Shopper Perceptions in the face of global competition – Case of Shopping Centers of Kolkata, India

Shopper Perceptions in the face of global competition – Case of
Shopping Centers of Kolkata, India

Present affiliation of Authors

Dr. Atish Chattopadhyay
Professor of Marketing, SPJIMR, India

atishc@spjimr.org

And

Dr. Kalyan Sengupta
Professor of IT and Systems, IISW&BM, Kolkata, India
kalyansen2002@yahoo.co.uk

(Paper Presented at the Conference on Global Competitiveness at IIM-Kozhikode, 25-26
March, 2006)

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1. Introduction

The retailing industry in India, estimated at INR 930,000 crores (2003-04) is expected to
grow at 5 percent per annum. The size of the organized retailing market in 2004 stood at
INR 28,000 crores, thereby making up a mere 3 percent of the total retailing market. The
retail revolution in India has provided a much wider range and depth of products for the
Indian consumers along with a choice of retail destination that reflect global formats.
The late 1990s witnessed the proliferation of well endowed modern malls which caused
the older shopping destinations to move down the scale. Shopping malls have now
become the visible face of Indian retail. There are over two hundred malls in planning or
under construction stage throughout India. Over 35-40 million square ft. of new retail
space may come to the market in the next 12-24 months (including re-developments) in
over 50 cities across the country. Further, by 2010, 500-600 malls occupying approx 120
million square ft. are at various stages of planning at this point in time. Indian retailing
have witnessed fundamental shifts in the shopping behavior of customers (India Retail
Report, 2005).

United States which has been a fore runner in the evolution of the organized retailing
witnessed the emergence of malls in the 1950s. In 1960s, Express highways took
organized retail to smaller town in US like the Wal-Mart (1962) and Gap (1969). In
1970s value retail chains gained prominence and competition dictated the course in the
US. This was the period when growth of retail gained at the expense of competition and
volumes became the name of the game. The 1980s saw retail developments in the US in
two distinct fronts – Off-price retailing as compared to Mega Malls with unique shopping
experience. It may be noted that the evolution of organized retail may hold certain
lessons for retailers in developing economies like India.

With the imminent opening of the retail sector by the Government of India and easing of
FDI norms, global retailers like Wal-Mart, Carrefour, Tesco and Home Depot will in all
probability enter India. “The battle with Wal-Mart is not about money, or low prices, but
for the mind space of customers” says Kishore Biyani of Pantaloons, India (Dasgupta,
2005). Experts opine that right positioning will be the key to success of shopping malls

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in India in the face of increased competition. The paper aims to study the existing
customer perception of the shopping centers of in the city of Kolkata, India.

2. Background Literature

Consumers today have a growing choice of shopping destination which includes
freestanding stores, retail parks, malls, specialty and festival centers, and ancillary
retailing (Guy, 1994), as well as an increasing variety of home shopping by mail,
computer, television and telephone. Shopping centers can no longer rely on a captive
market, and there is an increasing need for centers to compete and to market themselves
effectively.

Since the early – 1990s the need for effective marketing of shopping centers has been
brought into sharp focus. In extreme cases, some schemes have required repositioning or
conversion to other land uses (Houlder, 1992). Some American mall operators have been
accused of marketing myopia (Turchiano, 1990) and centers have been urged to strive for
market dominance as never before (Gruen, 1993). Shopping centers need to plan for the
newly competitive environment.

Definition of “shopping centers” focus on their fundamental differences compared to
traditional high street retail locations – i.e. planned developments that are managed and
marketed as a unified whole (Guy, 1994). Often implicit is the suggestion that shopping
centers are coherently and proactively marketed, and that centers typically have a strong
marketing profile (Guy, 1994). However, many studies have pointed out the noticeable
lack of marketing orientation among shopping centers (e.g. Cooke, 1993). Howard
(1995) blames the property management emphasis in the industry and there is also
confusion as to what marketing actually means in the context of shopping centers.

The marketing task for managed shopping centers may be viewed as offering of a service
for targeted consumers to gain convenient access to a desirable mix of retailers within the
managed environment that provides a satisfying and safe shopping and leisure experience
(Kirkup and Rafiq, 1999). This definition differentiates “managed shopping centers”

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from other forms of shopping destinations like High Streets, Department Stores, home
Shopping etc. The marketing task for shopping centers includes major decisions to be
made prior to the opening of the center – relating to design of the center, location and
market positioning.

There exist a range of studies on the design and development process (e.g. Dawson,
1983; Beddington, 1991), center success and failure factors (e.g. Ordway et al., 1988),
occupancy dynamics (Kirkup and Rafiq, 1994a), and discussions on particular aspects of
shopping center management such as tenant relationships and their implications for
management. However, little research has been undertaken on the marketing issues with
respect to shopping centers.

The current research addresses the issue of understanding the shopper’s needs and
shopping behavior, so that shopping center managers can meet today’s market challenges
effectively.

3. Methodology

The research was carried out empirically by using a number of shopping centers of
similar nature. Our approach was comparative in nature. The steps adopted in our study
were (1) identification of the shopping centers under study and their profile (2) customer
survey to measure perception of the shopping centers (3) interpretation of marketing
strategies of shopping centers in the light of the perception of shoppers.

In step 1, we looked for a homogenous market in the city of Kolkata, which was
dominated by small firms and important in terms of growth and opportunity. In step 2 we
were concerned about the shopper perception with respect to the shopping centers. For
this purpose, a customer survey was conducted. A questionnaire was designed for the
purpose of extracting information on the following – (1) customer characteristics of
respondents (2) General characteristics of the shopping centers (3) Ratings of a number
of selected parameters to evaluate customer’s perception on a five point scale. Also, level
of importance for such individual parameter was collected on a five point scale. The

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overall quality factors in our case were derived through factor analysis technique. Cluster
analysis was then performed to identify grouping among shoppers and their orientation
towards specific factors which influences choice. Finally, the marketing strategies of the
shopping centers were evaluated qualitatively.

As mentioned earlier, with the imminent opening of the retail sector by the Government
of India and easing of FDI norms, shoppers’ perception may be critical the success factor.
Thus, it was important to study present perception of shoppers of the shopping centers in
India. A set of prominent shopping centers in the city of Kolkata were chosen, namely 22
Camac Street, Forum, Vardaan, New Market, Metro Plaza, City Center and Metropolitan
(abbreviated names CS, Frm, Vdn, NM, MP, CC, Mpol).

Typical marketing strategies of the shopping centers were studied through case study
method. The case studies were developed based on business reports and direct interviews
with top level managers/owners of the firms based on their perception of the target
segment and competition. Also, the shopping centers were studied by way of visits,
collection of catalogs, promotional materials like advertisements etc.

The consumer survey was based on simple random sampling. Target population was
those who visited the shopping centers in the city of Kolkata. The study was based on
data collected in 2005 through a sample survey which included respondents’
demographic attributes, shopping motivations, situational factors and purchase behaviors.
The sample frame consisted of existing large shopping malls where customers were
interviewed as they left the centers. Randomized selection procedure was used whereby
interviewers walked from exit door to exit door consecutively, approaching the shopper
as he or she exited the mall (Sudman, 1980). These respondents were approached and
from which 408 agreed to be interviewed. Finally, 389 respondents filled in the
questionnaire, which was the sample size. Through the questionnaire, an attempt was
made to gather facts about the most recent purchase and perception of the shopping
centers the respondents were aware of. As far as the scale for measuring the perception of
the shopping centers was concerned, a pilot survey was conducted to identify the

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parameters. In the pilot survey, a set of 16 parameters was given to respondents and only
12 parameters were found to be suitable for the purpose.

4. Result and Discussions

4.1 Profile of the Shopping Centers

Kolkata was flooded by numerous mall projects recently. Forum was promoted by
Sunsam Properties on Elgin Road, City Center in Salt Lake by Bengal Ambuja and
Metropolitan by Calcutta Metropolitan Group on the E M Bypass. The other popular
shopping centers of the city are Vardaan Market, Metro Plaza, 22 Camac Street and New
Market. New Market is the oldest and located in the heart of the city since the British Raj.
Vardaan and Metro Plaza are more of shopping complexes than organized malls. Vardaan
Market is a combination of small retail stores with various types of merchandise. Metro
Plaza is also developed on the same format that of Vardaan Market and comprises of
small retail stores with very few branded retail formats. 22 Camac Street is a combination
of office complexes, eating joints and retail stores. It houses offices of Bengal Ambuja,
Glaxo Consumer Division and Ernst & Young etc. It also houses large branded retail
formats like Westside, Pantaloons and Planet M. and also Food Joints like Pizza Hut and
Grain of Salt. Most importantly 22 Camac Street is located among the other office
complexes making it a very accessible shopping location for working executives. Metro
Politan is located on the EM By-pass and houses Big Bazar as its anchor. City Centre at
Salt Lake houses a lot of national as well as international branded stores such as
Shopper’s Stop, Jockey, Reebok, Wills Life Style, Planet M, C 3, KFC, Pizza Hut etc. It
is located in the heart of Salt Lake City and thereby attracts shoppers from all locations in
and around Salt Lake.

4.2 Shopper Perceptions

The survey data provided a fair amount of information on shopper perceptions of the
shopping centers. The data set was tested for reliability and was found to be satisfactory.

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The respondents were asked about the shopping center from which they made their last
visit. They were also asked about their favorite shopping destination. It was observed
the approximately 30 percent of the respondents considered Forum to be their favorite
shopping destination followed by 22 Camac Street which was considered favorite by
around 21 percent of the respondents. New Market was considered favorite by around 19
percent of the respondents and City Center by around 13 percent of the respondents. This
clearly demonstrates that New Market has lost its leadership as the preferred shopping
destination of Kolkata (refer to table 1).
It was further observed that around 49 percent of customers purchasing from Forum
considered it to be their favorite shopping destination and the figure was around 51
percent for New Market. This clearly demonstrates that the majority of the population
purchasing from New Market still considers it to be their favorite shopping destination
though its preference among the total shopping population of Kolkata has declined
considerably. It was also interesting to note that 22 Camac Street and City Center were
considered to be their favorite shopping destination by around 45 percent and 34 percent
of the shoppers respectively. It may also be noted that Vardaan Market, Metro Plaza and
Metropolitan enjoys very poor preference amongst the shoppers at less than 10 percent
(refer to table 1).

Table 1: Favorite shopping destination “Purchase from Cross tabulation”

Favorite Shopping Last Purchased Form
Destination CS (%) Frm (%) NM (%) MP (%) CC (%) Mpol (%) Total (%)
CS 44.8 27.0 10.8 10.9 16.4 20.0 21.2
Frm 37.9 49.2 15.4 34.4 9.0 32.7 29.3
Vdn 1.7 3.2 3.1 10.9 7.5 4.6
NM 8.6 6.3 50.8 6.3 22.4 18.2 19.1
MP 5.2 4.8 3.1 18.8 6.0 6.5
CC 1.7 6.3 10.8 9.4 34.3 12.7 12.9
Mpol 1.6 1.5 12.7 2.4
Others 1.6 6.2 9.4 3.0 3.6 4.0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Further studies were carried out to investigate why some of the shopping centers
preferred by the shoppers while others were not. Also it would be of interest to
investigate why an erstwhile favorite shopping destination like New Market is no longer
preferred by a vast majority of shoppers of Kolkata.

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Factor analysis was performed on all the quality attributes to investigate presence of
significant factors among the attributes under study. A number of indicative factor were
considered for this purpose. The factors considered were:
i) Value for money
ii) Location
iii) Shop décor
iv) Customer service
v) Variety of shops
vi) Availability of brands
vii) Parking facility
viii)Eating joint/café
ix) Promotional activities
x) Loyalty program
xi) Kids corner
xii) Entertainment

The interviews were asked to assess the shopping centers for each of these factors on a
rating scale. It was also assumed that each of these factors is not considered by the
shoppers to be of equal importance and only a few might be a high importance and the
rest may be of less importance. In order to accommodate these subjective variations, the
respondents were asked to indicate the level of importance attached to each of the factors.

Factor analyses were performed on all the quality attributes to investigate presence of
significance factors among the attributes under study. Factor extractions were done and
corresponding factor rotation were applied (refer to table 2). The shoppers extracted four
factors explaining 15.00, 29.59, 40.95 and 51.90 percent of total variance.

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Table 2: Total Variance Explained

Component Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 2.588 21.565 21.565 1.804 15.029 15.029
2 1.344 11.199 32.764 1.748 14.567 29.596
3 1.203 10.027 42.791 1.363 11.361 40.957
4 1.094 9.113 51.904 1.314 10.947 51.904

It may be observed that the shoppers clubbed parking facility, eating joint/café, kid’s
corner and entertainment as factor 1 which are related to family ‘entertainment’. Value
for money, promotional activities and loyalty program were clubbed by the shoppers as
factor 2 which are mostly related to ‘economy’. Factors related to ‘accessibility and
service’ like shop location, shop décor and customer service were clubbed as factor 3.
Factor 4 was a combination of shop variety and brand availability which may be termed
as ‘range of brands’ (refer to table 3). It may be of interest to note that ‘entertainment’
has emerged as an important factor for the shoppers of Kolkata.

Table 3: Rotated Component Matrix

Component
1 2 3 4
Value for Money -0.359 0.447 0.231 0.219
Location -0.124 0.015 0.726 -0.053
Shop Décor 0.250 0.021 0.673 -0.053
Customer Service 0.049 0.054 0.559 0.243
Variety of Shops -0.012 0.075 0.008 0.761
Availability of Brands 0.183 0.024 0.068 0.707
Parking Facility 0.651 0.026 0.070 0.322
Eating Joint/Café 0.719 0.137 0.062 0.056
Promotional Activities 0.169 0.788 0.035 0.014
Loyalty Program 0.191 0.782 -0.012 0.003
Kids Corner 0.412 0.470 0.010 0.112
Entertainment 0.621 0.255 0.047 -0.051
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization

Since there were four distinct factors influencing the purchase of shoppers in Kolkata,
cluster analysis was performed to identify whether there existed any grouping among
shoppers and their orientation towards specific factors which might influence their
purchase. Four clusters emerged amongst the shoppers of Kolkata (refer to table 4).

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Table 4: Initial Cluster Centers

Cluster
1 2 3 4
REGR factor score 1 for analysis 1 0.07292 0.96490 -0.54240 0.16355
REGR factor score 2 for analysis 1 0.09411 -1.05920 -0.17600 0.39595
REGR factor score 3 for analysis 1 -1.13259 0.46132 -0.13930 0.40834
REGR factor score 4 for analysis 1 0.39235 -0.24460 0.38375 0.17124
Monthly_family_inc 2 4 5 3
Ownership: house 1 1 1 1
Ownership: two wheeler 2 2 2 2
Ownership: car 2 1 1 1
Ownership: PC 2 1 1 1

The first cluster mainly comprised of shoppers having family income up to Rs.20, 000
per month having no ownership of car, personal computer etc. This group of shoppers
was more interested in variety and the range of brands and attached some importance due
entertainment and economy. The second cluster comprised of shoppers having a monthly
family income of Rs.30, 000 to Rs.40, 000 and gave maximum importance to
entertainment and service amongst all the customer groups. They attached to limited
importance to the other factors like economy and variety. The third group of shoppers
comprising of the highest income group with a family income of above Rs.40, 000 per
month were interested only in the brand name and the availability of wide range of
product categories. The fourth group comprising of shoppers having a family income
between Rs.20, 000 to Rs.30, 000 per month constituted the majority of the shoppers
being 35 percent of the total shoppers. This group accorded importance to each of the
four factors and considered economy as well as service and accessibility as the
predominant factors while making their choice of shopping destinations.

It may be observed that each of the 4 clusters belonged to groups having different
monthly family income. Further, investigation was hence undertaken to investigate the
dependency of monthly family income on the choice of shopping centres. An
investigation of income as a discriminating factor for choice of shopping centre shows
that there is dependency on income for the choice of shopping destination. A chi-square
test suggests at a value of 67 (with a degree of freedom 48) that the difference is
significant (Refer to Table 5 and Table 6).

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Table 5: Favourite shopping destination “monthly family income” Cross tabulation

Favourite Shopping Monthly Income
Destination Less than 10000-2000 20000-3000 30000-40 More than
10000 0 0 000 40000
CS 16.3% 28.1% 19.6% 20.0% 12.5%
Frm 18.6% 18.8% 32.0% 32.7% 35.7%
Vdn 5.2% 3.1% 7.3% 3.6%
NM 25.6% 22.9% 18.6% 18.2% 12.5%
MP 9.3% 1.0% 7.2% 1.8% 10.7%
CC 20.9% 14.6% 5.2% 12.7% 14.3%
Mpol 4.7% 3.1% 2.1% 1.8% 1.8%
Others 2.3% 3.1% 7.2% 3.6%
Total 100.0% 100.% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Table 6: Chi-Square Tests - Favourite shopping destination “monthly family income”

Value df Asymp.Sig.
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 67.143a 48 .035

The P – value of 2-tail chi-square is very low of 0.035 (significant at 5 percent level)
showing dependency of income as a factor for choice of shopping destination by the
shoppers.
It was interesting to observe that New Market was considered to be their favorite
shopping destination mostly by shoppers having monthly family income of less than Rs.
10,000. 22, Camac Street was considered as their favorite shopping destination mostly by
those shoppers having a monthly family income between Rs. 10,000 to Rs.20, 000. It was
remarkable to note that a vast majority of higher income group shoppers having monthly
family income of above Rs. 20,000 considered Forum as their favorite.
One may observe that 22, Camac Street was preferred by middle income group shoppers
mostly of the first cluster as illustrated in Table 4. These group of shoppers preferred
variety and range of brands along with entertainment and economy. However, Forum has
emerged as the favorite for the higher income group shoppers. It may be further noted
that around 38 percent of shoppers visiting 22 Camac Street and 35 percent of shoppers
visiting Metro Plaza, 32 percent of shoppers visiting Metropolitan considered Forum as

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their favorite shopping destination clearly illustrating the success of Forum as a mall.
Forum’s marketing strategy was hence studied in a qualitative manner to study the
reasons for its success.

4.3 Marketing Strategy of Forum

There are various ways malls can build brand. This includes combining the consistency
people associate with a brand with something special that makes a mall stand out. Mall
owners try to position their properties in specific ways. Forum, the first mall in Kolkata
has revolutionized the concept of mall experience in the city. It is a 2, 00,000 sq. ft mall
with Shopper’s Stop as its anchor occupying around 60,000sq.ft. space spread across
three floors. Forum offers a product mix of shopping, food and entertainment

Forum operated in a manner similar to a retail store. For example, the product mix at
Forum, Kolkata was decided even before the concrete was poured. The developer had a
pretty good idea of who the tenants would be and designed the mall accordingly; even
spoke to potential tenants about possible rentals. The product mix was planned right
down to how much of the retail space should stock accessories, women’s apparels, men’s
formal wear, kids wear etc.

Once this was decided, and the relevant shops rented out, it was up to the stores to figure
out their pricing and brand strategies. Even after this exercise was complete, Forum’s
developer’s monitored the traffic in each section of the mall to figure out which sections
were doing well, and which were not. This was the reason why mall space at Forum was
rented out and not sold. Overall, renting helps in controlling the deliverables,
performance, service and structure of retailers in the mall. In case of unsatisfactory
performance by any retailer, the same is replaced with another brand in the store. This is
done to maintain continuity of products sold and provide an entire shopping solution to
each customer.

Besides deciding on the tenant rentals and product mix, a mall developer needs to plan a
format for all stores within the mall. The question to be answered here is not just ‘how

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much and what?’ but also ‘where?’ Shops must be located on the basis of customer
convenience and preference, following directly from the tenant mix. Forum houses all
sports brands like Nike, Planet Sports, Adidas, and Woodland Shoes etc on the ground
floor to provide a complete range of similar products to shoppers. All comparisons can be
made on the same floor before buying a product category. Similarly, level 1 is the fashion
level for up market women, both homemakers and working with shops like Satya Paul,
Be:, Bizarre, Swarovski etc, level 2 for trendy college going students and Level 3
comprising mostly men’s apparels and accessories. Level 4 consists of restaurants and
Inox ticket counters while the actual multiplex is on Level 6. Level 5 is dedicated entirely
to food court. The strategy behind placing the food court on a floor between the ticket
counters and movie halls is to drive the crowd towards food before and after movie
watching. Shopping and entertainment activities now complement each other and are
synonymous with lifestyle.

Forum offers a unique product mix of shopping, food and entertainment:

Retail:
Among the first timers housed in over 1.25 lakh sq. ft of retail space are Anokhi, Satya
Paul, Bizarre, Cotton World, Be:, Swarovski, etc. The chunk of course, has been taken by
the 60,000 sq. ft anchor store Shopper’s Stop. Other retailers include United Colors of
Benetton, Levis, Spykar, Blackberry’s, Hidesign, La Lingerie, Prime Watch, Swatch, Nik
Nish, Celeste, Candy Treats, Music World, Free look, Little Shop, Toy Planet, Nike,
Samsonite, Dockers, Ritu Kumar, Archies, GKB, Opal, Woodland, Planet Sports and
many more.
Food:
The food section comprises of two fine dining restaurants. The first is a formal dining
restaurant called Oh! Calcutta serving Bengali, Indian and Continental food while the
second is a funky restaurant and pub with a Bollywood theme called Star struck. There
are other pick and eat shops like Biscotti confectionery, Mc Cann fries, Amoretto’s juice
centre, Camellia Chaibar, coffee shops etc. A 180-seater multiple cuisine food court
called ‘Burp’ was the city’s first and only multi-faceted food court. It facilitated the use
of smart card technology to overcome long queues and payment hassles at each food-

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billing counter. Prices are charged against this card as an alternative to cash payment. It is
designed with a refilling facility, a move that certainly makes eating out an enhanced
experience.
Entertainment:
A four-screen multiplex called Inox and state of art fitness centre called Geo Spa takes
up a chunk of space at Forum starting from the fourth floor up to the sixth floor. The
other zones of entertainment are Timbaktoo – interactive video game parlour and
children’s crèche, making Forum a complete lifestyle destination.

Forum, targets the premium section of the society, houses top-notch designer brands.
Shopper’s Stop was chosen as its anchor to provide a shopping experience to customers
especially those having preference towards premium priced brands. The entire product
mix was planned for this segment. Strategies were formed for constant monitoring of the
tenants to ensure that all sections were doing well and that high footfalls lead to high
conversions. This was done through special events, shopping festivals, joint promotions
etc (Agarwal, 2004).

5. Conclusion
It was observed that the young and the high income group of the present generation
preferred and shopped from a planned shopping mall like Forum. New Market which was
the favorite shopping destination earlier is no longer a favorite with the young generation.
Camac Street which is a shopping center plus office complex though has attracted
customers but a vast majority of their shoppers consider Forum to be their favorite
shopping destination. This fact may be attributed to the absence of entertainment
facilities like multiplexes. Shopping complexes like Vardaan, Metro Plaza have lost out
owing to lack of coherent marketing and branding strategy which is as important as has
been seen in the case of Forum.

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6. Managerial Implications

Our findings provide marketers with a current understanding of mall shoppers and their
shopping behavior. It addresses the issue of how malls can leverage their particular
strength and compete more effectively by adjusting their strategies in the face of
competition. It is a crucial learning period especially for real estate developers entering
into mall development, which is the case in India. Malls need to position themselves
distinctively and develop appropriate marketing strategies by aligning their marketing
mix with their desired positioning in the face of global competition.

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References:

Agarwal, P. (2004): “Branding of a Mall: Kolkata is happening @ Forum”, Marketing
Mastermind, pp.44-51, June.

Cooke, J. (1993): “The shopping challenge – centres without a future”, in Henry Stewart
Conference Studies (Ed.), Latest Developments in the Ongoing Marketing and Promotion
of Shopping Centres, pp.1-9.

Dasgupta, S. (2005): “Who’s afraid of Wal-Mart?” Business Standard, 03 December.

Dawson, J.A. (1983): Shopping Centre Development, Longman, London.

Beddington, N. (1991): Shopping Centres, Butterworth Architecture.

Gruen, N.J. (1993): “The reinvention of retailing”, Journal of Property Management,
Vol.58, No.1, pp.40-46.
Guy, C. (1994): The Retail Development Process, Routledge, London.

Houlder, V. (1992): “The new centre of discontent”, Financial Times, 31 January.

Howard, E.B. (1995): Partnerships in Shopping Centres, OXIRM, Oxford.

India Retail Report (2005): “Evolution of Organized Retailing: The Global Experience,
Images Multimedia, New Delhi, pp.16-17

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Kirkup, M.H. and Rafiq, M. (1994a): “Tenancy development in new shopping centres”,
International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, Vol.4, No.3,
pp.345-360.

Kirkup, M.H. and Rafiq, M. (1999): “Marketing shopping centres: challenges in the UK
context”, Journal of Marketing Practice in Applied Marketing Science, Vol.5, No.5,
pp.119-133.

Ordway, N., Bul, A.A. and Eakin, M.E. (1988): “Developing a visibility index to classify
shopping centres”, Appraisal Journal, April.

Sudman, S. (1980): “Improving the quality of shopping center sampling”, Journal of
Marketing Research, Vol.17, No.2, pp.423-431, November.

Turchiano, F. (1990): “The (un)malling of America”, American Demographics, Vol.12,
No.4, pp.36-39.

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Shopper Perceptions in the face of global competition – Case of Shopping Centers of Kolkata, India

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