III fectiveness is unknown; corticosteroids are rarely needed but
(0.5–1.0 mg/kg daily in tapering doses over 1–2 weeks) and Itra have been used in severe cases involving airway obstruction
(200 mg once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks)
Symptoms of 14 weeks, Itra (200 mg once or twice daily for 6–12 B-III
weeks)
Mediastinal granuloma Asymptomatic, none B-III Surgery may be required to relieve obstruction
Symptomatic, Itra (200 mg once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) B-III
Mediastinal fibrosis Antifungal treatment not indicated A-III Surgery should be avoided
Stenting of obstructed vessels can be useful B-III Surgery should be avoided
Itra (200 mg once or twice daily for 6–12 weeks) C-III Treatment given only if clinical findings cannot differentiate medi-
astinal fibrosis from mediastinal granuloma

Broncholithiasis None A-III Removal of stones by bronchoscopy or surgery may be indicated
Pulmonary nodule None A-III Must be differentiated from malignancy
Progressive disseminated histoplasmosis
Moderately severe to severe Liposomal AmBa (3.0 mg/kg daily), AmB lipid complexa (5.0 mg/kg A-I Longer treatment may be required in patients with persistent
a c
daily), or deoxycholate AmB (0.7–1.0 mg/kg daily) for 1–2 immunodeficiency
weeks, followed by Itraa (200 mg twice daily for at least 12
months)
Mild to moderate Itra (200 mg twice daily for at least 12 months) A-II Longer treatment may be required in patients with persistent
c
immunodeficiency
CNS histoplasmosis Liposomal AmBa (5.0 mg/kg daily for 4–6 weeks), followed by B-III High failure and relapse rates support aggressive therapy, but
Itrab (200 mg 2–3 times daily for at least 12 months) whether less intensive therapy would suffice is unknown;
longer treatment may be required for patients with persistent
immunodeficiencyc

NOTE. AmB, amphotericin B; Itra, itraconazole.
With regard to prophylaxis, there are few studies on which to make evidence-based recommendations on the role of prophylaxis to prevent histoplasmosis in immunosuppressed patients. Prophylaxis is not used
routinely but is reserved for situations in which the rate of development of infection exceeds 10 cases per 100 patient-years. The optimal duration for prophylaxis is unknown, but health care providers should consider
the incidence of histoplasmosis in the community and the severity of immunosuppression. Itra (200 mg daily) is recommended when prophylaxis is prescribed.
With regard to pregnancy, all azoles are contraindicated because of the risk of teratogenicity. Otherwise, the indications for treatment are not different in pregnancy, and lipid formulations of AmB are preferred.
AmB deoxycholate is preferred for use in children, because it is effective, well tolerated, and less costly. The dosage of Itra for children is 5.0–10.0 mg/kg daily in 2 divided doses, not to exceed 400 mg daily. The
dosage of methyl-prednisolone is 2.0 mg/kg daily given intravenously, and the dosage of prednisone is 2.0 mg/kg daily given orally. Indomethacin (1.0–3.0 mg/kg daily, divided 3 times) is the nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory agent of choice for pericarditis in children.
a
Liposomal AmB (3.0 mg/kg daily) or AmB lipid complex (5.0 mg/kg daily) are recommended for 1–2 weeks, except in patients with meningitis, for whom the dosage of liposomal AmB is 5.0 mg/kg daily for 4–
6 weeks. The deoxycholate formulation of AmB (0.7–1.0 mg/kg daily) is an alternative to a lipid formulation in patients who are at a low risk for nephrotoxicity.
b
817

Itra should be given as a loading dose of 200 mg 3 times daily for the first 3 days, followed by 200 mg twice daily thereafter. Itra (200 mg once daily) may be sufficient in patients with less severe manifestations
of histoplasmosis. If used for prophylaxis, a dosage of 200 mg daily is recommended. Concentrations of Itra in serum should be monitored in patients being treated for chronic pulmonary, disseminated, or CNS
histoplasmosis; a random serum concentration 11.0 mg/mL should be sought. Drug monitoring is infrequently needed for patients receiving shorter courses of therapy for acute pulmonary histoplasmosis and its
complications.
c
Chronic, potentially lifelong suppressive therapy with Itra is required for patients with AIDS who do not achieve immune reconstitution in response to antiretroviral therapy. Lifelong suppressive therapy may be
useful in patients with other immunosuppressive disorders in whom immunosuppression cannot be substantially reduced and in patients who experience relapse despite receipt of appropriate therapy.

the right paratracheal region or the subcarinal area [52, 63]. antifungal therapy. Corticosteroid therapy has not been helpful
Most patients are asymptomatic, and mediastinal granuloma is when tried [66, 71, 72] and is discouraged.
found incidentally by imaging studies, but symptoms related Placement of intravascular stents has been helpful in some
to compression of adjacent structures can occur. The caseous patients with superior vena cava, pulmonary artery, or pul-
center can spontaneously drain via a fistula or sinus tract to monary vein obstruction [73] and should be considered es-
the bronchus, skin, or esophagus; bacterial superinfection oc- pecially for patients who are at highest risk because of involve-
casionally develops when fistulae or sinus tracts are present ment of both lungs. The placement of stents in obstructed
[64]. airways is not recommended because of the high risk of growth
Itraconazole is appropriate for symptomatic cases, but there of granulation tissue, leading to recurrent obstruction, but it
are no controlled trials to prove its efficacy. The capsule is thin may be necessary in selected patients in whom interventional
(2–3 mm) and adherent, but it is not invasive, so surgical airway experts find that no other treatment alternative is
removal or decompression with removal of the free wall and feasible.
contents is possible when involvement of the superior vena Surgery should be approached with great caution in patients
cava or esophagus causes persistent symptoms (despite admin- with mediastinal fibrosis and should be performed only for
istration of antifungal therapy). There is no evidence that me- those who are expected to die of the condition without inter-
diastinal granuloma evolves into mediastinal fibrosis. Thus, vention. Surgeons experienced in the management of this con-
treatment with either surgery or itraconazole should not be dition should be consulted [72].
used to prevent the development of mediastinal fibrosis [63,
64]. Broncholithiasis

Recommendations
Mediastinal Fibrosis
22. Antifungal treatment is not recommended (A-III).
23. Bronchoscopic or surgical removal of the broncholith
Recommendations is recommended (A-III).
20. The placement of intravascular stents is recommended Evidence summary. Broncholithiasis is the erosion of calcified
for selected patients with pulmonary vessel obstruction (B-III). lymph nodes into a bronchus, often causing hemoptysis and
21. Itraconazole (200 mg once or twice daily for 12 weeks) inflammation. Spitting of small pieces of white chalk-like ma-
is recommended if clinical findings cannot differentiate me- terial, termed “lithoptysis,” may occur [52]. When stones of
diastinal fibrosis from mediastinal granuloma (C-III). substantial size are extruded, they may cause prolonged periods
of intense cough and hemoptysis, with localized wheeze and
Evidence summary. Mediastinal fibrosis is characterized by distal obstructive pneumonitis. Diagnosis is made broncho-
invasive fibrosis that encases mediastinal or hilar nodes and scopically. Removal of the stones bronchoscopically or surgi-
that is defined by occlusion of central vessels and airways [65– cally is recommended.
68]. Occlusion of airways or vessels of both lungs occurs in
only a small proportion of cases (∼20%) but is usually fatal Pulmonary Nodules (Histoplasmomas)
[69]. Most patients have occlusion of the superior vena cava
Recommendation
or loss of function of only 1 lung, which may have significant
morbidity with chest pain or hemoptysis, but long-term sur-
vival is generally favorable [69]. Evidence summary. Lung parenchymal sites of infection may
Most authorities believe that neither antifungal nor anti- contract and then persist indefinitely as lung nodules or his-
inflammatory treatment ameliorates the outcome of medias- toplasmomas [74]. Calcification is usually found in the center
tinal fibrosis [65, 66], but others have reported improvement of a histoplasmoma or in concentric rings and is generally
after antifungal therapy [70]. If the clinical findings are con- diagnostic, although it may require years to develop and is not
sistent with a more inflammatory process rather than a chronic always present. Histoplasmomas may enlarge slowly and even
fibrotic process, especially if complement fixation antibodies cavitate [74]. Pulmonary nodules cause no symptoms, usually
for H. capsulatum are present and the erythrocyte sedimenta- are identified as incidental findings on chest radiographs or
tion rate is elevated, treatment should be considered. A 12- CTs, and are frequently removed surgically to exclude malig-
week course of itraconazole (200 mg once or twice daily) is nancy. There is no evidence that antifungal agents have any
suggested if clinical and CT findings do not differentiate me- effect on histoplasmomas or that histoplasmomas contain vi-
diastinal fibrosis from mediastinal granuloma. Patients who able organisms. This recommendation applies to patients who
truly have mediastinal fibrosis are not expected to respond to are asymptomatic and who have 1 or a few isolated nodules.


This recommendation does not apply to symptomatic patients receipt of amphotericin B as a result of improvement in the
who have multiple or diffuse nodules, which may represent patient’s overall condition.
acute pulmonary histoplasmosis. Although it was recommended in the 2000 guidelines on the
basis of the results of earlier studies [7, 54], therapy with am-
WHAT IS THE TREATMENT FOR PROGRESSIVE photericin B for the entire therapeutic course (typically 35 mg/
DISSEMINATED HISTOPLASMOSIS? kg given over 4–8 weeks) is now uncommon. “Step-down ther-
apy” to oral itraconazole has become the standard of practice
and is supported by studies of patients with AIDS [8].
Recommendations
Response rates of 80%–100% were reported using itracon-
25. For moderately severe to severe disease, liposomal am-
azole for treatment of disseminated histoplasmosis in patients
photericin B (3.0 mg/kg daily) is recommended for 1–2 weeks,
who were not severely ill and who did not have CNS involve-
followed by oral itraconazole (200 mg 3 times daily for 3 days
ment [10, 11]. Itraconazole is administered at 200 mg 3 times
and then 200 mg twice daily for a total of at least 12 months)
daily for 3 days as a loading dose, followed by 200 mg twice
(A-I).
daily [10, 11], as guided by determination of the blood con-
26. Substitution of another lipid formulation at a dosage
centration of itraconazole, for at least 1 year. In immunosup-
of 5.0 mg/kg daily may be preferred in some patients because
pressed patients, an even longer course of therapy should be
of cost or tolerability (A-III).
considered. Treatment should be continued until clinical and
laboratory findings have returned to normal. Ten percent to
(0.7–1.0 mg/kg daily) is an alternative to a lipid formulation
15% of patients experience relapse [10, 11], which may be a
basis for long-term maintenance therapy.
28. For mild-to-moderate disease, itraconazole (200 mg
In patients with AIDS, the timing of antiretroviral therapy
3 times daily for 3 days and then twice daily for at least 12
months) is recommended (A-II). poses an interesting dilemma. Antiretroviral therapy causes im-
29. Lifelong suppressive therapy with itraconazole (200 provement in cellular immunity, the key defense against H.
mg daily) may be required in immunosuppressed patients if capsulatum. Not surprisingly, the outcome of disseminated his-
immunosuppression cannot be reversed (A-II) and in patients toplasmosis is better in patients receiving antiretroviral therapy.
who relapse despite receipt of appropriate therapy (C-III). In a recent report, the response rate was 100% among patients
30. Blood levels of itraconazole should be obtained to receiving antiretroviral therapy, compared with 47% among
ensure adequate drug exposure (B-III). those who were not treated with antiretroviral therapy [75].
31. Antigen levels should be measured during therapy and Initiation of antiretroviral therapy may unmask undiagnosed
for 12 months after therapy is ended to monitor for relapse histoplasmosis through immune reconstitution–induced in-
(B-III). Persistent low-level antigenuria may not be a reason flammation [76, 77]. Immune reconstitution inflammatory
to prolong treatment in patients who have completed appro- syndrome during treatment for histoplasmosis is rare, however,
priate therapy and have no evidence of active infection. and the clinical manifestations are usually not severe [76]. Ac-
cordingly, antiretroviral therapy should not be withheld on the
Evidence summary. Progressive disseminated histoplasmosis basis of concern about the possible development of immune
is fatal without therapy [54], and treatment with either am- reconstitution inflammatory syndrome.
photericin B [7, 8, 54] or itraconazole [10, 11] is highly effec- Long-term suppressive therapy with itraconazole [29] was
tive. Among patients with AIDS and moderately severe to severe recommended previously for patients with AIDS [1]. Subse-
disseminated histoplasmosis, the rate of response was higher quently, studies have shown that itraconazole can be safely
(88% vs. 64%) and the mortality rate was lower (2% vs. 13%) discontinued in patients who have a good immunologic re-
among recipients of liposomal amphotericin B (3 mg/kg daily sponse to antiretroviral therapy [42]. For consideration of dis-
for 1–2 weeks) than among recipients of the deoxycholate for- continuation of suppressive therapy, data suggest that patients
mulation [8]. should have received at least 1 year of itraconazole therapy,
In patients with severe disease, renal impairment is common should have negative results of blood cultures, should have a
as a consequence of multiple-organ failure caused by severe Histoplasma serum and urine antigen level !2 ng/mL (com-
histoplasmosis or amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Often, phy- parable to 4 U/mL in the original assay) and a CD4 T cell count
sicians consider switching to an azole in such cases, to avoid 1150 cells/mm3, and should be receiving HAART [42]. Al-
further renal impairment. The panel recommends continued though the practice of discontinuation of suppressive therapy
treatment with liposomal amphotericin B. The poor prognosis in patients with AIDS who have good immunologic recovery
justifies using the most effective therapy, despite nephrotoxicity. is widespread, the number of published trials evaluating this
In many cases, renal impairment improves despite continued strategy is small.


Suppressive therapy should be resumed if patients become study were persons with radiographic (calcified lung or spleen
nonadherent with antiretroviral therapy, if antiretroviral ther- lesions) or serologic (complement fixation titers of 1:8 or 1:
apy is failing, or if the CD4 T cell count decreases to !150 16 or M band by immunodiffusion) evidence of old histo-
cells/mm3. Suppressive therapy also may be warranted in pa- plasmosis, none of whom developed active histoplasmosis. On
tients with other immunodeficient states that cannot be re- the other hand, therapy with TNF antagonists has been noted
versed, but there are no data and minimal clinical experience to be a risk factor for the development of disseminated his-
on which to base this recommendation. toplasmosis; in fact, histoplasmosis is the most common fungal
infection associated with TNF antagonist therapy [80].
IS PROPHYLAXIS RECOMMENDED FOR Active histoplasmosis during the past 2 years may be a basis
IMMUNOSUPPRESSED PATIENTS? for itraconazole prophylaxis during immunosuppression. Evi-
dence of recent histoplasmosis includes a history of pulmonary
Recommendations infection, with radiographic findings showing infiltrates, nod-
32. Prophylaxis with itraconazole (200 mg daily) is rec- ules, or lymphadenopathy without a clear etiology; Histoplasma
ommended in patients with HIV infection with CD4 cell counts antigenuria; or anti-Histoplasma complement fixation antibody
!150 cells/mm3 in specific areas of endemicity where the in- titers 1:32. The appropriate duration of prophylaxis is
cidence of histoplasmosis is 110 cases per 100 patient-years unknown.
(A-I). In patients who have finished treatment for histoplasmosis
33. Prophylaxis with itraconazole (200 mg daily) may be and who are about to receive a transplant or to commence new
appropriate in specific circumstances in other immunosup- immunosuppressive therapies, a urinary antigen level should
pressed patients (C-III). be obtained before the new intervention and then every 2–3
months during the intensive course of immunosuppression. An
Evidence summary. There are few studies on which to make increase in urinary antigen levels should be assessed with a
evidence-based recommendations on the role of prophylaxis to more thorough investigation for active histoplasmosis, includ-
prevent histoplasmosis in immunosuppressed patients: a single ing chest CT and bronchoscopy (if infiltrates are identified),
study has addressed this issue in patients with AIDS. Itracon- blood cultures using methods suitable for isolation of Histo-
azole (200 mg daily) prevented histoplasmosis in patients with plasma species, and a careful search for disseminated histo-
HIV infection who had CD4 cell counts !150 cells/mm3 and plasmosis. A consistent elevation of the urinary Histoplasma
who lived in an area of hyperendemicity [78]. Prophylaxis had antigen level should prompt initiation of antifungal therapy
no impact on survival, however. Accordingly, prophylaxis is not empirically in the context of ongoing immunosuppression.
used routinely but is reserved for situations in which the rate
of development of infection exceeds 10 cases per 100 patient- WHAT IS THE TREATMENT FOR CNS
years. The duration of prophylaxis has not been studied. On HISTOPLASMOSIS?
the basis of studies showing that suppressive therapy for dis-
seminated histoplasmosis in AIDS can be stopped in patients Recommendations
whose CD4 cell count increases to 150 cells/mm3 [42], con- 34. Liposomal amphotericin B (5.0 mg/kg daily for a total
tinuation of itraconazole as long as the incidence of histoplas- of 175 mg/kg given over 4–6 weeks) followed by itraconazole
mosis exceeds the threshold noted above and the CD4 count (200 mg 2 or 3 times daily) for at least 1 year and until res-
is !150 cells/mm3 seems to be prudent. The optimal duration olution of CSF abnormalities, including Histoplasma antigen
for prophylaxis in patients with immunosuppressive conditions levels, is recommended (B-III).
other than AIDS is unknown, and health care providers should 35. Blood levels of itraconazole should be obtained to
consider the incidence of histoplasmosis in the community and ensure adequate drug exposure (B-III).
the severity of immunosuppression.
Today, a more common question is the need for prophylaxis Evidence summary. CNS histoplasmosis includes meningitis,
in a patient who is receiving immunosuppressive therapy for parenchymal lesions of the brain and/or spinal cord, or both.
malignancy, organ transplantation, or chronic inflammatory The response to therapy is inferior to that in other types of
disease and who exhibits radiographic or serologic evidence of histoplasmosis [81]; thus, an aggressive approach is recom-
past histoplasmosis. The utility of prophylaxis in these patients mended [82]. In a recent review of experience in one medical
has not been studied, but the risk of histoplasmosis appears to center, 4 of 5 patients treated with amphotericin B (40 mg/kg
be low. Histoplasmosis was not observed after a mean of 16 over 8 weeks) followed by fluconazole (200–400 mg daily for
months of follow-up in 1500 patients who received immu- 12 months) made a full recovery, and the fifth had minor
nosuppressive therapy for solid organ or bone marrow trans- sequelae [83]. The panel preferred a high dose (5 mg/kg daily)
plantation in an area of hyperendemicity [79]. Included in this of liposomal amphotericin B rather than amphotericin B lipid


complex in adults, in part because liposomal amphotericin B Transplacental transmission may be prevented by administra-
achieves the highest concentrations in brain tissue [84]. How- tion of antifungal therapy before delivery, but the evidence is
ever, they also noted that there are no data to specifically sup- not adequate to make a recommendation. The placenta should
port this recommendation for CNS Histoplasma infection. Of be examined histopathologically for granuloma and for organ-
note is the fact that none of the amphotericin B formulations isms resembling H. capsulatum. Furthermore, the baby should
achieve detectable concentrations in CSF. Some have reported be monitored for clinical and laboratory findings suggestive of
success with a shorter course of amphotericin B (2–3 weeks) histoplasmosis, in which case treatment with amphotericin B
followed by an azole [85–89], but the panel recommended a deoxycholate is recommended.
longer course of liposomal amphotericin B therapy. Amphotericin B remains the treatment of choice in preg-
After completion of 4–6 weeks of treatment with liposomal nancy, and the lipid formulations are safe [93]. The azoles are
amphotericin B, itraconazole is recommended for at least 1 teratogenic and embryotoxic in animals and should be avoided
year. Although itraconazole does not achieve detectable levels during pregnancy. Long-term administration of fluconazole
in CSF, it was more effective than fluconazole in an animal during pregnancy has been associated with congenital anom-
model of CNS histoplasmosis [43]. The role of combination alies [95]. Women of childbearing age who receive azole an-
therapy has not been studied in humans. In the animal model, tifungal agents should use effective contraception during ther-
however, fluconazole was antagonistic to amphotericin B, and apy and for 2 months after it is stopped. Reports suggesting
the addition of itraconazole to the amphotericin B regimen that fetal risk is not increased [96–98] focused on low-dose,
failed to improve the outcome noted with amphotericin B alone short-duration therapy and should not be used as a basis for
[43]. Therefore, combination treatment is not recommended. azole treatment for histoplasmosis. Theoretically, the risk for
Whether an azole alone would be effective treatment is not toxicity during the third trimester may be low, but there are
known. Itraconazole was as effective as amphotericin B in an no data available to assess the safety of prolonged treatment
animal model of CNS histoplasmosis [43]. Also, individual for histoplasmosis.
cases have been reported in which patients responded to azoles
without having received prior amphotericin B treatment; these WHAT TREATMENT IS RECOMMENDED FOR
azoles include ketoconazole [90], itraconazole [83, 91], flu- HISTOPLASMOSIS IN CHILDREN?
conazole [83, 92], fluconazole combined with itraconazole [83],
and voriconazole [24]. Another report described a patient for Symptoms of histoplasmosis in children are similar to those
whom multiple prior regimens had failed but who had re- that occur in adults, with some exceptions. Acute pulmonary
sponded to posaconazole treatment [25]. However, the panel manifestations are common; however, chronic pulmonary in-
felt that the evidence was insufficient to recommend azole ther- fection has not been described. Airway obstruction caused by
apy alone for CNS histoplasmosis. mediastinal lymphadenitis is more common in children than
Although resection of brain or spinal cord lesions has been in adults because of greater airway pliability in children. Lith-
reported, surgery is rarely needed and should be performed optysis and broncholithiasis are rarely seen. Rheumatologic
only with progressive clinical findings despite receipt of anti- complications are similar, although erythema nodosum is un-
fungal therapy. usual and is almost never associated with arthritis or arthralgia.
Mediastinal fibrosis rarely occurs during childhood. Meningitis
WHAT IS THE TREATMENT FOR is common in progressive disseminated histoplasmosis of in-
HISTOPLASMOSIS IN PREGNANCY? fancy [99], but the subacute meningitis and parenchymal le-
sions characteristic of CNS infections in adults are rarely seen
Recommendations in children. The recommendations for management of pro-
36. Lipid formulation amphotericin B (3.0–5.0 mg/kg gressive disseminated histoplasmosis—the most common rea-
daily for 4–6 weeks) is recommended (A-III). son for treatment in children—will be reviewed in more detail.
(0.7–1.0 mg/kg daily) is an alternative to a lipid formulation Acute Pulmonary Histoplasmosis
38. If the newborn shows evidence for infection, treat-
Recommendations
ment is recommended with amphotericin B deoxycholate (1.0
39. Treatment indications and regimens are similar to
mg/kg daily for 4 weeks) (A-III).
those for adults, except that amphotericin B deoxycholate (1.0
Evidence summary. Unique issues in pregnancy include the mg/kg daily) is usually well tolerated, and the lipid preparations
risk of teratogenic complications of azole therapy [93] and of are not preferred (A-III).
transplacental transmission of H. capsulatum to the fetus [94]. 40. Itraconazole dosage in children is 5.0–10.0 mg/kg daily


in 2 divided doses (not to exceed 400 mg daily), generally using to be modified in patients found to have CNS involvement. In
the solution formulation (A-III). a single report, amphotericin B (1 mg/kg daily for 40 days)
followed by ketoconazole for 3 months was successful in 88%
Progressive Disseminated Histoplasmosis
of cases [99]. The panel favored itraconazole (10 mg/kg daily)
Recommendations in place of ketoconazole, however.
41. Amphotericin B deoxycholate (1.0 mg/kg daily for 4– Prolonged treatment with amphotericin B may be needed
6 weeks) is recommended (A-III). for patients with large fungal burdens, particularly infants who
42. Amphotericin B deoxycholate (1.0 mg/kg daily for 2– present with prolonged failure to thrive, pancytopenia, coa-
4 weeks) followed by itraconazole (5.0–10.0 mg/kg daily in 2 gulopathy, gastrointestinal ulceration, and meningitis and in
divided doses) to complete 3 months of therapy is an alternative severely affected patients who have received TNF antagonist
(A-III). therapy or who have congenital immunodeficiencies that can-
43. Longer therapy may be needed for patients with severe not be reversed. Less severe infection can be treated with a 2–
disease, immunosuppression, or primary immunodeficiency 4-week course of amphotericin B followed by itraconazole for
syndromes (A-III). a total duration of therapy of 3 months in families judged to
44. Lifelong suppressive therapy with itraconazole (5.0 be compliant with oral therapy.
mg/kg daily, up to 200 mg daily) may be required in immu- Experience using itraconazole as sole treatment for progres-
nosuppressed patients if immunosuppression cannot be re- sive disseminated histoplasmosis in infants and older children
versed (A-II) and in patients who experience relapse despite is limited. In a report of seven children (mean age, 4.6 years)
receipt of appropriate therapy (C-III). with disseminated histoplasmosis treated with only itraconazole
45. Blood levels of itraconazole should be obtained to for 3–12 months, 5 were markedly improved at the conclusion
ensure adequate drug exposure (B-III). of 3–6 months of treatment, and none experienced relapse
46. Antigen levels should be monitored during therapy [104]. One child died 1 month after treatment was stopped.
and for 12 months after therapy is ended to monitor for relapse The use of itraconazole as sole treatment of disseminated his-
(B-III). Persistent low-level antigenuria may not be a reason toplasmosis is not recommended. However, in infrequent sit-
to prolong treatment in patients who have completed appro- uations, in which the child has only mild-to-moderate symp-
priate therapy and have no evidence of active infection. toms, itraconazole may be considered as primary therapy if the
clinical course and laboratory findings are closely monitored.
Evidence summary. Progressive disseminated infection, often Candidates for oral itraconazole should include those in whom
accompanied by meningitis [99], may occur in otherwise compliance is expected and absorption of the drug is assured.
healthy infants aged !2 years, presumably resulting from rel- Children with disseminated histoplasmosis and HIV infec-
atively immature cellular immunity. Most are ultimately found tion can be treated with the protocol recommended for adults,
to be immunologically healthy. Additional risk factors for dis- using dosages appropriate for children. Children with dissem-
seminated histoplasmosis at any age include large inoculum inated histoplasmosis should be screened for HIV infection.
exposure and acquired immunodeficiency resulting from use Low CD4 cell counts are common during the acute phase of
of immunosuppressive agents, malnutrition, or HIV infection. disseminated histoplasmosis in infancy [99, 105], and assess-
Primary immunodeficiency disorders that impair the function ment of cellular immunity later in the course is needed to
of T cells, monocytes, and macrophages also predispose to dis- exclude primary immunodeficiency. Antigen testing, as de-
seminated histoplasmosis. scribed in the section on adults, should be used to monitor
Progressive disseminated histoplasmosis in children is fatal the effectiveness of therapy. The blood antigen level decreases
if untreated [100]. Amphotericin B deoxycholate (1 mg/kg rapidly (within 2 weeks), whereas the urine antigen level may
daily) given for 4 weeks has been used successfully [100–103] decrease more slowly and may persist in low concentrations
and with minimal toxicity. A lipid formulation of amphotericin for several months before antigenuria fully resolves [102].
B (3–5 mg/kg daily) may be substituted if the patient is in-
tolerant of amphotericin B deoxycholate. A shorter course of PERFORMANCE MEASURES
amphotericin B followed by an azole was effective in 74% of
cases [101] and is an alternative to a prolonged course of am-
photericin B treatment. 1. Itraconazole is the preferred azole for initial therapy
In contrast to cases in adults, meningitis that accompanies for patients with mild-to-moderate histoplasmosis and as step-
progressive disseminated histoplasmosis of infancy responds to down therapy after receipt of amphotericin B. When other azole
amphotericin B deoxycholate (given for 4–6 weeks) without a agents are used, the medical record should document the spe-
high rate of relapse [99]. Treatment recommended for pro- cific reasons that itraconazole was not used and why other
gressive disseminated histoplasmosis of infancy does not need azoles were used.


2. Patients with severe or moderately severe histoplas- 2. Field MJ, Lohr KN, eds; Institute of Medicine Committee to Advise
the Public Health Service on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Clinical
mosis should be treated with an amphotericin B formulation practice guidelines: directions for a new program. Washington, DC:
initially. When amphotericin B is used, the patient’s electrolyte National Academy Press, 1990:55–77.
level, renal function, and blood cell count should be monitored 3. Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination. The pe-
riodic health examination. CMAJ 1979; 121:1193–254.
several times per week and documented in the medical record.
4. Wheat LJ, Conces D, Allen SD, Blue-Hnidy D, Loyd J. Pulmonary
3. Itraconazole drug levels should be measured during the histoplasmosis syndromes: recognition, diagnosis, and management.
first month in patients with disseminated or chronic pulmonary Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 25:129–44.
histoplasmosis, and these levels should be documented in the 5. Oliver A, Ciulla TA, Comer GM. New and classic insights into pre-
sumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome and its treatment. Curr Opin
medical record, as well as the physician’s response to levels that Ophthalmol 2005; 16:160–5.
are too low. 6. Giles CL, Falls HF. Amphotericin B therapy in the treatment of pre-
4. Itraconazole should not be given to patients receiving sumed histoplasma chorioretinitis: a further appraisal. Am J Ophthal-
mol 1968; 66:101–4.
contraindicated medications (i.e., pimozide, quinidine, dofe- 7. Sarosi GA, Voth DW, Dahl BA, Doto IL, Tosh FE. Disseminated his-
tilide, lovastatin, simvastatin, midazolam, and triazolam). Rea- toplasmosis: results of long-term follow-up: a Center for Disease Con-
sons for deviation from this practice should be documented in trol cooperative mycoses study. Ann Intern Med 1971; 75:511–6.
8. Johnson PC, Wheat LJ, Cloud GA, et al. Safety and efficacy of li-
the medical record.
posomal amphotericin B compared with conventional amphotericin
B for induction therapy of histoplasmosis in patients with AIDS. Ann
Intern Med 2002; 137:105–9.
Acknowledgments
9. Perfect JR. Treatment of non-Aspergillus moulds in immunocompro-
The expert panel wishes to express its gratitude to Drs. Larry Baddour, mised patients, with amphotericin B lipid complex. Clin Infect Dis
William E. Dismukes, and John R. Graybill for their thoughtful reviews of 2005; 40(Suppl 6):S401–8.
earlier drafts of the manuscript. The panel also wishes to thank Dr. Stanley 10. Dismukes WE, Bradsher RW Jr, Cloud GC, et al. Itraconazole therapy
C. Deresinski for his guidance throughout the guideline development for blastomycosis and histoplasmosis. NIAID Mycoses Study Group.
process. Am J Med 1992; 93:489–97.
Financial support. The Infectious Diseases Society of America. 11. Wheat J, Hafner R, Korzun AH, et al. Itraconazole treatment of dis-
Potential conflicts of interest. L.J.W. is President of MiraVista Diag- seminated histoplasmosis in patients with the acquired immunode-
nostics and MiraBella Technologies; he has research contracts with Astellas, ficiency syndrome. AIDS Clinical Trial Group. Am J Med 1995; 98:
Basilea, Schering-Plough, and Bio-Rad Laboratories and serves as a con- 336–42.
sultant to Bio-Rad Laboratories; L.J.W. is also a speaker for Bio-Rad and 12. Kohler S, Wheat LJ, Connolly P, et al. Comparison of the echinocandin
Enzon. J.W.B. has received research grants from Merck and Astellas and caspofungin with amphotericin B for treatment of histoplasmosis fol-
is on the speakers’ bureaus for Merck, Pfizer, and Enzon. A.G.F. serves as lowing pulmonary challenge in a murine model. Antimicrob Agents
a consultant for Enzon and as a speaker for Pfizer, Merck, and Schering. Chemother 2000; 44:1850–4.
C.A.K. has received research grants from Merck, Astellas, and Schering- 13. Graybill JR, Najvar LK, Montalbo EM, Barchiesi FJ, Luther MF, Rin-
Plough and is on the speakers’ bureaus for Merck, Pfizer, Astellas, and aldi MG. Treatment of histoplasmosis with MK-991 (L-743,872). An-
Schering-Plough. D.S.M. is on the speakers’ bureaus of Merck and Pfizer. timicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42:151–3.
M.B.K. and J.E.L.: no conflicts. 14. Espinel-Ingroff A. Comparison of in vitro activities of the new triazole
SCH56592 and the echinocandins MK-0991 (L-743,872) and
LY303366 against opportunistic filamentous and dimorphic fungi and
yeasts. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36:2950–6.
APPENDIX A.
15. McKinsey DS, Kauffman CA, Pappas PG, et al. Fluconazole therapy
for histoplasmosis. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious
Diseases Mycoses Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 23:996–1001.
16. Wheat J, MaWhinney S, Hafner R, et al. Treatment of histoplasmosis
EXPERT PANEL
with fluconazole in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syn-
drome. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Acquired
Infectious diseases: L. Joseph Wheat (MiraVista Diagnostics,
Immunodeficiency Syndrome Clinical Trials Group and Mycoses
Indianapolis, IN), John W. Baddley (University of Alabama at Study Group. Am J Med 1997; 103:223–32.
Birmingham and Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Cen- 17. Wheat LJ, Connolly P, Smedema M, Brizendine E, Hafner R. Emer-
ter), Alison G. Freifeld (University of Nebraska Medical Center, gence of resistance to fluconazole as a cause of failure during treatment
of histoplasmosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency disease
Omaha), Carol A. Kauffman (University of Michigan and Vet- syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33:1910–3.
erans Affairs Healthcare System, Ann Arbor), and David S. 18. Wheat LJ, Connolly P, Smedema M, et al. Activity of newer triazoles
McKinsey (ID Associates of Kansas City, Kansas City, MO). against Histoplasma capsulatum from patients with AIDS who failed
fluconazole. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57:1235–9.
Pediatric infectious diseases: Martin B. Kleiman (Indiana Uni-
19. Connolly P, Wheat LJ, Schnizlein-Bick C, et al. Comparison of a new
versity School of Medicine, Indianapolis). Pulmonology: James triazole, posaconazole, with itraconazole and amphotericin B for treat-
E. Loyd (Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN) ment of histoplasmosis following pulmonary challenge in immuno-
compromised mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44:2604–8.
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