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Innovations in Software-
Defined Networking
and Network Functions
Virtualization
Ankur Dumka
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
A volume in the Advances in
Systems Analysis, Software
Engineering, and High Performance
Computing (ASASEHPC) Book Series

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Table of Contents
Preface.
................................................................................................................xiv
Acknowledgment................................................................................................xxi
Chapter 1
Introduction to SDN and NFV................................................................................1
Himanshu Sahu, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Misha Hungyo, R&D Nokia, India
Chapter 2
Virtualizing Network Functions in Software-Defined Networks..........................26
Vishal Kaushik, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Ajay Sharma, SRM University - Haryana, India
Ravi Tomar, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Chapter 3
Introduction to OpenFlow.....................................................................................52
Mohit Kumar Jaiswal, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
India
Chapter 4
SDN Controller.....................................................................................................72
Sujitha S., Thiagarajar College of Engineering, India
Manikandan M. S. K., Thiagarajar College of Engineering, India
Ashwini G., Thiagarajar College of Engineering, India
Chapter 5
The Heart and Brain of SDN: SDN Controllers.................................................100
Pranav Arora, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India

Chapter 6
SDN Practical Orientation..................................................................................127
Lalit Pandey, Independent Researcher, India
Chapter 7
Simulation on SDN and NFV Models Through Mininet....................................149
Premkumar Chithaluru, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
India
Ravi Prakash, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Chapter 8
NFV Practical Implementation...........................................................................175
Chapter 9
Quality of Service in SDN Technology..............................................................195
Ankur Dumka, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Chapter 10
Analysis of Issues in SDN Security and Solutions.............................................217
Hardwari Lal Mandoria, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, India
Anushree Sah, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Chapter 11
WSN Structure Based on SDN...........................................................................240
India
Subodh Srivastava, Vallurupalli Nageswara Rao Vignana Jyothi
Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
Chapter 12
Software-Defined Networking Paradigm in Wireless Sensor Networks.
............254
Govind P. Gupta, National Institute of Technology Raipur, India
Chapter 13
Software-Defined Storage...................................................................................268
Ninni Singh, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India

Chapter 14
Learning With Software-Defined Area...............................................................291
Anurag Tiwari, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Suneet Gupta, Bennett University, India
Related References............................................................................................ 306
Compilation of References............................................................................... 343
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 358
Index................................................................................................................... 362

Detailed Table of Contents
Preface.
................................................................................................................xiv
Acknowledgment................................................................................................xxi
Chapter 1
Introduction to SDN and NFV................................................................................1
Misha Hungyo, R&D Nokia, India
Software defined network (SDN) and Network function virtualization (NFV) are the
two new networking paradigms changing the way traditional networks work. SDN
works on the concept of centralization so that all the decisions related to controlling
the networks is done in a centralized place in a centralized manner. To provide a
centralized control, SDN decouples the control plane and data from the traditional
routing devices to take it in the centralized position. The data plane is still intact
with the routing devices, but they now become mere forwarding devices and the
decisions are made at the centralized place called the controller. The controller is
basicallythex86serverthatisconnectedtotheforwardingdevicesandcommunicates
with them for all control decisions such as routing. NFV is based on virtualization
of network functions in the form of software running over a high end server. This
kind of virtualization helps in easy setup of networks as well as easy migration.
Chapter 2
Virtualizing Network Functions in Software-Defined Networks..........................26
Vishal Kaushik, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Ajay Sharma, SRM University - Haryana, India
Ravi Tomar, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Software-defined networking (SDN) is an emerging network architecture that
facilitates the network administrator to control and manage network behavior
dynamically.Differentfromtraditionalnetworks,software-definednetworkssupport
dynamic and scalable computing. The dynamic behavior is achieved by decoupling

or disassociating the system. The swing of control from tightly bound individual
networks to assessable computing devices enables infrastructure abstraction. Due to
the abstraction, the network can be considered as a logical or virtual entity. In this
chapter,relationbetweennetworkfunctionvirtualization(NFV)andsoftware-defined
networking (SDN) has been outlined. This chapter focuses on describing the pros
and cons of NFV technologies. network functions virtualization (NFV) was founded
under the work of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
Chapter 3
Introduction to OpenFlow.....................................................................................52
Mohit Kumar Jaiswal, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
India
TheSDNcontrollerisinterfacedwiththehardwareofthenetwork(i.e.,withswitches
and routers) using OpenFlow. Basically, OpenFlow is an open interface used for
configuring the forwarding tables of network switch according to the desired path
derived by the SDN controller. OpenFlow enables more innovation in controller
platforms and applications, and describes a solution for each frame or packet flow.
OpenFlowisbasedonanethernetswitchwithaninternalflow-tableandastandardized
interface to add and remove flow entries of forwarding table of the system. The
control mechanism from each one of the switch and router up to SDN controller
are encrypted with the transport layer security (TLS) and secure socket layer (SSL)
OpenFlow protocols to provide the additional security inside the network.
Chapter 4
SDN Controller.....................................................................................................72
Sujitha S., Thiagarajar College of Engineering, India
Manikandan M. S. K., Thiagarajar College of Engineering, India
Ashwini G., Thiagarajar College of Engineering, India
Designing and organizing networks has become extra innovative over the past few
years with the assistance of SDN (software-defined networking). The software
implementsnetworkprotocolsthatundergoyearsofequivalenceandinteroperability
testing. Software-defined networking (SDN) is a move toward computer networking
that allows network administrators to programmatically initialize, manage, alter,
and direct network behavior dynamically through open interfaces and abstraction
of lower-level functionality. SDN controller is an application in software-defined
networking (SDN) that manages run control to permit clever networking. SDN
controllers are based on protocols, such as OpenFlow, that permit servers to inform
switches where to send packets. This chapter explores SDN controllers.

Chapter 5
The Heart and Brain of SDN: SDN Controllers.................................................100
Pranav Arora, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Thechapterexploresthevarioustypesandfunctionalitiesofcontrollerspresentinthe
fieldofsoftware-definednetworking.Itisresponsibleforprovidingabridgebetween
various application interfaces. It enables smart networking and is solely responsible
for having an authority over the network. It takes input from one API, processes it,
and returns output for the high-level interface or API. They instruct the switch as
to what functions to perform and can be of two types: either pure or hybrid. The
controller at the central layer performs all the functions of the “evergreen” existing
switches. The data plane of the router is solely the foreground for the switch to apply
all its powers, while in hybrid switch software-defined networking and existing
technologies work hand in hand. An administrator can build up the SDN tools to
manage the traffic, whereas the existing network protocols progressively move the
various incoming packets onto the network. This engenders hybrid network. Here
the existing and SDN technologies or switches, work under the similar conditions.
Chapter 6
SDN Practical Orientation..................................................................................127
This chapter is focused on SDN practical approach with Cisco controllers APIC,
APIC-EM, and the application programming interfaces with real-world benefits
and challenges. The chapter uses Cisco SDN way of managing, administering,
maintaining, and implementing platforms using an external tool. This chapter will
also discuss the controller API structures, management model of the controller,
and using POSTMAN tool to push API requests and talk to the APIC controller.
The chapter also discusses some of the important APIC EM applications like PnP,
Easy QoS, IWAN, etc.
Chapter 7
Simulation on SDN and NFV Models Through Mininet....................................149
India
Mininet is a stage for working extensive systems on the assets of a finest single little
framework or virtual machine. Mininet is made for initiating research in software-
defined networking (SDN) and OpenFlow. Mininet permits executing predefined
code intuitively on virtual equipment machine on a basic PC. Mininet gives an

accommodation and authenticity at less cost. The auxiliary to Mininet is equipment
test beds, which are quick and precise, yet extremely costly and shared. The other
alternative is to utilize Mininet test system, which is low cost, yet some of the time
moderate and requires code substitution. Mininet gives convenience, execution
precision, and versatility.
Chapter 8
NFV Practical Implementation...........................................................................175
This chapter is focused on the traditional network architecture limitations with NFV
benefits. Discussion of NFV architecture and framework as well as management and
orchestration has been discussed in this chapter. Cisco VNF portfolio and virtual
network functions implementation is included with software implementation of the
architectureofNFV(networkfunctionvirtualization).Managementandorchestration
functional layers as per ETSI standard. The challenges in NFV implementation is
also a concern today, which is a part of this chapter.
Chapter 9
Quality of Service in SDN Technology..............................................................195
With the advancement in the requirement of data, the need for stringent quality
of service guarantee is a demand of the current world, which brings the network
programmers to design the network protocols that certify certain guaranteed
performance in terms of service delivery. Here, focus is on the quality of service
within the SDN network with its comparison and implementation using simulation.
Types of quality of service are also discussed in this chapter with a focus on the
ways of implementation of quality of service. The authors define a QoS management
and orchestration architecture that allow them to manage the network in a modular
manner. Performing the operation and results in such a network is shown as are the
outputs for the same.
Chapter 10
Analysis of Issues in SDN Security and Solutions.............................................217
Hardwari Lal Mandoria, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, India
Anushree Sah, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Thechaptersurveystheanalysisofallthesecurityaspectsofsoftware-definednetwork
and determines the areas that are prone to security attacks in the given software-
defined network architecture. If the fundamental network topology information is

poisoned, all the dependent network services will become immediately affected,
causing catastrophic problems like host location hijacking attack, link fabrication
attack, denial of service attack, man in the middle attack. These attacks affect the
following features of SDN: availability, performance, integrity, and security. The
flexibility in the programmability of control plane has both acted as a bane as well
as a boon to SDN. Like the ARP poisoning in the legacy networks, there are several
other vulnerabilities in the SDN architecture as well.
Chapter 11
WSN Structure Based on SDN...........................................................................240
India
Subodh Srivastava, Vallurupalli Nageswara Rao Vignana Jyothi
Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
In this chapter, a general structure for a product-characterized remote sensor is
arranged where the controller is actualized at the base station and the SDN-WSN
system by talking about and breaking down. The execution and vitality utilization
of SDN-WSN system is superior to other vitality-effective conventions.
Chapter 12
Software-Defined Networking Paradigm in Wireless Sensor Networks.
............254
Govind P. Gupta, National Institute of Technology Raipur, India
Software-definednetworking(SDN)isanemergingnetworkdesignandmanagement
paradigm that offers a flexible way for reducing the complexity of the network
management and configuration. SDN-based wireless sensor networks (SDWSNs)
consist of a set of software-defined sensor nodes equipped with different types
of sensors. In SDWSN, sensor node is able to conduct different sensing tasks
according to the programs injected into it and functionalities of these nodes can
also be dynamically configured by injecting different application-specific programs.
SDWSNsadoptthecharacteristicsofSDNandcanprovideenergyefficientsolutions
for various problems such as topology management, sleep scheduling, routing, and
localization, etc. This chapter discusses how to apply SDN model in the design of an
energy-efficient protocol for wireless sensor networks and also presents an overview
of SDN model proposed for wireless sensor networks and SDN-based resource
management,routing,sleepschedulingalgorithm,localizationforSDWSNs.Finally,
open research challenges are summarized.

Chapter 13
Software-Defined Storage...................................................................................268
Ninni Singh, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
SDS along with SDN and software-defined compute (SDC; where in computing
is virtualized and software defined) creates software-defined infrastructure (SDI).
SDI is the set of three components—SDN, SDS, and SDC—making a new kind
of software-defined IT infrastructure where centralization and virtualization are
the main focus. SDI is proposed to have infrastructure developed over commodity
hardware and software stack defined over it. SDS is exploiting the same concept
of decoupling and centralization in reference to storage solutions as in SDN. The
SDN works on decoupling the control plane with the data plane from a layer, three
switches, or router, and makes a centralized decision point called the controller.
The SDS works in a similar way by moving the decision making from the storage
hardware to a centralized server. It helps in developing new and existing storage
solutions over the commodity storage devices. The centralization helps to create a
better dynamic solution for satisfying the customized user need. The solutions are
expected to be cheaper due to the use of commodity hardware.
Chapter 14
Learning With Software-Defined Area...............................................................291
Anurag Tiwari, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India
Suneet Gupta, Bennett University, India
The idea of software-defined networking (SDN) is a paradigm shift in computer
networking. There are various advantages of SDN (e.g., network automation,
fostering innovation in network using software, minimizing the CAPEX and OPEX
cost with minimizing the power consumption in the network). SDN is one of the
recently developed network-driven methodologies where the core of all lower-level
services is operated by one centralized device. Developers tried to develop such
approaches to make it easy for an administrator to control information flow from
one node to another node. To obtain these services, lower-level static architecture
is decoupled for the higher level. This chapter introduces a new approach that is
based on complex network processing and forecasting for an event.
Related References............................................................................................ 306
Compilation of References............................................................................... 343
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 358
Index................................................................................................................... 362

Preface
Th editor of this book would like to thank IGI Global for agreeing to publish this
book and the cooperation extended during the development of this book. The final
version of this book contains 14 chapters which are related to emerging technology
of software defined network and network function virtualization and areas and
problems related to this field. The areas covered in this book relate to software
defined network, Network function virtualization, controllers, protocols related to
software defined network, software defined storage and wireless sensor network
related to software defined network.
Thisbookwillprovidetobeavulnerableresourceforundergraduate,graduateand
post graduate doing research in the field of software defined network and network
function virtualization. This book will also provide valuable to the researchers,
developers of software defined networks and network function virtualization.
Software-Defined Network (SDN) and Network Function Virtualization (NFV)
are the latest technologies that fuel latest hype bubble in the networking industry
and service provider environment. The book primary covers different features and
aspects related to SDN and NFV including the practical knowledge that would
paved up the way for the researchers for their work in this field. The book explains
SDN with need for SDN with giving the practical knowledge taking implementation
using real environment and simulation. The protocol used for SDN, OpenFlow is
also discussed and explained with scalability and challenges related to OpenFlow.
Open flow is a new protocol that used to decouple control plane from data plane.
This book focusses on basics of OpenFlow protocol, its benefits and drawback.
Book also focusses on controllers and their working which are used to control the
control plane of all the nodes within the network. Subsequent chapters also discusses
on number of controllers available in the market and difference in the manner of
working and operations.
Controllers which are heart of SDN technology are discussed in details which
include the working of controllers within SDN network. Controllers which are used
for solving the networking problems with their own intelligence. The controllers
are present on the top-most layer which works as a cloud which has the power to
xiv

Preface
regulate, maintain and making decisions both manually and automatically. The
controllers underlies with many application services like message routing, data
storage and formatting etc. Discussion over different types of controllers available
for SDN networks are discussed with their comparison with each other which will
make the choice for controller selection easier.
Security aspects related to SDN networks are discussed which covers many
aspects related to SDN security including attacks like DoS, DDoS with different
solutions to minimize the effect of these attacks. Quality of Service within SDN
network is focused which includes different strategy being used for implementation
of quality of service and their performance comparison by using simulation results.
Discussion of SDN technology with respect to associated technologies are also
discussed in the chapters following. SDN technology relation with wireless sensor
network, in terms of it’s working with wireless sensor network and the research area
related to the topics has been discussed. The connection of software defined area
with software defined area has been discussed with automation of software defined
area has been discussed in this book.
A different perspective in terms of software defined area has been discussed in
terms of software defined storage has been discussed and explained that how large
data can be managed in terms of software defined storage which gives a different
perspective for this book. These all topics all together make this book a different
approach towards the topic of software defined network and network function
virtualization which make this book different and unique from other. Thus focusing
from the beginner to the advanced topic has been discussed in this book.
The first chapter defined about software defined network which is not a new
technology-wehavebeenusingconceptofprogrammablenetworksfordecades,this
chapter describe the motivation behind SDN movement, its principles and perfect
use cases and numerous technology related with SDN. Software defined network
(SDN) and Network function virtualization (NFV) are the two new networking
paradigms which are changing the way the traditional networks works. The SDN is
the technology that works on the concept of centralization so that all the decision
relatedtocontrollingthenetworksshouldbetakenoncentralizedplaceinacentralized
manner. To provide a centralized control the SDN decouples the control plane
and data from the traditional routing devices to take it in the centralized position.
The data plane still intact with the routing devices but they now become a mere
forwarding devices and the decisions are taken at the centralized place called the
controller. Controller is basically the x86 server that are connect to the forwarding
devices and communicate with them for all control decisions such as routing. NFV
is based on virtualization of network functions in the form of software running over
high end server. This kind of virtualization helps in easy setup of networks as well
as easy migration.
xv

Preface
Thesecondchapterdiscussesaboutnetworkfunctionvirtualization.Thischapter
outline the benefits, enablers and challenges for network function virtualization.
This chapter emphasizes that how the NFV is highly complementary to SDN. This
chapterdescribehowNFVimprovetheflexibilityofnetworkserviceprovisioningand
reduce the time to market of new services. By leveraging virtualization technologies
and commercial off-the-shelf programmable hardware, such as general-purpose
servers, storage, and switches, NFV decouples the software implementation of
network functions from the underlying hardware. As an emerging technology, NFV
brings several challenges to network operators, such as the guarantee of network
performance for virtual appliances, their dynamic instantiation and migration, and
their efficient placement. This chapter presents brief overview of NFV, explain its
requirements and architectural framework, present several use cases, and discuss
the challenges and future directions in this burgeoning research area.
The third chapter discuss about open flow protocol. The SDN controller is
interfaced with the hardware of the network i.e., with switches and routers using
OpenFlow. Basically, OpenFlow is an open interface used for configuring the
forwardingtablesofnetworkswitchaccordingtothedesiredpathderivedbytheSDN
controller. OpenFlow enables more innovation in controller platforms, applications
and describes a solution for each frame or packet flow. OpenFlow is based on an
Ethernet switch, with an internal flow-table, and a standardized interface to add
and remove flow entries of forwarding table of the system. The control mechanism
from each one of the switch and router up to SDN controller are encrypted with the
TransportLayerSecurity(TLS)andSecureSocketLayer(SSL)OpenFlowprotocols
are used to provide the additional security inside the Network.
The fourth chapter discusses about controllers of software defined networks.
Designing and organizing networks has become extra innovative over the past few
yearswiththeassistofSDN(software-definednetworking).Thesoftwareimplements
network protocols that undergo years of equivalence and interoperability testing.
Software-defined networking (SDN) is an move toward to computer networking
that allows network administrators to programmatically initialize, manage, alter,
and direct network behavior dynamically through open interfaces and abstraction
of lower-level functionality. SDN controller is an application in software-defined
networking (SDN) so as to manages run control to permit clever networking. SDN
controllers are based on protocols, such as OpenFlow, that permit servers to inform
switches where to send packets. So controller is the a large amount important thing
in Software Defined Networking.
The fifth chapter discusses the working of different types of controllers and
their working. The chapter is to gloss over the various types and functionalities of
controllers present in the field of Software Defined Networking. It is responsible for
providingabridgebetweenvariousapplicationinterfaces.Itenablessmartnetworking
xvi

Preface
and is solely responsible for having an authority over the network. It takes input
from one API, process it and return output for the high level interface or API. They
instruct the switch as to what functions to perform and can be of two types either
pure or hybrid. The controller at the central layer performs all the functions of the
“evergreen” existing switches. The data plane of the router is solely the foreground
for the switch to apply all its powers. While in hybrid switch Software defined
networking and existing technologies work hand in hand. An administrator can
build up the SDN tools to manage the traffic whereas the existing network protocols
progressively move the various incoming packets onto the network. This engenders
hybrid network. Here the existing and SDN technologies or switches, work under
the similar conditions.
The sixth chapter presents the practical approach of software defined network
withCisco.ThischapterfocussesonSDNPracticalapproachwithCiscoControllers
APIC,APIC-EMandtheapplicationprogrammingInterfaceswithrealworldbenefits
and challenges. The chapter is using Cisco SDN way of managing, administering,
maintaining & implementing platforms using an external tool. This chapter will
also discuss the controller API structures, Management Model of the controller
and using POSTMAN tool to push API requests and talk to the APIC Controller.
Chapter also discussed some of the important APIC EM applications like Plug and
Play (PnP), Easy Quality of Service, IWAN, etc.
The seventh chapter presents the simulation of software defined network with
Mininet simulators. Mininet is a stage for working extensive systems on the less
assets of a finest single little framework or Virtual Machine. Mininet is made for
initiating research in Software Defined Networking (SDN) and OpenFlow. Mininet
is permits executing of predefined code intuitively on virtual equipment machine
on a basic PC. Mininet gives an accommodation and authenticity at less cost. The
auxiliary to Mininet is equipment test beds which are quick, precise yet extremely
costly and shared. The other alternative is to utilize Mininet test system which is
low cost yet some of the time moderate and require code substitution. Mininet gives
convenience, execution precision and versatility.
Theeightchapterpresentspracticalapplicationofnetworkfunctionvirtualization.
This chapter is focused on the traditional Network architecture limitations with
Network Function Virtualization (NFV) Benefits. Discussion of NFV Architecture
& Framework as well as Management and Orchestration has been discussed in this
chapter. Cisco VNF Portfolio and Virtual Network Functions Implementation is
included with Software Implementation of the architecture of Network Function
Virtualization.Management&OrchestrationfunctionallayersasperETSIStandard.
Challenges in NFV implementation is also a concern today which is a part of this
chapter.
xvii

Preface
The ninth chapter discusses about quality of services (QoS) in software defined
network and its applications. This chapter focuses on the quality of service within
the SDN network with its comparison and implementation using simulation. Types
of quality of service is also discussed in this chapter with focusses on types of
ways of implementation of quality of service. QoS management and orchestration
architecture are also discussed here that allow us to manage the network in a modular
manner. Performing our operation and results in such a network and shown the
outputs for the same.
The tenth chapter presents the security architecture of software defined network
and different aspects related to security of software defined network. In this chapter,
author discusses about Distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) which is a rapidly
growing problem. The multitude and variety of both the attacks and the defense
approaches is overwhelming. This chapter is a survey on the problem of denial-
of-service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks and proposed
ways to deal with it. We describe the nature of the problem and look for its root
causes, further presenting brief insights and suggested approaches for defending
against DDoS. We point out both the positive and negative sides of each potential
solution. Future work identifies and justifies open research issues. In conclusion,
we give a brief summary of what has realistically been achieved so far, as well as
what are the key missing components. In this paper, we present a classification of
available mechanisms that are proposed in literature on preventing Internet services
from possible DDoS attacks and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each
mechanism.Thisprovidesbetterunderstandingoftheproblemandenablesasecurity
administrator to effectively equip his arsenal with proper prevention mechanisms
for fighting against DDoS threat.
The eleventh chapter discusses about WSN structure based on SDN. SDN
based Wireless Sensor Networks (SDWSNs) consists of a set of software-defined
sensor node equipped with different types of sensors. In SDWSN, sensor node is
able to conduct different sensing tasks according to the programs injected in it
and functionalities of these nodes can also be dynamically configured by injecting
different application-specific programs. SDWSNs adopt the characteristics of SDN
and can provide energy efficient solutions for various problems such as topology
management, sleep scheduling, routing and localization etc. This chapter has
discussed how to apply SDN model in the design of an energy efficient protocol
for wireless sensor networks and also presents an overview of SDN model proposed
for wireless sensor networks and SDN based resource management, routing, sleep
scheduling algorithm, localization for SDWSNs. In last, open research challenges
are summarized.
The twelfth chapter discusses about SDN paradigm in wireless sensor network.
Software Defined Networking (SDN) into wireless sensor networks (WSNs) for
xviii

Preface
sparing vitality/control and proficient administration. The majority of the Generic
Architectures executes for the base station in a product characterized remote sensor
organize. A general structure for a product characterized remote sensor is arranged
where the controller is actualized at the base station and the SDN-WSN system by
talkingaboutandbreakingdown,theexecutionandvitalityutilizationofSDN-WSN
system is superior to other vitality effective conventions.
The thirteenth chapter presents software defined storage. Due to the emergence
of cloud computing and mobile computing as well as exponential growth of internet
users the rate of digital data generation has increased many folds. The storage of
the data and processing requirement has also increased to store the huge data. So
storage technology has geared up to find better storage techniques and develop
better solutions. One of the recent technologies is known as “Software Defined
Storage (SDS)” inspired by the success of “Software Defined Networks (SDN)”.
SDS along with SDN and Software Defined Compute (SDC) (where in computing
is virtualized and software defined), creates Software Defined Infrastructure (SDI).
SDI is the set of 3 components SDN, SDS and SDC making a new kind of software
defined IT infrastructure where centralization and virtualization are the main focus.
SDI is proposed to have infrastructure developed over commodity hardware and
software stack defined over it SDS is exploiting the same concept of decoupling
and centralization in reference to storage solutions as in SDN. The SDN works on
decoupling the control plane with the data plane from a layer 3 switches and make
a centralized decision point called the controller. The SDS works in the similar way
by moving the decision making from the storage hardware to a centralized server. It
helps in developing new and existing storage solutions over the commodity storage
devices. The centralization helps to create a better dynamic solution for satisfying
the user need. It also provides cheaper solution due to use of commodity hardware.
The fourteenth chapter discusses about learning of SDN with software defined
area. In this chapter, author tried to introduce a new approach which is based on the
complex network processing and forecasting for an event. As we know the Internet
is one of the finest examples of complex networks, we consider a networking device
as a processing node where information comes in the form of packets and processed
by the device. This functionality can be organized with a combination of machine
learning algorithm and static nature of unprocessed network. Because of periodic
request and response based services one network can be easily automated and
controlled by a single administrator. Such type of functionalities can be made better
if we can design our network having more iterative nature. Iterative nature means
where request and responses are similar in nature. A network is very vulnerable to
attack so considering time series analysis of past finite time duration dataset, our
network can be secured by periodic attack types.
xix

Preface
This book covers the emerging definition, protocols, standards for software
defined networks and network function virtualization and their surroundings and
associated terminologies. The book covers the topics such that it would be beneficial
for beginners, research scholars to find area of working, industry for getting practical
exposureofimplementationofnetworkusingsoftwaredefinednetworksandnetwork
function virtualization. The book also contain data regarding automation in SDN
which is hot topics for researchers finding the area of working in this field. The
practical and simulation of SDN and NFV paved a way to learn the implementation
of SDN and NFV network in real time and simulated environment. The discussion
on security and quality of service also enable the reader to find the loopholes and
area of research in the subsequent field of SDN. Integration of SDN with wireless
sensor network is further enhance the content of book and paved a new research
area in the field of SDN. Software defined storage is another area which make this
book different from others. Thus, this book is said to provide a complete reference
in the field of SDN and NFV which nearly covers all the topics related to SDN and
NFV which make this book complete in itself.
xx

Acknowledgment
First of all, I would like to thank the Almighty.
Acknowledgement when honestly given is a reward without price. I am thankful
to the publishing team at IGI Global accepting to publish this edited book. I thank
Mariah Gilbert, Marianne Caesar, development editor, for helping me in bringing
thisprojecttoasuccessfulend.IwouldalsothankJanTravers,KaylaWolfe,Meghan
Lamb, and Jacqueline Sternberg of IGI Global team for their various supports.
Writing this part is probably the most difficult task. Although the list of people to
thank heartily is long, making this list is not the hard part. The difficult part is to
search the words that convey the sincerity and magnitude of my gratitude and love.
I express my deep gratitude to my parents for their moral support, blessings and
encouragement throughout my life. I am greatly indebted to my wife and best friend
for her constant support in every aspect of life and also responsible for encouraging
me to finish this book. She has paid the real cost for this work by sacrificing many
of her desires and carrying out our combined social responsibilities alone. I want to
acknowledge her contributions and convey my sincere thankfulness. I am heartily
thankful to Naina, my lovely daughters and inspiration, blessed by God. She always
generates enthusiasm and spark in my work by their warm welcome and blossom
smile at home.
xxi

Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 1
1
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3640-6.ch001
ABSTRACT
Software defined network (SDN) and Network function virtualization (NFV) are the
two new networking paradigms changing the way traditional networks work. SDN
works on the concept of centralization so that all the decisions related to controlling
the networks is done in a centralized place in a centralized manner. To provide a
centralized control, SDN decouples the control plane and data from the traditional
routing devices to take it in the centralized position. The data plane is still intact with
the routing devices, but they now become mere forwarding devices and the decisions
are made at the centralized place called the controller. The controller is basically
the x86 server that is connected to the forwarding devices and communicates with
them for all control decisions such as routing. NFV is based on virtualization of
network functions in the form of software running over a high end server. This kind
of virtualization helps in easy setup of networks as well as easy migration.
INTRODUCTION
Information and Communication technology (ICT) has seen evolution of new
technologies and trends such as mobile and cloud computing, social media and
IOT. These new technology requires ubiquitous accessibility, high bandwidth and
dynamic management (Xia, Wen, Foh & Niyato, 2015). The current networking
technology seems inept to satisfy these dynamic requirements due to ossification
inherited in the traditional one by the use of propriety hardware devices. Software
defined network (SDN) and Network function virtualization (NFV) are the two
Introduction to SDN and NFV
Himanshu Sahu
Misha Hungyo
R&D Nokia, India

2
new networking paradigms that are changing the way the traditional networks are
functioning. These new technologies seem promising in handling the current and
future requirements in the ICT. SDN (ONF White Paper 2012) is a technology which
works on the concept of centralization to provide centralized decision making for the
entire network whereas NFV (NFV-ISG, White paper 2015) is a technology which is
based on virtualization to virtualize the network functions (NF). SDN decouples the
control plane and the data plane from the traditional networking devices i.e. routers
leavingbehinddataplaneintactwiththedevicemakingthemmereforwardingdevices
followingthedecisionofthecentralizedcontroller.Thebenefitofcentralizationisto
have a centralized information regarding topology which provides easy monitoring
and fault tolerance. SDN also provides the network programmability which helps
to cope the dynamic nature of today’s networks. NFV, on the other hand, is based
on virtualization of network functions in the form of software running over high
end server. This kind of virtualization helps in easy setup of networks as well as
easy migration. The NFV is initiated from the Telecom Service Provider (TSP)
so that they can achieve high return of investment i.e. ROI along with a flexible
infrastructure where deployment and integration is faster and easier.
This chapter consists of two sections. The first section will cover the SDN
definitions, evolution and architecture of SDN along with challenges and future
trends.ThesecondsectionwillcovertheNFVdefinitions,evolutionsandarchitecture
of NFV along with challenges and future trends.
INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE DEFINED NETWORK (SDN)
(Haleplidis, Pentikousis, Salim, Meyer, koufopavlou(2015)) in RFC 7426 describes
Software Defined Networks as:
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) refers to a new approach for network
programmability, that is, the capacity to initialize, control, change, and manage
network behavior dynamically via open interfaces. SDN emphasizes the role of
software in running networks through the introduction of an abstraction for the data
forwarding plane and, by doing so, separates it from the control plane.
By following the above definition we can deduce the following salient features
of a SDN network:
1. Programmable Network
2. Centralized Management
3. Dynamically Configurable Networks

3
4. Open Protocols and Interfaces
5. Easily Monitored and Fault Tolerant Network
Need of SDN
AccordingtoGens,F.(2012),aswefollowrecenttrendsinICTduetotheemergence
of Cloud Computing, Mobile Computing and IOT the network traffic has growing
exponentially.
According to Cisco VNI (2016), “Annual global IP traffic will reach 3.3 ZB (ZB;
1000 Exabytes [EB]) by 2021 and Global IP traffic will increase nearly threefold
over the next 5 years, and will have increased 127-fold from 2005 to 2021”
The evolution of social media, ubiquitous computing, IOT and smartphones
has not only increased the bandwidth requirements but also the complexity of the
networks. This leads to massive increase in east west traffic (i.e. data center to data
center) as well as north south traffic (data center to client machines). According to
Cisco VNI (2016) 63 percent of the total IP traffic will be generated by portable
devices such as mobile phones, tablet PC.
The Current Network technologies and approaches will not able be to scale up
according to the present and future needed of flexible, dynamic scalable and high
bandwidth networks. This inflexibility lying in the current technology leads to a
new approach i.e. SDN which seems promising to solve the existing and future
requirement of the ICT. Some of the points that drive the motivation behind moving
towards the SDN networks are:
1. Simplified Switch Design
2. Loose coupling to provide better evolution
3. Ease of network application development
4. Open Network Protocols leads to cost effective devices
5. Better and easy network management
6. Better support to tackle the exponentially growing network and data
7. Better Network Security Solutions
Traditional Network
In the traditional networking approach, most of the networking functionalities are
implemented in a dedicated appliance and hardware i.e. the switches, routers etc.
Operating and maintaining today’s network is an arduous task because of the many
complexitiesandthevariouspoliciesimplementedonit.Tomaintainanetworkfrom

4
global perspective, it is required to express global network policies but to configure
this network operators have to configure each individual network devices separately.
Today’snetworkisaheterogeneouscollectionofswitches,routersandmiddleboxes,
which uses vendor specific and low-level commands, which is a very complicated,
expensive and error-prone process. So implementing new global policy or changing
a small set of device need each device to configure separately using the command
line interface provided by the vendor. This modification or scaling of networks is
a complex and time taking task.
In addition to the configuration complexities, handling network dynamics and
automation is also missing to provide event based triggering of necessary actions.
As the network grows, the number of policies defined on the application layer also
grows rapidly, and it becomes extremely difficult to manage. To make changes in the
networking layer is almost an impossible task. This makes the traditional network
stagnant and ossified (Chowdhury & Boutaba, 2009) and therefore, the need for a
general management paradigm increases, in order to provide common management
abstractions that hides the details of the physical infrastructure, and enables flexible
network management.
Software Defined Networks (SDN) vs. Traditional Networks
Software-Defined Networking (SDN) has the potential to reduce many of these
traditional network problems because of its support to dynamic nature of network,
centralized control plane and direct programmability. As given by the Open
Networking Foundation (ONF)
SDN is the physical separation of the network control plane from the forwarding
plane, and where the control plane controls devices, i.e., the control and data
planes are decoupled, network intelligence and state are logically centralized in
the SDN architecture and the underlying network infrastructure is abstracted from
the applications. (ONF White Paper (2012))
Figure1showsthedifferencebetweenthetraditionalnetworkandSDNnetworks.
The traditional network carries a distributed control whereas the software defined
network contains the centralized network. According to Nunes, Mendonca, Nguyen,
Obraczka, Turletti, (2014), the SDN architecture decouples control logic from the
forwarding hardware, and enables the consolidation of middle boxes, simpler policy
management, and new functionalities. The solid lines define the data-plane links
and the dashed lines the control-plane links.

5
History of SDN
Although the origin of SDN dates back to decades ago, as early as 1980s, the
implementation started just few years back, the first being the GSMP project
developed by IPSILON in 1996, Tempest in 1998, and SS7 networks in 1993. The
OpenFlow project is one of the most used implementation protocol, developed by
the ONF in 2009.
SDN is an emerging architecture that is dynamic, manageable, cost-effective, and
adaptable, making it ideal for the high-bandwidth, dynamic nature of today’s
applications.(ONF SDN)
Theideaofcentralizedcontrolplaneandopenprotocolhastraveledalongjourney
to finally evolve as SDN and Open flow. The few projects are worth mentioning
that has nurtured the idea of centralized control plane and programmable networks.
These projects have laid the foundation of SDN networks that are described below.
1. Open Signaling: This project has been started as an attempt to improve
the ATM, internet and mobile networks. The Project OPENSIG (Campbell,
Figure 1. Traditional Networks vs SDN Network (Nunes, Mendonca, Nguyen,
Obraczka, & Turletti, 2014)

6
Katzela, Miki & Vicente, 1999) is focused on creating open, extensible and
programmable networks. The concept they proposed was separation of control
logic from hardware circuitry so that better deployment of services can be
done using open interfaces. The Proposed project emphasized on making the
protocols open. Based on this, IETF developed General Switch Management
Protocol GSMP (rfc 3292) (Doria 2002).
2. Active Networking: The Active Networking concept comes up with the idea
of programmable networks. They proposed two concepts - a programmable
switch and capsules which is useful in sending control codes along with the
data codes. This project didn’t get success due to security concerns.
3. DCAN: DCAN project focused on the concept of designing new infrastructure
for the ATM networks. This infrastructure is supposed to provide scalable
control and management of ATM networks. The DCAN also focused on that
the infrastructure contains separate management switches that controls the
ATM switches.
4. 4D Project: The 4D project presented a clear view of separating the routing
decisionlogicandprotocolsusedininteractionofnetworkingdevicesinvolved
in forwarding the packets. It proposed giving the “decision” plane a global
view of the network, serviced by a “dissemination” and “discovery” plane, for
control of a “data” plane for forwarding traffic(Nunes et al. 2014). Nox (Gude,
Koponen,Pettit, Pfaff, Casado, McKeown, & Shenker, 2008) an Open flow
controller is motivated from the 4D project. Nox is also known as Operating
system for networks.
5. NETCONF:NETCONFisprojectproposedbytheIETFnetworkconfiguration
workinggroup.Theprojectisbasedondevelopmentofprotocolformanagement
which is designed to modify the configuration of switches and routers. The
proposed protocol is supposed to have an API that will provide extension of
configurationofnetworkdevices.SNMPsimplenetworkmanagementprotocol
whichiswidelydeployednetworkmanagementprotocolhasseveralflawssuch
as security. NETCONF is supposed to remove these flaws and it’s in active
development phase.
6. ETHANE: Ethane (Casado, Freedman, Pettit, Luo, McKeown, 2007) is
one project that can be termed as a true predecessor of OpenFlow. Ethane
provided concept of ethane switches and controller to provide a new way of
new management for enterprises. Ethane has used the flow table in ethane
switches and separate channel for communication between the controller and
switches.

7
FEATURES AND BENEFITS OF SDN NETWORKS
The most charming points of SDN are centralization of the control logic and
simplification network management, which will enable networks to keep in pace
with the fast changing today’s networks. SDN enables the current networking to
address the high-bandwidth, dynamic nature of today’s applications, adapt the
network to ever changing business needs and significantly reduce operations and
management complexity. One of the primary advantages of SDN is the support
for more data-intensive applications like big data, network virtualization, and the
Internet of Things (IOT).
Features
1. Environment: The Software defined network can work in all types of network
environment. It can work as a part of carrier grade services, campus network,
enterprise or a cloud data center.
2. Services: The SDN network can provide its services to residential customers,
non-residential customers; intent based services as well as non-intent based
services.
3. Resources: SDN services can be implemented over any kind of resource
physical, virtual, compute or storage.
4. Policy: It enables global policies for management, security and access rules
over the whole network.
5. Scalability: It can scale from local to global service span.
Benefits of SDN Networks
Some of the main benefits that SDN enterprises can achieve include:
1. Centralized Control Plane: Centralization of control plane will ease the
management, control and monitoring of whole network from one central
location. Global policy management, Event based triggering and centralize
information base will help the network to cope with fast changing scenarios.
Since the whole topology information is available at one central location
the congestion and fault information will move very quick to all devices so
corrective measures can be taken as once such a rerouting.
2. Automation: The automation is provided by the application running over the
control plane i.e. controller by using the northbound interface. The automation
can be event triggered by some predefined rule or due to some exception to

8
take accordingly. As in a monitoring application a rule can be set so that if
the link utilization exceeds a certain value the traffic can be redirected using
automated rules.
3. Flow Programming: SDN provides the network managers an interface where
they can configure, manage, secure and optimize network resources with easy
and efficiency with the help of automated SDN program with a dashboard.
4. HigherRateofInnovation:SDNisevolvedasconceptofopenprotocols.The
Northbound API provides a programming interface which allows application
to be developed and new functionalities are added in the networks. The Open
flow protocols provides an open box concept, source is in public domain and
open for research and development.
5. ReducedOverallNetworkCAPEXandOPEX:Itworksonsimplifiedswitch
so it reduces the hardware cost involved in the development of the network
infrastructure. Virtualization and automation reduces the cost of maintenance.
6. IncreasedNetworkReliability:Thecentralizedmanagementinterfacecontains
all the network information such as topology, devices and links. So if any part
of the network malfunctions the necessary action can be taken rapidly such as
rerouting or blocking. As compared to current network with distributed control
plane error information takes lot of time to propagate through the network so
SDN networks are considered more reliable.
SDN Architecture
The inflexibility of the traditional network is due to the tightly coupling of control
planeanddataplane.Theseinflexibilitiesoftraditionalnetworkhidestheadaptation
Figure 2. Features of Software defined networks

9
of changing network infrastructure needs. The network infrastructure component
such as router and switches used in current network are closed system. The Vendor
specific implementation of the control logic is implemented in the routers which
are provided with a limited user interface.
TheSDNarchitecturedistributesthetightlycoupledcontrolandforwardinglogic
into different layers. Open Network Foundation has given three layered reference
architecturefortheSDNnetworks.TheReferenceSDNarchitectureshownisFigure3:
1. Data Layer: The Data/Forwarding layer comprises the network elements,
which are merely forwarding devices. They are exposed to the control layer
through the South-bound communication interface.
2. Control Layer: The Control Layer lies in the middle of the architecture and
is responsible for translating the applications’ requirements thus putting a
more granular control over the network elements, while providing relevant
information up to the SDN applications. This layer is logically centralized to
manage all the connected OpenFlow elements in executing out the policies
defined on them.
3. Application Layer: The Application Layer has all the SDN applications
residing over it. This layer communicates the SDN applications through the
North-bound communication interface.
Figure 3. SDN Reference Model

10
Components of SDN
The main components of SDN are Controllers, SDN switches and the infrastructural
backbone networks.
1. SDN Application: SDN provides a programmable network by an API called
Northbound API on which applications can be developed using different high
level language such as java, php or python. REST API’s are used to fetch
the data from the controller to develop web based application. The Types of
Application that can be developed are:
◦
◦ Network Engineering Applications: These set of applications include
applications for Network Management, Security Policy Enforcement,
Traffic Engineering and QoS Policy Enforcement.
◦
◦ Service Management Application: These set of applications include
applications for Automated (multi-layer, multi-vendor) Network
Provisioning, Virtual Private Cloud Provisioning and SLA Monitoring.
2. RevenueGeneratingapplication:Thesesetofapplicationsincludeapplications
for Software-Defined Data Center (SDDC), Big Data Applications (based on
L4-L7 data) and End-to-End QoS Management.
3. SDN Controller: As mentioned earlier, the controller is the brain of the
network. It can be either distributed, centralized or hybrid. In centralized type,
a controller manages all the forwarding elements in the system, and retains a
global view of the entire network. Controllers such as ODL, ONOS etc. are
centralized controllers. Whereas in distributed type, more than one controllers
areusedandaredistributedovertheentirenetwork.Hybridtypecontrollersare
those that have both the centralized as well as the distributed concepts. Most
widely used SDN controllers are Floodlight, OpenDaylight, OpenContrail,
Ryu, FlowVisor, BEACON, NOX and POX.
4. SDNSwitches:SDNswitchesordevicesarenon-intelligentforwardingdevices
that follow the rules installed on them by their controllers. Most common SDN
switches are the OpenFlow switches that work on the OpenFlow protocol,
defined by ONF. An OpenFlow switch has a flow table that gives provision
for lookup and then packet forwarding based on the rules on the table. The
switches are connected to the controller by a secured channel. Each switch has
a unique DPID, also known as the data path identifier. When a packet arrives at
the switch and the switch finds no matching rules for the particular data packet
i.e., a packet miss is encountered, then about 200 bytes of the data is sent to
the controller, which then decides what appropriate actions need to be taken
as given by the network administrator or operators. The controller then install

11
the defined flows on the switch, so that when the next data packet arrives at
the switch, and the matching rules are fulfilled, the data is routed according
to the corresponding rules for that match, instead of sending it again to the
controller.Therefore,byremovingthecomplexitiesontheswitchesandrouters,
and instead managed and controlled from a logical centralized controller, the
performance and flexibility are increased on the networks.
5. SDN Data Path: The SDN Datapath is basically logical network device.
The Datapath or logical device may contain all or a subset of its physical
counterpart. An SDN Datapath consists of data forwarding engine, zero or
more data processing engine and a controller to Datapath interface. These
engines and functions may include simple forwarding between the data path’s
external interfaces or internal traffic processing or termination functions. A
single physical device may contain more than one SDN data path or a single
SDN Datapath may span across multiple physical network elements.
6. SDN Control to Data Plane Interface (CDPI): The SDN Control to data
plane interface provides the communication between an SDN Controller and
an SDN Datapath. This interface provides
◦
◦ Programmatic control of all forwarding operations
◦
◦ Capabilities advertisement
◦
◦ Statistics reporting
◦
◦ Event notification
CDPI is implemented in an open, vendor-neutral and interoperable way.
7. SDN Northbound API: SDN Northbound API are interfaces between
SDN Applications and SDN Controllers. The Northbound API provides
abstract network views and enables direct expression of network behaviour
and requirements. This may occur at any level of abstraction (latitude) and
across different sets of functionality (longitude). One value of SDN lies in the
expectation that these interfaces are implemented in an open, vendor-neutral
and interoperable way.
8. ChallengesinSDNNetwork:Alotofresearchhasbeensuccessfullyconducted
for SDN network on test bed networks and some successful implementation
in real scenario. SDN still have challenges exists to its implementation in
real scenario. SDN networks have been successfully implemented in many
greenfield project but a network can’t run in isolation if it is a part of an
internet. Replacing traditional network with SDN network is not a practical
approach. So the biggest challenge of SDN will be its interoperability with the
existing legacy networks. Second is due to centralization, it also creates single
point of failure. Single control point leads to excess load on a single point.
Security is one more concern with the SDN network. If the control channels

12
have been compromised whole network can be hijacked. Control is also the
most vulnerable point of attack for Dos and DDos attack. The protocols, API
and Programming languages need to be standardized to provide a matured
solution that will be universally accepted.
RESEARCH CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Considering these challenges towards the growth of SDN networks the future works
that needs to be done in the SDN can be categorize in 3 types.
1. Protocols Standardization: The SDN protocols, API’s i.e. South-bound and
North bound API need to standardize so that it will have wide-spread use.
The device manufacture will use these standard protocols to build devices
that support this protocol. Since SDN is working on Open Standard parallel
development may lead to different version of the protocols that may create
compatibility issues. Open Flow is one of standard protocol that is being used
todevelopopenflowswitches.Thereisalsoaneedofdevelopmentorselection
of programming language that will used to develop 3rd
party apps running over
the controller.
2. ReplacementofTraditionalNetworks:Traditionalnetworkhasbeenusedfor
long time since its evolution and lot of work has already been done. There is a
huge installation of switches as enterprise and backbone networks. It’s neither
feasible nor practical approach to attempt a replacement of traditional network
in one go. SDN needs to start as running parallel to the traditional network.
As an approach we have to develop devices that support both protocols from
the traditional network as well as Open flow protocols. Second the protocols
needs to be developed in such a way that it fully supports the interoperability
of both types of network.
3. Controller: The issues existed related to placement of controller, number of
controller, hierarchical vs distributed controller, security, performance, fault
tolerance and load balancing. Since controller can be implemented on X86
server so performance and load balancing is a major challenge. Failure of the
controller may lead to disruption of the whole service so we need to optimize
fault tolerant solution for the same. Although lot of research has been done
on the same still no fully agreed solution is available.
4. Deployment:LotofworksneedstobedoneifwewantSDNtobefullyfledged
deployed. Wireless Network, Mesh Network and Wireless Sensor Network are
the area where SDN solutions have not been fully developed.

13
CONCLUSION
Software defined networking seems a promising technology that can cope with the
changing network technology. It not only gives benefits to the network operators,
but it also creates scope for the researchers, mainly due to its flexibility to design,
build and operate networks according to the needs. The centralized management
interface, programmability and open protocols helps in removing the Ossification
of the network. Although it still has some challenges, industries and researchers are
moving towards SDN from the traditional networking due to its more advantages.
INTRODUCTION TO NFV
According to European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), “Network
Functions Virtualization is a network evolution that utilizes the technologies of IT
virtualization to deploy the network node functions onto industry standard high
volume servers, storage and switches, or even cloud computing infrastructure”
(NFV-ISG, White paper 2015).
In the current network scenario, for setting up a particular network infrastructure
we have to implement each network functions by separate hardware called middle
boxes such as firewall, NAT or load balancer. This multiplicity of devices increases
the cost of network setup and maintenance. Further adding new service or network
expansionrequiresreplacementandadditionofnewdevices.Forsolvingthisproblem
of network ossification (i.e. inflexibility) ETSI industry specification group has
formalized NFV that utilizes the virtualization to provide network functionalities
of any middle box in the form of software running on commodity server. Different
software code can run simultaneously, so by using Virtualized Network Function,
differentdevicesareconvergedtoonesingledeviceservingallthenetworkfunctions.
The main characteristics of NFV in the current network are:
1. It exploits the concepts of virtualization to virtualize network function.
2. It decouples the network functionality from the hardware and implements it
over the commodity server.
3. Reduces number of devices to be installed for setting up a network.
4. Breaks the ossification and provide the flexibility to modify the network
infrastructure easily.
5. Reduces the Capex and Opex of deployment of new networks services.
6. Restrains the use of different H/W devices for different network services.

14
By following the aforementioned points it can be concluded that NFV will
transformthecurrentnetworkbyremovingtheossification,convergenceofNetwork
Functions on single devices, fast deployment and expansion of infrastructure and
reduced Capex of Opex in network management.
DIFFERENCE AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SDN AND NFV
If we compare NFV with SDN the only difference is that SDN separates the data
and control plane from the routers whereas NFV decouples the application software
from hardware to run different application on single server and run it as a multi-
tenant application. The network functions (NF) are abstracted into a software that
can run on a range of industry standard server hardware, that are highly scalable
and flexible, which can be instantiated or moved to any locations, without the need
for new hardware or equipment installation.
NFV and SDN are independent entities but they are complementary to each
other, and can be used together giving greater mutual benefits. Many use cases
of SDN overlap with those of NFV. Network Functions Virtualization goals can
be achieved using non-SDN concept, relying on the techniques currently in use in
many datacenters. But using SDN approaches i.e., separation of data plane and
forwarding plane can enhance performance, simplify compatibility with the existing
deployments, and facilitates operation and maintenance procedures. NFV can
support SDN by providing the infrastructure upon which the SDN software runs.
The objectives of both the concepts align closely with each other to use commodity
servers and switches.
Figure 4. NFV replacing middle boxes with commodity server and virtual appliance

15
NFV AND TELECOM INDUSTRY
The telecommunication industry has been following rigorous standards for stability,
protocol adherence and quality, since time immemorial. Although the concept of
virtualizationworkedwellinthepast,therewasrelianceontheproprietaryhardware
and slow development pace, which led to long product cycles. The rise of significant
competition in communication services from fast-moving organizations operating
at large scale has accelerated the growth and momentum across the industry.
Figure 5. Relationship of SDN and NFV
Figure 6. Working Together SDN and NFV

16
NFV is supposed to have great impact on the architecture and function of
telecommunication and support systems such as OSS/BSS. Virtualization also helps
self-managed redundancy and failover scenarios. Using high automation with the
help of NFV we can achieve high gain in OSS and BSS.
Network Functions Virtualization Industry
Specification Group (NFV ISG)
NetworkFunctionsVirtualizationIndustrySpecificationGroup(NFVISG)whichis
a part of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) published a
whitepaperonNFVinOctober2012,ataconferenceinDarmstadt,GermanyonSDN
andOpenFlow.NFVISGwasformedofrepresentativesfromthetelecommunication
industry across Europe and beyond. Since the launch in 2012, the NFV ISG has
grown to 235 companies.
The main focus of NFV ISG is to provide interoperability for NFV solutions
coming from different vendors in an open ecosystem. The key requirement for the
interoperability is to provide standard interface so that they different standard can
be amalgamated. Second focus is to provide a hierarchy of orchestrators which in
many cases will be operated by independent organization and in multi-tenant mode.
The third focus of this is to find interaction of NFV with existing legacy OSS/BSS
components. The fourth thing is to standardize the possible service models such as
NFVIaaS, NFVPaaS and NFVSaaS.
HISTORY OF NFV
The concept of logical network started way before formal NFV was proposed in
2012. The categorizations in which the history of NFV can be divided are:
1. Virtual LAN
2. Virtual Private Network
3. Active and Programmable Networks
4. Overlay Networks
Virtual LAN
VLANcreatedalogicalLANsothatallthedeviceswhichbelongtothesameVLAN
lies in the same broadcast domain without considering their physical locations. The

17
specialized switches are needed for VLAN to implement. All VLAN frames carry
a VLAN ID so that a frame should reach all the devices belonging to the same
VLAN. The configuration and management of VLAN are easier since a virtual
network. Virtual LAN are also use to divide the broadcast domain of a switch in
different VLANs.
Virtual Private Network (VPN’s)
VPNareawaytoprovidethesecureconnectivitytoaprivatenetworkusingthepublic
network. VPN works on tunneling by creating a path through the public network to
provide access to private networks. Virtual private networks either provide site to
site secure connectivity or remote access to intranet.
Active and Programmable Networks
The concept of active and programmable networks came into picture with a
requirement of flexible network for easy configuration and management. It comes
with two different approaches one was open signaling and the other was active
networks approach. The open signaling approach works on abstraction of logical
layer from physical layer where as Active network approach supports dynamic
deployment of the services.
Overlay Networks
Overlay networks are logical network created over a physical network. Peer to peer
networks is an example of an overlay networks. Overlay networks creates new kind
of network services over an existing network removes the need of changing of the
underlying physical networks.
Evolution of NFV
The foundation of NFV started in 2012 when the telecom service providers selected
ETSI as the standard body for the development of NFV specification. ETSI is now
a collaboration of more than 200 companies working together to provide standard,
specification and development approach towards NFV. The specification published
in 2013 covers infrastructural overview, framework for architecture, management
and orchestration and security.

18
NFV FRAMEWORK
As described by the NFV ISG, Network Functions Virtualization framework has
three main components:
NFV Infrastructure (NFVI)
“NFVI is the totality of the hardware and software components which build up the
environment in which VNFs are deployed.”(ETSI GS NFV INF 001 V1.1.1 (2015-
01) To support the various use cases and the applications fields already identified
by the NFV ISG, a common infrastructure consisting of software and hardware
components that can provide the environment for the VNFs to build up and evolve is
required. The various field of application are content delivery networks CDN, Fixed
access networks, Mobile core and IMS, Mobile base station home environment and
platform such as NFVIaaS, NFVPaaS, NFVSaaS.
On this NFVI, VNFs are deployed thus providing the ecosystem for multiple use
cases and fields of application simultaneously. NFVI domain can be categorized
as follows:
1. NFV Compute Domain: Includes the functional elements such as processors,
accelerators, network interfaces and storage. It also identifies the interfaces
between the compute domain and other elements of the NFVI as well as other
external interface, which are supported by NFV.
2. NFV Hypervisor Domain: A hypervisor is a virtual machine monitor that
allows virtual machines, called hosts to be deployed. Hypervisors allocate
resources to these hosts. NFV Hypervisor Domain primarily focuses on the
use of hypervisors as an implementation technology.
3. NFV Infrastructure Network Domain: This domain identifies the external
interfaces of the domain as well as the functional blocks within the domain.
The functional blocks include virtual networks, network resources, other
virtualization layer options, control and administrative agents. It also includes
interfaces to the other NFVI domains, and other features of the networking
domain that impact the aspects of NFV.
Virtual Network Functions
Virtual Network Functions are software implementations of network functions
previously implemented as proprietary hardware appliances, which now can be
deployed on the network functions virtualization infrastructure. The concept of
VNF component (VNFC) has been developed as a general approach to virtualizing

19
a network function and identifying a common software design patterns. A VNFC is
defined as an internal component of a VNF that can be mapped to a single container
interface to provide a subset of the VNF’s functionality.
NFV Management and Orchestration (MANO)
Themanagementofnetworkfunctionsdeploymentonthestandardhardwarethrough
virtualization, interoperability of interfaces and information models and mapping of
these models to data models are done by NFV Management and Orchestration layer.
NFV Management and Orchestration functions are categorized into three:
virtualized resources, virtualized network functions, and network services. MANO
provides all resources that VNFs and network services require, which includes
the virtualization containers that are identified within the NFVI such as compute,
storage and network services.
BENEFITS OF NFV
Network Functions Virtualization offers potentially a number of benefits which
overlaps with some of the benefits of SDN. Some of the major benefits include:
Figure 7. High level ETSI NFV framework

20
1. Reducedequipmentcostsandreducedpowerconsumptionthroughconsolidating
equipment and exploiting the economies of scale of the IT industry.
2. Increased speed of Time to market by minimizing the typical network operator
cycle of innovation.
3. Availability of network appliance multi-version and multi-tenancy, which
allows use of a single platform for different applications, users and tenants.
This allows network operators to share resources across services and across
different customer bases.
4. Targeted service introduction based on geography or customer sets is possible.
Services can be rapidly scaled up/down as required.
5. Enables a wide variety of eco-systems and encourages openness. It opens the
virtualappliancemarkettopuresoftwareentrants,smallplayersandacademia,
encouraging more innovation to bring new services and new revenue streams
quickly at much lower risk.
CHALLENGES
Though Network Functions Virtualization has many benefits, there are many
challenges as well in this current scenario:
Figure 8. NFV Management and orchestration

21
1. Achievinghighperformancevirtualizednetworkapplianceswhichareportable
between different hardware vendors, and with different hypervisors.
2. Achievingco-existencewithbespokehardwarebasednetworkplatformswhilst
enabling an efficient migration path to fully virtualized network platforms,
whichreusenetworkoperatorOSS/BSS.OSS/BSSdevelopmentneedstomove
to a model in-line with Network Functions Virtualization and this is where
SDN can play a role.
3. Managing and orchestrating many virtual network appliances, particularly
alongside legacy management systems, while ensuring security from attack
and misconfiguration.
4. NFV will only scale if all of the network functions can be automated.
5. Ensuring the appropriate level of resilience to hardware and software failures.
6. Integrating multiple virtual appliances from different vendors. Network
operators need to be able to mix and match hardware from different vendors
without incurring significant integration costs and avoiding lock-in.
RESEARCH AREAS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The future directions in which NFV has to move forward check the performance of
virtualizationinrealtimeenvironment,placementofvirtualappliances,instantiation
and migration of Virtual appliances.
1. Network Performance of Virtualized NF: Although virtualization seems
promising to reducing the Capex and Opex and provide flexibility to the
network but performance will be a point of concern due to unpredictability
in real time load. Some studies show that running the virtual appliances on a
multiprocessor environment leads to poor throughput of TCP/UPD packets.
2. Placement of Virtual Appliances: Placement of middle boxes is another
aspect to be looked at. Placement of virtual appliances cannot be at the same
place where original middle boxes are placed. Moving middle boxes to the data
center will increase unnecessary traffic which causes delay. Many appliances
in the network are placed according to the topology so as to minimize delay.
Since the VA are usually run as VM, putting these VMs on the edge network
will be more beneficial.
3. Instantiation and Migration of Virtual Appliances: VNF are meant to
increase the network flexibility by providing the network functions as per the
dynamic requirements. These dynamic instances are the VM that need to be
instantiated and also migrated to provide flexibility. The process using native
VM is not efficient, so different solution is required to be suitable for NFV.

22
4. Energy Efficiency: In the telecom industry the energy bills are one of the most
significant portions of the expenditure. NFV promises to reduce the energy
cost by virtualization. The number of devices can be increased or decreased
as per the need but this makes the telecom services dependent on the cloud
computing. So the energy efficiency of NFV will be become dependent on
the cloud computing.
5. Security, Privacy, and Trust: Implementing the Virtualized NF over the
public cloud will incorporate the security issues that are already present in
the cloud computing (Mijumbi, Serrat, Gorricho, Bouten, Turck, & Boutaba
2016).
CONCLUSION
To remove the network ossification and provide solutions for the changing network
needs, the TSP are looking forward to create an environment that will transform
the OSS/BSS component of a telecom sector towards virtualized services. Surely
NFV will provide the flexibility and ease of deployment with lower Capex and
Opex but NFV is in infancy state so it will take time to be implemented fully. On
moving the NF function over the cloud all issues inherit from the cloud computing.
The discussed challenges need to tackle so that it will become standard technology
used in the telecom industry.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Control Plane: In the SDN architecture the second layer in which the decision
making is done. This plane is centralized and the SDN controller lies in this plane.
Data Plane: In the SDN architecture the lowest layer from which the actual data
movement takes place. The SDN switches lies in this layer which uses the flow rules
to forward a packet provided by the controller.
Network Function Virtualization: The functions such as firewall, NAT which
are provided by the middle boxes is virtualized in the form of software to be run on
standard X86 server or data center.
OpenFlow: It is the standard protocol for SDN given by ONF. The Open Flow
specifications are used to develop open flow switches.
Programmable Networks: To remove the ossification existing in the network
the concept of programmable networks comes into picture in which the control logic
is programmable and can be changed as per requirement.
Software-DefinedNetworking:Itisanetworkingparadigmbasedondecoupling
the control plane from the data plane and putting the control plane on a centralized
location (i.e., controller that provides a centralized management and control over
the network).
Virtual Network Functions: The virtual network functions are the NF (i.e.,
network functions running as a piece of software over a server).

26
Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 2
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-3640-6.ch002
ABSTRACT
Software-defined networking (SDN) is an emerging network architecture that
facilitates the network administrator to control and manage network behavior
dynamically.Differentfromtraditionalnetworks,software-definednetworkssupport
dynamic and scalable computing. The dynamic behavior is achieved by decoupling
or disassociating the system. The swing of control from tightly bound individual
networkstoassessablecomputingdevicesenablesinfrastructureabstraction.Dueto
the abstraction, the network can be considered as a logical or virtual entity. In this
chapter,relationbetweennetworkfunctionvirtualization(NFV)andsoftware-defined
networking (SDN) has been outlined. This chapter focuses on describing the pros
and cons of NFV technologies. network functions virtualization (NFV) was founded
under the work of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
Virtualizing Network Functions
in Software-Defined Networks
Vishal Kaushik
Ajay Sharma
SRM University - Haryana, India
Ravi Tomar

27
Virtualizing Network Functions in Software-Defined Networks
INTRODUCTION
CDN: Content Delivery Network
ThetermNetworkFunctionVirtualization(NFV)wasinitiallyannouncedinOctober
2012. A consortium formed by some leading telecommunication companies such as
AT&T, BT, China Mobile, and Deutsche Telekom introduced the NFV Call to the
Active document (Chiosi et al., 2013). Another new committee established under
theEuropeanTelecommunicationsStandardsInstitute(ETSI)focusedonimproving
the speed and operating standards. They worked on constructing the NFV standards
and their work results as a white paper on Software-defined Network (SDN) and is
entitled as “Network Functions Virtualization (Simone et al., 2015). This had been
published by a specification group in Darmstadt, Germany. NFV, being a part of that
work e ETSI and comprised of representatives from European telecommunication
industryfromEurope.Theyproducedastandardterminologydefinition&useguiding
the vendors and operators to facilitate better management and implementation of
NFV. Herewith, a traditional standard for stability, quality and protocol adherence
came into existence in a more refined manner (Borcoci, 2015).
Understanding Relationship Between NFV and SDN
The construction of NVF revolves around the key features of SDNs such as control/
data plane separation, virtualization, SDN controllers, and data center concept. The
NVF and SDF shares similar goals but both have different working strategies.
Thestatementthat“DuetorecentnetworkfocusedadvancementsinPChardware,
any service that is able to be delivered on proprietary, application-specific hardware
should be able to be done on a virtual machine” summarizes the entire evolution
of Network Function Virtualization. Nowadays, a number of network devices viz.
Routers, Firewalls, Load Balancers and so on are running virtualized on commodity
hardware (Noble, 2017).
Withaclearobjectiveofreducingequipmentcostsanddecreasingtimetomarket,
NFV achieves elasticity and scalability along with strong ecosystem. The SDN also
breaks the bond that relates the control/application software with the hardware. Both
the architectures- NFV and SDN need optimization at carrier scale of the dynamic
cloud environment (Benington, 2014).
For achieving greater agility, SDN and NFV aim to control automation and
virtualization. Whereas optimizing the deployment of network functions (such as
DNS, load balancers, firewalls etc.) was the main intention of NFV. The physical
as well as the virtual layers that enable to interconnect virtual network function

28
endpoints require large-scale dynamic network connectivity to be deployed (Nunes
et al., 2014)
Network Function Virtualization finds its roots in several previously described
network operations problems, especially the implications of bundling services by
network equipment manufacturers within their platform Operating Systems. NFV
can also be applied to appliance vendors in a way that does not take advantage of
the processing scale/innovation seen by many customers in their data centers.
Different from NFV, SDN involves different control modules, interfaces and
the applications that are mandatory for its proper working. NFV just needs shifting
of network applications based on dedicated hardware to virtual containers on
Commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware. More illustratively, SDN is present
whereas NFV is future (Matias et al., 2015).
NFV unites forwarding devices and middle-boxes shaping a common control
framework. Use of NFV enables network policies to get implemented by the
operators irrespective of the placements viz. placement of functions etc. and also
it provisions no need of thinking about the steering which includes how to route
traffic through these functions. The network services are deployed on generic x86
Figure 1. SDN and NFV Relationship

29
hardwarefacilitatingflexibleresourceallocation,scale-outarchitectures,baremetals
or virtual machines etc. (Kolias, 2014; McKeown et al., 2008).
The network services and functions can be further categorized into three major
categories- simple virtualized services, service chaining, and services virtualization
or platform virtualization.
Requirements of Networking Through NFV
Today’s environment where networks are static and quite expensive to manage
imposes a number of challenges in supporting NFV:
• Real-time and dynamic provisioning: The automatic deployment of VNFs,
VNF FGs and their management in the NFV infrastructure.
• Provisioning of physical and virtual infrastructures with seamless control.
• Carrier-grade should allow robustness and scalability.
• Openness and interoperability: The network elements and VNFs from
different vendor must co-exists. The NFV allows the interoperability and
co-existence through open interface. NFV allows network elements and
VNFs from multiple vendors interoperate and co-exist through API and open
interfaces (i.e., Open Flow).
• Global scope and cross-administration of NFV: Connectivity distributing
over multiple administration dominions and geographies is imperative.
• Acceleration in innovation: The demands of NFV require a substantial
complex forwarding plane, combining virtual and physical applications in
cooperation with extensive control and application software; on the contrary,
SDN lay down on the principles which are based on Open Flow as the
cornerstone and tend to change the control plane to be software-centric,
programmable and open which is an ideal foundation for innovation in SDN.
MODEL ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK FOR NFV
Model Architectural Framework of
Network Function Virtualization
The architectural framework of NFV is organized into three layers and these are
Virtualizednetworkfunction(VNF),NetworkFunctionVirtualizationInfrastructure
(NFVI), and Network Functions Virtualization Management and Orchestration
Architectural Framework (NFV-MANO).

Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics

belong there and replaced the things that should be there. I finished the
table to the last detail before making the bed. I tried to work in a leisurely
frame of mind without too many glances at the clock. After a bit one whole
room was tidied. Kiddies were requested not to go in there "till Mama says
so." Then I tackled the next room, and so on—and so on. In relief work,
too, you must begin to work on one atom of the problem. You must put
blinders on your eyes to shut out all the other atoms. It is fatal to let your
imagination run away with you, fatal to envisage the accumulated woe.
Once in the Rue Servandoni days an Englishman came to ask Herbert to
bury his baby. He told me the story of how the baby died, and I cried all
night thinking of the mother. Herbert remonstrated with me for trying to
bear the whole of another's grief. Christ did that and it broke His heart. His
broken heart could save humanity; but as for little me I could do nobody
any good by breaking my heart over them. Relief work must be constructive
with respect to the patient and instructive with respect to the worker. You
have to exercise self-control of emotion and help yourself to poise by
quickly concentrating your mind on what details of the problem you are
fitted to cope with. You learn after a while that your enthusiasm and
sympathy will not do it all. You accept the fact that you are not
indispensable. You realize that you can put a person on his feet but that to
carry him is beyond you. You are not the only influence for good that is
touching his life. This attitude keeps you both happy and humble. And so
you develop confidence in life and confidence in time. In relief work both
life and time are good allies.
My work started in a modest way in my studio in September, 1914. I
wanted to help mothers of newborn babies, and so I called my œuvre
SAUVONS LES BÉBÉS. I wrote to friends for money and layettes, and depended
—as all American women in France did—upon the personal
correspondence with individuals and organizations in America to maintain
and develop the work started. I had no committee, and, during the three
years I worked for the babies, only one associate. The French wife of an
American artist joined me in 1915. From Princeton, Germantown,
Philadelphia, Pittsburg, New York, Brooklyn and Boston people I knew and
my readers sent me money and boxes through the American Relief
Clearing-House. My best aids were always and invariably the police, who
sent cases to me and guarded me against imposition. It soon became known
in the Fourteenth (my own) Arrondissement, and the neighbouring Sixth,

Fifth, Thirteenth and Fifteenth Arrondissements, that an American woman
in the Rue Campagne-Première gave layettes to expectant mothers, and
sometimes helped with medicines, milk, vacations, clothes and shoes for
other children. I did not need to advertise or hang out a sign! In less than
three years four thousand mothers of five thousand babies found their way
to the Rue Campagne-Première. Sometimes I was swamped, badly
swamped, but I managed to get around to all in the end. I remember one
time, however, that babies were several months old before I could give their
mothers a complete layette.
There was nothing unusual about my œuvre, in its size, its
singlehandedness, or its spirit. Every American woman in France did what
she could from the very beginning by taking up work as she saw it at hand
—in her own home or neighborhood. Many did much more than I. There
were others in Paris looking after the new-born babies.
In the summer of 1917 we Americans resident in France had to give up,
all of us, the individuality of our œuvres. This meant that most of them went
out of existence. When the rumor ran from mouth to mouth in the American
colony that the Red Cross insisted on taking over everything and would
starve out the stubborn individualists, there was consternation. Since the
Red Cross was a Government organization and controlled shipping, it was
possible for them to tell us that we should receive no more cases of supplies
after September first, even if friends at home kept on sending them. Some
were furious; some were offended; some would give a generous slice of
their fortune to fight the injunction; some laughed. But the charities' trust
had come to stay, and started in to handle things and ride rough-shod over
people in a way that I fear is typically American.
In the early stages of war fever, the Y.M.C.A. and the Army showed the
same symptoms as the Red Cross in France. There was the idea that the
American way is always and exclusively the right way; impatience with and
resentment against existing organizations; a thirst for sweeping reforms;
and the determination that Americans who had been on the ground from the
beginning must be eliminated. The way our splendid Ambulance at Neuilly
was absorbed by the army is a story of Prussianism pure and simple. The
Red Cross men and their wives did not seem to get it into their heads that
we had been at war for three years. I attended a drawing-room meeting one
day, where a hundred women were gathered who had been sacrificing
themselves in relief work ever since the day France mobilized. More than

one had lost her son in the war. A new Red Cross woman, fresh from
America, lectured on what the Red Cross was going to do. She smiled at us,
and her peroration was this: "Now you must realize that we are at war, and
that we are going to put you all to work, all to work!"
When the excitement cooled down a bit, we realized that these Red
Cross volunteers meant well, that they were devoted and capable, and that
we could not take too tragically their ignorance and inexperience. We
realized that we were tired, that we needed a rest and change, and that the
Red Cross, with its enormous funds and abundant personnel, was in a
position to realize many of our dreams. Our initial resentment was in part
dismay at seeing newly arrived compatriots making the same mistakes
some of us had made in the beginning, and partly their obtuseness in failing
to get the French point of view. Contact with suffering such as they had
never seen before soon mellowed most of the Red Cross volunteers and
they realized that America was coming, as my husband put it, "not to save
France, but to help France save the world."
Outside of hospitals, where there was a reason for it, we had never worn
uniforms: but we got accustomed to seeing them as the A.E.F. grew
although we never could master the meaning of many of them. One
morning a woman in uniform, with service cap and Sam-Browne belt (not
forgetting the nickel ring for hanging a dagger from), appeared in my
studio. From her pocket she took a crisp new loose-leaf notebook, the like
of which could no longer be indulged in by ordinary folks. As she
unscrewed and adjusted her fountain-pen, she said,
"I've been sent to inspect your relief organization."
"You come from the Children's Bureau?" I asked.
"No, Civilian Relief. How do you handle the matter of investigation?"
"Well," I answered, "I cast my eye over the person, size her up, and give
her what she needs. I cannot afford to investigate. You see, I have no
overhead charges and I need all the money I can get for materials and all the
time for handling them. The only expense is for sewing. Even that money
goes to my own women. I give the sewing out to mothers on my list so they
will not have to go out to work. This encourages them to nurse their babies
themselves instead of sending them to a nourrice."
"People begging," said my visitor, "are splendid actors, you know."

"Few women who are just about to have a baby are likely to act the
impostor," I answered, "and then I do not consider my women as beggars.
I'm sure that nine out of ten are not. They wouldn't need any aid if their
husbands were not in the trenches earning five sous a day. For the first two
years it was only one sou a day. You can generally tell the difference
between a shifty woman looking for a chance to get something for nothing
and the shattered little mother, unaccustomed to charity, whose children
would go without winter clothes were it not for some form of outside help.
Most of the women who come here look on me as a neighbor who loves
babies and who keeps flannel in her cupboard. I'd rather give away an
occasional layette to a dead beat than bruise the feelings of timid souls at
bay. If you could see them as they come in here!"
"But you know really that there can be an immense amount of waste of
good material if you don't investigate."
"I may have wasted material, but I've never failed to help. Nobody
investigated me when my baby was born in a Turkish massacre. If they had,
I couldn't have stood it. Of course I have faced the question. I figure that if I
put in one column the number of layettes I give out and their cost, and
beside it what I would spend in time and taxi fares to investigate, I should
find that the price of a badly-placed layette or two would be less than the
cost of investigation."
The inspector took full and rapid notes. Folding them neatly into her
pocket with one clap of her notebook, she left me.
Three days later a young man appeared. He said, "I am here to represent
the Red Cross. Would you mind telling me about your baby work?"
"Are you from the Children's Bureau?"
"No, I am Vital Statistics."
After the Refugees Bureau sent two inspectors to look into my activities,
the Children's Bureau finally did come. They "took over" my work, which
meant that no more babies in my quarter of Paris received layettes from the
United States.
When I finally handed over my œuvre to the Red Cross, the interview
with the husky well-fed football player of a doctor was refreshing. He was
full of enthusiasm, and I felt instinctively that he was an able man with
broad vision and an open mind. But, like all the men at 4 Place de la
Concorde, he did not give the French credit for having already thought of

T
and worked out many of the problems he wanted to solve. His attitude
towards the French put them in what Abe and Mawruss would call the "new
beginner" class in the matter of baby welfare. He cheerfully told me of
organizing plans for saving French babies, plans which, compared with
what we had been doing, were Kolossal. But the plans included some things
which I knew would not go and others which the French had already
worked out more successfully than my own compatriots. Puericulture is an
advanced science in France, where baby lives are more precious than
anywhere else in the world. I had tried some of the things he wanted to do
and had run up against a stone wall. So had other American women. I
started to sputter, but stopped short of speech. For I had a lightning vision
of how parents must feel when their children, grown to manhood, plunge
into work and do things they might be saved from if only—. I felt motherly
towards this capable young man who was as old as myself. But something
about him gave me confidence that he would work it out all right. And I
knew that he was in no frame of mind to benefit by my experience.
CHAPTER XXIV
UNCOMFORTABLE NEUTRALITY
HE following letter was in my husband's mail one day:

"A young American came to Paris about twenty-five years ago, lived for a time in the
Latin Quarter, and then, following the loss of his income, obtained a minor position in the
office of an importer of American goods. He liked his work, rose to a place of
responsibility, eventually went into business for himself, and developed the business to a
prosperous issue.
"He held the theory that the few Americans living and working abroad formed the
nucleus of American overseas industrial expansion and that they were regarded by
Europeans as representative of their fellow-countrymen. He felt that it was his duty to
conduct his business and social activities in such a manner as to merit the confidence and
respect of his hosts. Had he been indifferent to these responsibilities or had his patriotic fire
ever burned low, his association with the active members of the American Chamber of
Commerce in France and the American Club in Paris would have surely recalled and
revived them. Every one knows of the results attained by these organizations in their effort
to maintain the feeling of sympathetic understanding between the two great sister republics
during the long and difficult period of 'watchful waiting.' Such services enter into the realm
of practical diplomacy and could have been rendered efficient only by men of high
standing and of the highest order of patriotism.
"I wish to call your attention to the editorial page of an American weekly, which boasts
of millions of readers, where we see a vicious attack upon ourselves. I quote textually:
'Things had reached a point among our expatriates, the fifty-eighth and lowest form of
cootie, that in home circles to be pro-American was really bad form.'
"Is this the general opinion in America? Is it shared by people of intelligence? The
editorial in question apparently adds another high authority on public opinion to the
previous judgment rendered by Mr. Wilson when he classified us as 'unpatriotic Americans
living abroad.' I am interested in knowing the true facts. Must we admit that we are held in
small esteem by friends at home because we live in France?
"Sincerely yours,
"ONE OF THE COOTIES."
Being "cooties" ourselves, in the estimation of the American editorial
writer, we read the protest of the American business man resident in Paris
with the keenest interest and sympathy. In telling about the attitude of the
Red Cross toward our relief organizations, after the United States
intervened in the war, I spoke of only one phase of the mistrust—even scorn
—so many of our compatriots took no pains to conceal when they learned
that we belonged to the American colony. It was inconceivable that we
should be living in Paris and bringing up our children there and still be
good Americans. They questioned more than our patriotism and our loyalty
to the country of our birth. They felt that there must be some skeleton in the
closet of every American family living abroad. I have never had an

American tell me to my face that my husband was a crook and that we were
abroad "for our health," but I have had them inquire pointedly why on earth
this or that friend of mine lived in exile. And I suppose my friends were
asked about the past of the Gibbons menage!
"How long have you been over?" is a question as common as the "Oh!"
with a curious inflection that meets the confession of a protracted residence
abroad.
I am sure I do not know why the writer in the American weekly read by
millions called us first "expatriates" and then "the fifty-eighth and lowest
form of cooties." I cannot imagine why. He is ignorant of the people of
whom he speaks. He has probably never met anyone in the American
colony of a European city, or has jumped to the conclusion that an
occasional bounder or cad or snob (these are always in evidence) represents
as intensely patriotic and loyal Americans as exist anywhere. Or he thinks
that living abroad means dislike of one's own country.
There are Americans in Europe—and some of them are to be found in
Paris—who have no valid reason for being where they are more than in
another place. There are criminals and courtiers. There are those who have
forgotten their birthright. But they form an infinitesimally small percentage
of the American colony in Paris. Most of our American residents are
business men, painters, sculptors and writers, with the necessary sprinkling
of professional men to minister to their needs, of the type of the writer of
the letter quoted above. Many of them came to Paris first by accident or as
students and just stayed on. Without them our country would be little
known in Europe: and Europe would be little known in our country. Until
the war broke out, it was never realized how many Americans resided in
Paris. Most of them had lived along quietly, doing their own work and
minding their own business. But they had kept alive the friendship begun in
the days of Franklin. Art and literature have their part in good
understanding between nations: but the foundation and the binding tie are
furnished by commerce and banking. The best representatives of
Americanism are business men.
We of the American colony found that out during the war; and we are
sorry for the ignorance and misapprehension and ingratitude of our
compatriots. They judged without inquiry and tried to put into Coventry the
very men whose patience and tact and devotion not only prevented a break

between France and the United States during the years of uncomfortable
neutrality but prepared the way for the intervention of America and the
downfall of Germany.
I may not have perspective. I may be prejudiced. But I do feel that I have
a right to protest against the cruel snap judgments of us made by those who
never realized there was a war between right and wrong until April, 1917.
Les amis de la première heure—the friends of the first hour—as the
French love to call those who refused to obey the injunction to be "neutral
even in thought" were not confined to Americans resident in France. We
had behind us from the first day our friends in America, friends by the
hundreds of thousands, who sent money and medical supplies, clothing and
kits. All who could came to France to help actively in relief work. But the
machinery for the charitable effort of the United States coming to the aid of
France was provided by the Americans who were permanent or partial
residents in France. We were on the ground. We knew the language. We
knew the needs and the peculiarities of those we were helping.
The greatest service we were privileged to render to our own country
and to France was not ministering to the material needs. What we
accomplished was a drop in the bucket. It was the moral significance of the
relief work that counted. Our Government was neutral. The American
people in the mass were far away from the conflict. The French realized all
the same that individually and collectively the Americans who knew France
or who were in contact with France believed in the righteousness of
France's cause and in the final triumph of France's arms.
Neutrality was uncomfortable. For thirty months we were in an awkward
position. We had to hold the balance between loyalty to America and
friendship for France. On the one hand, we were called upon to comprehend
the slowness of our fellow-countrymen to awaken to the moral issues at
stake, especially after the sinking of the Lusitania. On the other hand, we
were called upon to comprehend the impatience and disappointment of our
French friends. We tried to be sensible and to realize that those who were
far from the fray and to whom the war was incidental could not be expected
to share our intense feeling. With rare exceptions, Americans in Paris did
not allow themselves to criticize the policy of their government in the
presence of French or British friends. That was hard, and required as much
tact as we could muster. But when we were en famille, the fur did fly! That

was natural. We had a right to our opinions, and everything we said from
1914 to the end of 1916, President Wilson and all America with him said in
1917 and 1918. We were never ashamed of being Americans. That
accusation was untrue. But we were sorry that the awakening came so late.
For we saw the toll of human life growing each month. We feared that
France would come out of the war too weakened to profit by victory if the
war dragged on. We were sometimes nervous about the aftermath.
As I look back upon the first years of the war, American neutrality
appears as a tragedy. It was uncomfortable for us, and disastrous for France.
But we lived through it as we lived through other things. Our French friends
were splendid. Their patience was greater than ours.
We kept our flags ready for the inevitable day. And when it arrived at
last, no Americans were prouder of the stars and stripes than we.

I
1917
CHAPTER XXV
HOW WE KEPT WARM
N Paris the child of the people is a born artist. He has the instinct from his
ancestors. His taste is formed and cultivated by what he sees around him
—of the present as well as of the past—from the time he first begins to
observe things. Inheritance and atmosphere influence him. One June day in
1917, our dear friend Thiébault-Sisson, art critic of the Temps, was lunching
with us. He drew from his pocket a lot of photographs. They illustrated the
best and most striking of the drawings by children in the primary schools of
the city. M. Thiébault-Sisson had organized an exposition of children's
drawings, done in their ordinary class work. The photographs were a
surprise and a revelation. Having lived in Paris since the beginning of the
war, I could appreciate the comments of a Parisian, proud of this eloquent
showing of precocious talent. I accepted with alacrity his invitation to see
the originals.
The outline, almost always enhanced by bright frank color, where the
three notes of the flag played a perpetual leit-motif, was a feast for the eyes.
In work of this character one expects to see the freshness and freedom of
childhood. What I found that was unusual was the maturity born of
suffering and intense emotion. In the drawings life in wartime was reflected
with a naïveté that excluded neither precision nor vigor of touch. With
compositions of the simplest and most studied character there was taste and
a pretty feeling for color.
The most popular form of drawing was the poster. In one school the
children were given the subject of calling upon the people to economize
gas. One little girl made a few bold strokes outlining a gas-jet and wrote
underneath, "Parisians—Economize Gas!" Asked to admonish the public to
eat less bread, a boy of ten used a potato as a face. The eyes were almost
human in their appeal. "Eat me please!" was written under the drawing. A

further caption stated that it was the duty of patriots to save the bread for
the soldiers. Sugar shortage inspired the idea of a sugar cone and the same
cone cut in half. Under the former was "In 1914" and under the latter "—
and now!" The best of these posters were reproduced by the thousand and
put in tram-cars and railway stations. They did more to call us to order than
all the grave affiches of the Government.
A dominating note, perhaps the strongest after that of the man on
furlough or the poignant expression of emotions experienced when the
news came that father would never return again, was the hunt for coal.
Little observers, inventing nothing of this (for it was seen over and over
again), pictured a coal wagon upon which two or three youngsters had
scrambled and were helping themselves. Generously they were firing bits of
the precious commodity to their little comrades. This was a drawing made
from memory of things seen.
Winter in Paris is often mild: but early in 1917 came a protracted spell of
zero weather that would have taxed the facilities of Paris in ordinary times.
The coal shortage hit us at the worst possible moment. Transportation was
tied up. The mines were not producing. Stocks became exhausted in a few
days. The hunt for coal was cruel because it was mostly fruitless and
because it imposed upon the children weary waits, hours at a time, in the
street in snow and wind, with the thermometer down to zero.
Whoever saw the crowds massed in a long line in front of the coal
depots, old men, women, children stamping their feet painfully, jostled,
weeping or seized with mute despair at the curt announcement that there
was nothing to do but return to-morrow, will never forget the worst
calamity that fell upon Paris during the war. Children were hit by it more
than all the rest, and in a certain sense more than by the loss of a father. For
they suffered from it in their own flesh, in little hands chapped till they
opened into deep cracks, in little fingers stiffened and swollen by monstrous
chilblains, in frost-bitten feet. For six weeks the quest for coal was the
ruling passion. It inspired the children to compositions all quite like each
other in sentiment and all dominated by the conviction of an implacable
fatality.
In common with most Parisians who lived in modern apartment-houses,
we never had to think of heat. Like hot water, you just turned it on. To make
an effort to have it no more entered into our scheme of things than to help

with the stoking when we were on ship-board. How naturally one accepts
the comforts and conveniences resulting from the work of others and the
smooth moving of modern city life! At first we felt the coal shortage mildly.
It meant piling on extra clothes and having our noses turn red and then blue,
like the dolls with barometrical petticoats. The apartment was chilly, but we
got up as late as we could. For once we blessed the school system in France
which works the children so many hours that you wonder why the babies do
not strike for an eight-hour day. As long as the municipality could supply
them, schools were especially favored. After school hours and devoirs (we
had a wood fire in one room), bed time soon came for the kids. We set the
victrola going, and everybody danced until they forgot the thermometer.
A passage through the Louvre

Then we began to discover that coal means more than heat and light. We
found out how many trades were obliged to say "no coal, no work." In a big
city coal is certainly king, and not a limited monarch at that. Transportation
depends on coal, and everything else depends upon transportation. One day
there was a mass meeting of Paris laundresses. The Government had
promised them coal upon payment in advance of a large part of the price.
The order had been placed for weeks: no coal came. It meant livelihood to
the laundresses and cleanliness to the rest of us. They had the Board of
Health with them and the learned doctors of the Académie de Médecine.
Think of the menace of weeks of accumulated soiled linen! It was all right
for the papers to joke about abolishing starched shirts and cuffs and collars.
That was a small part of the problem, affecting only men. The germs
involved in not being able to wash were no joke.
Elderly people living alone and adult families calculated that it was
cheaper to go to a pension than to keep house. In some cases it was the only
feasible thing. People who had the means started to go south when
conditions in Paris became intolerable. But with little children it was
dangerous to attempt a journey in freezing cold trains.
Just when we had exhausted the little supply of wood we had laid in
originally for the luxury of a wood fire we did not need, our propriétaire
notified us that he could get no more coal for heating or hot water. And the
same day an inspector called to place a maximum of gas (our only means of
cooking) at less than half the amount we ordinarily consumed.
The law of substitution came into force. We had long been ridiculing the
Germans for their ersatz ingenuity. Were we now to have to seek
substitutes? Cooking is the most vital thing in life next to foodstuffs. Paris
blossomed out with what I thought was an American invention, the fireless
cooker. But they were called marmites norvégiennes. I suppose if we keep
on digging at Pompeii we shall find them there. Everyone who could afford
a marmite bought one. You could get them at all prices and sizes, and the
newspapers published daily directions for using them. If you could not
afford a fireless cooker or if you were unable to buy one (they soon gave
out, of course), you took your hatbox from the Galeries Lafayette and
stuffed it with newspapers and sawdust with just room in the middle for
your soup-kettle.

But fireless cookers would not wash clothes. They would not give the
necessary supply of hot water. The law of substitution has a limit. And what
was to be the ersatz for fuel in heating? Gas? Your supply was already cut
down. Electricity? Ditto. Both of these depended upon coal. Petroleum?
The army had commandeered all the supplies for motor transport and
airplanes. Wood alcohol? There was none to be had.
Then began the coal hunt for us. We had been pitying the poor. Now was
our turn. Money was of no value. Other propriétaires had served the same
notice. People with larger purses than ours were in the market for coal and
wood. Our children began to suffer also in their own flesh.
My husband and his secretary gave up work and joined the coal hunters.
They scoured the city in taxi-cabs. Herbert found a man who knew where
there was a ton of anthracite for eighty dollars. He tracked it down and
found that he was the tenth person applying for it that same afternoon.
Then the kiddies came down with measles. Keeping them warm in the
way the doctor ordered was utterly impossible. All we could do was to give
them more blankets. When the baby got congestion of the lungs and heat
and hot baths meant the difference between life and death, I cast my eye
over the apartment appraising the furniture. I no longer thought of how
pretty my Brittany armoire was or how I loved my Empire desk. The cubic
feet of wood was the sole criterion. Dining-room chairs went first into the
fire in Hope's bedroom. The dining-room table, sawed into little blocks,
heated the water for baths. Cupboard doors were taken off their hinges and
converted into fuel. Herbert got a hand-cart and stood in line for his turn at
a place where old lumber from torn-down houses was being sold. There was
a crowd besieging it as if it were a gold-mine. It was, to the owners. The
junk that had been there for years disappeared at fabulous prices in a few
days, doors, clapboards, window-sashes, shutters, beams, flooring, even
lathes.
When our fight for Hope's life became known, friends appeared bringing
treasures. A prominent American manufacturer was at the door one
morning. He had climbed six flights of stairs with a huge bag of bits of
wood gleaned in his factory.
"We calculate pretty close," he said apologetically. "We do not have
much waste in making roll-top desks."

N
"Don't ask me where I got this sack of coal," said another respectable
Samaritan. I felt his guilt, confirmed when he told me the story afterwards
of how he had stolen it from the back of a wagon. But I was not asking
questions then!
Two burly policemen, unmindful of dignity and uniforms, deposited
sacks of wood on my salon floor. They had come from the Commissariat in
the Fifth Arrondissement. Monsieur le Commissaire, they explained, had
said that the woman who was looking after so many Paris babies in her
œuvre must not be allowed to see her own baby die. They had agreed. This
was the wood from their own office. Why not? For the first time I cried. Go
through my experience, and you will understand how one can have a
passionate love for the French. I am relating here just one little incident of
help unsolicited that came in a crisis. I had never seen that Commissaire.
How he knew my baby was ill was a mystery. But I have often experienced
in my Paris life the impulsive generosity, carried out at inconvenience and
sacrifice, of which this is an example. There were others who needed that
wood as much as I did. But I was a foreigner who had been working for
babies in the Commissaire's district. A point of honor was involved. Never
will you find a Frenchman lacking when he feels a sense of obligation.
François Coppée wrote a beautiful story about a young French aristocrat
whose life in the army had taught him that half of the world goes through
life struggling constantly to obtain what the other half has without effort.
Perhaps you have read "La Croûte de Pain." After the war of Soixante-Dix
the aristocrat could not bear to see bread wasted. One day he picked up a
crust on the street, brushed off the mud with his handkerchief and set it on
the side-walk where one who needed it would find it. And then he told his
inquiring companion why. I shall always be like that with coal. For I can
never forget how we kept warm in February, 1917.
CHAPTER XXVI
APRIL SIXTH
EVER were Americans in France more perplexed about the state of
feeling in the United States than at the beginning of 1917. The sinking
of the Lusitania and other torpillages had brought forth note after note

from President Wilson: but his spokesmen among the Democratic senators,
especially Senator Hitchcock, were advocating measures to put an embargo
on the export of arms and ammunition. If these men had succeeded, they
would have helped Germany to win the war during 1916. Then President
Wilson was reelected on the slogan, "He has kept us out of the war."
Immediately after his re-election, Mr. Wilson began an attempt to make
peace that seemed to us at the time distinctly unfriendly to the Entente. The
idealism of President Wilson stirred us. But we were living too close to the
war to see the advantage of a "peace without victory."
Our first intimation of a change of attitude in America came one day
when L'Information, one of our papers that comes out at noon, published a
cable-gram from Washington, stating that Secretary Lansing had declared
that the reason behind President Wilson's interest in peace was that the
United States felt herself on the brink of war. Herbert and I were walking
home from our studios. He stopped to buy the paper that the boy on a
bicycle was just giving our newswoman. Long experience had taught us
that the noon paper never gave anything new. But one was always afraid to
miss something. That's why afternoon papers are able to bring out so many
editions. When we read this message, we realized that the President must be
at the end of his rope, and that if Germany persisted in her intention to
declare unlimited submarine warfare, our entering into the conflict was
inevitable.
The news of the rupture of diplomatic relations arrived on a Sunday
morning when the streets were full. The dispatches from Washington
contained long excerpts from President Wilson's splendid speech. Relief
rather than joy was the feeling we all had. We said to ourselves, "At last!"
Some of our intimate French friends, when we discussed the break and the
reasons the President gave for it, wondered why those reasons had not been
valid long before. It was an echo of our own thoughts. But French and
American were so happy over the new stand taken by the United States,
over the new note in the leadership of President Wilson, that we did not
allow ourselves to criticize the past. All was forgiven on that last Sunday of
January. Over night President Wilson became the most popular man in
France. And just one week before my Parisian friends had been reading his
Senate speech of January twenty-second with a puzzled expression that
turned into anger and indignation.

We had an excellent barometer of what the French bourgeois and
universitaire was thinking in our dear old family doctor. Doctor Charon had
come to us first in the Rue Servandoni days. Christine was sick one night
for the first and only time in her babyhood. The young father and mother
were scared to death. Doctor Charon, whom we had not known before, was
called in. He assured us that there was nothing fatal. After that he came
again for colds. He knew how to scold us and make us obey. Since then he
has been the family friend and censor, entering into our life as only a doctor
can do. He always stopped to chat a minute. His only son was at the war: he
and his wife and two daughters were doing hospital work. I often felt that
his heart was breaking. He suffered from the war in his soul, which was far
worse than suffering in the flesh.
During the years of uncomfortable neutrality, Herbert and I tried to
reassure Doctor Charon and make him see how impossible it was that all
our compatriots, who had never been in France and knew nothing about
France, could feel the way we did. But we often felt that he loved us despite
the fact that we were Americans. On January 23, 1917, Doctor Charon
talked to us at length about the Senate speech. The way President Wilson's
mind worked was beyond him. He despaired of America. On January 30 he
came in with a face transfigured, held out his arms, and kissed me. We both
cried.
"I do not yet understand about your President," he said simply, "but you
were right in telling me not to lose hope in him. To-day he is our prophet."
During the two years that followed, Doctor and Madame Charon, in
common with all our French friends, had a revelation of the heart of
America beating for France. They saw at close range our relief work. Not
only did we give money without stint, but hundreds of Americans—who
had never known France before—came over to show by tireless personal
service that the friends of France were not limited to the Americans resident
in France or to those who had some point of personal contact. In the end
they realized that we were ready to be as prodigal with our blood as with
our treasure. When my husband received his red ribbon, the Charons gave a
dinner for us. Doctor Charon said: "I have one ambition now in life—to go
to America."
As I have related in another chapter, February and March were tragic
months for Paris. Zero weather and no coal made a combination that took

our attention away from the evolution of public opinion across the seas.
Germany stood firm, resisting the threats and disregarding the warnings of
President Wilson's notes. But we had such an inherent mistrust of notes that
we were not sure until the end of March that some sort of a modus vivendi
would not be patched up, as after the Lusitania and the Sussex.
Were we even sure in the first week of April? Herbert told me to get out
our flags that had been put carefully away since 1914. Although I was not
as optimistic as my husband, I brought out the flags and mended them. I
needed two for our studios. My voice trembled when I asked for the stars
and stripes at the Bon Marché. They had a large stock, mostly brand-new.
They were counting upon the imminent event. The sales girl told me that
they had sold more American flags in the last fortnight than those of the
other Allies put together since the beginning of the war. She said it
gleefully. The new broom was sweeping clean. With all my pride in my
own country, I had my misgivings about too great a demonstration. Why did
not the Government or some of the patriotic organizations make a
propaganda to have the flags of the Allies ready for display everywhere
with the American and French when the day arrived? I suggested this to my
husband, who was a member of the Union des Grandes Associations
Françaises. I knew how I would feel if I were a Britisher who had been
there from the beginning. Would not the French show that wonderful
characteristic of theirs, the sense of proportion?
But when the day arrived, my internationalism and cosmopolitanism, a
gradual and unconscious growth, suddenly disappeared. It was a reversion
to type. I became blatantly American again, and gloried in the fact that
everywhere it was all Stars and Stripes. Why not? This was America's day.
And ever since, despite the theoretical internationalism (or super-
nationalism) I have advocated in common with my husband, I fear that
practically I have been lapsing into a narrow nationalism. It is a curious
phenomenon. I do not attempt to explain it.
On Thursday, April sixth, Herbert went to the American Club to lunch.
Settling down to work had been hard that morning. We were feverishly
awaiting the news. I was just starting lunch with the children when the
telephone rang. Herbert's voice said, "Put out your flag," and then he hung
up.

"W
An hour later he came in a taxi-cab with Carroll Greenough, an
American architect who lived near us. We went for his wife. Then the four
of us did the Grands Boulevards, the Rue de la Paix, and the principal
streets in the heart of Paris. As if by magic the American flag appeared
everywhere. Paris had not waited for the poster of the Municipality, in
which the President of the Municipal Counsel called upon his fellow
citizens to pavoiser in honor of the new Ally. Americans though we were,
we had never seen so many American flags. They expressed the hope
which, though long deferred, had not made the heart sick.
We went to the Ambassadeurs for tea. The terraces were full. We
watched the crowds passing up and down the Champs-Elysées. All that was
lacking was the orchestra to play the Marseillaise and the Star Spangled
Banner. There had been no orchestras in Paris since the beginning of the
war.
But the music was in our hearts.
CHAPTER XXVII
THE VANGUARD OF THE A. E. F.
HAT class are yuh goin' to git?"
The voice came from a wee island of khaki in a solid mass of
horizon blue. American soldiers! The first I had seen. The American army
was to the French army as were these half dozen doughboys to the station
full of shabby poilus. The Gare du Nord has many memories for me, happy
and poignant, but this will always be the most precious. Shall I ever forget
the ticket window around which our boys crowded? We had been saying
"How long, O Lord, how long?" And now they were with us. I moved
nearer to them.
"Why, there's classes—foist, second, and thoid—accordin' to what yuh
pay—see?"
"Aw! What dya mean?"
"Buy fift' and we'll ride foist!"
I volunteered to help them count their change.

"She don't understand and neither do we," said one, hitching a thumb in
the general direction of the girl behind the grating.
"Guess she's got mush in her brain."
"Or feathers!" laughed another.
It was not the class they would ride that was at the bottom of the trouble.
I found that the boys wanted to go to Versailles. They had come into the
Gare du Nord with baggage two days in advance of General Pershing and
his staff. Their officer had given them an afternoon off, but told them that
they were not to wander around Paris. He had suggested Versailles. This
was the only station they knew, and so they were trying to get to Vers-ales. I
took them to the Gare du Montparnasse and put them on their way. This
really was not necessary. I soon discovered the American soldiers needed
no interpreter. They always got to whatever destination they set their minds
upon. But this little scene at the Gare du Nord was typical of the spirit of
our boys during the two years they were in France. Instead of getting angry,
they smiled and "joshed." In their very nature they had the secret of getting
along with the French.
The afternoon of General Pershing's arrival, the streets around the Gare
du Nord held a crowd the like of which I had not seen in Paris since the war
began. It was the same at the Place de la Concorde. Rooms had been
engaged for the Pershing party at the Hotel Crillon. The ovation at the Gare
du Nord and along the route of the procession was remarkable. When
General Pershing came out on the balcony of the Crillon it was a scene
worthy of the occasion. Paris was not greeting an individual. France was
welcoming America.
For the first time since the beginning of the war Paris celebrated. The
danger that still menaced the city and the bereavements of three years were
forgotten in the frenzy of joy over what everyone believed was the entry of
a decisive factor. Since April sixth insidious defeatist propaganda had
permeated the mass of the people. Seizing upon the failure of the
Champagne offensive in April, which had caused mutinies in the army that
could not be hushed up, German agents—often through unconscious tools
—spread their lies among a discouraged people. America had declared war,
yes, but she intended to limit her intervention to money and materials. No
American army would risk crossing the ocean. The Americans, like the
British, were ready "to fight to the last Frenchman."

Seeing was believing. Here were the American uniforms. The arrival of
the first American troops, we were assured, would be announced within the
next few days. Perhaps they had already landed at some port in France? To
baffle the submarines we understood that the censorship must be vigorous.
At any rate, an American general and his staff would not be in Paris without
the certainty of an army to follow.
Another source of conviction was afforded us in the fact that on this day
of General Pershing's coming Marshal Joffre made his first public
appearance in Paris. Parisians had never had a chance before to acclaim the
victor of the Marne.
The Americans set up their headquarters in two small hôtels at the end of
the Rue de Constantine, opposite the Invalides. Immediately the boys of the
headquarters detachment marked out a diamond on the Esplanade des
Invalides, and passers-by had to learn to dodge base-balls. The police did
not interfere. Nothing was too good for the Americans. All Paris flocked to
see for themselves the khaki uniforms and to learn the mysteries of our
national game. There was always a crowd around the door of General
Pershing's home in the Rue de Varenne.
The events of the next few weeks will always seem like a dream to me.
The scene of the drama that has influenced so profoundly the history of the
world was shifted from Paris. I went to Saint-Nazaire to see our boys land
and later to their first training-camp in the country of Jeanne d'Arc. Many of
them did not see Paris. Their idea of France was a long journey of days and
nights in freight-cars, with interminable stops, and ending in small villages
where they met rain and mud. But a fortunate battalion of the First Division
had the honor of being the vanguard of the A. E. F. in Paris.

In an Old Quarter
They were lodged in the Caserne de Reuilly. On the Fourth of July,
declared a national holiday by grateful France, they paraded through the
streets of our city. We were to become accustomed to American soldiers in
Paris. But these first boys made a unique impression. The moment of their
coming was psychological. Paris never needed encouragement more.
After this excitement we had another long and anxious wait of eight
months. The Americans came each week, but in dribbles. Between
Gondrecourt and the three ports of Saint-Nazaire, Bordeaux and Brest, it
was necessary to construct the lines of communication while a great army
in America was being gathered and trained. The defeatist propaganda
started up again, the word was spread that the Americans were coming too

slowly and that in France they were to be seen everywhere but at the front.
Were not the French still holding the lines against odds and giving their
lives, while the Americans were in safety? Despite the fact that General
Pershing moved G. H. Q. from Paris to Chaumont in the Haute-Marne, the
number of American soldiers in Paris, through the necessities of the S. O. S.
increased rapidly. The Hotel Mediterranée, near the Gare de Lyon, was the
first large building taken over. Then the Elysée-Palace Hotel on the Avenue
des Champs-Elysées was chartered. The American flag soon appeared over
barracks, garages and other buildings in all parts of the city. You could go
nowhere without seeing the American uniform, and our automobiles learned
to drive as rapidly as the French. We got accustomed to hearing English
spoken on the streets. The Red Cross, the Y.M.C.A., the Knights of
Columbus, and the Jewish Welfare Board, established hotels and restaurants
and reading-rooms and leased theatres. Our American Ambulance at
Neuilly, taken over by the army, became only one of a number of hospitals.
Not until the spring offensive of the next year were the Americans able
to come in large numbers. Then suddenly a single month brought as many
as the nine preceding months. We had our half million, our million, our two
millions.
The faith of the French in us revived with Cantigny and Château-
Thierry. I am ahead of my chronology. But the men who first fell under the
American flag were those who marched through the streets of Paris, on July
Fourth, 1917. On parade they gave us hope. Fighting they gave us certitude
of victory.

P
1918
CHAPTER XXVIII
THE DARKEST DAYS
ROBLEMS of war time housekeeping in France did not go back to
1914. The learned political economists who demonstrated to their own
satisfaction that a general European war would not last a year were dead
wrong. Millions were mobilized. Nations were at each other's throats. The
Germans were able to retaliate against the naval blockade by submarine
warfare that threatened to decrease seriously our own communications with
the outside world. But somehow we managed to go through year after year
without feeling the pinch of decreased productivity. And somehow we
accepted the inflation of currency and continued to subscribe cheerfully to
successive war loans with money that came from God knows where. One
hears now much about how we suffered in 1915 and 1916. Morally
speaking, I suppose we did suffer and that we were aware of the strain as
time went on. But from a material point of view the war did not make itself
felt much until 1917. It was only in the spring of that year that a cartoonist
was inspired to draw a necklace of anthracite, tipped off with an egg for a
pendant, over the caption, "Her Jewels." Coal cards, sugar cards, and bread
cards were to us the signs of Germany's weakness.
Successive Cabinets realized well enough the prudence of anticipatory
restrictions. In the autumn of 1916 the newspapers put forth a ballon
d'essai. Every day they published a homily on the virtue of practicing
economy. It had no effect on my servants, this constant warning of a
shortage to come. No restaurants obeyed the voluntary rationing measures.
The Government did not dare to introduce obligatory rationing. Public
opinion rebels against restrictions of individual liberty. We had to feel the
pinch before rationing measures were tolerated.
Sugar cards came first. They were "put over" on the public during the
rejoicing over the intervention of the United States. Coal cards were

instituted only after the bitter lesson of the late winter months of 1917 bid
fair to repeat itself. Not until October, 1917, did I have to put my signature
as chef de famille (my husband was so often away) on an application for
bread cards handed me by the concierge. A fourth New Year of war came
and went before we experienced what we had read about in other countries
—real lack of necessities. The reserves of everything gave out suddenly.
For the first time ability to spend money freely did not solve household
problems.
Some difficulties were insoluble. They were the difficulties centering
around a shortage of coal supply. I never realized before that in our modern
civilization coal is really a dominating factor in making tolerable existence
in the city. The winter before the sudden giving out of coal affected only our
heating. In the first months of 1918 coal rationing led to cutting down on
gas, electricity and water. In modern apartments, just as there is no way to
heat them except by radiators, there is no way to light them except by
electricity and no way to have hot water except by turning on the spigot. We
were in what the French call a cercle vicieux. We had a fox-and-geese-and-
corn problem. For instance, when a municipal ordinance forbade giving hot
water except on Saturdays and Sundays, your first thought was to heat
water on the kitchen gas-stove. But your allowance for gas was insufficient
for cooking. Nor could you use gas for lighting to save electricity.
Petroleum for lamps or cooking was unobtainable. Everyone made a rush
for candles and wood alcohol. They gave out. When you thought of honey
and jams to make up to the children what they lacked in sugar, everyone
else thought of honey and jams at the same time. We lived on the sixth
floor. The electricity rationing made possible running the elevator only at
certain hours. And when the elevator broke down, all the steel was going
into cannon and all the workers were turning out munitions. You just
walked up six flights of stairs all the time.
Aside from cooking and baths and heat and light, the coal shortage
affected your laundry. So you couldn't change linen more frequently to
compensate for lost baths. In the old days the laundress would cast her eyes
around for more stuff to pack into her bundle, and if you gave her a free
hand, would gather up things that had never been soiled. Now she picked
out of the basket what she saw fit to take. In the same way, I used to
struggle to keep my milk supply down. It was a common trick for the dairy
people to load you up with milk and butter and eggs and cheese in collusion

with your cook. Now you had to beg for enough milk to give the babies a
cup apiece a day; butter arrived in exchange for a heavy tip; and eggs
appeared not when you ordered them but when the dairy chose to send them
—which was rarely.
To have the laundress acting like that, and other people acting like that,
was living in Alice's Looking-Glass House. Things were contrariwise. One
day the laundress came to tell me that she could take no more work. The
wash house where the work used to be done had shut down. My poor
woman was dissolved in tears to think that a business that she had spent
twenty-three years in building up had to drop its customers. I did the best I
could by getting in a scrub woman for the day to wash the most important
things in cold water in the bath-room. That was hard enough. But how dry
them? Old tricks would not go: there was no heat in the radiators. You see,
as I said, all the troubles came at once and were due primarily to coal
shortage. There was no remedy. Insufficient food supply because of lack of
means of transportation. Insufficient lack of means of transportation
because of shortage of coal for freight engines.
I bought dark jersey dresses for the babies, and lived in dark things
myself.
I was fortunate in having a good cook and nurse who stayed with me
through thick and thin. But when I came to get a femme de ménage for
chamber work I realized how justified were the complaints of most of my
friends. Women could make big money in munition factories. The large
country element, scared away in 1914 or called home to take the place of
men at the front, did not feed Paris with help as in peace time. I had a
succession of giggling sixteen-year-olds, pottering grandmothers, and
useless loafers. One femme de ménage I called "Toothless." She thought it
was an English pet name, and beamed under it. She was a farm hand from
the Marne district. The family fled before the Germans. She was left in
charge until the soldiers drove her out. "Toothless" put the chickens in a
little hay wagon, tied the cows to the back of it, and, with her employer's
silver on her lap, drove alone through the night to safety. She was herded
with other evacuated peasants on a steamer bound for Bordeaux. The ship
was torpedoed and she lost her teeth by the explosion. I felt very sorry, and
regarded her somewhat as a heroine until the truth dawned on me that she
was speaking of a plate. I didn't think of this myself. She asked me for an
advance one day, explaining that she had to pay it down to a dentist when

she ordered more teeth. A stranded Russian student followed "Toothless."
She held out until her prosperous father sent money from Petrograd through
the Russian Embassy. Try as hard as I could and offer more than I wanted to
pay, I could not get a regular third servant. I used to be amazed at the letters
from American friends, asking me to send them servants. It must have been
the popular notion in the United States that France was full of women eager
for the chance to work.
In the fourth year of the war, we began to feel the drain on the nation's
manhood. The constant killing and crippling and calling to the colors of
older men and boys made it almost impossible to get any work done. Bells
or lights or plumbing out of order—you waited for months. Where in 1915 I
had found half a dozen paper-hangers and painters eager to bid against each
other for the job of renovating my studio, I had to beg and bribe men to
come in 1918. It took me four months to get what I wanted done. Herbert
became expert in carrying trunks and boxes: but that did him no harm.
There is a bright side to everything.
Lines began to form at the grocers and the butchers. One waited and
waited and waited. My servants spent most of the day in the early months of
1918 in sugar and meat-lines. All over Paris it was faire la queue for
everything, even for tobacco and matches.
Although it was an expensive proposition, I found it necessary, with my
large family and constant guests, to buy groceries through an agent. A large
English firm seemed to be able to furnish everything—if you paid their
price. The order-man who came around every week was a rascal named
Grimes. He had the genius of a book-agent, and worked you for an order by
playing on your fears. Here is a monologue that I wrote out one day just to
record how Grimes sold things.
"Rice? First-class American rice?" (Why Grimes called rice "American"
was more than I could understand.) "Still got a little of it—please don't ask
me the price. Don't think of that now. Better let me put you down for a
hundred pounds of it and just shut your eyes to money. Golden syrup? Just
brought three cases of it up from Bordeaux myself. No telling when we will
see any more. The submarines are worse than ever: awful, isn't it, but it's
best that the newspapers don't tell us the truth. I'm going to let you have two
dozen tins of syrup if you don't tell anyone. It's on account of your kiddies.
I recommend that you don't let older people touch it. Stack it away for the

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