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![34 P a r t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s
Suggestions for Effective Meetings
Whether you engage in face-to-face or electronic meet-
ings, observing the following guidelines can help to
ensure that your meetings are productive:
• Limit meeting length and frequency. Any meeting
held for longer than an hour or more frequently than
once a month should be scrutinized. Ask yourself
whether the meeting is necessary. Perhaps the
purpose can be achieved
in another way, such as
email, instant messaging,
or telephone.
• Make satisfactory
arrangements. Select
a date and time conve-
nient for the majority of
expected participants. For
face-to-face meetings, plan
the meeting site with
consideration for appropriate seating for attendees,
media equipment, temperature and lighting, and nec-
essary supplies. For electronic meetings, check hard-
ware and software and connectivity components.
• Distribute the agenda well in advance. The
agenda is a meeting outline that includes important
information: date, beginning and ending times, place,
topics to be discussed, and responsibilities of those
involved. Having the agenda prior to the meet-
ing allows participants to know what is expected
of them. A sample agenda template is provided in
Figure 2-3.
• Encourage participation. While it is certainly easier
for one person to make decisions, the quality of the
decision making is often improved by involving the
team. Rational decision making may begin with
brainstorming, the generation of many ideas from
among team members. Brainstormed ideas can then
be discussed and ranked, followed by some form of
voting.
agenda
a meeting outline that
includes important
information (e.g., date,
beginning and ending times,
place, topics to be discussed,
and responsibilities of those
involved)
brainstorming
the generation of many ideas
from among team members
Figure 2-3 Formal Generic Agenda for Meetings
Agenda for [name of group] Meeting
Prepared on [date agenda created]
By [name of author of agenda]
Attendees: [those invited to attend, often in alphabetical order]
Date and time of meeting:
Location of meeting:
Subject: [major issues to be discussed or purpose of meeting]
Agenda items:
1. Call to order
2. Routine business [procedural or administrative matters] (10–15 minutes)
a. Approval of agenda for this meeting
b. Reading and approval of minutes of last meeting
c. Committee reports
3. Old business [unfinished matters from previous meeting] (15–20 minutes)
a. Discussion of issue(s) carried over from previous meeting
b. Issue(s) arising from decision(s) made at previous meeting
4. New business (20–25 minutes)
a. Most important issue
b. Next most important issue
c. Other issues in decreasing order of importance
d. Business from the floor not included on the agenda
[only as time permits; otherwise, these issues should be
addressed in the next meeting]
5. Adjournment
© Cengage Learning 2010
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- 5. This is anelectronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppres ed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. s Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 6. reviewcard/ © 2012 CengageLearning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. C H A P T E R 1 E S TA B L I S H I N G A F R A M E W O R K F O R B U S I N E S S C O M M U N I C AT I O N Key Terms Chronemics the study of how a culture perceives time and its use Decoding the process of interpreting a message Diversity skills the ability to communi- cate effectively with both men and women of all ages, cultures, and minority groups Downward communication a type of communication that flows from supervisor to employee, from policy makers to operating personnel, or from top to bottom on the organization chart Encoding the process of selecting and organizing a message Ethics the principles of right and wrong that guide one in making decisions that consider the impact of one’s actions on others as well as on the decision maker Ethnocentrism the assumption that one’s own cultural norms are the right way to do things External messages messages directed to recipients outside the organization Feedback a receiver’s response to a sender’s message Formal communication channel a channel of communication typified by the formal organization chart; dictated by the technical, political, and economic environ- ment of the organization Grapevine the best-known component of the informal communication system Horizontal (or lateral) communica- tion interactions between organizational units on the same hierarchical level Informal communication channel a channel of communication that continu- ously develops as people interact within the formal system to accommodate their social and psychological needs Interferences also called barriers; numer- ous factors that hinder the communication process Internal messages messages intended for recipients within the organization Kinesics the study of body language, which is not universal, but instead is learned from one’s culture Organizational communication the movement of information within the com- pany structure Learning Objectives LO1 : Define communication and describe the value of communication in business. Communication is the process of exchanging information and meaning between or among individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, and behavior. Managers spend most of their time in communication activities. LO2 : Explain the communication process model and the ultimate objective of the communication process. People engaged in communication encode and decode messages while simultaneously serving as both senders and receivers. In the communication process, feedback helps people resolve possible misunderstandings and thus improves communication effectiveness. Feedback and the opportunity to observe nonverbal signs are always present in face-to-face communication, the most complete of the three communication levels. LO3 : Discusshowinformationflowsinanorganization. Both formal and informal communication systems exist in every organization; the formal system exists to accomplish tasks, and the informal system serves a personal maintenance purpose that results in people feeling better about themselves and others. Communication flows upward, downward, and horizontally or laterally. These flows often defy formal graphic description, yet each is a necessary part of the overall communication activity of the organization. Communication takes place at five levels: intrapersonal (communication within one person), interpersonal (communication between two people), group (communication among more than two people), organizational (communication among combinations of groups), and public (communication from one entity to the greater public). S E N D E R R E C E I V E R Encodes Message Encodes Message Decodes Message Decodes Message Selects Channel & Transmits Message Selects Channel & Transmits Message I N T E R F E R E N C E S s UPWARD COMMUNICATION Progress reports (spoken and written) • Results/accomplishments • Problems/clarifications UPWARD COMMUNICATION Ideas/suggestions Feelings/attitudes HORIZONTAL OR LATERAL COMMUNICATION Coordination of interrelated activities Problem-solving efforts DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION Policies and procedures Organizational goals and strategies Work assignments Employee development • Job role/responsibility • Performance appraisal (formal and informal) • Constructive criticism • Deserved praise and recognition © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. BCOM3_SE cards.indd 3 12/27/10 2:08:50 PM M o r e r e v i e w t o o l s a t C o u r s e M a t e f o r B C O M 3 . L o g i n a t w w w . c e n g a g e b r a i n . c o m . Proxemics the study of cultural space requirements Stakeholders people inside and outside the organization who are affected by decisions Stereotypes mental pictures that one group forms of the main characteristics of another group, creating preformed ideas of what people in this group are like Synergy a situation in which the whole is greater than the sum of the parts Team a small number of people with complementary skills who work together for a common purpose Telecommuting also called teleworking; working at home or other remote locations and sending and receiving work from the company office electronically Upward communication a type of com- munication that is generally a response to requests from supervisors LO4 : Explain how legal and ethical constraints, diversity challenges, changing technology, and team environment act as strategic forces that influence the process of business communication. Communication occurs within an environment constrained by legal and ethical requirements, diversity challenges, changing technology, and team environment requirements. • International, federal, state, and local laws impose legal boundaries for business activity, and ethical boundaries are determined by personal analysis that can be assisted by application of various frameworks for decision making. • Communication is critically impacted by diversity in nationality, culture, age, gender, and other factors that offer tremendous opportunities to maximize talent, ideas, and productivity but pose significant challenges in interpretation of time, personal space requirements, body language, and language translation. • Significant strides have occurred in the development of tools for data collection and analysis, creation of messages that are clearer and more effective, and quick and easy communication with audiences in remote locations. The use of technology, however, poses legal and ethical concerns in regard to ownership, access, and privacy. • Team environment challenges arise because communication in teams differs from communication in traditional organizational structures. The result of effective teams is better decisions, more creative solutions to problems, and higher worker morale. 1. You must learn to design spreadsheets that make financial information meaningful to users. 2. Many online tools are available that build relationships with customers. 3. I am submitting an employee testimonial, which I first posted to a presentations blog, to the company website. 4. More companies are videoconferencing because of the need to reduce travel costs significantly. 5. You must perform periodic maintenance on your computer to keep it operating efficiently. 6. Planned store improvements include widening the aisles, improving lighting, and lowering shelves for a sophisticated feel. or Planned store improvements include widened aisles, improved lighting, and lowered shelves for a sophisticated feel. Grammar Quiz Sentence Structure Identify the weakness in each sentence and write an improved version. 1. It is essential that you learn to design spreadsheets that make financial information meaningful to users. 2. There are many online tools available that build relationships with customers. 3. I am submitting an employee testimonial to the company website, which I first posted to a presentation blog. 4. More companies are videoconferencing because of the need to significantly reduce travel costs. 5. To operate efficiently, you must perform periodic maintenance on your computer. 6. Planned store improvements include widening the aisles, improved lighting, and lower shelves for a sophisticated feel. Grammar Quiz Solutions Chapter In Review Cards in the back of the Student Edition provide students a portable study tool containing all of the pertinent information for class preparation. Engaging. Trackable. Affordable. CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive learning, study, and exam preparation tools that support BCOM3. FOR STUDENTS: • Interactive eBook • Chapter Quizzes • Assignments & Handouts • E-Lectures • Cases • Chapter In Review Cards • Flashcards (electronic & printable) • Games (crossword puzzles & quiz bowl) • Glossary • Learning Objectives • PowerPoint® • Videos • Grammar Games • Style Guides • Templates • Model Documents • Language Review Quizzes FOR INSTRUCTORS: • First Day of Class Instructions • Custom Options through 4LTR+ Program • Instructor’s Manual • Test Bank • PowerPoint® Slides • Instructor Prep Cards • Engagement Tracker S T U D E N T T E S T E D , F A C U L T Y A P P R O V E D THE SOLUTION ONLINE RESOURCES INCLUDED! Students sign in at www.cengagebrain.com 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd i 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd i 1/4/11 11:44:09 AM 1/4/11 11:44:09 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 7. BCOM3 2011–2012 Edition CarolM. Lehman Debbie D. DuFrene Vice President of Editorial, Business: Jack W. Calhoun Editor-in-Chief: Melissa Acuña Acquisitions Editor: Erin Joyner Developmental Editor: Dana Freeman, B-books, Ltd. Product Developmental Manager, 4LTR Press: Steven E. Joos Executive Brand Marketing Manager, 4LTR Press: Robin Lucas Editorial Assistant: Kayti Purkiss VP/Director of Marketing: Cheryl Costantini Marketing Manager: Michelle Lockard Marketing Coordinator: Leigh Smith Sr. Marketing Communications Manager: Sarah Greber Production Director: Amy McGuire, B-books, Ltd. Content Project Manager: Darrell Frye Media Editor: John Rich Frontlist Buyer, Manufacturing: Miranda Klapper Production Service: B-books, Ltd. Art Director: Stacy Jenkins Shirley Internal Designer: KeDesign, Mason, OH Cover Designer: KeDesign, Mason, OH Cover Image: © Getty Images/Blend Images/Anderson Ross Photo Rights Acquisitions Specialist: Deanna Ettinger Photo Researcher: Charlotte Goldman © 2012, © 2011 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, web distribution, infor- mation networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be emailed to [email protected] Library of Congress Control Number: 2010942121 SE ISBN-13: 978-1-111-52777-8 SE ISBN-10: 1-111-52777-6 South-Western 5191 Natorp Boulevard Mason, OH 45040 USA Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.CengageBrain.com Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15 14 13 12 11 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd ii 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd ii 1/4/11 11:44:19 AM 1/4/11 11:44:19 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 8. iii Communication Foundations 2 1Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 2 2 Focusing on Interpersonal and Group Communication 20 Communication Analysis 36 3 Planning Spoken and Written Messages 36 4 Preparing Spoken and Written Messages 56 Communication Through Voice, Electronic, and Written Messages 70 5 Communicating Electronically 70 6 Delivering Good- and Neutral-News Messages 84 7 Delivering Bad-News Messages 102 8 Delivering Persuasive Messages 122 Communication Through Reports and Business Presentations 140 9 Understanding the Report Process and Research Methods 140 10 Managing Data and Using Graphics 160 11 Organizing and Preparing Reports and Proposals 172 12 Designing and Delivering Business Presentations 194 Communication for Employment 216 13 Preparing Résumés and Application Messages 216 14 Interviewing for a Job and Preparing Employment Messages 244 GRAMMAR AND USAGE APPENDIX 260 REFERENCES 275 INDEX 278 Brief Contents 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd iii 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd iii 1/4/11 11:44:24 AM 1/4/11 11:44:24 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 9. Contents Part 1 Communication Foundations2 1 Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 2 Value of Communication 2 The Communication Process 3 The Sender Encodes the Message 4 The Sender Selects the Channel and Transmits the Message 4 The Receiver Decodes the Message 4 The Receiver Encodes the Message to Clarify 5 Interferences Hinder the Process 5 Communicating within Organizations 5 Communication Flow in Organizations 5 Levels of Communication 9 Strategic Forces Influencing Business Communication 10 Strategic Force 1: Legal and Ethical Constraints 10 Strategic Force 2: Diversity Challenges 13 Strategic Force 3: Changing Technology 15 Strategic Force 4: Team Environment 17 2 Focusing on Interpersonal and Group Communication 20 Behavioral Theories that Impact Communication 20 Recognizing Human Needs 20 Stroking 22 Exploring the Johari Window 22 Contrasting Management Styles 23 Nonverbal Communication 23 Metacommunication 23 Kinesic Messages 23 Understanding Nonverbal Messages 24 Listening as a Communication Skill 25 Listening for a Specific Purpose 25 Bad Listening Habits 26 Group Communication 27 Increasing Focus on Groups 27 Characteristics of Effective Groups 29 Group Roles 30 From Groups to Teams 31 Meeting Management 32 Face-to-Face Meetings 33 Electronic Meetings 33 Suggestions for Effective Meetings 34 Part 2 Communication Analysis 36 3 Planning Spoken and Written Messages 36 Step 1: Determining the Purpose and Channel 38 Step 2: Envisioning the Audience 38 Step 3: Adapting the Message to the Audience 40 Focus on the Receiver’s Point of View 40 Communicate Ethically and Responsibly 41 Build and Protect Goodwill 43 Use Contemporary Language 47 Use Simple, Informal Words 47 Communicate Concisely 48 Project a Positive,TactfulTone 49 Step 4: Organizing the Message 52 Outline to Benefit the Sender and the Receiver 52 Sequence Ideas to Achieve Desired Goals 52 4 Preparing Spoken and Written Messages 56 Prepare the First Draft 56 Craft Powerful Sentences 58 Develop Coherent Paragraphs 60 Revise and Proofread 62 Improve Readability 62 Apply Visual Enhancements to Improve Readability 63 Use Systematic Procedures for Revising and Proofreading 66 Cultivate a Frame of Mind for Effective Revising and Proofreading 68 on se 25 27 ups 29 y 41 C o n t e n t s iv 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd iv 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd iv 1/4/11 11:44:35 AM 1/4/11 11:44:35 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 10. v C o nt e n t s Part 3 Communication Through Voice, Electronic, and Written Messages 70 5 Communicating Electronically 70 Electronic Mail Communication 70 Advantages of Email 70 Guidelines for Preparing Email Messages 71 Effective Use of Email 72 Instant Messaging 74 Text Messaging 75 Electronic Messages and the Law 77 Web Page Communication 78 Writing for a Website 78 Writing Wikis 79 Writing for Weblogs 79 Voice and Wireless Communication 80 Voice Mail Communication 80 Cell Phone Communication 81 Wireless Communication and the Future 82 Appropriate Use of Technology 82 Determine the Purpose of the Message 83 Determine Whether the Information Is Personal or Confidential 83 Decide Whether Positive Human Relations Are Sacrificed 83 6 Delivering Good- and Neutral-News Messages 84 Deductive Organizational Pattern 84 Good-News Messages 86 Positive News 86 Thank-You and Appreciation Messages 88 Routine Claims 90 Claim Message 90 Favorable Response to a Claim Message 90 Routine Requests 93 Routine Request 93 Favorable Response to a Routine Request 93 Positive Response to a Favor Request 93 Form Messages for Routine Responses 95 Routine Messages about Orders and Credit 95 Acknowledging Customer Orders 97 Providing Credit Information 97 Extending Credit 98 Procedural Messages 100 7 Delivering Bad-News Messages 102 Choosing an Appropriate Channel and Organizational Pattern 102 Channel Choice and Commitment to Tact 102 Use of the Inductive Approach to Build Goodwill 104 Exceptions to the Inductive Approach 105 Developing a Bad-News Message 105 Writing the Introductory Paragraph 105 Presenting the Facts, Analysis, and Reasons 106 Writing the Bad-News Statement 107 Offering a Counterproposal or“Silver Lining”Idea 108 Closing Positively 108 Refusing a Request 110 Denying a Claim 111 Denying Credit 113 Delivering Constructive Criticism 115 Communicating Negative Organizational News 116 Breaking Bad News 116 Responding to Crisis Situations 118 8 Delivering Persuasive Messages 122 Persuasion Strategies 122 Plan Before You Write 123 Use the Inductive Approach 124 Apply Sound Writing Principles 124 Sales Messages 126 Gain Attention 126 Generate Interest by Introducing the Product, Service, or Idea 127 Create Desire by Providing Convincing Evidence 128 Motivate Action 131 Persuasive Requests 132 Making a Claim 132 Asking a Favor 135 Requesting Information 137 Persuading within an Organization 137 0 2 d the Law 77 ional tment ch to 2 h 124 iples 124 ducing the ea 127 128 37 nization 137 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd v 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd v 1/4/11 11:44:39 AM 1/4/11 11:44:39 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 11. C o nt e n t s vi Part 4 Communication Through Reports and Business Presentations 140 9 Understanding the Report Process and Research Methods 140 Characteristics of Reports 140 Types of Reports 141 Proposals 143 Basis for Reports: The Problem-Solving Process 143 Recognizing and Defining the Problem 143 Selecting a Method of Solution 145 Collecting and Organizing the Data 149 Arriving at an Answer 155 10 Managing Data and Using Graphics 160 Communicating Quantitative Information 160 Using Graphics 162 Effective and Ethical Use of Graphics 163 Types of Graphic Aids 163 Including Graphics in Texts 170 Positioning Graphics in Texts 170 11 Organizing and Preparing Reports and Proposals 172 Parts of a Formal Report 172 Preliminary Parts of a Report 173 Report Text 176 Report Addenda 177 Organization of Formal Reports 177 Writing Convincing and Effective Reports 178 Choosing a Writing Style for Formal Reports 180 Short Reports 182 Memorandum, Email, and Letter Reports 182 Form Reports 182 Proposals 189 Proposal Structure 189 Proposal Preparation 191 12 Designing and Delivering Business Presentations 194 Planning an Effective Business Presentation 194 Identify Your Purpose 195 Know Your Audience 196 Organizing the Content 197 Introduction 197 Body 199 Closing 200 Designing Compelling Presentation Visuals 200 Types of Presentation Visuals 200 Design of Presentation Visuals 202 Design Tips for Audience Handouts and Notes Pages 203 Refining Your Delivery 204 Delivery Method 204 Vocal Qualities 205 Delivery Style 207 Adapting to Alternate Delivery Situations 210 Culturally Diverse Audiences 210 Team Presentations 212 Distance Presentations 213 Part 5 Communication for Employment 216 13 Preparing Résumés and Application Messages 216 Preparing for the Job Search 216 Gathering Essential Information 217 Identifying Potential Career Opportunities 218 Planning a Targeted Résumé 221 Standard Parts of a Résumé 221 Types of Résumés 226 Preparing Résumés for Print and Electronic Deliveries 227 Preparing a Print (Designed) Résumé 227 Preparing Electronic Résumé Submissions 228 Supplementing a Résumé 234 Professional Portfolios 234 Employment Videos 234 P Su ation for 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd vi 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd vi 1/4/11 11:44:44 AM 1/4/11 11:44:44 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 12. Composing Application Messages237 Persuasive Organization 237 General Writing Guidelines 241 Finishing Touches 242 14 Interviewing for a Job and Preparing Employment Messages 244 Understanding Types of Employment Interviews 244 Structured Interviews 244 Unstructured Interviews 246 Stress Interviews 246 Group Interviews 246 Virtual Interviews 246 Preparing for an Interview 247 Research the Company 247 Study Yourself 248 Plan Your Appearance 248 Plan Your Time and Materials 249 Practice 249 Conducting a Successful Interview 249 The Opening Formalities 249 The Information Exchange 250 The Closing 253 Preparing Other Employment Messages 255 Application Forms 255 Follow-Up Messages 255 Thank-You Messages 256 Job-Acceptance Messages 256 Job-Refusal Messages 256 Resignation Messages 258 Recommendation Requests 258 GRAMMAR AND USAGE APPENDIX 260 REFERENCES 275 INDEX 278 ges 237 Empl pl pl ploy oy oy oy oy o me me me ent St Pl Pl Pr C C o n t e n t s 1 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd 1 27776_FM_i-vi_1.indd 1 1/4/11 11:44:50 AM 1/4/11 11:44:50 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 13. 2 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s Value of Communication W e communicate to satisfy needs in both our work and private lives. Each of us wants to be heard, appreciated, and wanted. We also want to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. A major value of communication is to help people feel good about themselves and about their organiza- tions. Generally peo- ple communicate for three basic purposes: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain. What is communication? Communication is the pro- cess of exchanging information and meaning between or among individuals through a common system of sym- bols, signs, and behavior. Other words used to describe the communication process include conversing, speaking, corresponding, writing, and listening. Studies indicate that managers typically spend 60 to 80 percent of their time involved in communication. In your career activities, you will communicate in a wide variety of ways, including • attending meetings and writing reports related to strategic plans and company policy. • presenting information to large and small groups in face-to-face and virtual environments. • explaining and clarifying management procedures and work assignments. • coordinating the work of various employees, depart- ments, and other work groups. • evaluating and counseling employees. • promoting the company’s products/services and image. O B J E C T I V E S 1 Define communication and describe the value of communication in business. 2 Explain the communication process model and the ultimate objective of the communication process. 3 Discuss how information flows in an organization. 4 Explain how legal and ethical constraints, diversity challenges, changing technology, and team environment act as strategic forces that influence the process of business communication. BCOM Communication Foundations Part 1 Chapter 1 Establishing a Framework for Business Communication O B J E C T I V E 1 Define communication and describe the value of communication in business. © iStockphoto.com/Alexandr Tovstenko 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 2 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 2 1/3/11 8:00:12 AM 1/3/11 8:00:12 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 14. 3 C h ap t e r 1 : E s t a b l i s h i n g a F r a m e w o r k f o r B u s i n e s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n C H A P T E R The Communication Process E ffective business communication is essen- tial to success in today’s work environ- ments. Recent surveys of executives document that abilities in writing and speaking are major determinants of career success in many fields.1 Though essential to personal and professional success, effective business communication does not occur automatically. Your own experiences likely have taught you that a mes- sage is not interpreted correctly just because you transmitted it. An effective communica- tor anticipates pos- sible breakdowns in the communication process—the unlim- ited ways the message can be misunderstood. This mind-set provides the con- centration to design the initial message effectively and to be prepared to intervene at the appropriate time to ensure that the message received is on target. 1 © Roger Wright/Stone/Getty Images O B J E C T I V E 2 Explain the communication process model and the ultimate objective of the communication process. 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 3 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 3 1/3/11 8:00:18 AM 1/3/11 8:00:18 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 15. 4 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s Consider the communication process model pre- sented in Figure 1-1. These seemingly simple steps actu- ally represent a very complex process. The Sender Encodes the Message The sender carefully designs a message by selecting (1) words that clearly convey the message and (2) non- verbal signals (gestures, posture, facial expression, and so on) that reinforce the verbal message. The process of selecting and organizing the message is referred to as encoding. The sender’s primary objective is to encode the message in such a way that the message received is the same (or as close as possible) as the message sent. Knowledge of the receiver’s educational level, experi- ence, viewpoints, and other information aids the sender in encoding the message. If information about the receiver is unavailable, the sender can use empathy for the receiver’s position to gain fairly accurate insights to help in encoding the message. The Sender Selects the Channel and Transmits the Message To increase the likeli- hood that the receiver will understand the message, the sender carefully selects an appropriate channel for transmitting the message. Three typical communication channels are two-way, face-to-face; two-way, not face-to-face; and one-way, not face-to-face. Selecting an inappropriate channel can cause the message to be misunderstood and can adversely affect human relations with the receiver. For example, for a complex subject, a sender might begin with a written document and follow up with a face-to-face, phone, or video conference discussion after the receiver has had an opportunity to study the document. Written docu- ments are required when legal matters are involved and written records must be retained. The Receiver Decodes the Message The receiver is the destination of the message. The receiver’s task is to interpret the sender’s message, both verbal and nonverbal, with as little distortion as pos- sible. The process of interpreting the message is referred to as decoding. Because words and nonverbal signals have different meanings to different people, countless problems can occur at this point in the communication process: • The sender inadequately encodes the original mes- sage with words not present in the receiver’s vocabu- lary, ambiguous or nonspecific ideas, or nonverbal signals that distract the receiver or contradict the verbal message. • The receiver is intimidated by the position or author- ity of the sender, resulting in tension that prevents effective concentration on the message and failure to ask for needed clarification. • The receiver prejudges the topic as too boring or dif- ficult to understand and does not attempt to understand the message. • The receiver is close-minded and unreceptive to new and different ideas. With the infinite number of breakdowns possible at each stage of the communication pro- cess, it is indeed a miracle that effective communication ever occurs. The complexity of the communication process ampli- fies the importance of the next stage in the communication process—feedback to clarify misunderstandings. encoding the process of selecting and organizing a message decoding the process of interpreting a message Figure 1-1 The Communication Process Model S E N D E R R E C E I V E R Encodes Message Encodes Message Decodes Message Decodes Message Selects Channel & Transmits Message Selects Channel & Transmits Message I N T E R F E R E N C E S © Cengage Learning 2010 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 4 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 4 1/3/11 8:00:21 AM 1/3/11 8:00:21 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 16. 5 C h ap t e r 1 : E s t a b l i s h i n g a F r a m e w o r k f o r B u s i n e s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n The Receiver Encodes the Message to Clarify When the receiver responds to the sender’s message, the response is called feedback. The feedback might prompt the sender to modify or adjust the original message to make it clearer to the receiver. Feedback can be verbal or nonverbal. A remark such as “Could you clarify . . .” or a perplexed facial expression provides clear feedback to the sender that the receiver does not yet understand the mes- sage.Conversely,a confident“Yes,I understand,”and a nod of the head likely signal understanding or encouragement. Interferences Hinder the Process Senders and receivers must learn to deal with the numer- ous factors that hinder the communication process.These factors are referred to as interferences or barriers to effective communication. Previous examples have illus- trated some of the interferences that might occur at vari- ous stages of the communication process. For example, • differences in educational level, experience, cul- ture, and other characteristics of the sender and the receiver increase the complexity of encoding and decoding a message. • physical interferences occurring in the channel include a noisy environment, interruptions, and uncomfortable surroundings. • mental distractions, such as preoccupation with other matters and developing a response, rather than listening. You can surely compile a list of other barriers that affect your ability to communicate with friends,instructors, coworkers,supervisors,andothers.Bybeingawareofthem, you can concentrate on removing these interferences. Communicating within Organizations T o be successful, organizations must cre- ate an environment that energizes and encourages employees to accomplish tasks by promoting genuine open- ness and effective communication. Organizational communication is con- cerned with the move- ment of information within the company structure. Regardless of your career or level within an organiza- tion, your ability to communicate will affect not only the success of the organization but also your personal success and advancement within that organization. Communication Flow in Organizations Communication occurs in a variety of ways within an organization.Somecommunicationflowsareplannedand structured;othersarenot.Somecommunicationflowscan be formally depicted, whereas some defy description. Formal and Informal Channels The flow of communication within an organization fol- lows both formal and informal channels. • Formal communication channel. This channel is typified by the formal organization chart, which is created by management to define individual and group relationships and to specify lines of responsi- bility. Essentially, the formal system is dictated by the technical, political, and economic environment of the organization. Within this system, people are required to behave in certain ways simply to get work done. • Informal communication channel. This channel continuously develops as people interact within the formal system to accommodate their social and psychological needs. Because the informal channel undergoes continual changes, it cannot be depicted accurately by any graphic means. When employees rely almost entirely on the for- mal communication sys- tem as a guide to behavior, the system might be iden- tified as a bureaucracy. Procedures manuals, job descriptions, organiza- tion charts, and other written materials dictate the required behavior. Communication chan- nels are followed strictly, and red tape is abundant. Procedures are generally followed exactly; terms such as rules and policies serve as sufficient rea- sons for actions. Even the most formal organiza- tions, however, cannot function long before an O B J E C T I V E 3 Discuss how information flows in an organization. feedback a receiver’s response to a sender’s message interferences also called barriers; numerous factors that hinder the communication process organizational communication the movement of information within the company structure formal communication channel a channel of communication typified by the formal organization chart; dictated by the technical, political, and economic environment of the organization informal communication channel a channel of communication that continuously develops as people interact within the formal system to accommodate their social and psychological needs © iStockphoto.com/Boris Yankov 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 5 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 5 1/3/11 8:00:23 AM 1/3/11 8:00:23 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 17. definite communication channels,the grapevine tends to develop and operate within all organizations. Consider these points related to the accuracy and value of grape- vine communication: • As a communication channel, the grapevine has a reputation for being speedy but inaccurate. In the absence of alarms, the grapevine might be the most effective way to let occupants know that the building is on fire. It certainly beats sending an email. • Although the grapevine often is thought of as a channel for inaccurate communication, in reality it is no more or less accurate than other channels. Even formal commu- nication can become inaccurate and filtered as it passes from level to level in the organizational hierarchy. • The inaccuracy of the grapevine has more to do with the message input than with the output. For example, the grapevine is noted as a carrier of rumors, primarily because it carries informal messages. If the input is a rumor, and nothing more, the output obviously will be inaccurate. But the output might be an accurate description of the original rumor. • In a business office, news about promotions, person- nel changes, company policy changes, and annual salary adjustments often is communicated through the grapevine long before being conveyed through formal channels. The process works similarly in colleges, where information about choice instructors typically is not officially published but is known by students through the grapevine. How best to prepare for examinations, instructor attitudes on attendance and homework, and even faculty personnel changes are messages that travel over the grapevine. • A misconception about the grapevine is that the message passes from person to person until it finally reaches a person who can’t pass it on—the end of the line. Actually, the grapevine works as a network informal communication system emerges. As people operate within the organized system, they interact on a person-to-person basis and create an environment con- ducive to satisfying their personal emotions, prejudices, likes, and dislikes. In the college classroom, for example, the student behavior required to satisfy the formal system is to attend class, take notes, read the text, complete assign- ments, and pass exams. On the first day of class, this behavior is typical of almost all students, particularly if they did not know one another prior to attending the class. As the class progresses, however, the informal sys- tem emerges and overlaps the formal system. Students become acquainted, sit next to people they particu- larly like, talk informally, and might even plan ways to beat the external system by cutting class and borrow- ing notes, for example. Soon, these behaviors become norms for class behavior. Students who do not engage in the informal system might be viewed with disdain by the others. Obviously, the informal system benefits people because it is efficient, and it affects the overall communication of the group in important ways. The Grapevine as an Informal Communication System The grapevine, often called the rumor mill, is perhaps the best-known component of the informal communica- tion system. As people talk casually during breaks, text one another, or chat online, the focus usually shifts from topic to topic. One of the usual topics is work—job, company, supervisor, fellow employees. Even though the formal system includes grapevine the best-known component of the informal communication system 6 P a r t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s © John Lund/Blend Images/Jupiterimages 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 6 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 6 1/3/11 8:00:24 AM 1/3/11 8:00:24 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 18. 7 C h ap t e r 1 : E s t a b l i s h i n g a F r a m e w o r k f o r B u s i n e s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n channel. Typically, one person tells two or three others, who each tell two or three others, who each tell two or three others, and so on. Thus, the message might spread to a huge number of people in a short time, especially now that the grapevine has gone hi-tech and social networking sites have become “gossip central.” • The grapevine has no single, consistent source. Messages might originate anywhere and follow vari- ous routes. Due at least in part to widespread downsizing and corporate scandals during the last few years, employ- ees in many organizations are demanding to be better informed. Some companies have implemented new for- mal ways, such as newsletters and intranets, as well as informal ways, including blogs and Twitter, for sharing information with their internal constituents. Company openness with employees about management decisions and financial issues means conveying more information through the formal system rather than risking its miscom- munication through informal channels. Zappos—named one of the best companies to work for in America—has become a model for nurturing employees by following core values of humility, fun and weirdness, and open and honest communication. Employees, who describe the cul- ture as “flat-out fun,” are free to be creative and enjoy free lunches and spending time with managers at numer- ous zany team gatherings.2 An informal communication system will emerge from even the most carefully designed formal system. Managers who ignore this fact are attempting to manage blindfolded. Instead of denying or condemning the grape- vine, the effective manager will learn to use the informal communication network.The grapevine, for instance, can be useful in counteracting rumors and false information. Directions for Communication Flow The direction in which communication flows in an organi- zation can be downward, upward, or horizontal, as shown in Figure 1-2. Because these three terms are used frequently in communication discussions, they deserve clarification. Although the concept of flow seems simple, direction has meaning for those participating in the communication process. Figure 1-2 Flow of Information within an Organization UPWARD COMMUNICATION Progress reports (spoken and written) • Results/accomplishments • Problems/clarifications UPWARD COMMUNICATION Ideas/suggestions Feelings/attitudes HORIZONTAL OR LATERAL COMMUNICATION Coordination of interrelated activities Problem-solving efforts DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION Policies and procedures Organizational goals and strategies Work assignments Employee development • Job role/responsibility • Performance appraisal (formal and informal) • Constructive criticism • Deserved praise and recognition Formal Network Flow © Cengage Learning 2010 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 7 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 7 1/3/11 8:00:25 AM 1/3/11 8:00:25 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 19. 8 Downward Communication Downward Communication. Downwardcommunica- tion flows from supervisor to employee, from policy makers to operating personnel, or from top to bot- tom on the organization chart. A simple policy state- ment from the top of the organization might grow into a formal plan for operation at lower levels. Teaching people how to perform their specific tasks is an element of downward communication. Another ele- ment is orientation to a company’s rules, practices, procedures, history, and goals. Employees learn about the quality of their job performance through down- ward communication. Downward communication nor- mally involves both written and spoken methods and makes use of the following guidelines: • People at high levels in the organization usually have greater knowledge of the organization and its goals than do people at lower levels. • Both spoken and written messages tend to become larger as they move downward through organizational levels. This expansion results from attempts to prevent distortion and is more noticeable in written messages. • Spoken messages are subject to greater changes in meaning than are written messages. When a supervisor sends a message to a subor- dinate employee who then asks a question or nods in agreement, the ques- tion and the nod are signs of feedback. Feedback can flow both downward and upward in organizational communication through traditional as well as infor- mal channels. Upward Communication. Upward communication gen- erally is feedback to downward communication. When management requests information from lower organiza- tional levels, the resulting information becomes feedback to that request. Employees talk to supervisors about them- selves, their fellow employees, their work and methods of doing it, and their perceptions of the organization. These comments are feedback to the downward flow transmit- ted in both spoken and written form by group meetings, procedures or operations manuals,company news releases, the company intranet, and the grapevine. Although necessary and valuable, upward com- munication involves risks. The following factors are important to consider when upward communication flow is involved: • Upward communication is primarily feedback to requests and actions of supervisors. • Upward communication can be misleading because lower- level employees often tell their superiors what they think their superiors want to hear. Therefore, their messages might contradict their true observations and perceptions. • Upward communication frequently involves risk to an employee and is dependent on trust in the supervisor. • Employees will reject superficial attempts by management to obtain feedback. When effectively used, upward communication keeps manage- ment informed about the feelings of lower-level employees, taps the expertise of employees, helps man- agement identify both difficult and potentially promotable employees, and paves the way for even more effective downward com- munication. Upward communication is key to keeping employees engaged and informed and is especially critical in tapping the power of younger employees who expect to collaborate rather than to be supervised.3 Horizontal Communication. Horizontal, or lateral, communication describes interactions between orga- nizational units on the same hierarchical level. These viso bor then nod ques signs and is dependent supervisor. will re y man dback. Wh When en co comm mm me ent nt i of low owe pertise ment i potentially p or r- n ds s- • Employees attempts by obtain feed W o exp agem Upward Communication P a r t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s © iStockphoto.com/Pali Rao n people how to perform their of downward com ment is orienta ti tice ces, s, p p pro roc mpl p oyee es s l ei eir r job b pe ward rd c com Do D w mally invol hods and lines: • People at high organization u ment prac ct t Em the m meth guidel © iStockphoto.com/Pali Rao downward communication a type of communication that flows from supervisor to employee, from policy makers to operating personnel, or from top to bottom on the organization chart upward communication a type of communication that is generally a response to requests from supervisors horizontal (or lateral) communication interactions between organizational units on the same hierarchical level 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 8 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 8 1/3/11 8:00:26 AM 1/3/11 8:00:26 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 20. 9 C h ap t e r 1 : E s t a b l i s h i n g a F r a m e w o r k f o r B u s i n e s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n interactions reveal one of the major shortcomings of organizational charts: They do not recognize the role of horizontal communication when they depict authority relationships by placing one box higher than another and define role functions by placing titles in those boxes. Yet management should realize that horizontal communica- tion is the primary means of achieving coordination in a functional organizational structure. Units coordinate their activities to accomplish task goals just as adjacent workers in a production line coordinate their activities. So, for horizontal communication to be maximally effec- tive, the people in any system or organization should be available to one another. Many companies realize that the traditional hier- archy organized around functional units is inadequate for competing in increasingly competitive global mar- kets. They value work teams that integrate work-flow processes rather than specialists in a single function or product. Such work teams break down communica- tion barriers between isolated functional departments, and communication patterns take on varying forms to accommodate team activities. Figure 1-3 Levels of Communication INTRAPERSONAL • Communication within oneself • Not considered by some to be true communication as it does not involve a separate sender and receiver EXAMPLES Individual reminding himself of tasks to complete or daily schedule Supervisor and subordinate, two coworkers Committee, college class Company, organization Media advertisement, website communication INTERPERSONAL • Communication between two people • Goals are to (1) accomplish task confronting them (task goal) and (2) feel better about themselves and each other because of their interaction (maintenance goal) GROUP • Communication among more than two people • Goal of achieving greater output than individual efforts could produce ORGANIZATIONAL • Groups combined in such a way that large tasks may be accomplished • Goal of providing adequate structure for groups to achieve their purposes PUBLIC • The organization reaching out to its public to achieve its goals • Goal of reaching many with the same message © iStockphoto.com/Viorika Prikhodko Levels of Communication Communication can involve sending messages to both large and small audiences. Internal messages are intended for recipients within the organization. External messages are directed to recipients outside the organization. When considering the intended audience, communication can be described as taking place on five levels: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, organizational, and public. Figure 1-3 depicts the five audi- ence levels. An effective communicator has a clearly defined purpose for each message and selected strategies for targeting his or her intended audience. internal messages messages intended for recipients within the organization external messages messages directed to recipients outside the organization © iStockphoto.com/drfl et 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 9 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 9 1/3/11 8:00:38 AM 1/3/11 8:00:38 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 21. Strategic Forces Influencing Business Communication C ommunicationdoes not take place in a vacuum, but rather is influenced by a number of forces at work in the envi- ronment. The effective communicator carefully considers each of these influ- ences and structures communication responsively. Four criti- cal forces influence the communication process and help to determine and define the nature of the communication that occurs, as shown in Figure 1-4. These forces are legal and ethicalconstraints,diver- sity challenges,changing technology, and a team environment. Strategic Force 1: Legal and Ethical Constraints Legal and ethical constraints act as a strategic force on communication because they set boundaries in which communication rightfully occurs. International, federal, state, and local laws affect the way that various busi- ness activities are conducted. For instance, laws specify that certain information must be stated in messages that reply to credit applications and those dealing with the collection of outstanding debts. Furthermore, one’s own ethical standards will often influence what he or she is willing to say in a mes- sage. For example, a system of ethics built on honesty might require that the message provide full disclosure rather than a shrouding of the truth. Legal responsibili- ties, then, are the starting point for appropriate busi- ness communication. One’s ethical belief system, or personal sense of right and wrong behavior, provides further boundaries for professional activity. The press is full of examples of unethical conduct in business and political communities, but unethical behavior is not relegated to the papers—it has far- reaching consequences. Those affected by decisions, the stakeholders, can include people inside and outside the organization. Employees and stockholders are obvious losers when a company fails. Competitors in the same industry also suffer, because their strategies are based on what they perceive about their competition. Beyond that, financial markets as a whole suffer due to erosion of public confidence. Business leaders, government officials, and citizens frequently express concern about the apparent erosion of ethical values in society. Even for those who want to do the right thing, matters of ethics are seldom clear-cut decisions of right versus wrong, and they often contain ambiguous elements. In addition, the pressure appears to be felt most strongly by lower-level managers, often recent business school graduates who are the least expe- rienced at doing their jobs. The Foundation for Legal and Ethical Behavior Although ethics is a common point of discussion, many find defining ethics challenging. Most people immedi- ately associate ethics with standards and rules of con- duct, morals, right and wrong, values, and honesty. Dr. Albert Schweitzer defined ethics as “the name we give to our concern for good behavior. We feel an obligation to consider not only our own personal well-being, but also that of others and of human society as a whole.”4 In P a r t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s 10 O B J E C T I V E 4 Explain how legal and ethical constraints, diversity challenges, changing technology, and team environment act as strategic forces that influence the process of business communication. Figure 1-4 Strategic Factors Influencing Business Communication L E G A L & E T H I C A L CO N S T R A I N TS • International Laws • Domestic Laws • Code of Ethics • Stakeholder Interests • Ethical Frameworks • Personal Values C H A N G I N G T E C H N O LO G Y • Accuracy and Security Issues • Telecommunications • Software Applications • “High-touch” Issues • Telecommuting • Databases D I V E R S I T Y C H A L L E N G E S • Cultural Differences • Language Barriers • Gender Issues • Education Levels • Age Factors • Nonverbal Differences T E A M E N V I R O N M E N T • Trust • Team Roles • Shared Goals and Expectations • Synergy • Group Reward • Distributed Leadership stakeholders people inside and outside the organization who are affected by decisions © Cengage Learning 2010 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 10 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 10 1/3/11 8:00:42 AM 1/3/11 8:00:42 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 22. other words, ethicsrefers to the principles of right and wrong that guide you in making decisions that consider the impact of your actions on others as well as yourself. Though the recorded accounts of legal and ethical misconduct would seem to indicate that businesses are dishonest and unscrupulous, keep in mind that mil- lions of business transactions are made daily on the basis of honesty and concern for others. Why should a business make ethical decisions? What difference will it make? James E. Perrella, executive vice president of Ingersoll-Rand Company, gave a powerful reply to these questions:5 Many people, including many business leaders, would argue that such an application of ethics to business would adversely affect bottom-line per- formance. I say nay. . . . Good ethics, simply, is good business. Good ethics will attract investors. Good ethics will attract good employees. You can do what’s right. Not because of conduct codes. Not because of rules or laws. But because you know what’s right. Causes of Illegal and Unethical Behavior Understanding the major causes of illegal and unethical behavior in the workplace will help you become sen- sitive to signals of escalating pressure to compromise your values. Unethical corporate behavior can have a number of causes: • Excessive emphasis on profits. Business managers are often judged and paid on their ability to increase business profits. This emphasis on profits might send a message that the end justifies the means. According to former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, “infectious greed” ultimately pushed companies such as Enron, Global Crossing, and WorldCom into bankruptcy.6 • Misplaced corporate loyalty. A misplaced sense of corporate loyalty might cause an employee to do what seems to be in the best interest of the company, even if the act is illegal or unethical. • Obsession with personal advancement. Employees who wish to outperform their peers or are working for the next promotion might feel that they cannot afford to fail. They might do whatever it takes to achieve the objectives assigned to them. • Expectation of not getting caught. Thinking that the end justifies the means, employees often believe illegal or unethical activity will never be discov- ered. Unfortunately, a great deal of improper behavior “Mirror, Mirror . . .” Identifying ethical issues in typical workplace situations can be difficult, and coworkers and superiors might apply pressure for seemingly logical reasons. To illustrate, examine each of the following workplace situations for a possible ethical dilemma: • In order to achieve profit expectations of financial analysts, a mortgage lender approves loans to homebuyers without verifying their ability to repay the loans. • To prevent an adverse effect on stock prices, corporate officers deliberately withhold information concerning a planned spinoff. • To protect his job, a product engineer decides not to question a design flaw in a product that could lead to possible injuries and even deaths to consumers because the redesign would cause a delay in product introduction. • To stay within the departmental budget, a supervisor authorizes a software program to be installed on 50 office computers when only one legal copy was purchased. • Angry at a superior for an unfavorable performance appraisal, an employee leaks confidential information (e.g., trade secrets or marketing strategies) to an acquaintance who works for a competitor or posts highly derogative comments about the company on his or her social networking site. Your fundamental morals and values provide the foundation for making ethical decisions. However, as the previous examples imply, even minor concessions in day-to-day decisions can gradually weaken an individual’s ethical foundation. • • Y e c e © Erik Dreyer/Stone/Getty Images 11 C h a p t e r 1 : E s t a b l i s h i n g a F r a m e w o r k f o r B u s i n e s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n ethics the principles of right and wrong that guide one in making decisions that consider the impact of one’s actions on others as well as on the decision maker 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 11 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 11 1/3/11 8:00:43 AM 1/3/11 8:00:43 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 23. 12 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s escapes detection in the business world. Believing no one will ever find out, employees are tempted to lie, steal, and perform other illegal acts. • Unethical tone set by top management. If top managers are not perceived as highly ethical, lower- level managers might be less ethical as a result. Employees have little incentive to act legally and ethically if their superiors do not set an example and encourage and reward such behavior. The saying “the speed of the leader is the speed of the pack” illus- trates the importance of leading by example. • Uncertainty about whether an action is wrong. Many times, company personnel are placed in situa- tions in which the line between right and wrong is not clearly defined. When caught in this gray area, the perplexed employee asks, “How far is too far?” • Unwillingness to take a stand for what is right. Often employees know what is right or wrong but are not willing to take the risk of challenging a wrong action. They might lack the confi- dence or skill needed to con- front others with sensitive legal or ethical issues. They might remain silent and then justify their unwillingness to act. Framework for Analyzing Ethical Dilemmas Determining whether an action is ethical can be difficult. Learning to analyze a dilemma from both legal and ethical perspectives will help you find a solution that conforms to your own personal values. Figure 1-5 shows the four conclusions you might reach when considering the advisability of a particular behavior. Dimension 1: Behavior that is illegal and unethical. When considering some actions, you will reach the conclusion that they are both illegal and unethical. The law specifi- cally outlines the “black” area—those alter- natives that are clearly wrong—and your employer will expect you to become an expert in the laws that affect your particular area. When you encounter an unfamiliar area, you must investigate any possible legal implica- tions. Obviously, obeying the law is in the best interest of all concerned: you as an individual, your company, and society. Contractual agreements between two parties also offer guidance for legal decision making. Frequently, your own individual sense of right and wrong will also confirm that the illegal action is wrong for you personally. In such situations, decisions about appropriate behavior are obvious. Dimension 2: Behavior that is illegal yet ethical. Occasionally, a businessperson will decide that even though a specific action is illegal, there is a justifiable reason to break the law.A case in point is a law passed in Vermont that makes it illegal for a pharmaceutical company to give any gift valued at more than $25 to doctors or their personnel.7 Those supporting the law charge that the giving of freebies drives up medical costs by encouraging doctors to prescribe new, more expensive brand-name drugs. The law’s opponents contend that the gifts do not influ- ence doctors and are merely educational tools for new products. Although a pharmaceuti- cal firm and its employees might see nothing wrong with providing gifts worth in excess of $25, they would be well advised to consider the penalty of $10,000 per violation before acting on their personal ethics. A better course of action would be to act within the law, possibly while lob- bying for a change in the law. Dimension 3: Behavior that is legal yet unethi- cal. If you determine that a behavior is legal and complies with relevant contractual agreements and company policy, your next step is to consult your ng to ing a wrong the confi- con- ve legal might ustify ct. ing action is arning to oth legal will help nforms to Figure 1-5 you might e advisability at is illegal and ng some actions, ion that they are The law specifi- area—those alter- wrong—and your o become an expert our particular area. nfamiliar area, you ible legal implica- of all concerned: you as an in and society. Contractual ag parties also offer guidance fo Frequently, your own indivi wrong will also confirm that t for you personally. In such si appropriate behavior are obvi Dimension 2: Behavior tha Occasionally, a busines even though a specific a justifiable reason to bre is a law passed in Verm for a pharmaceutical valued at more than personnel.7 Those su that the giving of fr costs by encouraging more expensive bran opponents contend t ence doctors and are for new products. A cal firm and its emp wrong with providing $2 $ 5, they would be we penalty of $10,000 per on their personal ethics. would be to act within th bying for a change in the c a co co an next © Stockbyte/Getty Images DIMENSION 1 Behavior that is illegal and unethical DIMENSION 3 Behavior that is legal yet unethical DIMENSION 2 Behavior that is illegal yet ethical DIMENSION 4 Behavior that is both legal and ethical Figure 1-5 Four Dimensions of Business Behavior © Cengage Learning 2010 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 12 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 12 1/3/11 8:00:45 AM 1/3/11 8:00:45 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 24. company’s or profession’scode of ethics. This written document summarizes the company’s or profession’s standards of ethical conduct. Some companies refer to this document as a credo. If the behavior does not vio- late the code of ethics, then put it to the test of your own personal integrity. You may at times reject a legal action because it does not “feel right.” Most Americans were appalled to learn that mortgage bankers’ reckless abandonment of traditional lending standards led to the subprime mortgage meltdown. Although they might have acted legally, their profiting at the expense of com- pany employees, stockholders, and the public hardly seemed ethical. You might be faced with situations in which you reject a behavior that is legal because you would not be proud to have your family and commu- nity know that you engaged in it. Dimension 4: Behavior that is both legal and ethical. Decisions in this dimension are easy to make. Such actions comply with the law, company policies, and your professional and personal codes of ethics. The Pagano Model offers a straightforward method for determining whether a proposed action is advis- able.8 For this system to work, you must answer the following six questions honestly: • Is the proposed action legal? (This is the core starting point.) • What are the benefits and costs to the people involved? • Would you want this action to be a universal stan- dard, appropriate for everyone? • Does the action pass the light-of-day test? That is, if your action appeared on television or others learned about it, would you be proud? • Does the action pass the Golden Rule test? That is, would you want the same to happen to you? • Does the action pass the ventilation test? Ask the opinion of a wise friend with no investment in the outcome. Does this friend believe the action is ethical? Martha Stewart was found guilty of conspiracy, obstruction of justice, and making false statements regarding her sale of shares of ImClone stock just before the company’s downturn. Some have defended her action as neither illegal nor immoral, while oth- ers have argued that cracking down on Stewart sent an important message about stock-market manipu- lation. “It’s very important for us to protect integrity of this system,” said David Kelley, the U.S. attorney in Manhattan, after the verdict.“Failure to do so results in a flood of corruption.”9 Strategic Force 2: Diversity Challenges Diversity in the workplace is another strategic force influ- encing communication. Differences between the sender and the receiver in areas such as culture, age, gender, and education require sensitivity on the part of both parties so that the intended message is the one that is received. Understanding how to communicate effectively with people from other cultures has become more inte- gral to the work environment as many U.S. companies are increasingly conducting business with international companies or becoming multinational. Candy manufac- turer Jelly Belly learned a great deal about cultural dif- ferences when the company opened business operations in Thailand. In Thailand, many more employee ameni- ties are required than U.S. employers are accustomed to providing. For example, a Thai employer is expected to provide transportation to and from work as well as free meals and a workout facility for its employees.10 When addressing cultural differences, successful communication must often span barriers of language and differing world views resulting from societal and religious beliefs and practices. When a person fails to consider these factors, communication suffers, and the result is often embarrassing and potentially costly. McDonald’s is an example of a large U.S. company that has expanded its operations to include most major countries in the world. To be successful on an interna- tional scale, managers had to be aware of cultural dif- ferences and be willing to work to ensure that effective communication occurred despite these barriers. Occasionally,however,a whopper of an intercultural communication faux pas occurs. That is what happened when McDonald’s began its promotional campaign in Great Britain for the World Cup soccer championship. It seemed like a clever (and harmless) idea to reproduce the flags of the 24 nations participating in the event and print them on packaging—two million Happy Meal bags, to be exact. What marketing personnel failed to consider was that words from the Koran are printed on the Saudi flag. The idea that sacred words from Islam’s holy book were mass printed to sell a product with the knowledge that the packages would be thrown into the trash angered and offended many Muslims, who imme- diately complained. McDonald’s apologized for the gaffe and agreed to work with Saudis to find a solution to the problem.11 This example shows of how much “homework” is involved in maintaining good relations with custom- ers or clients from other cultures. The potential barrier 13 C h a p t e r 1 : E s t a b l i s h i n g a F r a m e w o r k f o r B u s i n e s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 13 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 13 1/3/11 8:00:48 AM 1/3/11 8:00:48 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 25. 14 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s of language is obvious; however, successful managers know that much more is involved in communicating with everyone—across cultures, genders, ages, abilities, and other differences. Communication Opportunities and Challenges in Diversity As world markets continue to expand, U.S. employees at home and abroad will be doing business with more people from other countries. You might find yourself work- ing abroad for a large American company, an international com- pany with a plant in the United States, or a company with an ethni- cally diverse workforce. Regardless of the workplace, your diversity skills—that is, your ability to communicate effec- tively with both men and women of all ages, cultures, and minority groups— will affect your success in today’s culturally diverse global economy. Workplace diversity can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunications, but it also poses opportunities to improve both workers and organizations. Managers must be prepared to communicate effectively with workers of different nationalities, genders, races, ages, abilities, and so forth. Managing a diverse workforce effectively will require you to communicate with everyone and to help all employees reach their fullest potential and contrib- ute to the company’s goals. To lessen miscommunica- tion, which inevitably occurs, increasing numbers of companies have undertaken diversity initiatives and are providing diversity training seminars to help work- ers understand and appreciate gender and age differ- ences and the cultures of coworkers. Culture and Communication Managers with the desire andtheskilltoconductbusi- ness in new international markets and to manage a diverse workforce effectively will confront problems created by cultural differences. The way messages are decoded and encoded is not just a function of the experiences, beliefs, and assumptions of the person sending or receiving those messages but also is shaped by the society in which he or she lives. People learn patterns of behavior from their culture. The culture of a people is the product of their living expe- riences within their own society. Culture could be described as “the way of life” of a people and includes a vast array of behaviors and beliefs. These patterns affect how people perceive the world, what they value, andhowtheyact.Differing patterns can also create bar- riers to communication. Barriers to Intercultural Communication Because cultures give different definitions of such basics of interaction as values and norms, people raised in two different cultures can clash in various ways. • Ethnocentrism. Problems occur between people of different cultures primarily because people tend to assume that their own cultural norms are the right way to do things. They wrongly believe that the specific patterns of behavior desired in their own cultures are universally valued. This belief, known as enthnocentrism, is certainly natural; but learning about other cultures and developing sensitivity will help minimize ethnocentric reactions when dealing with other cultures. • Stereotypes. We often form a mental picture of the main characteristics of another group, creating preformed ideas of what people in this group are © Feng lei sh/Imaginechina via AP Images “Your ability to communicate effectively with both men and women of all ages, cultures, and minority groups will affect your success in today’s culturally diverse global economy.” diversity skills the ability to communicate effectively with both men and women of all ages, cultures, and minority groups ethnocentrism the assumption that one’s own cultural norms are the right way to do things portunities versity ntinue yees will h - ce. ace, hat is, ate effec- d women of i it but also is shape he or she liv Peop behav The pr r a pa riers Barriers to Communicatio For many U.S. corporations, such as Procter & Gamble, more than 70 percent of total sales in recent years has come from international operations. 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 14 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 14 1/3/11 8:00:48 AM 1/3/11 8:00:48 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 26. 15 C h ap t e r 1 : E s t a b l i s h i n g a F r a m e w o r k f o r B u s i n e s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n like. These pictures, called stereotypes, influence the way we interact with members of the other group. When we observe a behavior that conforms to the stereotype, the validity of the preconceived notion is reinforced. We often view the other person as a representative of a class of people rather than as an individual. People of all cultures have stereotypes about other cultural groups they have encountered. These stereotypes can interfere with communication when people interact on the basis of the imagined representative and not the real individual. • Interpretation of time. The study of how a culture perceives time and its use is called chronemics. In the United States, we have a saying that “time is money.” Canadians, like some northern Europeans who are also concerned about punctuality, make appointments, keep them, and complete them, and waste no time in the process. In some other cultures, time is the cheapest commodity and an inexhaustible resource; time represents a person’s span on Earth, which is only part of eternity. To these cultures, engaging in long, casual conversations prior to seri- ous discussions or negotiations is time well spent in establishing and nurturing relationships. On the other hand, the time-efficient American businessper- son is likely to fret about wasting precious time. • Personal space requirements. Space operates as a language just as time does. The study of cultural space requirements is known as proxemics. In all cultures, the distance between people functions in communication as “personal space” or “personal ter- ritory.” In the United States, for example, for intimate conversations with close friends and relatives, indi- viduals are willing to stay within about a foot and a half of each other; for casual conversations, up to two or three feet; for job interviews and personal business, four to twelve feet; and for public occasions, more than twelve feet. However, in many cultures outside the United States, closer personal contact is accepted, or greater distance might be the norm. • Body language. The study of body language is known as kinesics. Body language is not universal, but instead is learned from one’s culture. Even the most basic gestures have varying cultural meanings— the familiar North American symbol for “okay” means zero in France, money in Japan, and an expression of vulgarity in Brazil. Similarly, eye con- tact, posture, and facial expressions carry different meanings throughout the world. • Translation limitations. Words in one language do not always have an equivalent meaning in other languages, and the concepts the words describe are often different as well. Translators can be helpful, but keep in mind that a translator is working with a second language and must listen to one language, mentally cast the words into another language, and then speak them. This process is difficult and opens the possibility that the translator will fall victim to one or more cultural barriers. Even if you cannot speak or write another language fluently, people from other cultures will appreciate sim- ple efforts to learn a few common phrases. Strategic Force 3: Changing Technology Electronic tools have not eliminated the need for basic communication skills; they can, in fact, create new obstacles or barriers to communication that must be Brazil, United States, Other places, not okay okay better check first X ? © Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com Image/Jupiterimages stereotypes mental pictures that one group forms of the main characteristics of another group, creating preformed ideas of what people in this group are like chronemics the study of how a culture perceives time and its use proxemics the study of cultural space requirements kinesics the study of body language, which is not universal, but instead is learned from one’s culture 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 15 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 15 1/3/11 8:00:52 AM 1/3/11 8:00:52 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 27. overcome. These tools,however, also create opportuni- ties, which range from new kinds of communications to improved quality of the messages themselves. Electronic tools, such as the Internet, intranets, document produc- tion software, multimedia presentations, Web publish- ing tools, and email, can help people in various ways, such as by (1) collecting and analyzing data, (2) shap- ing messages to be clearer and more effective, and (3) communicating quickly and efficiently with others in geographically dispersed locations. Using various communication technologies, indi- viduals can often work in their homes or other remote locations and send and receive work from the com- pany office electronically. Telecommuting (also referred to as teleworking) offers various advantages, includ- ing reduced travel time and increased work flexibility. Laptops and smartphones provide computing power and connectivity for professionals wherever they are. While the public Internet is accessible to everyone and offers a wide array of infor- mation, private databases provide specialized and advanced information on specific topics. Databases enable decision makers to obtain information quickly and accurately and offer these advantages: • Data organization—the ability to organize large amounts of data. • Data integrity—assurance that the data will be accurate and complete. • Data security—assurance that the data are secure because access to a database is controlled through several built-in data security features. Internal databases contain proprietary information that is pertinent to the particular business or organiza- tion and its employees. External databases (networks) allow users to access information from remote loca- tions literally around the world and in an instant trans- fer that information to their own computers for further manipulation or storage. Information is available on general news, stocks, financial markets, sports, travel, weather, and a variety of publications. Knowing how to“tunnel”through the vast amounts of irrelevant information available on the Internet to find what you want can be overwhelming. The expe- rience can also be expensive in terms of human time spent and charges incurred for online time. Locating information from electronic sources requires that you telecommuting also called teleworking; working at home or other remote locations and sending and receiving work from the company office electronically Legal and Ethical Implications of Technology In addition to its many benefits, technology poses some challenges for the business communicator. For instance, technology raises issues of ownership, as in the case of difficulties that arise in protecting the copyright of documents transmitted over the Internet. Technology poses dilemmas over access, that is, who has the right to certain stored information pertaining to an individual or a company. Technology threatens our individual privacy, our right to be left alone, free from surveillance or interference from other individuals or organizations. Common invasions of privacy caused by technology include • collecting excessive amounts of information for decision making and maintaining too many files. • monitoring the exact time employees spend on a specific task and between tasks and the exact number and length of breaks, and supervisors’ or coworkers’ reading of another employee’s email and computer files. • integrating computer files containing information collected from more than one agency without permission.12 © iStockphoto.com/Nghe Tran 16 P a r t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 16 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 16 1/3/11 8:00:53 AM 1/3/11 8:00:53 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 28. 17 C h ap t e r 1 : E s t a b l i s h i n g a F r a m e w o r k f o r B u s i n e s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n know the search procedures and methods for construct- ing an effective search strategy. Effective use of various communication tech- nologies helps ensure timely, targeted messages and responses and helps to build interpersonal relation- ships. This responsiveness leads to positive interactions with colleagues and strong customer commitment. Strategic Force 4: Team Environment As firms around the world face problems of decreas- ing productivity, faltering product quality, and worker dissatisfaction, work teams are seen as a way to help firms remain globally competitive. Decentralized deci- sion making enables teams of people to communicate in a peer-to-peer fashion, rather than following traditional lines of authority, and new technologies give employees the ability to communicate easily and openly with one another and with those outside the firm. Although worker involvement in the management process has long been the hallmark of Japanese busi- ness, many businesses in the United States and else- where are empowering self-directed work teams to accomplish various assignments.13 The list of compa- nies using self-directed work teams is diverse, includ- ing Hunt-Wesson, the Internal Revenue Service, the San Diego Zoo, Hewlett-Packard, Southwest Airlines, Toyota, Motorola, General Electric, and Corning. WorkTeam Defined The terms team, work team, group, work group, cross- functional team, and self-directed team are often used interchangeably.14 Whatever the title, a team is a small number of people with complementary skills who work together for a common purpose. Team members set their own goals, in cooperation with management, and plan how to achieve those goals and how their work is to be accomplished. The central organizing element of a team is that it has a common purpose and measurable goals for which the team can be held accountable, inde- pendent of its individual members. Employees in a self- directed work team handle a wide array of functions and work with a minimum of direct supervision.15 A key element in team success is the concept of syn- ergy, defined as a situation in which the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Teams provide a depth of expertise that is unavailable at the individual level.Teams open lines of communication that then lead to increased interaction among employees and between employees and management. The result is that teams help compa- nies reach their goals of delivering higher-quality prod- ucts and services faster and with more cost effectiveness. Communication Differences inWorkTeams In the past, most businesses were operated in a hierar- chical fashion, with most decisions made at the top and communication following a top-down/bottom-up pat- tern. Communication patterns are different in success- ful team environments as compared with traditional organizational structures: • Trust building is the primary factor that changes the organization’s communication patterns. • Open meetings are an important method for enhanc- ing communication, as they educate employees about the business while building bridges of understanding and trust. • Shared leadership, which involves more direct and effective communication between management and its internal customers, is common. • Listening, problem solving, conflict resolution, negotia- tion, and consensus become important factors in group communication. Some major strengths of teams are as follows:16 9Teams make workers happier by causing them to feel that they are shaping their own jobs. 9Teams increase efficiency by eliminating layers of managers whose job was once to pass orders downward. 9Teams enable a company to draw on the skills and imagination of a whole workforce. © Image Source team a small number of people with complementary skills who work together for a common purpose synergy a situation in which the whole is greater than the sum of the parts 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 17 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 17 1/3/11 8:00:53 AM 1/3/11 8:00:53 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 29. • Information flowsvertically up to management and down to workers, as well as horizontally among team members, other teams, and supervisors. Communication is perhaps the single most impor- tant aspect of successful teamwork. Open lines of com- munication increase interaction between employees and management. All affected parties should be kept informed as projects progress. Maximization ofWorkTeam Effectiveness Grouping employees into a team structure does not mean that they will automatically function as a team. A group must go through a developmental process to begin to function as a team. Members need training in such areas as problem solving, goal setting, and conflict resolution. Teams must be encouraged to establish the “three Rs”—roles, rules, and relationships.17 The self-directed work team can become the basic organizational building block to best ensure success in dynamic global competition. Skills for successful partici- pationinteamenvironmentsaresomewhatdifferentfrom those necessary for success in old-style organizations: • Ability to give and take constructive criticism, listen actively, clearly impart one’s views to others, and provide meaningful feedback. • Skills in breaking down emotional barriers, such as insecurity or condescension. • Ability to promote team functioning by remov- ing process barriers, such as rigid policies and procedures. • Understanding of the feelings and needs of cowork- ers so members feel comfortable stating their opin- ions and discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the team. • Skills in overcoming cultural barriers, such as ste- reotyped roles and responsibilities, that can separate workers from management.18 • Application of leadership skills that apply to a dynamic group setting and lead to team success. In dynamic team leadership, referred to as distributed leadership, the role of leader can alternate among members, and more than one leadership style can be active at any given time.19 Gender, cultural, and age differences among mem- bers of a team can present barriers to team commu- nication. Knowing what behaviors can limit the group process is imperative to maximizing results. Team mem- bers might need awareness training to assist in recogniz- ing behaviors that may hinder team performance and in overcoming barriers that can limit the effectiveness of their communication. © Rachel Epstein/PhotoEdit To improve group communication, time needs to be set aside to assess the quality of interaction. Questions to pose about the group process might include the following: What roles are members playing? For instance, is one person dominating while others contribute little or nothing? Is the group dealing with conflict in a positive way? What are our common goals? What in the group process is going well? What about the group process could be improved? 18 P a r t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 18 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 18 1/3/11 8:00:55 AM 1/3/11 8:00:55 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 30. REVIEW BCOM3 puts amultitude of study aids at your fingertips. After reading the chapters, check out these resources for further help: • Chapter in Review cards, Model Document Cards, and Style Cards can be found at the back of the book. These detach- able, convenient cards provide you with a portable study tool with all of the pertinent informa- tion for class preparation: ° learning outcome summaries ° key term definitions ° communication checklists ° grammar quizzes ° visual summaries ° additional model documents ° page layout, letter and punctua- tion style guidelines • Interactive and printable flash cards online give you several additional ways to check your comprehension of key concepts. • Other great ways to help you study include the Interactive eBook, Chapter Quizzes, Assignments & Handouts, E-Lectures, Cases, Games (Crossword Puzzles & Quiz Bowl), Glossary, Learning Objectives, PowerPoint® , Videos, Grammar Games, Templates, and Language Review Quizzes. You can find it all at CourseMate. Login at www.cengagebrain.com HE DID 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 19 27776_ch01_002-019.indd 19 1/3/11 8:01:07 AM 1/3/11 8:01:07 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 31. 20 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s Behavioral Theories that Impact Communication I nterpersonal intelligence pertains to the abil- ity to read, empathize, and understand oth- ers.1 People with interpersonal intelligence are good with people and thrive in social interac- tion. Rather than being a quality that some are born with and others are not, interper- sonal intelligence can be improved by broad- ening your under- standing of human behavior and moti- vation and practic- ing certain behaviors when in interpersonal situations. Knowledge from the fields of soci- ology and psychology is helpful to understanding human needs and providing you with valuable insights about how to achieve effec- tive communication in the workplace. Recognizing Human Needs Psychologist Abraham Maslow developed the concept of a hierarchy of needs through which people progress. In our society, most people have reasonably satisfied their two lower-level needs: (1) physiological needs (food and basic provision) and (2) their security and safety needs (shelter and protec- tion from the elements and physical danger). Beyond O B J E C T I V E S 1 Explain how behavioral theories about human needs, trust and disclosure, and motivation relate to business communication. 2 Describe the role of nonverbal messages in communication. 3 Identify aspects of effective listening. 4 Identify factors affecting group and team communication. 5 Discuss aspects of effective meeting management. BCOM Communication Foundations Part 1 Chapter 2 Focusing on Interpersonal and Group Communication O B J E C T I V E 1 Explain how behavioral theories about human needs, trust and disclosure, and motivation relate to business communication. © iStockphoto.com/Alexandr Tovstenko interpersonal intelligence the ability to read, empathize, and understand others 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 20 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 20 1/3/11 8:21:01 AM 1/3/11 8:21:01 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 32. 21 C h ap t e r 2 : F o c u s i n g o n I n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d G r o u p C o m m u n i c a t i o n C H A P T E R these two basic need levels, people progress to satisfy the three upper-level needs: (3) social needs for love, acceptance, and belonging; (4) ego or esteem needs to be heard, appreciated, and wanted; and (5) self-actualizing needs, including the need to achieve one’s fullest poten- tial through professional, philanthropic, political, educa- tional, and artistic channels. As people satisfy needs at one level, they move on to the next. The levels that have been satisfied still are present, but their importance diminishes. Effective com- municators are able to identify and appeal to need levels in various individuals or groups.Advertising is designed to appeal to need levels. Luxury car and dream vacation ads appeal to ego needs, teeth whitening and anti-aging product messages appeal to social needs, and identity theft, health and fitness, and environmentally friendly commercials appeal to security and safety needs. Efforts to help employees satisfy their needs are essential, since a satisfied worker is generally more productive than a dissatisfied one. In communication activities, a sender’s message is more likely to appeal to the receiver if the receiver’s need is accurately identified. 2 © Milena Boniek/PhotoAlto/Photolibrary 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 21 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 21 1/3/11 8:21:06 AM 1/3/11 8:21:06 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 33. 22 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s Stroking People engage in communication with oth- ers in the hope that the outcome might lead to mutual trust, mutual pleasure, and psy- chological well-being. The communication exchange is a means of sharing information about things, ideas, tasks, and selves. Each communication interaction, whether casual or formal,provides an emotional stroke that can have either a positive or a negative effect on your feelings about yourself and others. Getting a pat on the back from the supervisor, receiving a congratulatory phone call or text message, and being listened to by another person are examples of everyday pos- itive strokes. Negative strokes might include receiving a hurtful comment, being avoided or left out of conversation, and receiving a rep- rimand from a superior. By paying attention to the importance of strokes, managers can greatly improve communication and people’s feelings about their work. Exploring the Johari Window As relationships develop, the people involved continue to learn about each other and them- selves, as shown by the Johari Window in Figure 2-1. Area I, the free or open area, rep- resents what we know about ourselves and what others know about us. Area II, the blind area, designates those things others know about us but that we don’t know about ourselves; for example, you are the only person who can’t see your physical self as it really is. Things we know about ourselves but that others don’t know about us occupy the hidden or secret area III. Area IV includes the unknown: things we don’t know about ourselves and others don’t know about us, such as our ability to handle emergency situations if we’ve never been faced with them. Each of the window areas can vary in size accord- ing to the degree to which we learn about ourselves and are willing to disclose things about ourselves to others. Reciprocal sharing occurs when people develop trust in each other. When a con- fidant demonstrates that he or she can be trusted, trust is reinforced and leads to an expansion of the open area of the Johari Window. Usually we are willing to tell people about various things that aren’t truly personal. But we share personal thoughts, ambitions, and inner feelings only with selected others—those whom we have learned to trust. The relationships existing between supervisor and employee, doctor and patient, and law- yer and client are those of trust, but only in specific areas. In more intimate relationships with significant others, siblings, and parents, deeper, personal feelings are entrusted to each other. The idea that trust and openness lead to better com- munication between two people also applies to groups. Managers engaged in organizational development (OD) are concerned with developing successful organizations by building effective small groups. They believe small group effectiveness evolves mostly from a high level of mutual trust among group members. The aim of OD is to open emotional as well as task-oriented communi- cation. To accomplish this aim, groups often become involved in encounter sessions designed to enlarge the open areas of the Johari Window.2 Figure 2-1 The Johari Window KNOWN TO OTHERS NOT KNOWN TO OTHERS KNOWN TO SELF NOT KNOWN TO SELF I Free or Open Area II Blind Area III Hidden Area IV Unknown Area stroke emotional response one gets in a communication interaction that has either a positive or negative effect on feelings about oneself and others © iStockphoto.com/Stephen Strathdee 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 22 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 22 1/3/11 8:21:09 AM 1/3/11 8:21:09 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 34. 23 C h ap t e r 2 : F o c u s i n g o n I n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d G r o u p C o m m u n i c a t i o n Contrasting Management Styles Douglas McGregor, a management theorist, attempted to distinguish between the older, traditional view that workers are concerned only about satisfying lower- level needs and the more contemporary view that productivity can be enhanced by assisting workers in satisfying higher-level needs. Under the older view, management exercised strong control, emphasized the job to the exclusion of concern for the individual, and sought to motivate solely through external incen- tives—a job and a paycheck. McGregor labeled this management style Theory X. Under the contemporary style, Theory Y, management strives to balance con- trol and individual freedom. By treating the individual as a mature person, management lessens the need for external motivation; treated as adults, people will act as adults. The situational leadership model developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard does not pre- scribe a single leadership style, but advocates that what is appropriate in each case depends on the follower (subordinate) and the task to be performed. Directive behavior is characterized by the leader’s giving detailed rules and instructions and monitoring closely that they are followed. The leader decides what is to be done and how. In contrast, supportive behavior is characterized by the leader’s listening, communicating, recognizing, and encouraging. Different degrees of directive and sup- portive behavior can be desirable, given the situation.3 Combining the ideas of Maslow and McGregor with those of Hersey and Blanchard leads to the conclusion that “the right job for the person” is a better philosophy than “the right person for the job.” The Total Quality Management movement focuses on creating a more responsible role for the worker in an organization. In a Total Quality Management envi- ronment, decision-making power is distributed to the people closest to the problem, who usually have the best information sources and solutions. Each employee, from the president to the custodian, is expected to solve problems, participate in team-building efforts, and expand the scope of his or her role in the organiza- tion. The goal of employee empowerment is to build a work environment in which all employees take pride in their work accomplishments and begin motivating themselves from within rather than through traditional extrinsic incentives.4 Managers of many companies understand that empowering employees to initiate continuous improvements is critical for survival. Only companies producing quality products and services will survive in today’s world market. Nonverbal Communication M anagers use verbal and nonverbal messages to communicate ideas to employees. Verbal means “through the use of words,” either written or spoken. Nonverbal means“without the use of words.” Although major attention in communi- cation study is given to verbal messages, stud- ies show that nonverbal elements can account for more than 90 per- cent of the total mean- ing of a message.5 Nonverbal communication includes metacommunication and kinesic messages. Metacommunication A metacommunication is a message that, although not expressed in words, accompanies a message that is expressed in words. For example, “Don’t be late for work” communicates caution; yet the sentence might imply (but not express in words) such additional ideas as “You are frequently late, and I’m warning you,” or “I doubt your dependability.” “Your solution is per- fect” might also convey a metacommunication such as “You are efficient,” or “I certainly like your work.” Whether you are speak- ing or writing, you can be confident that those who receive your mes- sages will be sensitive to the messages expressed in words and to the accompanying messages that are present but not expressed in words. Kinesic Messages People constantly send meaning through kinesic communication, an idea expressed through non- verbal behavior. In other words, receivers gain directive behavior characterized by leaders who give detailed rules and instructions and monitor closely that they are followed supportive behavior characterized by leaders who listen, communicate, recognize, and encourage their followers Total Quality Management focuses on creating a more responsible role for the worker in an organization by distributing decision–making power to the people closest to the problem, empowering employees to initiate continuous improvements metacommunication a nonverbal message that, although not expressed in words, accompanies a message that is expressed in words O B J E C T I V E 2 Describe the role of nonverbal messages in communication. 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 23 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 23 1/3/11 8:21:11 AM 1/3/11 8:21:11 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 35. 24 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s additional meaning from what they see and hear—the visual and the vocal: • Visual kinesic communication—gestures, winks, smiles, frowns, sighs, attire, grooming, and all kinds of body movements. • Vocal kinesic communication—intonation, projec- tion, and resonance of the voice. Following are some examples of kinesic messages and the meanings they can convey. Action Possible Kinesic Message A wink or light chuckle follows a statement. “Don’t believe what I just said.” A manager is habitually late for staff meetings and with email replies. “My time is more important than yours. You can wait for me.” Alternately, the action might be ordinary for a non-U.S.-born manager. A group leader sits at a position other than at the head of the table. “I want to demonstrate my equality with other members.” An employee wears clothing that reveals tattoos, which violates the company’s dress code. “Rules are for other people; I can do what I want.” Alternately, “I do not understand the expectations.” A job applicant submits a résumé containing numerous errors. “My language skills are deficient.” Alternately, “I didn’t care to do my best.” Understanding Nonverbal Messages Metacommunications and kinesic messages have char- acteristics that all communicators should take into account. • Nonverbal messages cannot be avoided. Both written and spoken words convey ideas in addition to the ideas contained in the words used. All actions— and even the lack of action—have meaning to those who observe them. • Nonverbal messages can have different meanings for different people. If a team member smiles after making a statement, one member might conclude that the speaker was try- ing to be funny; another might conclude that the speaker was pleased about having made such a great contribution; another might see the smile as indicat- ing friendliness. • Nonverbal messages vary between and within cultures. Not only do nonverbal messages have different meanings from culture to culture, but men and women from the same culture typically exhibit different body language. As a rule, U.S. men make less body contact with other men than do women with women. Acceptable male body language might include a handshake or a pat on the back, while women are afforded more flexibility in making body contact with each other. • Nonverbal messages can be intentional or unintentional. “You are right about that” can be intended to mean “I agree with you” or “You are right on this issue, but you have been wrong on all others discussed.” • Nonverbal messages can contradict the accom- panying verbal message, and affect whether your message is understood or believed. The adage “actions speak louder than words” reveals much about how people perceive messages. Picture a person who says, “I’m happy to be here,” but looks at the floor, talks in a weak and halting voice, and clasps his hands timidly in front of his body. Because his verbal and nonverbal messages are contradictory, his audience might not trust his words. Similarly, consider the negative effect of a sloppy personal appearance by a job candidate. • Nonverbal messages can receive more attention than verbal messages. If a supervisor repeatedly glances at his cell phone for text messages or rhythmically taps a pen while making a statement, the words might not register in the employee’s mind. An error in basic grammar might receive more attention than the idea that is being transmitted. • Nonverbal messages provide clues about the sender’s background and motives. For example, excessive use of big words might suggest that a person reads widely or has an above-average education; it might also suggest a need for social recognition or insecurity about his or her social background. • Nonverbal messages are influenced by the circumstances surrounding the communication. Assume that two men, Ganesh and Jacob, are friends at work. When they are together on the job, Ganesh sometimes puts his hand on Jacob’s shoulder. To Jacob, the act could mean noth- ust his ffect b e taps a s might error in ntion b, ob’s noth- © Richard Ransier/Corbis visual kinesic communication gestures, winks, smiles, frowns, sighs, attire, grooming, and all kinds of body movements vocal kinesic communication intonation, projection, and resonance of the voice 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 24 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 24 1/3/11 8:21:12 AM 1/3/11 8:21:12 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 36. 25 C h ap t e r 2 : F o c u s i n g o n I n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d G r o u p C o m m u n i c a t i o n ing more than “We are close friends.” But suppose Ganesh is a member of a committee that subse- quently denies a promotion for Jacob. Afterward, the same act could mean “We are still friends,” but it could also cause resentment. Because of the circum- stances, the same act could now mean something such as “Watch the hand that pats; it can also stab.” • Nonverbal messages can be beneficial or harm- ful. Words or actions can be accompanied by nonver- bal messages that help or hurt the sender’s purpose. Metacommunications and kinesic communications can convey something such as “I am efficient in my business and considerate of others,” or they can con- vey the opposite. They cannot be eliminated, but you can make them work for you instead of against you. Listening as a Communication Skill D espite the fact that many professionals believe incorrectly that business com- munication is about presentation and not interaction, most managers spend a major part of their day listening and speaking with others. Listening to supervisors, employees, customers, and col- leagues commonly con- sumes more of business employees’ time than reading, writing, and speaking combined. Listening is an interpersonal skill as critical as the skill of speaking. CEO Brad Anderson of Best Buy explains that effective listening is central to the work culture of his young retail employees who have grown up in a digital age and expect a two-way conver- sation in a peer-to-peer fashion rather than a one-way lecture. Anderson emphasizes that being perceived as a poor listener would “shut him down as a CEO.”6 Effective listening habits pay off in several ways: ; Good listeners are liked by others because they sat- isfy the basic human needs of being heard and being wanted. ; People who listen well are able to separate fact from fiction, cope effectively with false persuasion, and avoid having others use them for personal gain. ; Effective listening leads to sensitivity and tolerance toward key individuals who are critical to the orga- nization’s success, such as employees, customers, and suppliers. ; Effective listeners are engaged and constantly learning—gaining knowledge and skills that lead to increased creativity, job performance, advancement, and satisfaction. ; Job satisfaction increases when people know what is going on, when they are heard, and when they participate in the mutual trust that develops from good communication. Listening depends on your abilities to receive and decode both verbal and nonverbal messages. The best- devised messages and sophisticated communication systems will not work unless people on the receiving end of spoken messages actually listen. Senders of spo- ken messages must assume their receivers can and will listen, just as senders of written messages must assume their receivers can and will read. Listening for a Specific Purpose Individuals satisfy a variety of purposes through listen- ing: (1) interacting socially, (2) receiving information, (3) solving problems, and (4) sharing feelings with oth- ers. Each activity may call for a different style of listen- ing or for a combination of styles. • Casual listening. Listening for pleasure, recreation, amusement, and relaxation is casual listening. Some people listen to music all day long to relax the brain and mask unwanted sounds during daily routines, work periods, and daily commutes. Aspects of casual listening are as follows: { It provides relaxing breaks from more serious tasks and supports our emotional health. { It illustrates that people are selective listeners. You listen to what you want to hear. In a crowded room in which everyone seems to be talking, you can block out all the noise and engage in the con- versation you are having with someone. { It doesn’t require much emotional or physical effort. • Listening for information. Listening for informa- tion involves the search for data or material. In a lecture class, for example, the instructor usually has a strategy for guiding the class to desired goals. The instructor will probably stress several major points and use supporting evidence to prove or to reinforce them. When engaged in this type of listening, you could become so focused on recording every detail that you take copious notes with no organi- zation. When listen- ing for information: sp a o th gr sa le p O B J E C T I V E 3 Identify aspects of effective listening. casual listening listening for pleasure, recreation, amusement, and relaxation listening for information listening that involves the search for data or material 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 25 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 25 1/3/11 8:21:16 AM 1/3/11 8:21:16 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 37. 26 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s { Use an outlining process to help you capture main ideas and supporting subpoints in a logical way. { Watch the speaker as you listen to him or her, since most speakers exhibit a set of mannerisms composed of gestures and vocal inflections to indi- cate the degree of importance or seriousness that they attach to portions of their presentations. • Intensive listening. When you listen to obtain infor- mation, solve problems, or persuade or dissuade (as in arguments), you are engaged in intensive listen- ing. Intensive listening involves greater use of your analytical ability to proceed through problem-solving steps. When listening intensively: { Become a good summarizer. { Trace the development of the discussion and then move from there to your own analysis. • Empathetic listening. Empathy occurs when a person attempts to share another’s feelings or emo- tions. Counselors attempt to use empathetic listen- ing in dealing with their clients, and good friends listen empathetically to each other. Empathy is a valuable trait developed by people skilled in inter- personal relations. When you take the time to listen to another, the courtesy is usually returned. When listening empathetically: { Avoid preoccupation with your own problems. Talking too much and giving strong nonverbal signals of disinterest destroy others’ desire to talk. { Remember that total empathy can never be achieved simply because no two people are exactly alike. The more similar our experiences, however, the better the opportunity to put ourselves in the other person’s shoes. Listening with empathy involves some genu- ine tact along with other good listening habits. You might have to combine listening intensively and listening for feelings in some situations. Performance appraisal interviews, disciplinary conferences, and other sensitive discussions between supervisors and employees require listening intensively for accurate understanding of the message and listening empathetically for feelings, preconceived points of view, and background. Bad Listening Habits Most of us have developed bad listening habits in one or more of the following areas: • Faking attention. Have you ever been introduced to someone only to realize 30 seconds later that you missed the name? We can look directly at a person, nod, smile, and pretend to be listening. • Allowing disruptions. We welcome disruptions of almost any sort when we are engaged in somewhat difficult listening. The next time someone enters your classroom or meeting room, notice how almost everyone in the room turns away from the speaker and the topic to observe the latecomer. • Overlistening. When we attempt to record many details in writing or in memory we can overlisten and miss the speaker’s major points. • Stereotyping. We make spontaneous judgments about others based on their appearances, manner- isms, dress, speech delivery, etc. If a speaker doesn’t meet our standards in these areas, we simply turn off our listening and assume the speaker can’t have much to say. • Dismissing subjects as uninteresting. People tend to use disinterest as a rationale for not listening. Unfortunately, the decision is usually made before the topic is ever introduced. A good way to lose an instruc- tor’s respect when you have to miss class is to ask,“Are we going to do anything important in class today?” • Failing to observe nonverbal aids. To listen effec- tively, you must observe the speaker. Facial expres- sions and body motions always accompany speech and contribute much to messages. Many bad listening habits develop simply because the speed of spoken messages is far slower than our abil- ity to receive and process them. Normal speaking speeds intensive listening listening to obtain information, solve problems, or persuade or dissuade empathetic listening listening to others in an attempt to share their feelings or emotions © Image Source Overlistening Faking attention Allowing disruptions 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 26 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 26 1/3/11 8:21:17 AM 1/3/11 8:21:17 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 38. 27 are between 100and 150 words a minute. The human ear can actually distinguish words in speech in excess of 500 words a minute, and many people read at speeds well beyond 500 words a minute. Finally, our minds process thoughts at thousands of words a minute. Because individuals can’t speak fast enough to challenge our ability to listen, listeners have a respon- sibility to make spoken communication effective. Good listening typically requires considerable mental and emotional effort. Group Communication A lthough much of your spoken commu- nication in business will occur in one- to-one relationships, another frequent spoken communication activity will likely occur when you participate in groups, committees, and teams. Increasing Focus on Groups Developments among U.S. businesses in recent years have shifted attention away from the employment of traditional organizational subunits as the only mecha- nisms for achieving organizational goals and toward the increased use of groups. • Flat organizational structures. Many businesses today are downsizing and eliminating layers of management. Companies implementing Total Quality Management programs are reorganizing to dis- tribute the decision-making power throughout the organization. The trend is to eliminate functional or departmental boundaries. Instead, work is reorga- nized in cross-disciplinary teams that perform broad core processes (e.g., product development and sales generation) and not narrow tasks (e.g., forecasting market demand for a particular product). In a flat organizational structure, communicating across the organization chart (among the cross- disciplinary teams) becomes more important than communicating up and down in a top-heavy hierar- chy. An individual can take on an expanded role as important tasks are assumed. This role can involve power and authority that surpasses the individual’s status, or formal position in the organizational chart. Much of the communication involves face-to- face meetings with team members rather than numer- ous, time-consuming “handoffs” as the product moves methodically from one department to another. The time needed to design a new card at Hallmark Cards decreased significantly when the company adopted a flat organizational structure. Team members representing the former functional areas (graphic artists, writers, marketers, and oth- ers) now work in a central area, communicating openly and frequently, solving problems and making decisions about the entire process as a card is being developed. For example, a writer struggling with a verse for a new card can solicit immediate input from the graphic artist working on the team rather than finalizing the verse and then “handing it off” to the art department.7 • Heightened Focus on Cooperation. Competition has been a characteristic way of life in U.S. com- panies. Organizations and individuals compete for a greater share of scarce resources, for a limited number of positions at the top of organizations, and for esteem in their profes- sions. Such competi- tion is a healthy sign of the human desire to succeed, and, in O B J E C T I V E 4 Identify factors affecting group and team communication. role tasks employees assume that can involve power and authority that surpasses their formal position on the organization chart status one’s formal position in the organizational chart Failing to use nonverbal aids Dismissing subject as uninteresting C h a p t e r 2 : F o c u s i n g o n I n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d G r o u p C o m m u n i c a t i o n 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 27 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 27 1/3/11 8:21:19 AM 1/3/11 8:21:19 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 39. 28 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s Suggestions for Effective Listening You can enhance the effectiveness of your face-to-face listening by following these suggestions: • Minimize environmental and mental distractions. Take time to listen. Move to a quiet area where you are not distracted by noise or other conversation. Avoid becoming so preoccupied with what you will say next that you fail to listen. • Get in touch with the speaker. Maintain an open mind while attempting to understand the speaker’s background, prejudices, and points of view. Listen for emotionally charged words and watch for body language, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements as clues to the speaker’s underlying feelings. • Use your knowledge of speakers to your advantage. Some people seem to run on and on with details before making the point. With this speaker, you must anticipate the major point but not pay much attention to details. Other speakers give conclusions first and perhaps omit support for them. In this case, you must ask questions to obtain further information. • Let the speaker know you are actively involved. Show genuine interest by remaining physically and mentally involved; for example, avoid daydreaming, yawning, frequently breaking eye contact, looking at your cell phone or papers on your desk, whispering, etc. • Do not interrupt the speaker. Try to understand the speaker’s full meaning, and wait patiently for an indication that you should enter the conversation. • Ask reflective questions that assess understanding. Simply restate in your own words what you think the other person has said. This paraphrasing will reinforce what you have heard and allow the speaker to correct any misunderstanding or add clarification. • Use probing prompts to direct the speaker. Use probing statements or questions to help the speaker define the issue more concretely and specifically. • Use lag time wisely. Listening carefully should be your primary focus; however, you can think ahead at times as well. Making written or mental notes allows you to provide useful feedback when the opportunity arises. If you cannot take notes during the conversation, record important points as soon as possible so you can summarize the speaker’s key points. © Nicole Hill/Rubberball/Jupiterimages 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 28 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 28 1/3/11 8:21:20 AM 1/3/11 8:21:20 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 40. terms of economicbehavior, competition is funda- mental to the private enterprise system. At the same time, when excessive competition replaces the coop- eration necessary for success, communication can be diminished, if not eliminated. Just as you want to look good in the eyes of your coworkers and supervisors, units within organiza- tions want to look good to one another. This attitude can cause behavior to take the competitive form, a “win/lose” philosophy. When excessive competition has a negative influence on the performance of the organization, everyone loses. Although competition is appropriate and desir- able in many situations, many companies have taken steps through open communication and infor- mation and reward systems to reduce competition and to increase cooperation. Cooperation is more likely when the competitors (individuals or groups within an organization) have an understanding of and appreciation for others’ importance and func- tions. This cooperative spirit is characterized as a “win/win” philosophy. One person’s success is not achieved at the expense or exclusion of another. Groups identify a solution that everyone finds sat- isfactory and is committed to achieving. Reaching this mutual understanding requires a high degree of trust and effective interpersonal skills, particularly empathetic and intensive listening skills, and the willingness to communicate long enough to agree on an action plan acceptable to everyone. Characteristics of Effective Groups Groupsformforsynergisticeffects;thatis,throughpooling their efforts, group members can achieve more collectively than they could individually. At the same time, the social nature of groups contributes to the individual goals of members. Communication in small groups leads to group decisions that are generally superior to individual deci- sions. The group process can motivate members, improve thinking, and assist attitude development and change.The emphasis that a particular group places on task and main- tenance activities is based on several factors. As you consider the following factors of group communication, try to visualize their relationship to the groups to which you have belonged, such as in school, religious organizations, athletics, and social activities. • Common goals. In effective groups, participants share a common goal, interest, or benefit. This focus on goals allows members to overcome individual differences of opinion and to negotiate acceptable solutions. • Role perception. People who are invited to join groups have perceptions of how the group should operate and what it should achieve. In addition, each member has a self-concept that dictates how he or she will behave. Those known to be aggressive will attempt to be confrontational and forceful; those who like to be known as moderates will behave in moderate ways by settling arguments rather than initiating them. In successful groups, members play a variety of necessary roles and seek to eliminate nonproductive ones. • Longevity. Groups formed for short-term tasks, such as arranging a dinner and program, will spend more time on the task than on mainte- nance. However, groups formed for long-term assignments, such as an audit of a major corporation by a team from a public accounting firm, may devote much effort to Three Teams with Common Goals Motorola’s new organizational structure divides information technology (IT) staff into three basic teams: “Plan,” composed of business analysts who interface with the rest of the business; “Build,” the application developers; and “Run,” the maintenance staff. An unexpected consequence of connecting the IT staff so tightly to business partners has been a significant increase in project activity.8 © David Paul Morris/Bloomberg via Getty Images s and seek to eliminate nonproductive ones. ngevity. Groups formed for short-term ks, such as arranging a dinner and gram, will spend more time the task than on mainte- ce. However, groups formed long-term assignments, h as an audit of a major poration by a team from ublic accounting m, may devote ch effort to 29 C h a p t e r 2 : F o c u s i n g o n I n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d G r o u p C o m m u n i c a t i o n © iStockphoto.com/Lise Gagne 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 29 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 29 1/3/11 8:21:21 AM 1/3/11 8:21:21 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 41. 30 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s maintenance goals. Maintenance includes division of duties, scheduling, record keeping, reporting, and assessing progress. • Size. The smaller the group, the more its members have the opportunity to communicate with each other. Conversely, large groups often inhibit com- munication because the opportunity to speak and interact is limited. When broad input is desired, large groups can be good. When extensive interaction is the goal, smaller groups might be more effective. Interestingly, large groups generally divide into smaller groups for maintenance purposes, even when the large group is task oriented. • Status. Some group members will appear to be better qualified than others. Consider a group in which the chief executive of the organization is a member. When the chief executive speaks, members agree. When members speak, they tend to direct their remarks to the one with high status—the chief executive. People are inclined to communicate with peers as their equals, but they tend to speak upward to their supervisor and downward to lower-level employees. In general, groups require balance in status and expertise. • Group norms. A norm is a standard or average behavior. All groups possess norms. An instruc- tor’s behavior helps establish classroom norms. If an instructor is generally late for class, students will begin to arrive late. If the instructor permits talking during lectures, the norm will be for students to talk. People conform to norms because con- formity is easy and nonconformity is difficult and uncomfortable. Conformity leads to acceptance by other group members and creates communication opportunities. • Leadership. The performance of groups depends on several factors, but none is more important than leadership. Some hold the mistaken view that leaders are not necessary when an organization moves to a group concept. The role of leaders changes substan- tially, but they still have an important part to play. The ability of a group leader to work toward task goals while contributing to the development of group and individual goals is often critical to group success. Leadership activities may be shared among several participants, and leadership may also be rotated, for- mally or informally. The leader can establish norms, determine who can speak and when, encourage everyone to contribute, and provide the motivation for effective group activity.9 Group Roles Groups are made up of members who play a variety of roles, both positive and negative. Negative roles detract from the group’s purposes and include the following: Perhaps your group experiences have been positive as a result of members’ playing positive group roles that promote the group’s purposes: © iStockphoto.com/vm Although much research has been conducted in the area of group size, no optimal number of members has been identified. Groups of five to seven members are thought to be best for decision-making and problem-solving tasks. An odd number of members is often preferred because decisions are possible without tie votes. • Isolate—one who is physically present but fails to participate • Dominator—one who speaks too often and too long • Free rider—one who does not do his or her fair share of the work • Detractor—one who constantly criticizes and complains • Digresser—one who deviates from the group’s purpose • Airhead—one who is never prepared • Socializer—one who pursues only the social aspect of the group © Radius Images/Jupiterimages norm a standard or average behavior 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 30 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 30 1/3/11 8:21:24 AM 1/3/11 8:21:24 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 42. 31 C h ap t e r 2 : F o c u s i n g o n I n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d G r o u p C o m m u n i c a t i o n In healthy groups, members may fulfill multiple roles, which rotate as the need arises. Negative roles are extinguished as the group communicates openly about its goals, strategies, and expectations. The opinions and viewpoints of all members are encouraged and expected. From Groups to Teams Some use the terms group and team interchangeably; others distinguish between them. The major distinction between a group and a team is in members’ attitudes and level of commitment. A team is typified by a clear identity and a high level of commitment on the part of members. A variety of strategies has been used for organizing workers into teams: • A task force is generally given a single goal and a limited time to achieve it. • A quality assurance team, or quality circle, focuses on product or service quality, and projects can be either short- or long-term. • A cross-functional team brings together employees from various departments to solve a variety of prob- lems, such as productivity issues, contract estima- tions and planning, and multidepartment difficulties. • A product development team concentrates on inno- vation and the development cycle of new products, and is usually cross-functional in nature. Consider the impact of team structures, as illustrated in the organizational chart in Figure 2-2 on the next page. While chain of command is still at work in for- mal organizational relationships and responsibilities, team structures unite people from varying portions of the organization. Work teams are typically given the authority to act on their conclusions,although the level of authority varies, depending on the orga- nization and the purpose of the team. Typically, the group supervisor retains some responsi- bilities, some decisions are made completely by the team, and the rest are made jointly. Merely placing work- ers into a group does not make them a functional team. A group must go through a developmental process to begin to func- tion as a team. The four stages of team develop- ment include: 1. forming—becoming acquainted with each other and the assigned task 2. storming—dealing with conflicting per- sonalities, goals, and ideas 3. norming—devel- oping strategies and activities that promote goal achievement 4. performing—reach- ing the optimal performance level. task force a team of workers that is generally given a single goal and a limited time to achieve it quality assurance team a team that focuses on product or service quality; projects can be either short- or long-term cross-functional team a team that brings together employees from various departments to solve a variety of problems product development team usually cross–functional in nature; a group of employees who concentrate on innovation and the development cycle of new products forming stage one of team development, in which team members become acquainted with each other and the assigned task storming stage two of team development, in which team members deal with conflicting personalities, goals, and ideas norming stage three of team development, in which team members develop strategies and activities that promote goal achievement performing stage four of team development, in which team members reach the optimal performance level • Facilitator (also known as gatekeeper)—one who makes sure everyone gets to talk and be heard • Harmonizer—one who keeps tensions low • Record keeper—one who maintains records of events and activities and informs members • Reporter—one who assumes responsibility for preparing materials for submission • Leader—one who assumes a directive role © Radius Images/Jupiterimages Storming Norming Performing Forming © Cengage Learning 2010 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 31 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 31 1/3/11 8:21:28 AM 1/3/11 8:21:28 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 43. 32 For a varietyof reasons, teams are often unable to advance through all four stages of development. Even long-term teams might never reach the optimal per- forming stage, settling instead for the acceptable per- formance of the norming stage. Research into what makes workplace teams effective indicates that training is beneficial for par- ticipants in such areas as problem solving, goal setting, conflict resolution, risk taking, active listen- ing, and recognizing the interests and achievements of others. Participants need to be able to satisfy one another’s basic needs for belonging, personal recogni- tion, and support. Team members at the performing stage of team development exhibit the following behaviors:10 • Commitment. They are focused on the mission, values, goals, and expectations of the team and the organization. • Cooperation. They have a shared sense of purpose, mutual gain, and teamwork. • Communication. They know that informa- tion must flow smoothly between top manage- ment and workers. Team members are willing to face confrontation and unpleas- antness when necessary. • Contribution. All mem- bers share their different backgrounds, skills, and abilities with the team. Teams have existed for hundreds of years through- out many countries and cul- tures. Teams are more flexible than larger organizational groupings because they can be assembled, deployed, refo- cused, and disbanded more quickly, usually in ways that enhance rather than disrupt more permanent structures and processes.Organizational changes are often necessary, however, since support must be in place for performance evaluation, recognition, com- munication, and training sys- tems. Strategies for bringing about needed change might include arranging site visits to similar organizations that already have teams, bringing in a successful team to speak to the organization, and bringing in consultants to discuss the team development process. Meeting Management M eetings are essential for communi- cation in organizations. They pre- sent opportunities to acquire and disseminate valuable information, develop skills, and make favorable impressions on colleagues, supervi- sors, and subordinates. U.S. businesses spend more money on con- ducting meetings than does any other coun- try in the world, and they also spend more O B J E C T I V E 5 Discuss aspects of effective meeting management. P a r t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s Product Development Team Employee Relations Team Anniversary Celebration Task Force Board of Directors Chief Executive Officer VP of Operations VP of Information Technology VP of Finance Networks Human Resources Accounting Finance Stockholder Relations Marketing Public Relations Communi- cations Systems Design Figure 2-2 Organizational Chart with Hierarchical and Team Structures © Cengage Learning 2010 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 32 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 32 1/3/11 8:21:29 AM 1/3/11 8:21:29 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 44. time in meetingsthan do people of other countries.11 International meetings are imperative for solid busi- ness reasons but are facing greater planning scrutiny because of tightening travel budgets and a recovering global economy. Workers frequently have negative attitudes toward meetings because they perceive they are a waste of time. Studies support this opinion, revealing that as much as one-third of the time spent in meetings is unproductive. Negative attitudes toward meetings can be changed when meetings are conducted properly, giving attention to correct procedures and behavior. Successful meetings don’t just happen; rather, they occur by design. Careful planning and attention to specific guidelines can help ensure the success of your meetings, whether they are conducted in a face-to-face format or electronically. Face-to-Face Meetings Face-to-face meetings continue to be the most-used meeting format in most organizations. They offer dis- tinct advantages and are appropriate in the following situations:12 ; When you need the richest nonverbal cues, includ- ing body, voice, proximity, and touch. ; When the issues are especially sensitive. ; When the participants don’t know one another. ; When establishing group rapport and relationships is crucial. ; When the participants can be in the same place at the same time. Face-to-face meetings can be enhanced with the use of various media tools such as flipcharts, handouts, and electronic slide decks. While face-to-face meetings pro- vide a rich nonverbal context and direct human con- tact, they also have certain limitations. In addition to the obvious logistical issues of schedules and distance, face-to-face meetings may be dominated by overly vocal, quick-to-speak, and high-status members. Electronic Meetings Electronic meetings allow companies to reduce travel budgets, save professional time, and minimize the environmental impact caused by travel. A variety of technologies is available to facilitate electronic meet- ings. Participants may communicate with one another through telephones, computers, or video broadcast equipment using groupware or meeting management software applications. Electronic meetings offer certain advantages. They facilitate geographically dispersed groups, because they provide the choice of meeting at different places/same time, different places/different times, same place/same time, or same place/different times. Electronic meetings also speed up meeting follow- up activities because decisions and action items can be recorded electronically. Electronic meetings also have certain limitations:13 • They cannot replace face-to-face contact, especially when group efforts are just beginning and when groups are trying to build group values, trust, and emotional ties. • They can make it harder to reach consensus, because more ideas are generated and because it might be harder to interpret the strength of other members’ commitment to their proposals. • The success of same-time meetings is dependent on all participants having excellent keyboarding skills to engage in rapid-fire, in-depth discussion. This limita- tion might be overcome as the use of voice input systems becomes more prevalent. “U.S. businesses spend more money on conducting meetings than does any other country in the world, and they also spend more time in meetings than do people of other countries.” © iStockphoto.com/porcorex C h a p t e r 2 : F o c u s i n g o n I n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d G r o u p C o m m u n i c a t i o n 33 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 33 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 33 1/3/11 8:21:33 AM 1/3/11 8:21:33 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 45. 34 P ar t 1 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n s Suggestions for Effective Meetings Whether you engage in face-to-face or electronic meet- ings, observing the following guidelines can help to ensure that your meetings are productive: • Limit meeting length and frequency. Any meeting held for longer than an hour or more frequently than once a month should be scrutinized. Ask yourself whether the meeting is necessary. Perhaps the purpose can be achieved in another way, such as email, instant messaging, or telephone. • Make satisfactory arrangements. Select a date and time conve- nient for the majority of expected participants. For face-to-face meetings, plan the meeting site with consideration for appropriate seating for attendees, media equipment, temperature and lighting, and nec- essary supplies. For electronic meetings, check hard- ware and software and connectivity components. • Distribute the agenda well in advance. The agenda is a meeting outline that includes important information: date, beginning and ending times, place, topics to be discussed, and responsibilities of those involved. Having the agenda prior to the meet- ing allows participants to know what is expected of them. A sample agenda template is provided in Figure 2-3. • Encourage participation. While it is certainly easier for one person to make decisions, the quality of the decision making is often improved by involving the team. Rational decision making may begin with brainstorming, the generation of many ideas from among team members. Brainstormed ideas can then be discussed and ranked, followed by some form of voting. agenda a meeting outline that includes important information (e.g., date, beginning and ending times, place, topics to be discussed, and responsibilities of those involved) brainstorming the generation of many ideas from among team members Figure 2-3 Formal Generic Agenda for Meetings Agenda for [name of group] Meeting Prepared on [date agenda created] By [name of author of agenda] Attendees: [those invited to attend, often in alphabetical order] Date and time of meeting: Location of meeting: Subject: [major issues to be discussed or purpose of meeting] Agenda items: 1. Call to order 2. Routine business [procedural or administrative matters] (10–15 minutes) a. Approval of agenda for this meeting b. Reading and approval of minutes of last meeting c. Committee reports 3. Old business [unfinished matters from previous meeting] (15–20 minutes) a. Discussion of issue(s) carried over from previous meeting b. Issue(s) arising from decision(s) made at previous meeting 4. New business (20–25 minutes) a. Most important issue b. Next most important issue c. Other issues in decreasing order of importance d. Business from the floor not included on the agenda [only as time permits; otherwise, these issues should be addressed in the next meeting] 5. Adjournment © Cengage Learning 2010 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 34 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 34 1/3/11 8:21:34 AM 1/3/11 8:21:34 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 46. • Maintain order.An organized democratic process ensures that the will of the majority prevails, the minority is heard, and group goals are achieved as expeditiously as possible. Proper parliamentary procedure may be followed in formal meetings, as outlined in sources such as Robert’s Rules of Order and Jones’ Parliamentary Procedure at a Glance. For less formal meetings, a more relaxed approach may be taken to ensure that everyone has an opportunity to share in the decision-making process. • Manage conflict. In an autocratic organization, conflict might be avoided because employees are conditioned to be submissive. Such an environment, however, leads to smoldering resentment. On the other hand, conflict is a normal part of any team effort and can lead to creative discussion and supe- rior outcomes. Maintaining focus on issues and not personalities helps ensure that conflict is productive rather than destructive. • Seek consensus. While unanimous agreement on decisions is an optimal outcome, total agreement cannot always be achieved. Consensus represents the collective opinion of the group, or the informal rule that all team members can live with at least 70 percent of what is agreed upon. • Prepare thorough minutes. Minutes provide a con- cise record of meeting actions, ensure the tracking and follow-up of issues from previous meetings, and assist in the implementation of previously reached decisions. Meetings are an important management tool and are useful for idea exchange. They also provide oppor- tunities for you, as a meeting participant, to commu- nicate impressions of power and status. Knowing how to present yourself and your ideas and exhibiting knowledge about correct meeting management will assist you in your career advancement. consensus represents the collective opinion of the group, or the informal rule that all team members can live with at least 70 percent of what is agreed upon © iStockphoto.com/Todd Arena Face-to-face meetings continue to be the most-used meeting format in most organizations. C h a p t e r 2 : F o c u s i n g o n I n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d G r o u p C o m m u n i c a t i o n 35 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 35 27776_ch02_020-035.indd 35 1/3/11 8:21:36 AM 1/3/11 8:21:36 AM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 47. 36 P ar t 2 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n A n a l y s i s In a report titled “Writing: A Ticket to Work . . . or a Ticket Out,” the National Commission on Writing reported that two-thirds of salaried employees in large companies have some writing responsibilities, and get- ting hired and promoted in many industries requires strong writing abilities. While writing is important in most managerial-level jobs, the Commission also con- cluded that one-third of employees in corporateAmerica write poorly. Knowing that effective communication is tied to the corporate bottom line and many employees can’t write well, businesses are investing $3.1 billion annually to train employees to write.1 Remedies are needed to prevent confusion, waste, errors, lost produc- tivity, and a damaged corporate image—all caused by employees, customers, and clients muddling their way through unreadable messages. As a capable communicator, you can immediately add value to your organization and set yourself apart from your peers who are struggling to articulate ideas in writing and in presentations. Communication that com- mands attention and can be understood easily is essen- tial for survival during the information explosion we are experiencing today. On the job, you will be expected to process volumes of available information and shape use- ful messages that respond to the needs of customers or clients, coworkers and supervisors, and other key busi- ness partners. Additionally, increased use of electronic communication (email, texts, instant messages, blogs, videoconferences, etc.) will require you to be technologi- cally savvy and capable of adapting the rules of good communication to the demands of emerging technology. How can you learn to plan and prepare powerful business messages? The systematic analysis process as outlined in Figure 3-1 will help you develop messages that save you and your organization valuable time and O B J E C T I V E S 1 Identify the purpose of the message and the appropriate channel. 2 Develop clear perceptions of the audience to enhance the impact of the communication and human relations. 3 Apply techniques for adapting messages to the audience, including strategies for communicating ethically and responsibly. 4 Recognize the importance of organizing a message before writing the first draft. 5 Select the appropriate message pattern (deductive or inductive) for developing messages to achieve the desired response. BCOM Communication Analysis Part 2 Chapter 3 Planning Spoken and Written Messages © iStockphoto.com/Alexandr Tovstenko 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 36 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 36 1/3/11 3:28:18 PM 1/3/11 3:28:18 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 48. 37 C h ap t e r 3 : P l a n n i n g S p o k e n a n d W r i t t e n M e s s a g e s C H A P T E R 3 © Hans Neleman/Stone/Getty Images “As a capable communicator, you can immediately add value to your organization and set yourself apart from your peers who are struggling to articulate ideas in writing and in presentations. ” Figure 3-1 Process for Planning and Preparing Spoken and Written Messages STEP 1 Determine the purpose and select an appropriate channel STEP 2 Envision the audience STEP 3 Adapt the message to the audience’s needs and concerns STEP 4 Organize the message STEP* 5 Prepare the first draft STEP* 6 Revise and proofread for accuracy and desired impact © Cengage Learning 2010 *You will focus on the planning process (Steps 1–4) in this chapter; you will learn to prepare the message in Chapter 4 (Steps 5–6). 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 37 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 37 1/3/11 3:28:32 PM 1/3/11 3:28:32 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 49. P a rt 2 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n A n a l y s i s resources and portray you as a capable, energetic pro- fessional. A thorough analysis of the audience and your specific com- munication assignment will empower you to write a first draft efficiently and to revise and proofread your message for accuracy, conciseness, and appropriate tone. Step 1: Determining the Purpose and Channel T o speak or write effectively, you must think through what you are trying to say and understand it thoroughly before you begin. Ask yourself why you are prepar- ing the message and what you hope to accomplish. Is the purpose to get infor- mation, to answer a question, to accept an offer, to deny a request, to seek support for a product or idea? Condense the answers into a brief sentence that outlines the pur- pose for writing or the central idea of your message.You will use the central idea to organize your message to achieve the results you desire. The major purpose of many business messages is to have the receiver understand logical informa- tion. Informative messages are used to convey the vast amounts of information needed to complete the day-to-day operations of the business—explain instructions to employees, announce meetings and procedures, acknowledge orders, accept contracts for services, and so forth. Some messages are intended to persuade— to influence or change the attitudes or actions of the receiver. These messages include promoting a product or service and seeking support for ideas and worthy causes presented to supervisors, employees, stockhold- ers, customers or clients, and others. You will learn to prepare messages for each of these purposes. Step 2: Envisioning the Audience P erception is the part of the communication process that involves how we look at others and the world around us. It’s a natural ten- dency to perceive situations from our own limited viewpoint. We use the context of the situation and our five senses to absorb and interpret the infor- mation bombarding us in unique ways. Individual differ- ences in perception account for the varied and sometimes con- flicting reports given by eyewitnesses to the same accident. Our senses can be tricked when there is a difference in what we expect and what really is happening. For example, consider how your perception affects your ability to accurately or completely interpret an optical illusion. Perception of reality is also limited by previous expe- riences and our attitudes toward the sender of the mes- sage. We support ideas that are in line with our own and decide whether to focus on the positive or the negative of a situation. We may simply refuse to hear a message that doesn’t fit into our view of the world. O B J E C T I V E 1 Identify the purpose of the message and the appropriate channel. O B J E C T I V E 2 Develop clear perceptions of the audience to enhance the impact of the communication and human relations. © iStockphoto.com/Nicolas Loran / © iStockphoto.com/winterling / © Chapel Hill Photography se the answers brief sentence tlines the pur- r message.You our message to ness messages gical informa- to convey the d to complete iness—explain meetings and p g a situation. We may simply refuse to hear a message that doesn’t fit into our view of the world. © 38 resources and portray you as a capable, energetic pro- fessional. A thorough analysis of the audience and your specific com- munication assignment will empower you to write a first draft efficiently and to revise and proofread your message for accuracy, conciseness, and appropriate tone. Step 1: Determining the 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 38 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 38 1/3/11 3:28:39 PM 1/3/11 3:28:39 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 50. Much of theconfusion in communication is caused by differences in the sender’s and receiver’s perceptions. For example, a manager’s brief email requesting a status report on a task may come across as curt to the employ- ees. Perceptions vary between individuals with similar backgrounds, and even more so when people from dif- ferent cultures, generations, and genders communicate. Overcoming perceptual barriers is difficult but essential if you are to craft messages that meet the needs and concerns of your audience. To help you envi- sion the audience, first focus on relevant information you know about the receiver. The more familiar you are with the receiver, the easier this task will be. When communicating with an individual, you immediately recall a clear picture of the receiver—his or her physi- cal appearance, background (education, occupation, religion, culture), values, opinions, preferences, and so on. Most importantly, your knowledge of the receiver’s reaction in similar, previous experiences will aid you in anticipating how this receiver is likely to react in the current situation. Consider the following audience characteristics: • Age. A message answering an elementary-school student’s request for information from your company would not be worded the same as a message answer- ing a similar request from an adult. • Economic level. A solicitation for a business dona- tion for a charity project written to a small business owner would likely differ from one written to a representative of a major corporation. • Educational/occupational background. The tech- nical jargon and acronyms used in a financial pro- posal sent to bank loan officers may be inappropriate in a proposal sent to a group of private investors. • Needs and concerns of the receiver. Just as suc- cessful sales personnel begin by identifying the needs of the prospective buyer, an effective man- ager attempts to understand the receiver’s frame of reference as a basis for organizing the message and developing the content. • Culture. The vast cultural differences between people (e.g., language, expressions, cus- toms, values, and religion) increase the complexity of the communication process. An email containing typi- cal American expressions (e.g., “The frustration should cool down soon” and “the competition is backed to the wall”) would likely confuse a manager from a different culture. Differences in values influence communication styles and mes- sage patterns. For example, Japanese readers value the beauty and flow of words and prefer an indirect writing approach, unlike Americans who prefer clar- ity and conciseness.2 • Rapport. A sensitive message prepared for a long- time client may differ significantly from a message prepared for a newly acquired client. Emails discuss- ing expectations for completing an assignment may be briefer and more direct when sent to an employee with whom you share a strong business relationship built on mutual trust. The rapport created by previ- ous dealings with the recipient aids understanding in a current situation. • Expectations. Because accountants, lawyers, and other professionals are expected to meet high stan- dards, a message from one of them containing errors in grammar or spelling would likely cause a receiver to question the credibility of the source. You may find that envisioning an audience you know well is often such a conscious action that you may not even recognize that you are doing it. On the other hand, envisioning those you do not know well requires addi- tional effort.In these cases,simply assume an empathetic attitude toward the receiver to assist you in identifying his or her frame of reference (knowledge, feelings, and emotions). In other words, project mentally how you believe you would feel or react in a similar situation and use that information to communicate understand- ing back to the person. Consider the use (or lack) of empathy in the follow- ing workplace examples: be inappropriate ate investors. r. Just as suc- tifying the fective man- iver’s frame of e message and s between us- he © UpperCut Images/Getty Images It can be difficult to see the world as others do. C h a p t e r 3 : P l a n n i n g S p o k e n a n d W r i t t e n M e s s a g e s 39 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 39 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 39 1/3/11 3:28:47 PM 1/3/11 3:28:47 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 51. 40 P ar t 2 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n A n a l y s i s Sample Message Problem Analysis Example 1: A U.S. manager’s instructions to a new employee from an Asian culture: Trying to manufacture a product with a zero fail- ure rate would be a train wreck. We have to strike the right balance between customer safety and cost efficiency. We cannot be held hostage by threats of class action lawsuits. Do you understand? • The use of expressions peculiar to U.S. environment confuse and intimidate. • Open-ended question disregards importance of saving face to a person of Asian culture. Cultural influences may prevent employee from asking questions that might indicate lack of understanding. Example 2: An excerpt from a message sent to Mr. Sandy Everret: Ms. Everett: The wireless iPod kit that you expressed an interest in is now available in at your local car dealer. This innova- tive Bluetooth technology can be demonstrated at you convience. Please call your local sales representative to schedule a appointment. • Misspelling receiver’s name, misinterpreting gender, and overlooking mechanical errors imply incompetence or carelessness and disrespect for receiver. • Omission of contact information reduces writer’s credibility and shows lack of genuine concern for sender’s needs. Taking the time and effort to obtain a strong men- tal picture of your audience through firsthand knowl- edge or your empathetic attitude before you write will enhance your message in the following ways: 1. Establishes rapport and credibility needed to build long-lasting personal and business relation- ships. Your receivers will appreciate your attempt to connect and understand their feelings. A likely outcome is mutual trust, which can greatly improve communication and people’s feelings about you, your ideas, and themselves (as shown in the discussion of the Johari Window in Chapter 2). 2. Permits you to address the receiver’s needs and concerns. Such knowledge allows you to select rel- evant content and to communicate in a suitable style. 3. Simplifies the task of organizing your message. From your knowledge of yourself and from your experiences with others, you can reasonably predict receivers’ reactions to various types of messages. To illustrate, ask yourself these questions: • Would I react favorably to a message saying my request is being granted or that a new client is genuinely pleased with a job I’d just completed? • Would I experience a feeling of disappointment when I learn that my request has been refused or that my promised pay raise is being postponed? • Would I need compelling arguments to convince me to purchase a new product or support a new company policy? Now, reread the questions as though you were the message recipient. Because you know your answers, you can predict others’ answers with some degree of accuracy. Such predictions are possible because of com- monality in human behavior. Your commitment to identifying the needs and concerns of your audience before you communicate is invaluable in today’s workplace. Organizations must focus on providing quality customer service and developing work environments supportive of talented, diverse workers. Alienating valuable customers and tal- ented employees as a result of poor audience analysis is not an option in today’s competitive environment. Step 3: Adapting the Message to the Audience A fter you have envisioned your audience, you are ready to adapt your message to fit the specific needs of your audience. Adaptations include focusing on the receiver’s point of view; communicat- ing ethically and responsibly; building and protecting good- will; using simple, con- temporary language; writing concisely; and projecting a positive, tactful tone. Focus on the Receiver’s Point of View Ideas are more interesting and appealing if they are expressed from the receiver’s viewpoint. Developing a “you attitude” rather than a “me attitude” involves thinking in terms of the other person’s interests and trying to see a problem from the other’s point of view. A letter, memo, email, or phone call reflecting a “you O B J E C T I V E 3 Apply techniques for adapting messages to the audience, including strategies for communicating ethically and responsibly. 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 40 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 40 1/3/11 3:28:50 PM 1/3/11 3:28:50 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 52. attitude” sends adirect signal of sincere concern for the receiver’s needs and interest. The use of the word you (appropriately used) con- veys to receivers a feeling that messages are specifically for them. However, if the first-person pronoun I is used frequently, especially as the subject, the sender may impress others as being self-centered—always talking about self. Compare the following examples of sender- centered and receiver-centered statements: “I”- or Sender- Centered “You”- or Receiver-Centered I want to take this opportunity to offer my congratulations on your recent promotion to regional manager Congratulations on your recent promotion to regional manager. We charge customers a 12 percent annual finance charge on past-due invoices. Customers pay a 12 percent annual finance charge only on past- due invoices. (You could be the subject in a message to a customer.) Compliments (words of deserved praise) are another effective way of increasing a receiver’s recep- tiveness to ideas that follow. Give sincere compli- ments judiciously as they can do more harm than good if paid at the wrong time, in the wrong setting, inthepresenceofthewrongpeople,orforthewrong reasons. Likewise, avoid flattery (words of unde- served praise). Although the recipient may accept your flattery as a sincere compliment, it is more likely that the recipient will interpret your unde- served praise as an attempt to seek to gain favor or special attention. Suspicion of your motive makes effective communication less likely. Communicate Ethically and Responsibly The familiar directive “with power comes responsibility” applies especially to your use of communication skills. Because business communication affects the lives of many, you must accept responsibility for using it to uphold your own personal values and your company’s standards of ethical con- duct. Before speaking or writing, use the following guidelines to help you communicate ethically and responsibly. • Is the information stated as truthfully, honestly, and fairly as possible? Good communicators recog- nize that ensuring a free flow of essential information is in the interest of the public and the organization. Merck, the manufacturer of the prescription pain reliever Vioxx, was sued by thousands of patients and patients’ families for withholding information about known heart risks associated with taking the drug.3 Similarly, failure to report the nature of his investment practices led to the arrest of the accoun- tant of Bernard Madoff, the man who admittedly cheated thousands of investors out of billions of dollars in an illegal scheme. The SEC has accused Madoff’s accountant, David Friehling, of lying to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants rather than subject his audit work to peer review.4 Your honor, honesty, and credibility will build strong, How to Cultivate a “You Attitude” To cultivate a “you attitude,” concentrate on the following questions: • Does the message address the receiver’s major needs and concerns? • Would the receiver feel this message is receiver-centered? Is the receiver kept clearly in the picture? • Will the receiver perceive the ideas to be fair, logical, and ethical? • Are ideas expressed clearly and concisely (to avoid lost time, money, and possible embarrassment caused when messages are misunderstood)? • Does the message promote positive business relationships—even when the message is negative? For example, are please, thank you, and other courtesies used when appropriate? Are ideas stated tactfully and positively and in a manner that preserves the receiver’s self- worth and cultivates future business? • Is the message sent promptly and through the preferred channel to indicate courtesy? • Does the message reflect the high standards of a business professional: accurate and appealing document design, quality printing, and absence of misspellings and grammatical errors? 41 C h a p t e r 3 : P l a n n i n g S p o k e n a n d W r i t t e n M e s s a g e s © Radius Images/Jupiterimages 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 41 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 41 1/3/11 3:28:53 PM 1/3/11 3:28:53 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 53. 42 P ar t 2 : C o m m u n i c a t i o n A n a l y s i s long-lasting relationships and lead to the long-term success of your company. Sending complete, accu- rate, and timely information regardless of whether it supports your interests will help you build credibility. • Does the message embellish or exaggerate the facts? Legal guidelines related to advertising provide clear guidance for avoiding fraud, the misrepresen- tation of products or services; however, overzeal- ous sales representatives or imaginative writers can use language skillfully to create less-than-accurate perceptions in the minds of receivers. Businesses have learned the hard way that overstating the capabilities of a product or service (promising more than can be delivered) is not good for business in the long run. Researchers are at times tempted to overstate their findings to ensure continued fund- ing or greater publicity. Eric T. Peohlman, a medical researcher, acknowledged that while at the University of Vermont he fabricated data in 17 applications for federal grants to make his work seem more promis- ing. Under a plea agreement, he was barred for life from receiving federal funding and had to pay back $180,000, as well as asking scientific journals to retract and correct 10 articles he had authored.5 While surveys indicate many job seekers believe companies expect résumé padding, companies repeat- edly report that this perception is not true. Marilee Jones, dean of admissions at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and David Edmonson, the former CEO of Radio Shack, resigned high-profile jobs for misstating their academic records. George O’Leary stepped down five days after been named head football coach at Notre Dame, admitting he lied about receiving a master’s degree and playing college football.6 Skill in communicating persuasively will be impor- tant throughout your profession. The techniques you will read about in this text, such as those related to writing a winning résumé and application message, will be helpful as you begin your career; however, these techniques should not be used if your motive is to exploit the receiver. • Are the ideas expressed clearly and understand- ably? If a message is to be seen as honest, you must be reasonably confident that the receiver can understand it. Ethical communicators select words that convey the exact meaning intended and that are within the reader’s vocabulary. • Is your viewpoint supported with objective facts? Are facts accurately docu- mented to allow the reader to judge the credibility of the source and to give credit where credit is due? Can opinions be clearly distin- guished from facts? Have you evaluated honestly any real or perceived conflict of interest that could prevent you from preparing an unbiased message? • Are ideas stated with tact and consideration that preserves the receiver’s self-worth? The meta- phor “An arrow, once it is shot, cannot be recalled” describes the irrevocable damage caused by cruel or unkind words.7 Ego-destroying criticism, excessive anger, sarcasm, hurtful nicknames, betrayed secrets, rumors, and malicious gossip pose serious ethical problems in the workplace because they can ruin reputations, humiliate, and damage a person’s self-worth. Serious legal issues arise when negative statements are false, constituting defamation. Written defamatory remarks are referred to as libel, and similar spoken remarks are referred to as slander. If you choose to make negative statements about a person, be sure the facts in question are supported. Additionally, you’ll hone your abilities to convey neg- ative information and to handle sensitive situations in a constructive, timely manner rather than ignoring them until they are out of control. For considerate, fair, and civilized use of words, follow this simple rule: Communicate with and about others with the same kindness and fairness that you wish others to use when communicating with and about you. • Are graphics carefully designed to avoid distort- ing facts and relationships? Communicating ethi- cally involves reporting data as clearly and accurately as possible. Misleading graphics result either from the developers’ deliberate attempt to confuse the audience or from their lack of expertise in con- structing ethical graphics. libel written defamatory remarks slander spoken defamatory remarks © iStockphoto.com/Anton Vakhlachev Communication’s Golden Rule Communicate with and about others with the same kindness and fairness that you wish others to use when communicating with and about you. ing facts and relationships? Communicating ethi- cally involves reporting data as clearly and accurately as possible. Misleading graphics result either from the developers’ deliberate attempt to confuse the audience or from their lack of expertise in con- structing ethical graphics. © iStockpho Communication’s Golden Rule Communicate with and about others with the same kindness and fairness that you wish others to use when communicating with and about you. 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 42 27776_ch03_036-055.indd 42 1/3/11 3:29:04 PM 1/3/11 3:29:04 PM Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 54. Another random documentwith no related content on Scribd:
- 55. Some obvious minortypographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently. List of Illustrations: illustration numbers have been added. Illustrations numbers 33 (originally Kingfisher) and 34 (originally Carron) interchanged cf. the order of the illustrations in the text; ditto for numbers 44 (Cambria) and 45 (Marylebone), numbers 51 (Dieppe) and 52 (United Kingdom), and numbers 94 (Campania) and 95 (Mauretania). Perier and Périer have been standardised to Périer. Page 65: ... to bring up in Ramsay Bay ... has been changed to ... to bring up in Ramsey Bay .... Page 86: ſatisfying has been changed to ſatiſfying. Page 118: Konisberg has been changed to Königsberg. Page 187: Miller and Ravenhall has been changed to Miller and Ravenhill. Page 320: Dupuy de Lome has been changed to Dupuy de Lôme. Index entries changed to conform to the text: Belier to Bélier; Bernouilli to Bernoulli; Browne, Charles to Brownne, Charles; Cambia (Cunard Co.) and Cambia (L. & N.W.R.) to Cambria (Cunard Co.) and Cambria (L. & N.W.R.) (ships); Chipping Camden to Chipping Campden (entry Freeman, Mr.); Dupuy de Lome to Dupuy de Lôme; Fire- brand to Firebrand (ship); Grayson & Leadly to Grayson & Leadley; Humbolt to Humboldt (ship); Jorden, J., & Co. to Jordan, J., & Co.; Jouffrey d’Abbans to Jouffroy d’Abbans; Jumma to Jumna (ship); Liffy to Liffey (ship); Maudsley, Sons & Field to Maudslay, Sons & Field; Morisot’s “Orbis Maritimi,” to Morisotus’ “Orbis Maritimi,”; Munroe, President to Monroe, President (also moved to proper place); Prince Regent Luitpold to Prinz
- 56. Regent Luitpold (ship);Rubic and Blaker to Rubie and Blaker; James Rumsey to James Rumsay (entry Moray, John); Salamon de Caus to Salomon de Caus (entry Steam-engines); Sans Pariel to Sans Pareil (ship); Shaw, Savil & Albion Co. to Shaw, Savill & Albion Co.; Winan’s cigar ship to Winans’ cigar ship.
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