Biology For Engineers Module 3 / HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO-DESIGNS - 2
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The document discusses several human organ systems and related bioengineering solutions. It describes the lungs as a purification system, covering the architecture of the lungs, gas exchange mechanisms, spirometry tests, and conditions like COPD. It then discusses the kidney as a filtration system, describing architecture, filtration mechanisms, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and dialysis systems. Finally, it discusses the muscular and skeletal systems as scaffolds, describing architecture, mechanisms, and bioengineering solutions for conditions like muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis.
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Biology For Engineers Module 3 / HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO-DESIGNS - 2
- 1. BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS Dr. Pavan K J DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY G M Institute of Technology Davanagere Module - 3 HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO-DESIGNS - 2
- 2. MODULE 3 Human Organ Systems And Bio Designs- 2 (Qualitative): Lungs as purification system (architecture, gas exchange mechanisms, spirometry, abnormal lung physiology - COPD, Ventilators, Heart-lung machine).Kidney as a filtration system (architecture, mechanism of filtration, CKD, dialysis systems). Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds (architecture, mechanisms, bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis).
- 3. LUNGS AS A PURIFICATION SYSTEM INTRODUCTION: Every cell in your body needs oxygen to live. The air we breathe contains oxygen and other gases. The respiratory system's main job is to move fresh air into your body while removing waste gases. Once in the lungs, oxygen is moved into the bloodstream and carried through your body. At each cell in your body, oxygen is exchanged for a waste gas called carbon dioxide. Your bloodstream then carries this waste gas back to the lungs where it is removed from the bloodstream and then exhaled.
- 4. Your lungs and the respiratory system automatically perform this vital process, called gas exchange. In addition to gas exchange, your respiratory system performs other roles important to breathing. These include: • Bringing air to the proper body temperature and moisturizing it to the right humidity level. • Protecting your body from harmful substances. This is done by coughing, sneezing, filtering, or swallowing them. • Supporting your sense of smell.
- 5. How the Lungs Work The lungs are a vital part of the respiratory system, which allows you to breathe. In addition to the lungs, the respiratory system includes airways that carry air in and out of your lungs, blood vessels surrounding the lungs, and the muscles that help you breathe. Airways The body uses several channels to bring oxygen-rich air into the lungs and release carbon dioxide (a waste gas) out of the lungs. The body’s airways include: •Nasal cavities •Mouth •Voice box (called the larynx) •Windpipe (called the trachea) •Bronchial tubes
- 6. When you take a breath through your nose or mouth, the air is warmed and humidified, and then moved through your voice box and down the windpipe. From there, it travels down two bronchial tubes that enter the lungs. A thin flap of tissue, the epiglottis, blocks your windpipe when you swallow to prevent food and liquid from entering. When you breathe out, air leaves the body through your airways.
- 7. ARCHITECTURE: The lung parenchyma is mainly comprised of numerous air-containing passages and intervening fine structures, corresponding to alveolar ductal lumens and alveoli, as well as alveolar septa and small pulmonary vessels occupying 10% of total parenchymal volume. The primary function of the lungs is gas exchange. However, the lungs perform several important non-respiratory functions that are vital for normal physiology. The lung, with its unique ability to distend and recruit pulmonary vasculature, acts as a reservoir of blood, fine-tuning preload to the left heart to optimize cardiac output. * The lung acts as a filter against endogenous and exogenous emboli, preventing them from accessing systemic circulation. * Pulmonary epithelium forms the first line of defense against inhaled particles. * Pulmonary endothelial cells are responsible for the uptake, metabolism, and biotransformation of several exogenous and endogenous substances. * Pulmonary metabolic capacity is easily saturated, but pulmonary endothelial binding of some drugs alters their pharmacokinetics.
- 9. GAS EXCHANGE MECHANISMS: • Air enters the body through the mouth or nose and quickly moves to the pharynx or throat. From there, it passes through the larynx, or voice box, and enters the trachea. • The trachea is a strong tube that contains rings of cartilage that prevent it from collapsing. Within the lungs, the trachea branches into a left and right bronchus. These further divide into smaller and smaller branches called bronchioles. The smallest bronchioles end in tiny air sacs. These are called alveoli. • They inflate when a person inhales and deflate when a person exhales. During gas exchange oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream. • At the same time, carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the lungs. This happens in the lungs between the alveoli and a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries, which are located in the walls of the alveoli.
- 13. Spirometry • Spirometry uses a machine called a spirometer. A spirometer is a medical device that consists of a mouthpiece and a tube. • They connect to a machine that measures your airflow. • It is the most common of the pulmonary function tests. • It measures lung function, specifically the amount and/or speed of air that can be inhaled and exhaled • And used to diagnose asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other conditions that affect breathing.
- 15. Requirements of an acceptable spirometer are: • Spirometers must be able to accumulate volume for ≥15 s. • The measuring volume should be ≥8 L (body temperature and pressure, saturated). • The accuracy of reading should be at least ±3% (or ±0.05 L) with flows from 0–14 L per s. • The total resistance to airflow at 14 L per s should be <1.5 cmH2O per L per s (<0.15 kPa per L per s).
- 16. •rib fractures: Fracturing a rib can lead to numerous lung complications such as pneumothorax, lung contusion, and even respiratory failure.using an incentive spirometer can help reduce these complications and help the lungs work better. •pneumonia: Incentive spirometry is commonly used to break up mucus buildup that builds up in the lungs in people with pneumonia. •chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD is a group of respiratory disorders that are most commonly caused by smoking. There’s no current cure, but quitting smoking, using a spirometer, and following an exercise plan can help manage symptoms. •cystic fibrosis: People with cystic fibrosis might benefit from using an incentive spirometer to clear fluid buildup. A 2015 studyTrusted Source found that spirometry has the potential to reduce pressure in the chest cavity and lower the chance of central airway collapse. •other conditions: A doctor may also recommend an incentive spirometer for people with sickle cell anemia, asthma, multiple sclerosis, or atelectasis.
- 17. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD is a group of respiratory disorders that are most commonly caused by smoking. There’s no current cure, but quitting smoking, using a spirometer, and following an exercise plan can help manage symptoms.
- 18. COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes obstructed airflow from the lungs. • Symptoms include breathing difficulty, cough, mucus (sputum) production, and wheezing. • It's typically caused by long-term exposure to irritating gases or particulate matter, most often from cigarette smoke. People with COPD are at increased risk of developing heart disease, lung cancer, and a variety of other conditions. • Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are the two most common conditions that contribute to COPD. These two conditions usually occur together and can vary in severity among individuals with COPD. Symptoms COPD symptoms often don't appear until significant lung damage has occurred, and they usually worsen over time, particularly if smoking exposure continues.
- 19. Signs and symptoms of COPD may include: * Shortness of breath, especially during physical activities * Wheezing * Chest tightness * A chronic cough that may produce mucus (sputum) that may be clear, white, yellow, or greenish * Frequent respiratory infections * Lack of energy * Unintended weight loss (in later stages) * Swelling in ankles, feet, or legs Tests may include: * Lung (pulmonary) function tests. * Chest X-ray. * CT scan. * Arterial blood gas analysis. * Laboratory tests.
- 21. Ventilators A ventilator is a device that supports or takes over the breathing process, pumping air into the lungs. Types of ventilator •Face mask ventilators •Mechanical ventilators •Manual resuscitator bags •Tracheostomy ventilators
- 22. Face mask ventilator • It is a noninvasive method of supporting the breathing and oxygen levels. • The mask fits over the nose and mouth while air blows into the airways and lungs. Mechanical ventilator These are machines that take over the breathing process entirely . It work via a tube in a person’s throat, pumping air into the lungs and transporting carbon dioxide away.
- 23. Manual Resuscitator Bags • These are pieces of equipment that allow person to control the airflow of their ventilator with their hands. • These devices consist of an empty bag or bladder that a person squeezes to pump air into the lungs. Tracheostomy ventilator • A tracheostomy is a procedure where a doctor creates an opening in the windpipe and inserts a tube, which allows air to flow in and out. This enables a person to breathe without using their nose or mouth.
- 24. KIDNEY AS FILTRATION SYSTEM INTRODUCTION: Kidneys remove wastes and extra fluid from the body. Kidneys also remove acid that is produced by the cells of the body and maintain a healthy balance of water, salts, and minerals—such as sodium, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium—in the blood. Without this balance, nerves, muscles, and other tissues in the body may not work normally. Kidneys also make hormones that help * Control blood pressure. * Make red blood cells NIH external link. * Keeps bones strong and healthy.
- 25. • ARCHITECTURE: • The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. • They are located just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine. • Healthy kidneys filter about a half cup of blood every minute, removing wastes and extra water to make urine. • The urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through two thin tubes of muscle called ureters, one on each side of the bladder. Your bladder stores urine. Kidneys, ureters, and bladder are part of your urinary tract
- 26. MECHANISM OF FILTRATION: • Each kidney is made up of about a million filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron includes a filter, called the glomerulus, and a tubule. • The nephrons work through a two-step process: the glomerulus filters blood, and the tubule returns needed substances to your blood and removes wastes. • Each nephron has a glomerulus to filter your blood and a tubule that returns needed substances to your blood and pulls out additional wastes. Wastes and extra water become urine. The glomerulus filters your blood • As blood flows into each nephron, it enters a cluster of tiny blood vessels—the glomerulus. • The thin walls of the glomerulus allow smaller molecules, wastes, and fluid—mostly water—to pass into the tubule. Larger molecules, such as proteins and blood cells, stay in the blood vessel. The tubule returns needed substances to your blood and removes wastes.
- 27. How does blood flow through my kidneys? • Blood flows into the kidney through the renal artery. This large blood vessel branches into smaller and smaller blood vessels until the blood reaches the nephrons. In the nephron, blood is filtered by the tiny blood vessels of the glomeruli and then flows out of the kidney through the renal vein. • Blood circulates through your kidneys many times a day. In a single day, kidneys filter about 150 quarts of blood. Most of the water and other substances that filter through your glomeruli are returned to the blood by the tubules. Only 1 to 2 quarts become urine. • When the kidney doesn't function properly, Chronic kidney disease occurs when a disease or condition impairs kidney function, causing kidney damage to worsen over several months or years
- 28. CKD: Chronic kidney disease includes conditions that damage your kidneys and decrease their ability to keep you healthy by filtering wastes from your blood. If kidney disease worsens, wastes can build to high levels in your blood and make you feel sick. You may develop complications like * high blood pressure * anemia (low blood count) * weak bones * poor nutritional health * nerve damage SYMPTOMS: People with CKD may not feel ill or notice any symptoms. The only way to find out for sure if you have CKD is through specific blood and urine tests. These tests include the measurement of both the creatinine level in the blood and the protein in the urine.
- 29. TREATMENT: Depending on the cause, some types of kidney disease can be treated. Often, though, chronic kidney disease has no cure. Treatment usually consists of measures to help control signs and symptoms, reduce complications, and slow the progression of the disease. If your kidneys become severely damaged, you might need treatment for end- stage kidney disease. DIALYSIS: Dialysis is a procedure to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood when the kidneys stop working properly. It often involves diverting blood to a machine to be cleaned. There are 2 main types of dialysis: * Haemodialysis involves diverting blood into an external machine, where it's filtered before being returned to the body * Peritoneal dialysis involves pumping dialysis fluid into the space inside your abdomen (tummy) to draw out waste products from the blood passing through vessels lining the inside of the abdomen
- 31. MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM AS SCAFFOLDS: Skeletal muscle architecture is one of the most important properties that determine a muscle’s force and excursion capability. In the current review, basic architectural terms first are reviewed, and then specific examples relevant to upper extremity anatomy are presented. Specific examples of anatomic considerations required for surgical reconstruction after radial nerve palsy also are detailed
- 32. Muscle architecture is the physical arrangement of at the macroscopic muscle fibres level that determines muscle’s mechanical function. There are several different muscle architecture types including: parallel, pennate and hydrostats. Force production and gearing vary depending on the different muscle parameters such as muscle length, fiber length, pennation angle, and the physical cross sectional area. There are two main types of muscle architecture • Parallel • Pennate Parallel The parallel muscle architecture is found in muscles where the fibers are parallel to the force-generating axis. These muscles are often used for fast or extensive movements and can be measured by the anatomical cross- sectional area (ACSA).
- 33. MECHANISM: • The nervous system (your body’s command center) controls your voluntary muscle movements. Voluntary muscles are ones you control intentionally. • Some involve large muscle groups to do activities like jumping. Others use smaller movements, like pushing a button. Movements happen when: • Our nervous system (brain and nerves) sends a message to activate your skeletal (voluntary) muscles. • Our muscle fibers contract (tense up) in response to the message. When the muscle activates or bunches up, it pulls on the tendon. • Tendons attach muscles to bones. The tendon pulls the bone, making it move. To relax the muscle, your nervous system sends another message. It triggers the muscles to relax or deactivate. The relaxed muscle releases tension, moving the bone to a resting position.
- 34. Hundreds of conditions can cause problems with the musculoskeletal system. They can affect the way you move, speak and interact with the world. Some of the most common causes of musculoskeletal pain and movement problems are: * Aging * Arthritis * Back problems * Cancer * Congenital abnormalities * Injuries * Osteoporosis * Muscular dystrophy Everyone has pain in their muscles and joints from time to time. One of the most common musculoskeletal conditions is Osteoporosis. More than 60% of people in the United States have Osteoporosis at some point in their lives. Arthritis is also very common. More than 54 million adults in the U.S. have Muscular dystrophy. Most people recover from these disorders without long-term health problems.
- 35. BIO-ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS FOR MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY AND OSTEOPOROSIS • Awareness is increasing that bone morbidity due to osteoporosis is a major complication of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and its treatment and that it requires monitoring for early diagnosis and intervention to prevent clinically important disease consequences. • The traditional method of fabricating 3D muscle constructs first developed more than 25 years ago involves casting myogenic cells within a cylindrically shaped collagen-I gel that is anchored at the ends to porous felts. • In this system, cell-mediated gel compaction and remodeling result in the generation of uniaxial passive stress within the gel, which, in turn, promotes the fusion of myoblasts into myotubes and also myotube alignment.
- 38. • Alternatively, myoblasts, or mixtures of myogenic precursors and fibroblasts, can be cultured on laminin- or hydrogel-coated dishes until spontaneous contractions of formed myotubes detach the entire cell layer, allowing it to self-assemble into a cylindrical tissue construct attached at the ends to premade suture anchors. • Although cell alignment within 3D constructs is not required for the formation of contractile myotubes, it increases fusion efficiency while passive stress promotes both cell survival and myogenesis. In addition to collagen I, different natural hydrogels and their chemically modified derivatives can support the 3D growth and fusion of myogenic cells; the most functional results have been achieved using fibrin-based gels. • Carefully optimizing the composition of the fibrin gel to enhance cell-matrix interactions as well as optimizing the starting cell population to improve myogenic fusion and SC maintenance and providing dynamic culture conditions to improve cell survival and maturation have enabled rodent skeletal muscle tissues to be engineered with contractile properties comparable to those of native muscle (e.g., twitch and tetanus-force amplitudes)