Hrd book1

Student Resource Guide
Human Resource Development
Managing Learning and Knowledge Capital

Third Edition

Brian Delahaye

Student Resource Guide
Human Resource Development: Managing Learning and Knowledge Capital (Third edition)

Author
Brian Delahaye

Copyright
Text copyright  2011 by Tilde Publishing and Distribution
Illustration, layout and design copyright  2011 by Tilde Publishing and Distribution.
Under Australia's Copyright Act 1968 (the Act), except for any fair dealing for the purposes of study, research,
criticism or review, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means without prior written permission from Tilde Publishing and Distribution. All inquiries
should be directed in the first instance to the publisher at the address below.

Disclaimer
All reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the quality and accuracy of this publication. Tilde Publishing
and Distribution assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions and no warranties are made with regard
to this publication. Neither Tilde University Press nor any authorised distributors shall be held responsible for
any direct, incidental or consequential damages resulting from the use of this publication.

Published in Australia by:
Tilde University Press
PO Box 72
Prahran VIC 3181 Australia
www.tup.net

To be used in conjunction with Human Resource Development 3rd edition, Author: Brian Delahaye
ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

PREFACE

An introduction to the text
Trainers, instructors, adult teachers, human resource developers, workplace educators,
community educators, learning consultants and knowledge managers are just some of the titles
given to the people who are given the responsibility to develop individual and organisational
learning. People who undertake this role are faced with a number of conflicting yet ever present
pressures. Among these pressures are:
 Demands to decrease the dollar and time investment in staff development
 The increasing complexity of technology
 The enhanced expectations of adult learners that they be treated as adults
 The need to ensure that learning is relevant and has a commercial value
 The exponential growth of theories of adult learning and the management of
knowledge.
Developing people in this role - whether they are called human resource developers or
workplace educators or any of the other titles - has become a distinctive challenge. Further, this
challenge has occurred at a time when decision makers have realised the critical importance of
the knowledge asset to the future viability of an organisation.
The text Human Resource Development: Managing Learning and Knowledge Capital has been
designed and written to meet the needs of undergraduate and postgraduate students who wish
to fulfil such roles and meet such challenges. The text offers a comprehensive theoretical and
practical coverage of human resource development. The book offers a number of features to
enhance learning and to provide praxis - the conversion of theory into practice:
 Learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter highlight the expected learning
outcomes.
 Main headings, sub-headings and sub-sub-headings furnish an easily recognised
structure to each chapter.
 A closer look feature which highlights a practical example or a more in-depth
discussion.
 At the end of each chapter, questions for review, for analysis and for application that
test that achievement of the chapter objectives.
 At the end of each chapter, three case studies that encourage reflection on the
applicability of the theoretical discussions.
 Glossary of key words at the end of each chapter provide a quick reference to
important concepts.
In addition, this third edition features a large case study on an organisation called Pacific
Lifestyle Publishing. Pacific Lifestyle Publishing is a real organisation located on the east coast of
Australia. It was exciting to find an organisation that valued its staff so highly and which
managed its knowledge capital so effectively and so naturally. The case study, located at the end
of the textbook, is used in a number of ways throughout the text. There are nearly 50 margin
notes in the main body of the text that link the theoretical concepts being discussed to the real

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ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

life experiences in Pacific Lifestyle Publishing. There are also several references to Pacific
Lifestyle Publishing in the theoretical discussions in the text itself. Finally, a number of chapters
have end-of-chapter questions on Pacific Lifestyle Publishing. Suggested answers to these
questions have been included in this Instructor’s Resource Guide. Further, each of these answers
have been reviewed by the Managing Director of Pacific Lifestyle Publishing and a number of
the ideas have been or are being implemented by the company.
Each of the four stages of human resource development - needs investigation, design,
implementation and evaluation - are discussed in turn throughout the book with important
theoretical principles being described and with models, recommendations and check lists
presented as professional guides for actions and decisions. These discussions and descriptions
are embedded within an overall understanding of the concepts of the management of knowledge
capital.
The material presented in the text consists of 14 chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the importance of
human resource development and locates human resource development in the theories, concepts
and practices of human resource management. The chapter introduces the concept of complexity
theory – the theoretical basis of the textbook and a most useful theory when examining the
management of knowledge capital and the underpinning adult learning processes. The next two
chapters present issues that have a direct influence, and provide a deeper understanding of
human resource development. Chapter 2 examines the theories and practices of adult learning.
Chapter 3 emphasises the importance of, and the critical nature of, individual differences in
adult learners. Chapter 4 begins the discussion on human resource development needs
investigation (HRDNI) and the next two chapters explore specific methods of HRDNI -
performance appraisal and career development (Chapter 5) and interviewing and focus groups
(Chapter 6). Chapter 7 examines the role of two important considerations in the design of adult
learning programs - the topic content and the learner - which provide an initial indication of the
type of learning strategies that are most beneficial. Other considerations of the design process,
and the type of program plans required, are discussed in Chapter 8. The structured learning
strategies of the skill session, theory session and lecture and the semi-structured approaches of
the discussion, case study, role play and experiential learning are described in Chapter 9.
Chapter 10 examines the unstructured learning strategies of problem-based learning, contract
learning, action learning, change interventions and mentoring and also has a discussion on e-
learning. Chapter 11 explains and examines evaluation. Chapter 12 presents a discussion on
workplace learning and suggests that learning in the workplace needs a workplace learning
curriculum. Accordingly a model of a workplace curriculum is presented as is a new model
discussing the steps used by an individual adult learner. Chapter 13 examines the creation of
knowledge by examining, in depth, the role of the shadow system and the critical importance of
self organising groups. The chapter also explores the process of developing a state of bounded
instability in an organisation. Chapter 14 reviews the concepts examined in the previous chapters
by expanding the complexity theory model introduced in Chapter 1. This model can be used as a
means of understanding the management of knowledge or as a template to audit an
organisation’s knowledge management processes. The chapter then shows how these concepts
combine with organisational culture and leadership to manage the knowledge capital of an
organisation. The chapter, and the textbook, end with a suggested career development path for
HR developers.

© Tilde University Press, an imprint of Tilde Publishing and Distribution ii

ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

An introduction to the Student’s Resource Guide
One of the main goals in preparing the Student’s Resource Guide for Human Resource
Development: Managing Learning and Knowledge Capital was to provide a valuable and pragmatic
support system that busy students would find efficient and useful. Accordingly, each chapter in
this guide follows a quick reference format:
 the chapter objectives are listed at the beginning of each chapter
 a half-page chapter theme briefly describes the chapter content and focus
 a suggested learning (lecture) outline, on one page, provides A, B, C and D headings
giving an easy-to-follow structure of the content
 a bank of multiple choice questions.
In addition, the complementary PowerPoint Presentation, available from Tilde University Press
is a very useful and rich teaching tool that amplifies and structures the material in each chapter.
An Instructor Resource Guide is available for lecturers and educators. Additionally to the
student resource guide, it includes:
 suggested answers, and associated comments, for each of the questions listed at the
back of each book chapter are provided
 answers to the questions on each of the three case studies at the back of each book
chapter are provided
 a bank of multiple choice questions with page references.
Contact the publisher or local sales rep (visit www.tup.net.au for publisher contact details or the
review copy page under orders for your local sales rep).
Brian Delahaye
January 2011

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ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO HRD
Chapter objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Describe the negative effects of management re-engineering on organisations.
2. Explain why knowledge is a unique resource.
3. Describe how knowledge capital can be managed by complexity theory.
4. Describe the role of the HR developer in knowledge management.

Chapter theme
The chapter begins by examining the search, by academics and managers, for solutions to the
unpredictable business environment since the 1990s. While the initial focus of this search was,
quite rightly, on the financial health of organisations, the blind acceptance and single-minded
advocacy of management re-engineering options has caused a number of serious negative
outcomes. These outcomes - such as the total focus on the dollar and the anorexic syndrome - are
discussed. Writers have come to the conclusion that management re-engineering is not the full
answer to the challenges of the new millennium.
The traditional management theories are based on the Newtonian paradigm - objects or matter
could be broken down into their component parts, measured, and then re-built. Accordingly,
conventional strategic planning analyses the external environment and, from this analysis, the
upper management of the organisation can create an appropriate organisational structure and to
follow appropriate strategies. Once the strategies have been selected, they can be operationalised
using the operational management functions of plan, lead, organise and control (often called the
PLOC model). The significant deficiency in the traditional theories is an assumption that the two
main resources available to managers are time and money – and further, that one can be
exchanged for the other.
In the mid-1990s there was an increasing interest in a third resource – knowledge capital – with
the realisation that the wise management of knowledge provides the main sustainable
competitive advantage in a competitive and dynamic economy. Organisations need to maintain
their current knowledge, disseminate specific knowledge to specific parts of the organisation,
create new knowledge, and unlearn useless knowledge. As a means of retaining the benefits of
traditional management but to also include the imperative of managing knowledge,
contemporary management is turning to complexity theory.
Complexity theory suggests that an organisation consists of two main systems. The legitimate
system searches for efficiency and achieves this aim by using the traditional or ordinary
management process. These processes are based on negative feedback loops – processes that
return aberrant behaviour back to the pre-determined standard – and single loop learning –
learning that accepts what is presented as the absolute truth. The legitimate system operates best
under conditions of near-certainty and therefore operates best in the day-to-day operations of the
organisation. The shadow system searches for creativity and uses extraordinary management
processes based on positive feedback loops – processes that encourage creative thought – and
double loop learning – learning that challenges underlying, fundamental values. The shadow
system concentrates on far-from-certainty external environments and ensures the long term

© Tilde University Press, an imprint of Tilde Publishing and Distribution 2012 4

ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

survival of the organisation. The two systems are interlinked and co-dependent and operate best
in the state of bounded instability where each system has an appropriate amount of power.
Of course, knowledge in organisations depends on the individuals and groups in the
organisation. Therefore, adult learning is a critical element of managing knowledge capital.
As the need for a more skilled workforce increases, and as organisations depend more on the
new knowledge created by individuals, then the management and facilitation of adult learning
becomes more paramount. Adult learning is fundamental to the management of knowledge and
HRD. The creation of knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995) is based on the assumption that
there are two types of personal knowledge. Explicit knowledge can be declared by the
individual. Tacit knowledge is deep within the individual’s sub-conscious. It is suggested that
there are four ways of creating knowledge - externalisation (tacit to explicit), combination
(explicit to explicit), internalisation (explicit to tacit) and socialisation (tacit to tacit).
To complicate matters a little further, over the last decade there has been a movement away from
formal, off-site learning towards learning on-site. Workplace learning is another emergent
theme. It is suggested that the workplace offers learning experiences that are authentic and
contextualised. However, workplace learning is very complex and needs a much more elaborate
supervisory effort. The fourth emergent theme is learning partnerships. The HR developer no
longer has the luxury of concentrating on the internal environment of the organisation. Today,
organisations operate within, and closely with, its social context. Modern organisations will be
involved in up to three types of learning organisations – apprenticeship learning, strategic
alliances and joint ventures – and the learning within these partnerships also have to be
managed appropriately.
There is no doubt, though, that the heart of any learning in an organisation is based on the four
stages of HRD. These four stages - investigation, design, implementation and evaluation -
provide the basic framework for the management of knowledge capital and provide the
structure for this textbook. Finally, it must be recognised that the four stages operate within a
wider theoretical context. An understanding of the management of diversity and the functions of
HRM as supporting concepts to the four stages of HRD critical to the understanding of
managing an organisation’s knowledge capital.

Suggested learning (lecture) outline
Complexity theory and managing knowledge capital
The adult learner
The HR developer and the management of knowledge
Within a wider theoretical context
- The functions of HRM
The context of HRD
The design of this textbook
How to use this book
The Pacific Lifestyle Publishing case study
The business environment
Management re-engineering
The traditional management approach
The management of knowledge capital


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- A unique resource
Complexity theory and managing knowledge capital
The adult learner
The context of HRD
The design of this textbook
How to use this book
- The pacific Lifestyle case study (see page 442 to 460).

Multiple choice question bank

1.1 The salutary goal of management re-engineering is to:
(a) improve the ergonomics of the organisation
(b) incorporate complexity management into the managers’ decision processes
(c) target costly wastage and time delays
(d) re-structure the information technology systems

1.2 Some negative effects of inappropriate management re-engineering include:
(a) loss of knowledge, the anorexic syndrome and focusing on the core business
(b) loss of knowledge, forgetting that loyalty is a two way street and focusing on the
dollar
(c) the anorexic syndrome, using traditional, but critical, processes and the ‘everything is
saved’ mentality.
(d) the anorexic syndrome, using loyalty and focusing on the core business

1.3 In the ‘everything is saved’ mentality created by management re-engineering, the
organisation:
(a) uses the money saved to institute an auditing process
(b) loses knowledge when retrenched staff leave
(c) waits for someone to champion the cause
(d) uses the knowledge of re-deployed staff to create an auditing system

1.4 Knowledge is a unique resource because:
(a) it grows from sharing
(b) it is the same as information
(c) it is subject to copyright
(d) it relies on the law of diminishing returns


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1.5 With bounded instability, the organisation is kept in a state where it is:
(a) attracted towards equilibrium
(b) partly in equilibrium but mainly in instability
(c) partly in inequilibrium but mainly in stability
(d) partly in equilibrium and partly in inequilibrium

1.6 One of the roles of the legitimate system is to:
(a) release the self-organising potential of the natural system
(b) audit the policies from the shadow system
(c) audit the suggestions of survival from the shadow system
(d) use extraordinary management

1.7 The shadow system operates on the principles of:
(a) positive feedback loops
(b) direct feedback loops
(c) negative feedback loops
(d) primary feedback loops

1.8 The shadow system uses:
(a) extraordinary management
(b) extracurricular management
(c) ordinary management
(d) extrapolation management

1.9 Adult learning is recognised as a major theme in the economy of Australia because:
(a) the workforce is aging
(b) people are retiring at a younger age
(c) other countries are not as competitive
(d) too many computers are used in school education.

1.10 Knowledge is:
(a) explicit and tacit
(b) expiate and tacit
(c) tactile and explicit
(d) expiate and tactile


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1.11 Embodied knowledge is:
(a) large chunks of information
(b) contained in a textbook
(c) knowledge held in the human brain
(d) embedded in the organisation

1.12 The two HRM functions that have significant overlaps with the role of HRD are:
(a) selection and performance appraisal
(b) orientation and strategic human resource planning
(c) recruitment and selection
(d) strategic human resource planning and performance appraisal

1.13 The PLOC in the PLOC model used by the legitimate system stands for:
(a) plan, listen, organise and constrain
(b) plan, lead, originate and control
(c) plan, lead, organise and construct
(d) plan, lead, organise and control


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Chapter 2

ADULT LEARNING
Chapter objectives
1. List the assumptions underpinning pedagogical and andragogical learning.
2. Discuss the basic types of learning - classical conditioning, behaviour modification and
modelling.
3. Explain and discuss the four knowledge generation processes
4. Explain and distinguish the three levels of learning - instrumental, communicative and
emancipatory
5. Define the role of critical thinking in the process of adult learning.
6. Discuss the two models of unlearning.
7. Describe the holistic adult learning model.
8. Describe the time delay in learning
9. Describe the effect of stress on learning

Chapter theme
Humans are unique among living organisms in that their primary adaptive specialisation is not
some particular physical attribute or skill, but the ability to learn. Further, writers such as
Malcolm Knowles suggests that adult learners are an even more unique species.
The chapter begins by discussing the three basic types of learning - classical conditioning,
behaviour modification and modelling. Of these, modelling does have some significant links to
the knowledge creation process and should be emphasised to the students. The chapter then
proceeds by discussing two major contemporary adult learning theories.
The first of these theories examines the knowledge generation processes of Nonaka and Takeuchi
(1995). The generation of knowledge suggests that there are two types of personal knowledge.
Explicit knowledge can be declared by the individual. Tacit knowledge is deep within the
individual’s sub-conscious. It is suggested that there are four ways of creating knowledge -
externalisation (tacit to explicit), combination (explicit to explicit), internalisation (explicit to
tacit) and socialisation (tacit to tacit).
The second of the contemporary adult learning theories discussed in the chapter is Mezirow’s
transformational learning which explores the three levels of learning - instrumental,
communicative and emancipatory. The students should be able to differentiate between these
levels and recognise (a) the different learning processes used for each and (b) the integrative
nature of the three levels - i.e. to manage the knowledge of the organisation, individuals need to
be developed in the three levels. The chapter then emphasises a further aspect of adult learning -
critical thinking.


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All the concepts discussed in the chapter are then combined in one model (see Figure 2.1 on page
52) which suggests that adult learning must be viewed as a holistic process. Many organisations
only concentrate on explicit knowledge when, in fact, the learning needs demand a much more
complex appreciation of the learning challenge.
The chapter then discusses organisational learning. The similarities between individual learning
and organisational learning are examined - e.g., instrumental learning becomes single-loop
learning in the organisation and emancipatory learning becomes double-loop learning. In
addition, organisational defence mechanisms are examined. Finally, there is a brief discussion on
the time delay in adult learning and the need to use successive approximations.

Knowledge creation and adult learning
- Instrumental learning
- Communicative learning
- Emancipatory learning
- The role of frames of reference
- Changing frames of reference
- Critical reflection
- The importance of emancipatory learning
Learning
Adults as learners
Basic types of learning
- Classical conditioning
- Behaviour modification
- Modelling
Generation of knowledge
Knowledge creation and adult learning
- Instrumental learning
- Communicative learning
- Emancipatory learning
- The role of frames of reference
- Changing frames of reference
- Critical reflection
- The importance of emancipatory learning
Critical thinking
- Problem solving
- Creativity
- Evaluation
- Dialectic thinking


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- Logical reflection
- The amalgam of critical thinking
Unlearning
Holistic adult learning
Organisational learning
The practical application of adult learning
- A time delay
- Stress and learning
The four stages of HRD


2.1 Pedagogy assumes that the learner:
(a) is life-centred
(b) uses internal motivations
(c) has a greater volume and a different quality of experience from youths
(d) is a dependent personality

2.2 Andragogy assumes that the learner:
(a) knows only what the teacher teaches
(b) has a self-concept of being responsible for her/his own decisions
(c) responds to external motivations
(d) has a subject-centred orientation to learning

2.3 In humans, classical conditioning is highly involved in the learning of:
(a) how to eat
(b) how to play music
(c) procedural skills
(d) emotions

2.4 Behaviour modification assumes learning is a matter of accumulating a series of:
(a) starting-reaction (S-R) associations
(b) stimulus-remembering (S-R) associations
(c) stimulus-response (S-R) associations
(d) starting-response (S-R) associations


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2.5 In modelling, the learner tends to:
(a) imitate the behaviour of a high status person
(b) build a model from a diagram
(c) look for a reward after completing a behaviour
(d) use a conditioned response

2.6 The advantage of modelling is that it allows the learner to acquire:

(a) a lot of experience
(b) an automatic unconditional response
(c) large, integrated patterns of behaviour
(d) a simple, specific pattern of behaviour

2.7 The knowledge generation process of externalisation occurs when an individual:
(a) listens to a lecture
(b) watches an expert
(c) re-experiences another’s experience
(d) writes thoughts and ideas onto paper

2.8 The knowledge generation process of socialisation occurs when knowledge
is moved from:
(a) tacit to tacit
(b) explicit to tacit
(c) tacit to explicit
(d) explicit to explicit

2.9 One of the most common and obvious paths of knowledge creation is:
(a) combination
(b) socialisation
(c) externalisation
(d) internalisation

2.10 Instrumental learning is often:
(a) task orientated problem solving
(b) changing hegemonic assumptions
(c) about understanding someone’s underlying value system
(d) about the learner controlling his/her emotions


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2.11 Spaced learning means:
(a) avoiding the learner’s personal space
(b) providing time between ‘chunks’ of learning
(c) give information in ‘chunks’ rather than ‘in mass’
(d) providing a physical learning space for learners
2.12 According to the principles of learning, there are two types of feedback that can be given
to learners:
(a) behavioural and informational
(b) positive and motivational
(c) informational and behavioural
(d) informational and motivational

2.13 Communicative learning involves:
(a) the dynamics of the emotions
(b) the dynamics of the principles of learning
(c) the dynamics of understanding others
(d) the dynamics of group processes

2.14 Rational discourse is the ability to:
(a) talk and listen respectfully to others who hold different views
(b) talk and listen respectfully to others who hold the same views
(c) talk respectfully to others who hold different views
(d) talk and listen respectfully to subordinate staff

2.15 The hierarchy of three assumptions in one’s frame of reference are:
(a) causal, proscribed, paradigmatic
(b) paradigmatic, prescriptive, correlational
(c) causal, prescriptive, paradigmatic
(d) paradigmatic, descriptive, causal

2.16 Three major sources of paradigmatic assumptions are:
(a) sociolinguistic, psychometric, episodic
(b) sociolinguistic, psychological, epistemic
(c) sociolinguistic, psychological, episodic
(d) socio-economic, psychological, epistemic


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2.17 Our frames of reference:
(a) filter information, accepting information that supports them
(b) filter information, rejecting information that challenges them
(c) are logical and emotionless
(d) only allow logical changes to occur

2.18 Critical reflection occurs when an individual:
(a) deeply examines his/her knowledge of a topic or the logic used
(b) deeply examines causal assumptions
(c) deeply examines the foundations and justification of her/his beliefs
(d) deeply examines the foundations and justification of another’s beliefs

2.19 Three components of critical thinking are:
(a) problem solving, didactic thinking, critical reflection
(b) evaluation, logical reflection, dialectic thinking
(c) evaluation, creativity, didactic thinking
(d) problem solving, logical thinking, creative inflection

2.20 In the parenthetic model of unlearning:

(a) the new knowledge overwrites the old knowledge
(b) the old knowledge becomes embedded in the new knowledge
(c) the new knowledge sits beside the old knowledge
(d) the old knowledge becomes regulated

2.21 According to the holistic model of adult learning, the behaviour of an individual can be
influenced:
(a) directly by the tacit knowledge, the paradynamic assumptions and
explicit knowledge
(b) directly by the emotions
(c) only by the explicit knowledge
(d) only indirectly by the tacit knowledge and the paradynamic assumptions


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2.22 The two step process of identifying what the learner has done correctly and identifying
one or two changes for the future is called:
(a) progressive approximations
(b) approximate learning
(c) successful approximations
(d) approximate successes
(e) successive approximations

2.23 High levels of stress can shut down the working memory of the individual leading to:
(a) Fight or flight
(b) Fight, freeze or flight
(c) Faint, freeze of flight
(d) Faint or fight


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Chapter 3

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN ADULT LEARNERS
Chapter objectives
1. List the disadvantages of ethnocentricity.
2. Explain the benefits of harnessing the power of individual differences.
3. Describe and explain the different individual characteristics of adult learners including
age, impairment, gender and cultural backgrounds.
4. Describe the developmental needs of an organisation operating in a global
environment.
5. Explain the benefits to the organisation of diversity.

Chapter theme
The chapter emphasises that, firstly, each individual adult learner is different and that, secondly,
Australian and New Zealand are multicultural societies. Organisations need to harness the
power of this diversity to survive and grow.
As part of harnessing this power, organisations need to challenge ethnocentricity and its
accompanying negative process, stereotyping. Discrimination - whether direct, indirect or
structural - and harassment of any form are serious issues that have to be actively confronted.
While there is legislation proscribing these negative practices, the organisation has to do more.
The organisation must manage, and indeed celebrate, the individual differences in adult learners
within the organisation as a highly valuable source of energy.
Adult learners vary on a number of characteristics. They are the learners with the widest age
range – from youth to aged - and this raises issues of the various stages that adults experience
during their life as well as the impact of specific historical moments that have occurred during
their lives. Further, impairment of health can have an effect on the way adults learn. Gender
orientations need to be considered when designing and implementing learning experiences and
the predominant assumptions of male norms and standards have to be confronted. The cultural
backgrounds of the adult learner will have a significant bearing on the way individuals learn.
The effect of low-context and high-context styles of communication as well as individualist-
collectivist cultures will all influence the way adult learners approach developmental processes.
In Australia, HR developers need to recognise the strengths of the traditional learning processes
of Indigenous Australians and also, in New Zealand, the strengths of the traditional learning
processes of the Maoris.
Finally, globalisation is now an important strategic consideration for a number of Australian
organisations. This affects the HR developer in two ways. Firstly, staff who will work overseas in
other cultures need to be comfortable with issues such as male-female interactions and having a
knowledge of the host culture. Secondly, some HR developers will need to conduct
developmental interventions overseas in other cultures.


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Chapter structure
Ethnocentricity
Celebrating individual differences
The characteristics of adult learners
Age
The stage models
Historical embeddedness
Learning and the older employee
Youth learners
Impairment
Gender
Cultural backgrounds
Indigenous Australian learners
Maori learners
Some concluding comments on cultural backgrounds
The impact on the HR developer
Globalisation
Developing staff
Overseas learning interventions
Diversity and the organisation

3. What key issues should a HR developer bear in mind when planning a learning experience for
either indigenous Australian or Maori adult learners?


3.1 Ethnocentricity is the belief:
(a) that cultural norms are basically the same
(b) in the intrinsic superiority of one’s own cultural norms
(c) in the intrinsic inferiority of one’s own cultural norms
(d) that cultural norms can be changed

3.2 Stereotyping:
(a) impedes learning
(b) is fairly accurate
(c) is a form of analysis that helps adults learn
(d) provides a basis for changing cultures


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3.3 Harassment:
(a) is the basis for the EO approach to cultural understanding
(b) encourages better performance
(c) is designed to humiliate and offend
(d) encourages emancipatory learning

3.4 The stage models of the adult life cycle:
(a) show the preferred behaviours in a workplace setting
(b) are a generalised equivalent of the HRD stages
(c) show the four cyclical stages of an adult learning experience
(d) have been criticised for concentrating on white, male, middle-class subjects

3.5 Older learners have:
(a) memory loss and less creativity
(b) equal performance but declining intelligence
(c) a high level of computer literacy
(d) an awareness of multiculturalism but have difficulty reskilling

3.6 When older learners stand back and watch, they are:

(a) actively seeking knowledge
(b) passively seeking knowledge
(c) being dependent learners
(d) avoiding learning

3.7 Youth learners:
(a) have a preference for the ‘feel good elements’ of self directed learning
(b) are suspicious of the older teacher
(c) see credentials as being of little importance
(d) focus on formal learning as the main requirement for career advancement

3.8 The gender models of feminist pedagogy emphasise:
(a) a preference for communicative learning
(b) the emancipatory process of learning
(c) that females may experience an initial reluctance in commencing formal learning
(d) the importance of resolving conflict positively


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3.9 The main inhibitor of learning for gays and lesbians is:
(a) the belief that credentials are one of the most important outcomes of learning
(b) homophobia
(c) lack of interest in formal learning
(d) homoplasticity

3.10 Culture is:
(a) a unidimensional construct
(b) constrained within national boundaries
(c) a stable, unchanging construct
(d) a multifaceted construct

3.11 In a collectivist culture:
(a) group goals defer to individual goals
(b) self-reliance is emphasised
(c) individual goals defer to group goals
(d) food gathering is an important social event

3.12 In high-context cultures:
(a) the content of the message is downgraded
(b) being direct and linear is valued
(c) primacy is given to the content of the message
(d) literal interpretations of wording are very important

3.13 Generally, Australia would be seen as a:
(a) high power distance, individualist culture
(b) high-context, low power distance culture
(c) low-context, individualist culture
(d) collectivist, low power distance culture

3.14 When compared with the Australian indigenous experiences of learning, western
approaches to learning tend to be:
(a) less individualistic
(b) the same
(c) more individualistic


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3.15 When compared to western approaches to learning, Maori learning tends to:
(a) be very specific
(b) value the future over the past
(c) recognise the teacher as the leader of the learner
(d) be more holistic

3.16 In a high power distance culture, the HR developer would be seen as:
(a) having a preference for the unstructured learning strategies
(b) more of a colleague and friend
(c) a facilitator of self-directed learning
(d) an expert, authority figure

3.17 To improve intercultural effectiveness, a developmental program for staff being
transferred to work in another culture should:
(a) emphasise the differences in sex role equality in various cultures
(b) ensure full articulation in the host country’s language
(c) emphasise the similarities in the communicative processes
(d) ensure competence in the application of the parent companies policies and rules


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Chapter 4

AN OVERVIEW OF HRD NEEDS IDENTIFICATION
Chapter objectives
1. Describe the four categories of a human resource development needs investigation
(HRDNI).
2. Discuss the purpose of an HRDNI.
3. Explain how the surveillance stage of an HRDNI can give early indicators of HRD
requirements.
4. Describe the influence of the strategic plan has on the HRDNI
5. Describe the two parts of the investigation stage of the HRDNI.
6. Discuss the issues to be considered when creating a realistic action plan for an HRDNI.
7. Explain how to select appropriate HRDNI methods.
8. Identify the three forces that may impede an HRDNI.
9. List the elements of an HRDNI report.

Chapter theme
As the title suggests, the chapter provides an overview of the human resource needs
identification (HRDNI) process which allows a more detailed discussion of performance
appraisal, interviewing and focus groups and questionnaires in the following three chapters.
HRDNI is defined and four categories - performance deficiency, diagnostic audit, democratic
preference and pro-active analysis - are described. The purpose of HRDNI is then examined. The
surveillance stage of HRDNI provides a continuous monitoring of the organisation using various
internal information systems such as the financial system and performance appraisal. When the
surveillance stage indicates a possible problem or opportunity, the second stage of investigation
commences. In the investigation stage various data gathering methods are used - organisational
records, observation, assessment centres and the critical incident technique. The data is then
analysed in the appropriate manner, depending on whether it is qualitative or quantitative.
(Qualitative analysis is discussed in Chapter 7 and quantitative analysis in Chapter 8). The key
outcome of this data analysis is the identification of learning objectives, competencies or learning
outcomes. Each of these is discussed and compared.
The investigation stage should be planned to ensure an efficient process and an effective result.
Seven key issues for planning an HRDNI are discussed. Part of this planning process is selecting
an appropriate HRDNI method. Finally, the components of the HRDNI report are examined.


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The importance of HRDNI
HRDNI defined
A word of caution
The purpose of HRDNI
Organisational awareness
The surveillance stage
The investigation stage
Data gathering
Organisational records
Observation
Assessment centres
Critical incident technique
Data analysis
Learning objectives
Competencies
Learning outcomes
Prioritising the outputs
A pivotal role
Other components
The investigation plan

Selecting an HRDNI method

The strategic orientation
Advantages and disadvantages of HRDNI methods
Face value?
Organisational politics
Espoused theories vs theories-in-action
Organisational defence mechanisms
Between a rock and a hard place
The HRDNI report
The need for HRDNI


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4.1 A diagnostic audit HRDNI focuses on:
(a) the future rather than on existing problems
(b) involves staff fully in the decisions
(c) the gap analysis
(d) on existing problems only

4.2 The surveillance stage of the HRDNI focuses on:
(a) the strategic planning process only
(b) critical incidents in the workplace
(c) monitoring the external environment and the internal environment
(d) monitoring the internal environment only

4.3 In the unstructured observation method, the investigator:
(a) develops a set of characteristics of behaviours to be observed before doing
the observation.
(b) becomes an ‘actor’ in the episode
(c) has no predetermined ideas of what should or will happen
(d) remains at a distance for any of the activities being observed.

4.4 A learning objective should include the three elements of:
(a) training aims, performance criteria and conditions
(b) terminal behaviour statement, performance criteria and standards
(c) elements, performance criteria and standards
(d) terminal behaviour statement, standards and conditions

4.5 Competencies are only suitable for:
(a) emancipatory learning
(b) instrumental learning and communicative learning
(c) instrumental learning
(d) communicative learning


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4.6 The competency movement has been useful to HRD because it:
(a) increased the reductionist process
(b) qualifications can be transported
(c) combines the advantages of communicative and emancipatory learning
(d) it has increased the objectivity of assessing learning

4.7 Another name for ‘learning outcomes’ is:
(a) complex competencies
(b) integrative competencies
(c) integrated learning objectives
(d) multifarious learning objectives

4.8 When identifying the key role players, the HRDNI investigator may need to consider:
(a) the identifyer
(b) the influencer
(c) the close connections
(d) the loose connections

4.9 A disadvantage of the interviewing method of HRDNI is that it:
(a) can be quite time consuming
(b) encourages the knowledge generating process of externalisation
(c) provides complex information
(d) involves and hooks the individual

4.10 An advantage of using the observation HRDNI data gathering method is:
(a) it needs limited investigation skills
(b) it no interpretation of other’s perceptions is needed
(c) it can provide an excellent, guiding overview
(d) the data can be analysed objectively

4.11 One reason that an HRDNI is not performed is that:
(a) managers are often suspicious of ‘fads’
(b) it is seen as too easy to conduct
(c) action is valued over research
(d) it tends to identify the strengths of the organisation


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Chapter 5

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL AND CAREER
DEVELOPMENT
Chapter objectives
1. Explain performance management and describe the relationship of performance
appraisal to performance management.
2. Identify the ways that HR developers are involved in performance appraisal.
3. Differentiate between the two types of performance appraisal.
4. Describe the job analysis process.
5. Describe the observation and comparison process.
6. Describe the types of feedback and the role of action plans
7. Define career development and explain the roles of career counselling and career
management.

Chapter theme
The chapter discusses two important and interrelated functions – performance appraisal and
career development.
For performance appraisal, the chapter emphasises three important themes. Firstly, performance
appraisal is a subsystem of performance and is thus linked strongly to the strategic planning and
management processes of the organisation. Secondly, there are two types of performance
appraisal based on different purposes. The administrative performance appraisal is used for
administrative reasons such as promotions and retrenchments. In this type, the appraiser
undertakes a judgemental role. In the developmental performance appraisal, the appraiser
undertakes a helping role to identify, honestly and accurately, the developmental needs of the
individual. These two roles - one judgemental and the other helping - are conflicting in nature.
Thirdly, the performance appraisal process - whether administrative or developmental - should
be based on five stages. In stage one the predetermined standard is created by conducting a job
analysis and formulating the two basic documents - the job description and the job specification.
In stage two, the performance of the appraisee is observed. In stage three, the data collected in
stage two is compared to the predetermined standard created in stage one. Once the comparison
is made, the fourth stage is to provide appropriate feedback to the appraisee. The final and fifth
stage is to create action plans to ensure that the decisions made are carried out.
These days, the approach to career development needs to acknowledge the predominance of the
boundaryless or protean career, where individuals tend to have a series of jobs with a number of
organisations. Career development comprises of two interrelated processes – career counselling
and career management. Career counselling is now more concerned with helping people to
develop the means of reaching their career goals. Career counselling can be seen a comprising


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five steps – identifying career anchors, an analysis of an individual’s personal environment,
information of future careers, constructing operational plans and making the change. The
comparison between the needs of the individual and the needs of the organisation is called
career management. Using career management, organisations should ensure four types of
flexibility – functional flexibility, numerical flexibility, temporal flexibility and wage flexibility.

The importance of performance appraisal
Performance appraisal within performance management
A natural process
A unique process
Impact on the HR developer
Types of performance appraisal
Job analysis - constructing the pre-determined standard
The two basic job documents
The job description
The job specification
The pre-determined standard

Observing the performance

The what
The who
The full period
The comparison
The visual record
Two additional points
The who again
Feedback
Action plans
Input into the developmental plan
Surveillance system
Legal issues
Career management
Careers
Career development
Career counselling
The dual nature
Knowledge creation and maintenance


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5.1 Performance appraisal is considered to be:
(a) the overriding system of performance management
(b) a subsystem of performance management
(c) a parallel system to performance management
(d) a balancing system to performance management

5.2 The greater the communication between the manager and a staff member:
(a) the lower the trust
(b) the greater the conflict
(c) the greater the organisational performance
(d) the greater the trust

5.3 The two basic purposes for performance appraisal are:
(a) tell-and-sell and problem-solving
(b) developmental and strategic
(c) developmental and administrative
(d) administrative and departmental

5.4 The job analysis results in two basic documents, which are:
(a) the job description and the performance indicators
(b) the job skills list and the task breakdown
(c) the job specification and the job description
(d) the job specification and the performance criteria

5.5 The document that lists the characteristics of the position holder that the position needs
is called the:
(a) job specification
(b) job indicator
(c) job description
(d) job criteria


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5.6 The information on the performance indicators is usually:

(a) easy to identify
(b) qualitative
(c) valid but not reliable
(d) quantitative

5.7 Role expectations are messages from the:
(a) the job occupant
(b) role receivers
(c) role senders
(d) role performers

5.8 The full name of the graphic rating scale known as BARS is:
(a) behaviourally articulated rating scales
(b) behaviourally anchored rating scales
(c) behaviourally anchored review scales
(d) Billett’s anchored review scales

5.9 The appraisal interview that assumes there is a power differential between the appraiser
and the appraisee is called the:
(a) tell-and-sell
(b) tell-and-listen
(c) tell-and-report
(d) tell-and-use

5.10 The problem-solving interview is more commonly used in the:
(a) developmental appraisal
(b) data gathering stage
(c) administrative appraisal
(d) promotional appraisal

5.11 The action plan from the developmental performance appraisal should feed into the:

(a) administrative appraisal process
(b) human resource developmental plan
(c) human resource development standing plans
(d) job analysis


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5.12 The type of career where people move among firms, develop personal market niches and
become involved in finite projects is called a:
(a) protamine career
(b) boundaryful career
(c) boundaryless career
(b) prototype career

5.13 A pattern of talents, motives and values that form a combination of technical skills,
knowledge and experiences are called:
(a) technical competence
(b) career knowledge
(c) technical anchors
(d) career anchors

5.14 Schein (1996) believes that those with the following combination of careers anchors will
find it difficult to survive in the current environment:
(a) autonomy, entrepreneurship and pure challenge
(b) technical competence, lifestyle and service
(c) stability, technical competence and managerial competence
(d) managerial competence, autonomy and security.

5.15 The maintenance stage in the life cycle occurs mainly in a person’s:
(a) early 20s
(b) 60s
(c) late 20 to early 40s
(d) mid-40s to early 50s

5.16 For a balanced workforce, organisations need to the following types of flexibility:
(a) functional, wage, numerical and temporal
(b) functional, percentage, ratio and wage
(c) functional, ratio, temporaries wage
(d) functional, numerical, temporaries, wage


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Chapter 6

INTERVIEWING AND FOCUS GROUPS
Chapter objectives
1. Define qualitative research.
2. Discuss the types of sampling designs.
3. Explain the pattern of a good interview.
4. Describe the questioning, paraphrasing, probing and summarising processes.
5. Differentiate between structured and unstructured interviews.
6. Identify the six factors that a focus group process has in common with an interview.
7. Describe the process of conducting a focus group.
8. Explain how qualitative data can be analysed.

Chapter theme
This chapter focuses on the qualitative research methods of interviewing and focus groups for
HRDNI. The qualitative research ideals of trustworthiness, verification, acknowledging
subjectivity and bias, process and sequence, interpretation, referential adequacy and painting the
path are discussed as well as the common types of sampling.
Interviewing is examined under several headings. The pattern of the interview describes a
structure for an interview that supports the data gathering effort. The skills of listening,
questioning, paraphrasing, probing and summarising are discussed as ways of managing the
interview process. The effect of nonverbal behaviour is also examined. Finally, structured and
unstructured interviews are compared.
The ways of managing the focus group process have many similarities to interviewing. The same
skills of an appropriate structure, listening, questioning, paraphrasing, probing and
summarising are used in focus groups. However, arranging the logistics of a focus group needs
special attention as does the selection of group membership. In conducting the focus group
attention has to be given to the facilitator team, methods of recording data, the use of visual aids,
using thinking time productively and group dynamics.
Analysing qualitative data is based on the concept of identifying themes. This can be achieved in
two ways - by using the pre-planned questions or by content analysis.


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Qualitative research
Achieving the utopian ideals
Trustworthiness
Verification
Acknowledging subjectivity and bias
Process and sequence
Interpretation
Referential adequacy
Paint the path
Sampling
Simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling
Convergence sampling
Snow ball sampling
An important task
Interviewing
The pattern of an interview
Stage 1: entrance time investment
Stage 2: activity no.2
Stage 3: intimacy
Stage 4: exit investment time
Listening
Questioning
Open questions
Closed questions
In combination
Paraphrasing
Probing
Summarising
Nonverbal behaviour
Structured and unstructured interviews
Three levels of interviewing


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The focus group
Structured and unstructured focus groups
Logistics
Group composition
Homogeneity
Representation
Strangers versus acquaintances
Size of group
Conducting the focus group
Facilitator team
Recording
Use of visual aids
Thinking time
Group dynamics
Analysing qualitative data
Pre-planned questions
Content analysis
A rich, messy and complex process
The beginning of learning


6.1 When using qualitative research, referential adequacy means:
(a) reporting in the voice of the source
(b) supporting ideas with theory from academic sources
(c) referring the report to an expert for a second opinion
(d) having the comments and descriptions in the report being of sufficient detail and
richness

6.2 In qualitative research, triangulation is:
(a) an aid to verification
(b) a means of demonstrating trustworthiness
(c) provides a sequencing process
(d) a means of demonstrating referential adequacy


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6.3 The type of sampling that specifies the types of people who should be targeted, using
predetermined parameters is called:
(a) convenience sampling
(b) stratified sampling
(c) purposive sampling
(d) convergence sampling

6.4 In systematic sampling, the investigator:
(a) identifies specific subgroups and then uses random sampling
(b) using predetermined parameters, identifies specific types of people
(c) uses an initial group of informants who recommends respondents
(d) chooses every nth person

6.5 In an interview, the rapport zone is:
(a) where the interviewee is introduced to the topic
(b) when the interviewee cannot think of an answer
(c) the area of minimum stress
(d) occurs at the end of the interview

6.6 The basic design for an open question in interviewing is:
(a) query then topic
(b) stem-plus-query
(c) question-silence-nonverbal
(d) query-plus-stem

6.7 An interviewer repeats back to the interviewee, in a concise form, the essential message
of the interviewee’s reply, and this is called:
(a) paraphrasing
(b) reflection of feeling
(c) repetition
(d) probing

6.8 In interviewing, the SOLER in the SOLER model stands for:
(a) sit straight, open questions, learn, empathise, record
(b) sight, open stance, lean forward, empathise, relax
(c) square on, open posture, lean forward, eyes, relax
(d) sit down, open questions, learn, eyes, record


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6.9 In a focus group, the ‘sameness’ of participants is called:
(a) evenness
(b) heterogeneity
(c) homophony
(d) homogeneity

6.10 In a focus group, the recommended range for group size is:
(a) up to fifteen
(b) six to nine
(c) no more than three
(d) three to twenty

6.11 The participant in a focus group who points out the relevance of each idea is called the:
(a) coordinator
(b) elaborator
(c) information giver
(d) harmoniser

6.12 The participant in a focus group who refocuses the discussion when necessary is called
the:
(a) gatekeeper
(b) elaborator
(c) coordinator
(d) orienter

6.13 When analysing qualitative data, the process of identifying, coding and categorising the
primary patterns in the data is called:
(a) construct analysis
(b) pattern analysis
(c) content analysis
(d) pre-planned analysis


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6.14 When analysing qualitative data, the extent to which differences between themes are
bold and clear is called:
(a) internal heterogeneity
(b) external heterogeneity
(c) valid homogeneity
(d) external homogeneity

6.15 In analysing qualitative data, comparing a second theme with the first theme discovered
is called:
(a) consultative comparative analysis
(b) conceptual comparative analysis
(c) conforming comparative analysis
(d) constant comparative analysis

6.16 In analysing qualitative data, the first step in classification is:
(a) open coding
(b) primary indexing
(c) data indexing
(d) data coding

6.17 When analysing qualitative data, the data that is physically present and accountable in
the evidence is called the:
(a) manifest content
(b) primary content
(c) latent content
(d) identifiable content


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Chapter 7

DESIGN - THE TWO MAIN CONSIDERATIONS
Chapter objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to
1. Explain what is meant by the term ‘constructive alignment’.
2. Describe the five major categories of programmed knowledge, task, relationship, critical
thinking and meta-abilities in the hierarchy of learning outcomes (HLO).
3. Explain how the HLO can indicate the preferred learning strategy.
4. Explain the effect of the learner’s current level of knowledge on the design process.
5. Describe how learning experiences can be designed to encourage higher levels of
learner motivation.
6. Explain the affect a learner’s learning orientation can have on the design process.
7. Describe how learning styles can be incorporated into the design process.
8. Describe the special characteristics of youth learners.

Chapter theme
Curriculum design is defined as linking appropriate learning strategies with the learners to
achieve the learning outcomes specified in the HRDNI. The basic aim of curriculum is to achieve
constructive alignment which indicates the close relationship between the learning outcomes, the
learning strategies and the assessment – see Figure 7.1 on page 232. This chapter concentrates on
the variables of the content to be learned (as defined by the learning outcomes) and the learners
and the strong influence that the learning outcomes have on selecting an appropriate learning
strategy.
The content to be learned can be described by the learning outcomes to be achieved. The chapter
presents a hierarchy of learning outcomes (HLO) which categorises learning outcomes and
associates particular categories with specific learning strategies. The HLO has five categories -
programmed information, task, relationship, critical thinking and meta-abilities. Each of these
categories are delineated into sub-groups which are then broken down further into elements.
These elements are then linked to the learning strategies of the theory session, skill session,
lecture, discussion, case study, role play, experiential learning, mentoring, problem-based
learning, contract learning and action learning. Figure 7.2 on page 235 of the textbook depicts
this association.
While the HLO provides an initial, although basic, indication of the most appropriate learning
strategies, some learner characteristics exert a significant effect on the design decisions. These
learner characteristics include learner motivation, learner orientation and learning styles. Recent
research has also indicated that youth learners may have special characteristics that need to be
considered. These characteristics of the learner should be considered as an ‘overlay’ onto the
design decisions made using the HLO. There is no doubt that these adult learner characteristics
make the design decision a more complex and richer process.


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Defining the role of the HR developer
Constructive alignment
The hierarchy of learning outcomes
The programmed knowledge category
The task category
The analytical sub-group
The logistical sub-group
The implementing sub-group
The relationships category
The interpersonal sub-group
The intrapersonal sub-group
The concern for others sub-group
The critical thinking category
The meta-abilities category
The practical use of the hierarchy
The learners
Current knowledge
Motivation
The two factor theory
The expectancy-valence theory
Three levels of motivation
Learning orientation
Stage 1 (high pedagogy/low andragogy)
Stage 2 (high pedagogy/high andragogy)
Stage 3 (low pedagogy/high andragogy)
Stage 4 (low pedagogy/low andragogy)
Learning styles
Learner maturity
A designer’s checklist


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7.1 The initials HLO stand for:
(a) hierarchy of learner objectives
(b) human learning objectives
(c) hierarchy of learning outcomes
(d) hear, listen, observe

7.2 The learning outcome elements of goal-identification and efficiency belong to the HLO
sub-group of:
(a) analytical
(b) logistical
(c) programmed knowledge
(d) critical thinking

7.3 The learning outcome elements of problem-solving and evaluation belong to the HLO
category of:
(a) critical thinking
(b) task
(c) relationship
(d) meta-abilities

7.4 According to the HLO, the elements of complex analysis and analysis under uncertainty
are best developed using the learning strategy/ies of:
(a) case study or discussion
(b) problem-based learning
(c) theory session or skill session
(d) contract learning

7.5 According to the HLO, the elements of logical reflection and mental agility are best
developed using the learning strategy/ies of:
(a) case study or discussion
(b) problem-based learning
(c) theory session or skill session
(d) contract learning


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7.6 If a learner has a low level of current knowledge of the topic, she/he is more likely to
prefer:
(a) the self-directed strategies
(b) contract learning
(c) the unstructured learning strategies
(d) the structured learning strategies

7.7 According to the two-factor motivational theory, satisfying the hygiene factors will:
(a) increase motivation
(b) take away the dissatisfiers
(c) have only a limited effect on the dissatisfiers
(d) decrease motivation

7.8 According to the expectancy-valence motivational theory, the stage where the learner
decides whether the learning task is achievable is called:
(a) expectancy two
(b) expectancy valence
(c) expectancy one
(d) outcome one

7.9 According to the four stages of learning orientation, the stage where learners accept the
‘tried and true’ is:
(a) stage 1 (high pedagogy/low andragogy)
(b) stage 2 (high pedagogy/high andragogy)
(c) stage 3 (low pedagogy/high andragogy)
(d) stage 4 (low pedagogy/low andragogy)

7.10 According to the four stages of learning orientation, the stage where learners are
experimenting, analytical, creative and free thinking is:
(a) stage 1 (high pedagogy/low andragogy)
(b) stage 2 (high pedagogy/high andragogy)
(c) stage 3 (low pedagogy/high andragogy)
(d) stage 4 (low pedagogy/low andragogy)


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7.11 The learning style where learners use inductive reasoning and prefer basic assumptions
and principles is:

(a) diverger/reflector
(b) assimilator/theorist
(c) converger/pragmatist
(d) accommodator/activist

7.12 The learning style where learners prefer to be involved in new experiences and are open
minded is:
(a) diverger/reflector
(b) assimilator/theorist
(c) converger/pragmatist
(d) accommodator/activist

7.13 Learners who are high on the learner maturity scale:
(a) are high on explicit knowledge of the content
(b) emphasise content reflection
(c) are predominately driven by interest motivation
(d) rely solely on the theorist learning style


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Chapter 8

OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Chapter objectives
1. Describe the effect that the indirect factors of strategic orientation, organisational
culture, key stakeholders, resources and the designer’s personal frame of reference have
on the design decision.
2. Describe the rational model, the interaction model, the cyclical models and the platform
model of curriculum design.
3. Describe the program plan, the session plans, the resources plan, the product marketing
plan, the budget and the evaluation plan and define the role of each.
4. Explain why transfer of learning, extended learning and the creation of knowledge are
important processes.

Chapter theme
Once the two critical factors of the content to be learned and the learners have been considered,
the attention of the designer can turn to the other indirect factors. The strategic orientation of the
organisation, as defined by the legitimate system and the shadow system can be examined. The
legitimate system uses the conventional strategic planning process. This process can identify the
content to be included in some learning programs and also the learning strategies that are more
likely to be favoured by the organisation - dependent on the strategy chosen. The staff in the
shadow system need to be developed in more complex categories of the HLO such as critical
thinking and meta-abilities. The organisational is another indirect factor that the designer needs
to consider as well as the key stakeholders. The resources available for the learning experience
can have an effect on the design and the designer needs to consider the time available, the
number of learners, the physical resources and the availability of qualified HR developers to
conduct the learning program.
The design process can be informed by considering some of the suggested curriculum
development models. These models include the objectives or rational model, the interaction
model, the cyclical model and the platform or naturalistic model. The process discussed in
Chapters 7 and 8 use all the views offered by these models.
Finally, the chapter describes the various plans that emanate from the design process. These
plans include, for the legitimate system, the learning program and session plans, the resource
plan, the product marketing plan, the budget and the evaluation plan. In the shadow system,
official plans are not used - as planning is based on the assumptions of negative feedback loops
rather than negative feedback loops. Rather, the developmental programs in the shadow system
should emphasise learning transfer, extended learning and creating new knowledge.


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The indirect factors
Strategic orientation
The legitimate system
The shadow system
Organisational culture
Key stakeholders
Resources
The tyranny of time
The tyranny of numbers
Physical resources
Qualified HR developers
Designer’s personal frame of reference
An overview of the design process
Some basics for design
The product
The program and session plans
The resource plan
The product marketing plan
The budget
The evaluation plan
A holistic view
The HR developer as a designer


8.1 Achieving a healthy state of tension of the fundamental conflict between the legitimate
system and the shadow system is called:
(a) balanced equilibrium
(b) stable instability
(c) operational stability
(d) bounded instability


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8.2 As a general rule, the legitimate system gives much more emphasis to:
(a) knowledge creation
(b) programmed knowledge
(c) meta-abilities
(d) emancipatory learning

8.3 The common understandings that come to form the patterns of beliefs, values, rituals,
myths and practices in an organisation is called:
(a) organisational culture
(b) organisational competition
(c) competitive edge
(d) culture shock

8.4 People who have both a good knowledge of organisational processes and political power
are called:

(a) key managers
(b) key stakeholders
(c) key bottlenecks
(d) key gatekeepers

8.5 The curriculum design model that recommends the four steps of: establish objectives,
determine the instructional strategies, organise learning experiences and assess and
evaluate is called the:
(a) legitimate model
(b) rational model
(c) cyclical model
(d) Knowles’ model

8.6 The curriculum model that allows stakeholders to share and defend their beliefs before
the HR developer begins to design the program is called the:
(a) political model
(b) broad model
(c) platform model
(d) stage model


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8.7 The basic design model that uses the four steps of: have an experience, review the
experience, conclude from the experience and plan and mentally rehearse the next step is
called the:
(a) objectives model
(b) learning path
(c) learning cycle
(d) cyclic model

8.8 In the marketing plan, the person who first sees the need for a learning program is called
the:
(a) influencer
(b) decider
(c) initiator
(d) market leader

8.9 Enabling learning objectives
(a) overcome encapsulation
(b) divide the program learning objectives into more manageable chunks
(c) are a form of motivational feedback
(d) are used extensively in the evaluation stage

8.10 Routine problem solving

(a) is based on double-loop learning
(b) leads to emancipator learning
(c) focuses on the everyday workplace knowledge
(d) is the basis for system Beta.


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Chapter 9

IMPLEMENTING THE STRUCTURED LEARNING
STRATEGIES
Chapter objectives
1. Identify and describe the important actions a HR developer must take to manage and
coordinate a learning program.
2. Describe the micro-skills of questioning, responding, using visual aids and constructing
learning objectives.
3. Differentiate between structured and unstructured learning strategies.
4. Describe the structured learning strategies of the skill session, theory session and the
lecture.
5. Describe the semi-structured learning strategies of the discussion, case study, role play
and experiential learning.

Chapter theme
This chapter commences the third of the four HRD stages - the implementing stage. In the
implementation stage the HR developer has the overall responsibility of managing and
coordinating the learning program. There are several specific responsibilities that the HR
developer undertakes in this coordination, including arranging the layout of the training room
and the safety aspects of the equipment.
All the learning strategies depend on the important micro skills of questioning, listening, using
visual aids and constructing learning objectives.
The remainder of the chapter concentrates on the structured and semi-structured learning
strategies. In the structured learning strategies the trainer or teacher takes the responsibility for
making decisions about the learning process. In the semi-structured strategies the learner is
allowed to make some of the decisions. In the unstructured learning strategies (discussed in
Chapter 10), the learner makes all the decisions on specifying the learning objectives, defining
the content and deciding on the evidence that will be evaluated. The structured learning
strategies discussed in this chapter are the skill session, the theory session and the lecture. The
semi-structured learning strategies examined are the discussion, the case study, the role play and
experiential learning.


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The role of the HR developer
Managing and coordinating the program
Micro skills
Enthusiasm
Questioning
Responding
Visual aids
Learning objectives
The importance of micro skills
The structured learning strategies
The skill session
The theory session
The lecture
The semi-structured learning strategies
The discussion
The case study
The role play
Experiential learning
Learning instruments
Simulations
Projects
Sensitivity groups
The energy for experiential learning
The challenge to the HR developer


9.1 Questioning, responding and using visual aids are examples of those often taken-for-
granted techniques used by experienced HR developers that are called:
(a) coordination techniques
(b) macro skills
(c) micro skills
(d) control systems


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9.2 A learning objective should include the three elements of:
(a) training aims, performance criteria and conditions
(b) terminal behaviour statement, performance criteria and standards
(c) elements, performance criteria and standards
(d) terminal behaviour statement, standards and conditions

9.3 The structured learning strategies are sometimes called:
(a) scientific or pedagogy
(b) self-directed
(c) artistic or andragogy
(d) learner-controlled

9.4 The learning strategy that divides the body of the session into the steps of show, show
and tell, check of understanding and practice is called a:

(a) theory session
(b) case study
(c) skill session
(d) problem-based learning session

9.5 The learning strategy that assumes that, while each individual learner in the group does
not have all the information, together the whole group does is called the:
(a) discussion
(b) case study
(c) simulation
(d) theory session

9.6 A case study consists of two parts:
(a) a description and explanation
(b) a narration and questions
(c) an activity and questions
(d) an explanation and a summary


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9.7 The role play in which the role players are given clear and detailed role descriptions is
called a/an:
(a) acted role play
(b) determined role play
(c) pre-planned role play
(d) spontaneous role play

9.8 The experiential learning approach that often measures the learner’s epistemic-based
paradigmatic assumptions is called a:
(a) simulation
(b) learning instrument
(c) sensitivity group
(d) role play

9.9 When used as experiential learning, a computer-managed game as is often used in
management development is called a:
(a) simulation
(b) learning instrument
(d) role play

9.10 The experiential learning approach that is based on the belief that disclosure of deep
personal issues and emotions within a supportive and caring group is called a:
(a) proactive group
(b) discussion group
(d) therapeutic group


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Chapter 10

IMPLEMENTING THE UNSTRUCTURED LEARNING
STRATEGIES
Chapter objectives
1. Explain why knowledge is a unique asset.
2. Describe the role of the HR developer as a facilitator.
3. Describe the unstructured learning strategies of problem-based learning, contract
learning, action learning, change interventions and mentoring.
4. Explain the role of e-learning in developing staff.

Chapter theme
The role of the HR developer changes when facilitating the unstructured learning strategies in
that the responsibility for generating knowledge is placed directly on the learner. In undertaking
this facilitative role, the HR developer has to provide supportive mechanisms for the learner, be
adept at all the micro skills, have patience, be an active listener, encourage self-evaluation, accept
the troublesome, innovative, creative ideas that emerge in learners, be prepared to learn and
have a value system that enhances the learning journey for the adult learner.
The unstructured learning strategies are based on a series of assumptions and these include
allowing the learners to have equal opportunity to participate, be free from coercion and
distorting self-deception and caring about the way others think and feel. The unstructured
learning strategies examined are problem-based learning, contract learning, action learning,
change interventions and mentoring. More recently, with the improvements in information
technology, e-learning is gaining more recognition as a learning medium. However, with the
present technology, e-learning is more suited for learning outcomes at the programmed
knowledge and the upper levels of the task and relationships categories of the HLO. For the
deeper level outcomes, face-to-face learning strategies are still needed. Thus, it is common for
blended learning to be used – a combination of e-learning and face-to-face learning – which
maximises the advantages of each approach.

Support
Micro skills
Patience
Active listening
Encourage self-evaluation


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Acceptance
Release the energy
Prepared to learn
A different value system
The assumptions
Problem-based learning
The problem
The process
Problem-based learning in practice
Contract learning
The learning contract
The process
Contract learning in practice
Action learning
The real life project
The learning set
The set adviser
Action learning in practice
Change interventions
Action research
Change in a social system
Change interventions in practice
Mentoring
Successful mentoring programs
The mentor-protégé synergy
The role of the mentor
Mentoring in practice
E-learning
Defining E-learning
Challenges to designing online e-learning
Potential benefits of online e-learning
Meeting the challenge
Blended learning
The implementing stage


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10.1 When using the unstructured learning strategies and to ensure that learner insecurities
will not impede the learning process, the HR developer should:
(a) provide supportive mechanisms
(b) structure the first 25% of the program
(c) allow the learners to visit a library or use the Internet
(d) provide a detailed learning contract

10.2 One assumption on which the unstructured learning strategies are based is that:
(a) the learners have variable opportunity to participate
(b) the learners are free from distorting self-deception
(c) the facilitator controls the variety of choices available
(d) coercion is seen as a natural and energising process

10.3 The unstructured learning strategy that reverses the traditional view of presenting
information, then asking the learners to apply this information is called:
(a) contract learning
(b) action research
(c) mentoring
(d) problem-based learning

10.4 The unstructured learning strategy that uses non-negotiable objectives is called:
(a) action learning
(b) contract learning
(c) problem-based learning
(d) experiential learning

10.5 In contract learning, the learning contract is:
(a) infinitely re-negotiable
(b) negotiable until the beginning of the second session
(c) infinitely re-negotiable up until the end of the learning episode
(d) infinitely re-negotiable until half way through the learning episode


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10.6 The driving force in action learning is the formula L=P+Q, which stands for:

(a) Learning=Performance+Quality
(b) Learning=Programmed Information+Questions
(c) Learning=Performance +Questions
(d) Learning=Programming+Qualitative Information

10.7 In action learning, the group of learners who meet regularly to discuss individual
projects is called:
(a) an action group
(b) a discussion set
(c) a learning set
(d) a learning group

10.8 One of the fundamental models used to manage the process in change interventions is
called:
(a) action research
(b) action learning
(c) the research cycle
(d) the feedback cycle

10.9 In a mentoring program, good mentors should:
(a) discourage self-feedback
(b) be average performers
(c) be superior performers
(d) protect the protégé from other ‘experts’.

10.10 For the mentor, one advantage of being involved in a mentoring program is:
(a) receiving an enhanced career path
(b) having assistance on projects
(c) giving advice to the protégé
(d) can give constant feedback to the protégé


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10.11 One of the advantages of e-learning is that:
(a) the learner is becomes an isolated decision maker
(b) tacit knowledge is simplified
(c) administration can be handled electronically
(d) the pace of learning of the learners can be strictly controlled

10.12 One of the disadvantages of e-learning is that:
(a) it allows too much flexibility in timing and location
(b) it lacks focus on interpretation and meaning
(c) it is difficult to incorporate evaluation
(d) learners can choose the type of media


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Chapter 11

EVALUATION
Chapter objectives
1. Describe the three misconceptions that surround evaluation.
2. Explain the concept of constructive alignment
3. Describe the various types of assessment for learning.
4. Discuss scoring, formative assessment and summative assessment.
5. List and describe the eight levels of evaluation.
6. Discuss the scientific models of evaluation and cost-benefit analysis.
7. List the steps on an evaluation plan and the components of an evaluation report.

Chapter theme
There are three misconceptions about evaluation. Evaluation is seen by some as too costly -
when, in fact, the likely risks are even more costly. Some criticise evaluation as being an in-exact
science. This is true, in part, but similar aspersions can be made about any decision support
system. Finally, some expect that the evaluation techniques used in the legitimate system will be
suitable for the shadow system. Such negative feedback loops are, of course, an anathema to the
shadow system.
The role of the evaluation stage is four-fold:
1. to measure what change has occurred;
2. to improve the other three stages—i.e. investigation, design and implementation — of
the HRD system;
3. to see whether the change is attributable to the learning episode; and
4. to see whether the change was worthwhile.
The chapter commences with a discussion of the assessment of learning – that is, measuring
what change has occurred in the minds of the learners. Chapter 7 raised the concept of
constructive alignment and this concept is continued in this chapter. The basic aim of curriculum
is to achieve constructive alignment which indicates the close relationship between the learning
outcomes, the learning strategies and the assessment – see Figure 11.1 on page 369. This initial
part of this chapter concentrates on learning outcomes and how those learning outcomes can be
assessed by referring back to the Hierarchy of Learning Outcomes – see Figure 11.3 on page 381.
To identify what change has occurred in the mind of the learner, the HR developer assesses the
learning that has occurred. However, it should be borne in mind that such assessment usually
only tests a sample of the learner’s behaviour and represents only the explicit knowledge.
Bearing these deficiencies in mind, the most common types of assessment are skill tests, objective
written tests, subjective written tests, performance tests, learning diaries and portfolio


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assessment. When evaluating this learning the assessor also has to consider the real meaning of
the raw scores.
Kirkpatrick has suggested that there are four levels of evaluation - reaction, learning, behaviour
and results. There is some criticism of Kirkpatrick’s model - one concern being with its emphasis
on outputs and process only. Brinkerhoff’s model includes the presage factors of evaluating the
program design, evaluating during implementation and an evaluation of the conducting HR
developer. These two models can be combined to form eight levels of evaluation – see Table 11.1
on pages 392/393.
The scientific models are used in an attempt to show that any change that has occurred has been
due to the learning episode. While these scientific models are based on the experimental
methods used in research laboratories, the more accurate and sophisticated approaches are quite
expensive. The cost-benefit analysis method of evaluation attempts to identify whether the
investment in the learning program was worthwhile.
There are three final issues to be made. Firstly, evaluation should be planned and this planning
should commence at the HRDNI stage. Secondly, evaluation methods discussed apply, in the
main, to the legitimate system. Thirdly, any evaluation in the shadow system relies more on
extraordinary management.

Misconceptions about evaluation
Assessment of learning
Types of assessment
Skill tests
Objective written tests
Subjective written tests
Performance tests
Learning diaries
Portfolio assessment
Assessment and the HLO
Self assessment
The HR developer’s conundrum
The meaning of scores
Overlap of the four HRD stages
The importance of assessment
Kirkpatrick’s four levels
Reaction
Learning
Behaviour
Results
Comments on Kirkpatrick’s model
The presage factors


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Evaluating the needs and goals
Evaluating the program design
Evaluating during implementation
The conducting HR developer
An overview of the evaluation levels
To be or not to be
Time out
The scientific models
Post-test
Pre-test/post-test
Time series evaluation
Control group
The Solomon four
A complex decision
Cost-benefit analysis
Why bother?
The evaluation plan
The evaluation report
The need for dialectic thinking


11.1 Objective written tests are used to:
(a) test performance skills
(b) verify recall rather than recognition
(c) verify recognition rather than recall
(d) complex performances

11.2 The most direct form of testing that follows, exactly, the learning objective is the:
(a) skill test
(b) objective test
(c) performance test
(d) portfolio test


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11.3 The type of assessment that uses a pre-designed observation form is the:
(a) subjective written test
(b) performance test
(c) portfolio test
(d) learning diary

11.4 The three types of learning diaries that are used in the assessment of learning are:
(a) the problem-based, the organised and the free flow
(b) the analytic, the organised and the free flow
(c) the analytic, the detailed and the free flow
(d) the problem-based, the detailed and the free flow

11.5 The type of assessment that uses a collection of the learner’s work and which takes a long
term view to evaluating the learner’s performance is called:

(a) production assessment
(b) performance tests
(c) portfolio assessment
(d) work-based assessment

11.6 The type of assessment that provides concluding evidence of the level of the learner’s
achievement is called:
(a) summative assessment
(b) final assessment
(c) concluding assessment
(d) criterion-based assessment

11.7 According to Kirkpatrick, the level of evaluation that examines the change of the
behaviour on the job is called the:
(a) reaction level
(b) results level
(c) behaviour level
(d) performance level


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11.8 Brinkerhoff’s ‘evaluate payoff’ stage is similar to Kirkpatrick’s:
(a) results level
(b) reaction level
(c) behaviour level
(d) performance level

11.9 In the Solomon four scientific model of evaluation, the number of control groups used is:

(a) two
(b) three
(c) four
(d) none

11.10 One of the main problems with using cost-benefit analysis is:
(a) converting the costs into dollar values
(b) writing the report
(c) deciding on the cut-off points
(d) calculating the ratio between the costs and benefits


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Chapter 12

WORKPLACE LEARNING
Chapter objectives
1. List the advantages of off-site learning and workplace learning.
2. Explain the nine elements of managing workplace learning.
3. Explain the seven phases of individual adult learning.

Chapter theme
Thus far, the text has concentrated more on the processes used in the legitimate system.
Accordingly, we have explored practices that tend to emphasise negative feedback loops and
single loop learning. Chapter 12 moves towards the shadow system of the organisation, although
workplace learning is, perhaps, more accurately depicted as being part of both the legitimate and
the shadow system.
Learning can occur at both off-site and on-site locations. Both options have advantages and
disadvantages. Managers and supervisors need to use both options to maximise learning. In
many ways, the previous eleven chapters have concentrated on off-site learning. This chapter
concentrates on on-site learning. However, it should be emphasised that the concepts covered in
the four stages of HRD are also very relevant to on-site learning.
On-site, or workplace learning, does not occur by accident. It needs a curriculum to ensure that
leering does occur efficiently and effectively. The chapter presents nine elements that must be
considered when managing workplace learning. These nine elements are – performance
appraisal, learning episode, transfer of learning, extended learning, complex but clear outcomes,
direct guidance of experts, indirect guidance of experts, diminishing support and creating new
knowledge. Each element is explained in detail.
Workplace learning, of course, is centred on the individual worker, so the chapter presents a
seven phase model of individual learning. The seven phases are – engagement decision,
formulating goals, trial and error, seek support, seek expertise and a production phase. At this
stage the individual will have the increased confidence and abilities to continue experimenting
and creating new knowledge. The learner may opt out of learning during any of these phases
and this presents the supervisor with opportunities to intervene in the individual learning
process. Again, each phase is explained in detail.

Moving into the shadow system
The workplace as a site for learning
Challenges to workplace learning
The supervisor as the HE developer
Learning spaces


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Managing workplace learning
Performance appraisal
The learning episode
Transfer of learning
Extended learning
Complex but clear learning outcomes
Direct guidance of experts
Indirect guidance
Diminishing support
Creating knowledge
Some concluding comments
A word of caution on workplace learning
Individual adult learning
Engagement decision
Formulating goals
Trial and error
Seek support
Seek expertise
Production phase
Increased confidence and abilities
Some final comments
The challenge of workplace learning

Multiple choice question bank.

12.1 One of the problems of off-site learning is that the learning is not always readily
generalised to other settings, such as workplaces. This problem is called:
(a) encryption
(b) encroachment
(c) encapsulation
(d) encasement

12.2 One of the advantages of workplace learning is that:
(a) the time of the learners is not contested
(b) the learning is contextualised
(c) the learning can be made specific and appropriate
(d) the learning can be readily assessed.


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12.3 In the managing workplace learning model, the step that provides a ordered sequence of
activities so that the learner is encouraged to develop progressively is called:

(a) from peripheral to full participation
(b) a clear understanding of the required results
(c) scaffolding
(d) experiential learning

12.4 In the managing workplace learning model, the step where a mentor is used is called:
(a) indirect guidance
(b) direct guidance of experts
(c) indirect guidance with experts
(d) direct guidance with other than experts

12.5 In the managing workplace learning model, the step called ‘diminishing support’ uses
the two processes of:
(a) scaffolding and laddering
(b) laddering and fazing
(c) structuring and fading
(d) scaffolding and fading

12.6 In the individual change transition model, the pre-change mode where the individual is
surrounded by familiar habits, processes and patterns is called the:
(a) sensory phase
(b) sensorial phase
(c) secular phase
(d) security phase

12.7 In the individual change transition model, the phase where new information, skills and
behaviours are assimilated into the current tasks and processes is called the:
(a) integrity phase
(b) integration phase
(c) embodiment phase
(d) aggregate phase


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12.8 In the model of individual adult learning, the step where the learner develops a fuzzy
learning plan is called:

(a) approximation of task phase
(b) formulating goals phase
(c) trial and error phase
(d) production phase

12.9 In the model of individual adult learning, the step where the learner improves with
practice is called the:
(a) approximation of task phase
(b) formulating goals phase
(c) trial and error phase
(d) production phase

12.10 Learning spaces in workplace learning means:
(a) providing a separate room for learning
(b) sending staff to an off-site learning facility
(c) providing physical sites and time
(d) locations in the learner’s mind that is set aside for work tasks.


ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

Chapter 13

CREATING AND EMBEDDING NEW KNOWLEDGE
Chapter objectives
1. Provide an overview of the shadow system.
2. List and describe the guiding principles of the shadow system.
3. Discuss the three roles of the shadow system.
4. Describe the extraordinary management processes.
5. Explain how new knowledge can be exported to the legitimate system.

Chapter theme
It is important to remind the learners that the legitimate and shadow systems are interlinking
and dependent systems. Staff move in and out of the shadow system with the majority of staff
spending the majority of their time in the legitimate system. However, the shadow system must
continually challenge the underlying values of the legitimate system, import and create new
knowledge and ensure that the organisation remains viable in the long term. The main guiding
principles of the shadow system are – a continuing search for creativity; the use of positive
feedback loops and the use of double-loop learning; and the harnessing the energy from
individuals being in relationships. Individuals being in relationships also forms the predominant
self-generating control that helps to ensure the organisation does not move into chaos and self-
destruct.
The shadow system has three roles in helping the organisation to manage its knowledge capital.
First, the shadow system identifies, imports and creates new knowledge. Secondly, it challenges
the fundamental values of the legitimate system. Thirdly, it stores potentially useful new
knowledge.
The heart of the shadow system is the self organising groups (SOGs). It is the SOGs which create
new knowledge and these groups need to be carefully supported by using extraordinary
management. Self-organising groups sometimes develop into internal or external communities of
practice (CoPs). Extraordinary management also encourages the development of internal and
external networks to identify and import new knowledge, create new knowledge and
disseminate this new knowledge throughout the organisation. A special type of external
networks are learning partnerships - joint ventures, apprenticeship learning partnerships and
strategic learning partnerships which may be divided into several categories – research, work
integrated learning (WIL), customised work integrated learning (CWIL) and work capacity
integrated learning (WCIL).
The shadow system then needs to export the new knowledge to the legitimate system. The main
barrier to this process comes from the legitimate system’s defence mechanisms. To overcome
these defence mechanisms, the legitimate system needs to use political processes and, in turn, the
legitimate system needs to use an embedding process for the new knowledge.


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The ultimate aim of managing organisations, and therefore managing the knowledge capital of
the organisation, is to achieve bounded instability – a state where both the legitimate system and
the shadow system have appropriate amounts of power and energy to ensure both the short
term and the long term viability of the organisation

From maintaining to creating
An overview of the shadow system
The guiding principles of the shadow system
The three roles of the shadow system
The first role
The second role
The third role
Extraordinary management processes
Self-organising groups
Communities of practice
Networks
Learning partnerships
Exporting to the legitimate system
Defence mechanisms
The shadow system
Control—to be or not to be?
The nexus of work and learning


13.1 The principles that guide the shadow system are:
(a) negative feedback loops, double-loop learning and individuals in relationships
(b) negative feedback loops, single-loop learning and individuals
(c) positive feedback loops, double-loop learning and individuals in relationships
(d) positive feedback loops, double-loop learning and individuals

13.2 The shadow system is best governed by:
(a) extraordinary management
(b) ultraordinary management
(c) extrapolatory management
(d) extortionate management


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13.3 One of the roles of the shadow system is to:
(a) maintain the current viable knowledge of the organisation
(b) challenge the fundamental values of the legitimate system
(c) discard knowledge and information
(d) create self organising groups

13.4 The ‘DRN” in the D-R-N model stands for:
(a) description-realisation-nurturing
(b) discovery-realisation-nurturing
(c) discovery-reaction-nurturing
(d) discovery-realisation-normalising

13.5 Self organising groups are:
(a) disaffective structures
(b) disappearing structures
(c) disarranged structures
(d) dissipative structures

13.6 The stage in the growth of a group where the group culture governing behaviour and
values is gradually formed is called:
(a) forming
(b) storming
(c) norming
(d) performing

13.7 In Cavaleriere’s model, the stage where the individuals (who have been both learners
and actors in the SOG) receive recognition for the product of their creative efforts is
called:
(a) perfecting
(b) modelling
(c) actualising
(d) activating


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13.8 One major advantage of internal communities of practice is that they:
(a) develop social capital
(b) create standing plans for the new idea
(c) scan the external environment
(d) arrange social outings

13.9 External networks with strong ties are identified by:

(a) network intensity
(b) relationship intensity
(c) relationship density
(d) network density

13.10 One of the political activities that the shadow system can use to export the now idea to
the legitimate system is:
(a) create a new committee
(b) use of logical argument
(c) find a powerful person to become a sponsor
(d) create a discovery path

13.11 The learning partnership that creates a jointly owned organisation to achieve the goals of
an alliance between at least two commercial/government organisations
(a) strategic alliance
(b) joint venture
(c) virtual venture
(d) joint alliance


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Chapter 14

ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE, LEADERSHIP AND
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Chapter objectives
1. Explain why knowledge is a unique asset
2. Describe the basic assumptions of the legitimate system and the shadow system of an
organisation
3. Explain how the legitimate system manages the organisation’s knowledge assets
4. Explain how the shadow system manages the organisation’s knowledge assets
5. Describe the concept of bounded instability
6. Describe organisational culture and explain its role in the management of
7. knowledge
8. Discuss the role of leadership in the management of knowledge
9. Describe the role of the HR developer in an organisation

Chapter theme
This chapter both summarises the contents of the textbook and presents a new model that
examines the way an organisation should manage its knowledge capital. Knowledge is seen as a
unique asset that has to be managed appropriately. The chapter presents a model for managing
knowledge capital based on the dual systems of the legitimate system and the shadow system.
The legitimate system emphasises negative feedback loops and single loop learning. These two
basic assumptions are the basis of the management processes that the legitimate system uses to
manage the organisations knowledge capital – control systems, performance appraisal, selection,
strategic planning, operational planning and the four stages of HRD.
The shadow system emphasises positive feedback loops and double loop learning. The heart of
the shadow system is the self organising group. These SOGs need to be carefully managed to
ensure that they do produce the new knowledge needed by the organisation. Knowledge
enhancement systems, while primarily used by the shadow systems, are also used at times by the
legitimate system. Knowledge enhancement systems include knowledge configurations,
knowledge networks and knowledge workers.
It is important that the two systems interact appropriately to ensure that a state of bounded
instability is achieved. Unfortunately, one of the first reactions of the legitimate system to new
knowledge is to use defence mechanisms. While defence mechanisms are efficient – and
therefore save the legitimate system energy – they are not always effective. To ensure that
appropriate new ideas are inculcated into the organisation, both the legitimate system and the
shadow system need to undertake certain tasks. For the shadow system these tasks are political
in nature and include using a sponsor, preparing the product, preparing the path and using


ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

Lisa’s Virus. For the legitimate system, an embedding process should be used. The steps in the
embedding process are auditing new ideas, using single-use and standing plans and extended
learning.
Good organisational management, then is based on a paradox—the need for conformity and
creativity. To resolve this paradox, managers need to harness the energy of the organisational
culture and complex leadership. Therefore, the chapter examines the definition of organisational
culture and presents a model of organisational culture that is based on several critical elements
and suggests that organisational culture is a multi-dimensional force rather than the usual
accepted uni-dimensional view. Accordingly, managers need to use both transactional and
transformational leadership to harness the energy of the organisation’s culture.

Knowledge as an asset
A systems approach
Strategic planning
Operational planning
Organisational control systems
Performance appraisal
Selection
The four stages of HRD
Potential problems
Workplace learning
The shadow system
Self-organising groups and communities of practice
Networks
Learning partnerships
Potential problems
Bounded instability
The responsibility of the shadow system
The responsibility of the legitimate system
A seamless transition
The paradox
Organisational culture
Definition
Elements of organisational culture
Types of organisational culture
The multi-dimensional view
Summary


ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

Leadership
Career development for the HR developer


14.1 Knowledge that is represented by an individual’s the intuition, empathy, experience,
emotions, and undocumented professional knowledge is called:
(a) inert knowledge
(b) embodied knowledge
(c) embedded knowledge
(d) encultured

14.2 Negative feedback loops:
(a) passes on current knowledge without verifying the veracity of that knowledge
(b) dampens any aberrant behaviours
(c) enhances behaviour and increase energy
(d) challenges the underlying values of an idea

14.3 When an organisation hovers between equilibrium and chaos, it is called a state of:
(a) bouncing instability
(b) bounded stability
(c) bonded instability
(d) bounded instability

14.4 The legitimate system can import new knowledge through the management process of:
(a) control systems
(b) performance appraisal
(c) selection
(d) single-use planning

14.5 Which management process has been described as ‘the heart of the legitimate system’s
role in helping the organisation manage its knowledge capital”?
(a) the four stages of HRD
(b) strategic planning
(c) control systems
(d) self organising groups


ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

14.6 When a staff member returns from a planned learning experience, the staff member
should be engaged in:

(a) elastic learning
(b) external learning
(c) extended learning
(d) expatriate learning

14.7 Self-organising groups are very vulnerable because they are:
(a) dissipitative structures
(b) dissident structures
(c) dissension structures
(d) dissilience structures

14.8 The system that increases the potential of identifying knowledge that is new to the
organisation:
(a) internal communities of practice
(b) external networks
(c) knowledge configurations
(d) control systems

14.9 The automatic protective processes used by the legitimate system are called:
(a) defence reactions
(b) defence mechanisms
(c) defence habits
(d) defence roulettes

14.10 To prepare a new idea for deployment to the legitimate system, the shadow system must
use:
(a) administrative processes
(b) policy processes
(c) political processes
(d) polity processes


ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1

14.11 The logical and objective response to new ideas from the shadow system by the
legitimate system is called the:
(a) embedding process
(b) planning process
(c) extended learning
(d) intended process

14.12 The process where the legitimate system examines the proposal for the new idea and
makes decisions based on the appropriate use of available energy is called:
(a) the embedding process
(b) the control system
(c) the audit
(d) the stocktake

14.13 The type of organisational culture that uses strong control over processes and has an
external environment focus is the:
(a) teamwork type
(b) bureaucratic type
(c) premeditative type
(d) entrepreneurial type

14.15 The type of leadership that appeals to the emotional, motivational and
developmental needs of the leader’s staff is called:
(a) transactional
(b) ordinary
(c) extraordinary
(d) transformational


Human Resource Management
Case Studies in Global Management:
Strategy, Innovation and People Contemporary Issues and Challenges
Management in HRM, Second Edition
Peter Holland, Cathy Sheehan, Ross
Editors: Tony Dundon & Donohue, Amanda Pyman & Belinda Allen
Adrian Wilkinson ISBN: 978-0-7346-1109-3
ISBN: 978-0-7346-1113-0 Price: A$64.95 NZ$77.95 US$54.95
Price: A$55.95 NZ$67.95 US$49.95 Pages: 322 pp
Pages: 346 pp Release: Available, © 2012
Release: Available, © 2012
Women at Work:
Readings in HRM and Sustainability Research, Policy and Practice
Editor: Marilyn Clarke Editors: Peter A Murray, Robin Kramar
ISBN: 978-0-7346-1101-7 & Peter McGraw
Price: A$59.95 NZ$71.95 US$49.95 ISBN: 978-0-7346-1137-6
Pages: 180 pp Price: A$64.95 NZ$77.95 US$54.95
Release: Available, © 2011 Pages: 330 pp

People Development: An Inside View:
Human Resource Development:
Developing Individuals, Managers
Managing Learning and Knowledge
and Organisations
Capital
Editors: Sean O’Toole, Natalie Ferres
Brian Delahaye
& Julia Connell
ISBN: 978-0-7346-1103-1
ISBN: 978-0-7346-1089-8
Price: A$74.95 NZ$89.95 US$59.95
Price: A$69.95 NZ$83.95 US$59.95
Pages: 564 pp
Pages: 316 pp

Human Resource Policy:
Cases in HR Practice and Strategy
Concepts, Processes and Applications
Mike Fazey
Mike Fazey
ISBN: 978-0-7346-1130-7
ISBN: 978-0-7346-1098-0
Price: A$39.95 NZ$47.95 US$29.95
Price: A$64.95 NZ$77.95 US$54.95
Pages: 135 pp
Pages: 332 pp

Strategic HRM: Contemporary Issues Where Should I Work: Choosing the
in the Asia Pacific Region Best Place to Work
Editors: Julia Connell & Stephen Teo Simon Moss
ISBN: 978-0-7346-1080-5 ISBN: 978-0-7346-1123-9
Price: A$59.95 NZ$71.95 US$49.95 Price: A$29.95 NZ$35.95 US$24.95
Pages: 360 pp Pages: 140 pp (approx.)
Release: Available, © 2010 Release: April 2012

Workplace Stress vs Outcomes How to Stop Your Workplace
Case Studies in the NSW Public Going Pear Shaped:
Service Readings in HR Risk Mitigation
Martha Knox-Haly Martha Knox-Haly
ISBN: 978-0-7346-1146-8 ISBN: 978-0-7346-1062-1
Price: A$39.95 NZ$47.95 US$29.95 Price: A$29.95 NZ$35.95 US$24.95
Pages: 166 pp Pages: 116 pp
Release: Available, © 2012 Release: Available, © 2008

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