Effective instructional leadership

Effective instructional leadership

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  Journal of Educational Administration 38,2 130 Journal ofEducational Administration, Vol. 38 No. 2, 2000, pp. 130-141. # MCB University Press, 0957-8234 Received June 1999 Accepted August 1999 Effective instructional leadership Teachers' perspectives on how principals promote teaching and learning in schools Joseph Blase and Jo Blase The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA Keywords Teachers, Schools, Leadership, Development Abstract Few studies have directly examined teachers' perspectives on principals' everyday instructional leadership characteristics and the impacts of those characteristics on teachers. In this study, over 800 American teachers responded to an open-ended questionnaire by identifying and describing characteristics of principals that enhanced their classroom instruction and what impacts those characteristics had on them. The data revealed two themes (and 11 strategies) of effective instructional leadership: talking with teachers to promote reflection and promoting professional growth. The goal in a learning community is to build connections between people, socially and intellectually. Control interferes with this process; it distances people from one another. Commitment strengthens interpersonal connections...building a learning community is tantamount to developing a commitment to shared learning. (Prawat, 1993, p. 9) In recent years, the restructuring of schools to empower teachers and to implement school-based shared decision making has resulted in a move away from bureaucratic control and toward professionalization of teaching (Louis et al., 1996). In many schools, teachers are developing a collaborative practice of teaching which includes coaching, reflection, group investigation of data, study teams, and risk-laden explorations to solve problems (Dowling and Sheppard, 1976; Glanz and Neville, 1997). The emergent discourse is one of critique, not criticism, and it exists within a ``community of learners'', professionals who provide academic and moral service to students. We report here the findings of a study designed to determine teachers' perspectives on effective instructional leadership. We asked the question: What characteristics of school principals positively influence classroom teaching, and what effects do such characteristics have on classroom instruction? Instructional leadership Current literature about instructional leadership falls into four broad areas. First, prescriptive models describe instructional leadership as the integration of the tasks of direct assistance to teachers, group development, staff development, curriculum development, and action research (Glickman, 1985); as a democratic, developmental, and transformational activity based on equality and growth (Gordon, 1997); as an inquiry-oriented endeavor that The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emerald-library.com
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  Effective instructional leadership 131 encourages teacher voice(Reitzug and Cross, 1993); and as a discursive, critical study of classroom interaction to achieve social justice (Smyth, 1997). Second, studies of instructional leadership, though few in number (Short (1995), include exploratory studies of indirect effects of principal-teacher instructional conferences and behaviors such as the effects of monitoring student progress (e.g. Blase and Blase, 1996; Dungan, 1993; Blase and Roberts, 1994; Reitzug, 1994). Third, studies of direct effects of principal behavior on teachers and classroom instruction include Sheppard's (1996) synthesis of research demonstrating the relationship between certain principal behaviors and teacher commitment, involvement, and innovation. Fourth, studies of direct and indirect effects on student achievement include Hallinger and Heck's (1996a, 1996b) review of studies investigating the principal's role (e.g. use of constructs such as participative leadership and decentralized decision making) in school effectiveness. Despite such research, the relationships among instructional leadership, teaching, and even student achievement have not been adequately studied (Leithwood et al., 1990). In fact, based on a review of the Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, Short (1995) has called for more research into the effects of leader behavior on teacher behavior, the relationship of instructional leadership to teaching, instructional leaders' characteristics, and conditions necessary for effective instructional leadership. The study we report in this article is the first comprehensive empirical report of the experiences of teachers ± as reported by teachers ± in effective instructionally oriented interactions (cf. Herbert and Tankersley, 1993). Here, we briefly describe our findings about developing collaborative, problem-solving contexts for dialog about instruction. We also describe a specialized form of teacher thinking ± reflection and reflectively informed behavior, which arises from a teacher's questions about perplexing classroom experience and leads to purposeful inquiry and problem resolution (Dewey, 1933). Method To examine teachers' perspectives on effective instructional leadership, we used the Blumer (1969)-Mead (1934) approach to symbolic interaction theory. This approach to research focuses on understanding the meanings human beings construct in their social settings. We developed an open-ended questionnaire, the Inventory of Strategies Used by Principals to Influence Classroom Teaching (ISUPICT), to investigate the question: What characteristics (e.g. strategies, behaviors, attitudes, goals) of school principals positively influence classroom teaching, and what effects do such characteristics have on classroom instruction? We pilot tested an initial version of the questionnaire before constructing the final form of the instrument. The ISUPICT introduced the research topic, requested background information, asked respondents to provide detailed descriptions of one characteristic of a principal with whom they worked that had a positive impact on their classroom teaching, and requested descriptions of
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  Journal of Educational Administration 38,2 132 one characteristicof a principal with whom they worked that had a negative impact on their classroom teaching. We also asked respondents to describe the effects of principals' behaviors on classroom instruction, the principals' apparent goals, and the effectiveness of the principals' behaviors. Professors from a variety of disciplines in education administered the Inventory to a total of 809 full-time public school teachers taking courses at both on- and off- campus sites at three major universities located in the south-eastern, midwestern, and north-eastern USA. Involvement in the study was voluntary and anonymous. Respondents included 25l males and 558 females; 275 rural, 291 suburban, and 243 urban teachers; 380 elementary, 177 middle/junior high, and 252 high school teachers. They averaged 37 years old, with 11 years in teaching. The sample included 606 tenured and 203 nontenured teachers, 598 married and 211 single teachers holding 218 bachelor's, 459 master's, 97 specialist's, and 35 doctoral degrees. Their responses included descriptions of 398 male and 411 female principals. The mean number of years with the current principal at the time of this study was four. Data from the 809 teachers who participated in the study (about 500 words from each respondent) were coded according to guidelines for inductive- exploratory research and comparative analysis (Glaser, 1978, 1992; Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Line-by-line analysis produced categories and subcategories for principal characteristics (e.g. strategies, behaviors) teachers identified with both effective instructional leadership and ineffective instructional leadership, as well as impacts on teaching (i.e. teachers' thoughts, behaviors, and feelings related to teaching, and effectiveness of each leadership characteristic). To check the researchers' analysis, coders inspected segments of the research data, reaching a high degree of consistency (0.90). Owing to space limitations, only very brief excerpts (with names omitted) from the data are presented here to illustrate selected ideas. Also because of space considerations, this article focuses on the strategies teachers identified with effective instructional leadership and their impacts on teachers. A report of the negative principal behaviors and their adverse effects on teachers is forthcoming (Blase and Blase, forthcoming). Results We found that in effective principal-teacher interaction about instruction, processes such as inquiry, reflection, exploration, and experimentation result; teachers build repertoires of flexible alternatives rather than collecting rigid teaching procedures and methods. Our model of effective instructional leadership was derived directly from the data; it consists of the two major themes: talking with teachers to promote reflection and promoting professional growth.
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  Effective instructional leadership 133 Talking with teachersto promote reflection According to our data, effective principals valued dialog that encouraged teachers to critically reflect on their learning and professional practice. This dialog consisted of five primary talking strategies including: (1) making suggestions, (2) giving feedback, (3) modeling, (4) using inquiry and soliciting advice and opinions, and (5) giving praise. Making suggestions. Principals made suggestions to teachers both during post- observation conferences and informally, in day-to-day interactions. These suggestions were purposeful, appropriate, and nonthreatening, and were characterized by: . listening, . sharing their experiences, . using examples and demonstrations, . giving teachers choice, . contradicting outdated or destructive policies, . encouraging risk taking, . offering professional literature, . recognizing teachers' strengths, and . maintaining a focus on improving instruction. One teacher stated: She listens to my problems and then responds in a way that makes me really think about things. She asks questions to get me to understand all aspects of a problem and then gives me stories of her own experiences. The effect of these behaviors was to enhance teachers' reflective behavior (e.g. using greater variety in teaching, responding to student diversity, planning more carefully, and taking more risks). Teachers reported positive effects on their motivation, satisfaction, self-esteem, efficacy, sense of security, and feelings of support. One teacher said, ``The principal's suggestions encouraged me to continually be reflective about my teaching and student responses/ outcomes. As I am teaching, I am more conscious of student attention...I am not afraid to change my strategies.'' Giving feedback. Effective principals ``hold up a mirror'', serve as ``another set of eyes'', and are ``critical friends'' who engage in thoughtful discourse with teachers. Their feedback focused on observed classroom behavior, was specific, expressed caring and interest, provided praise, established a problem-solving orientation, responded to concerns about students, and stressed the principal's
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  Journal of Educational Administration 38,2 134 availability forfollow-up talk. The effects of this feedback included increased teacher reflection, innovation/creativity, instructional variety, risktaking, better planning for instruction, and improved teacher motivation, efficacy, sense of security, and self-esteem. This type of strategy builds my confidence. My supervisor reinforces the fact that I am a teacher. As I collaborate with her, I learn more about my teaching. I look forward to her next visit as a chance to grow. The confidence I have described shows in my teaching. As I gain positive feedback, I continue using what works in the classroom. And because I do not fear negative evaluation, I am willing to take risks. Modeling. According to teachers, effective principals demonstrated teaching techniques in classrooms and during conferences; they also modeled positive interactions with students. These forms of modeling were viewed as impressive examples of instructional leadership that primarily yielded positive effects on teacher motivation as well as reflective behavior. A teacher stated, My principal utilizes a great deal of informal ``coaching'' and mentoring. He is in and out of the entire faculty's classes. I value his insights because he is an excellent teacher. His love of children and young people was so obvious that we trusted him somehow...Often he asks if he could teach a class. Watching him is a joy. I honestly believe I did some of my best reflecting after talking with or watching this man teach. Using inquiry and soliciting advice/opinions. We found that effective principals often used an inquiry (questioning) approach with teachers, and they frequently solicited the teachers' advice about instructional matters (``He phrased it positively: `You ask wonderful, thought-provoking questions. Should you give kids longer to think about answers?''') Using inquiry and soliciting advice were related to positive impacts on teacher motivation, self- esteem, efficacy, sense of security, and reflective behavior: The principal, in observing what is taking place in my room, will ask me questions about why I am doing what I am doing, or what my intended outcomes are. This encourages me to be reflective about what I do. She rarely has a suggestion, but her questions cause me to evaluate what I do. Giving praise. Teachers reported that principals gave praise that focused on specific and concrete teaching behaviors: The principal wrote a note at the bottom of the evaluation form that said, ``You are a credit to the teaching profession''. In our conference he asked if he could send other teachers to observe my classroom. Praise significantly affected teacher motivation, self-esteem, and efficacy. It also fostered teacher reflective behavior, including reinforcement of effective teaching strategies, risk taking, and innovation/creativity. (``My principal's praise gets me searching for new and innovative things on my own''). In addition to the strategies discussed above, principals enhanced teacher reflective behavior by distributing professional literature, encouraging teachers to attend workshops and conferences, and encouraging reflective discussions and collaboration with others.
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  Effective instructional leadership 135 Promoting professional growth Principalsused six strategies to promote teachers' professional growth, including: (1) emphasizing the study of teaching and learning; (2) supporting collaboration efforts among educators; (3) developing coaching relationships among educators; (4) encouraging and supporting redesign of programs; (5) applying the principles of adult learning, growth, and development to all phases of staff development; and (6) implementing action research to inform instructional decision making. Emphasizing the study of teaching and learning. Effective principals provided staff development opportunities which addressed emergent needs for teachers: We are given a lot of opportunities to learn new strategies and new learning techniques at staff development meetings, many of which are optional. Our staff development always supports our major instructional goal, which we all have input on. We have a lot to say on what and how we want to do things. These opportunities, along with teacher input, discretion in attending, and support for innovation, resulted in increased teacher innovation/creativity, risk taking, instructional focus, as well as effects on motivation, efficacy, and self- esteem. ``By giving us voice and choice,'' one teacher commented, ``we are more motivated to go to inservices and learn new things that we can try out.'' It is interesting to note that effective principals frequently became learners themselves by participating in staff development sessions. (``[It's] dynamic...I'm so impressed that she values this shared learning so much!'') Supporting collaboration among educators. Effective principals recognized that collaborative networks among educators were essential for successful teaching and learning. They modeled teamwork, provided time for collaborative work, and actively advocated sharing and peer observation: Our principal encourages our team to meet together regularly (bimonthly) to discuss our school's mathematics program. We discuss our current state of affairs, individual student and staff needs, new programs (pros and cons), how to implement change if change is necessary, and planning for parent/community involvement. Collaboration resulted in increased teacher motivation, self-esteem, efficacy, and reflective behavior, such as risk taking, instructional variety, and innovation/creativity. One energized teacher reported: I stretched out and tried new strategies because of the support the team provided... I became a better teacher, I worked harder to find solutions, and I was anxious to share whatever I learned. Our conversations were more open and our professional dialogue became richer. Effective principals also encouraged teachers to visit other teachers, even in other schools, to observe classrooms and programs.
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  Journal of Educational Administration 38,2 136 Developing coachingrelationships among educators. Based on two decades of extensive research, Joyce and Showers (1995) have concluded that classroom implementation of a training design is effective only when training includes coaching from a peer at the classroom level. In our study, principals actively encouraged teachers to become peer coaches: He sent teachers to observe my classes. This made me feel good about myself and my teaching and inspired me to look for ways to stay on top of current topics. I was more confident when I went into the classroom. It caused me to think about what I did well and figure out what can be done better. Such efforts led to greater teacher efficacy, motivation, self-esteem, and impacts on reflective behavior, including innovation/creativity, risk taking, instructional variety in teaching, planning/preparation, and focus. Encouraging and supporting redesign of programs. Our findings demonstrate that effective principals encouraged teachers to redesign instructional programs and supported a multitude of diverse approaches to teaching and learning as well as flexibility with regard to teaching elements such as grouping and strategies. When possible, principals also provided essential resources to support program redesign: She does what she can to provide necessary instructional resources. Our school has a form that teachers can fill out listing the resources they need. The form goes to our teacher council. The teacher has a representative present a rationale for the need. Most often the request is approved and the material is bought immediately. These behaviors resulted in increased teacher motivation, efficacy, and reflective behavior, including greater variety in classroom instruction, increases in risk taking, and increases in planning/preparation. A common sentiment was expressed by one teacher who said, ``I am more willing to try various activities that might be considered a little extreme. I really don't mind taking some chances because of our support base.'' Applying the principles of adult learning, growth, and development to staff development. Teachers reported that principals who practiced effective instructional leadership created cultures of collaboration, inquiry, lifelong learning, experimentation, and reflection consistent with the principles of adult learning and an understanding of teachers' life cycles, roles, and motivation (see for example, Glickman et al., 1995). The effects of such actions included greater teacher motivation, self-esteem, and reflective behavior, especially increases in innovation/creativity, variety in teaching, and risk taking: Collaborative practices establish the idea that teachers are the knowledge source. Peer interaction has more impact than outside assistance. My own confidence levels have increased as I have been developing in an environment in which practice and application are encouraged and assistance is provided through both colleagues and supervisors. Teachers feel free to explore new options, share, and learn from both success and failure. I feel appreciated and motivated each day to continue to grow and learn from peers. Implementing action research to inform instructional decision making. Finally, teachers reported that effective principals were striving to implement the use of
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  Effective instructional leadership 137 action research intheir schools. These principals were working toward conducting staff development as a large-scale action research project after years of neglecting to study student readiness, progress, conduct, and achievement. This is consistent with Calhoun's (1994) thesis that, without class and school-based data about learning, teachers cannot properly determine the effects of what they do in the classroom: By centering action on the careful collection of data to diagnose problems, a disciplined search for alternative solutions, an agreement to act, and the conscientious monitoring of whether and how much the solution worked ± with a recycling of the process, either attacking the problem again or focusing on another one ± we live the problem-solving process for ourselves and model it for our students. The potential is the development of a professional ethos in which members of the organization continually strive to improve their performance by learning to solve more and more problems (Calhoun, 1994, p. 8). Principals' efforts along these lines, however, were in their infancy, thus no strong effects on teachers were apparent in our data. Summary and discussion In sum, talking with teachers to promote reflection and promoting professional growth are the two major dimensions of effective instructional leadership, as reported by teachers. Overall, our data indicate that each of the instructional leadership strategies described above have strong ``enhancing effects'' on teachers, emotionally, cognitively, and behaviorally. We also note that principals who are defined as effective instructional leaders by teachers tended to use a wide range of the strategies described in this article. These strategies were used frequently and seemed to enhance one another. Moreover, principals' leadership reflected a firm belief in teacher choice and discretion, nonthreatening and growth-oriented interaction, and sincere and authentic interest. Teachers were not forced to teach in limited ways, nor were they criticized by their instructional leaders. Put differently, our findings suggest that effective instructional leadership should avoid restrictive and intimidating approaches to teachers, as well as approaches that provoke little more than ``dog and pony shows'' based on a narrow definition of teaching; administrative control must give way to the promotion of collegiality among educators. Our findings, which expand the research that demonstrates direct effects on teachers and classroom instruction (cf. Sheppard, 1996), and which focus precisely on the principal's work behavior and its effects, suggest that effective instructional leadership is embedded in school culture; it is expected and routinely delivered. Our findings also emphasize that effective instructional leadership integrates collaboration, peer coaching, inquiry, collegial study groups, and reflective discussion into a holistic approach to promote professional dialog among educators. Research that supports several disparate aspects of such findings can be found in the work of Calhoun (1994; action research), Joyce and Showers (1995; growth and collaboration), Joyce and Weil (1996; studying teaching and learning), Schon (1987; reflection), Schmuck and
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  Journal of Educational Administration 38,2 138 Runkel (1994;communication and group development), Herzberg (1966) and Maslow (1954: human needs for trust, support, and professional interaction), and Mezirow (career development, adults' search for meaning and lifelong learning; 1981, 1990). Implications for practice and training Generally speaking, principals who are attempting to develop as effective instructional leaders should work to integrate reflection and growth to build a school culture of individual and shared, critical examination for instructional improvement. To do this, principals may: . acknowledge the difficulties of growing and changing, including teacher resistance and the difficulty of role changes; . recognize that change is a journey of learning and risk taking; . demonstrate fundamental respect for the knowledge and abilities of teachers; view the ``teacher as intellectual rather than teacher as technician'' (Little, 1993, p. 129); . talk openly and frequently with teachers about instruction; . make suggestions, give feedback, and solicit teachers' advice and opinions about classroom instruction; . develop cooperative, nonthreatening partnerships with teachers that are characterized by trust, openness, and freedom to make mistakes; . emphasize the study of teaching and learning; . model teaching skills; . support development of coaching skills and reflective conversations among educators; . provide time and opportunities for peer connections among teachers; . provide resources and support for redesign of programs; . apply the principles of adult learning to staff development programs; . promote group development, teamwork, collaboration, innovation and continual growth, trust in staff and students, and caring and respect to enhance teacher efficacy. In addition, the preparation and continuing development of instructional leaders should de-emphasize principal control of and encouragement of competition among teachers. Programs should teach practicing and aspiring principals how to develop professional dialogue and collegiality among educators; based on our data, training in group development, theories of teaching and learning (vis-aÁ-vis both adults and children), action research methods, change, and reflective practice should anchor such programs.
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  Effective instructional leadership 139 Recommended research The findingsof our study as well as the emergence of diverse related issues in the literature (e.g. change, teacher professionalism, peer coaching, reflection) suggest the fruitfulness of further study. We suggest the use of case studies of effective instructional leadership that incorporate the perspectives of teachers, students, and parents; study of principals' personal characteristics (e.g. gender, experience) as well as political factors (e.g. one's goals, resources, motivations, strategies, and setting) that may influence instructional leadership orientations; and an examination of related notions (e.g. caring (Beck, 1994; Noddings, 1986), personal values (Giroux, 1992)), and ethical and moral leadership (Beck and Murphy, 1994; Beck et al., 1997; Sergiovanni, 1996, 1997; Sergiovanni and Starratt, 1998)). References Beck, L.G. (1994), Reclaiming Educational Administration as a Caring Profession, Teachers College Press, New York, NY. Beck, L.G. and Murphy, J. (1994), Ethics in Educational Leadership Programs: An Expanding Role, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA. Beck, L.G., Murphy, J., Mertz, N.T., Starratt, R.J., Shapiro, J.P., Stefkovich, J.A., Duke, D., Grogan, M. and O'Keefe, J. (1997), Ethics in Educational Leadership Programs: Emerging Models, The University Council for Educational Administration, Columbia, MO. Blase, J. and Blase, J. (forthcoming), ``Ineffective instructional leadership and its effects on classroom teaching'', manuscript in preparation. Blase, J. and Roberts, J. (1994), ``The micropolitics of teacher work involvement: effective principals' impacts on teachers'', The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 67-94. Blase, J.R. and Blase, J. (1996), ``Micropolitical strategies used by administrators and teachers in instructional conferences'', Alberta Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 42 No. 4, pp. 345-60. Blumer, H. (1969), Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Calhoun, E. (1994), How to Use Action Research in the Self-Renewing School, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, VA. Dewey, J. (1933), How We Think, D.C. Heath, Lexington, MA. Dowling, G. and Sheppard, K. (1976), ``Teacher training: a counseling focus'', paper presented at the national convention of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, New York, NY. Dungan, S.L. (1993), ``Effects of evaluation, demographics, and perception on control strategies in supervisory conferences in the southeast'', unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, Athens, GA. Giroux, H.A. (1992), ``Educational leadership and the crisis of democratic government'', Educational Research, Vol. 21 No. 4, pp. 4-11. Glanz, J. and Neville, R.F. (1997), Educational Supervision: Perspectives, Issues, and Controversies, Christopher-Gordon, Norwood, MA. Glaser, B.G. (1978), Theoretical Sensitivity: Advances in the Methodology of Grounded Theory, Sociology Press, Mill Valley, CA.
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  Journal of Educational Administration 38,2 140 Glaser, B.G.(1992), Basics of Grounded Theory Analysis: Emergence vs. Forcing, Sociology Press, Mill Valley, CA.Glickman, C.D. (1985), Supervision of Instruction: A Developmental Approach, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Glaser, B.G. and Strauss, A.L. (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, Aldine, Chicago, IL. Glickman, C.D., Gordon, S.P. and Ross-Gordon, J.M. (1995), Supervision of Instruction: A Developmental Approach, 3rd ed., Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Gordon, S.P. (1997), ``Has the field of supervision evolved to a point that it should be called something else?'', in Glanz, J. and Neville, R.F. (Eds), Educational Supervision: Perspectives, Issues, and Controversies, Christopher-Gordon, Norwood, MA, pp. 114-23. Hallinger, P. and Heck, R.H. (1996a), ``The principal's role in school effectiveness: an assessment of methodological progress, 1980-1995'', in Leithwood, K., Chapman, J., Corson, D., Hallinger, P. and Hart, A. (Eds), International Handbook of Educational Leadership and Administration, Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 723-83. Hallinger, P. and Heck, R.H. (1996b), ``Reassessing the principal's role in school effectiveness: a review of empirical research, 1980-1995'', Educational Administration Quarterly, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 5-44. Herbert, J.M. and Tankersley, M. (1993), ``More and less effective ways to intervene with classroom teachers'', Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 24-40. Herzberg, F. (1966), Work and the Nature of Man, World, New York, NY. Joyce, B. and Showers, B. (1995), Student Achievement Through Staff Development (2nd ed.), Longman, New York, NY. Joyce, B. and Weil, M. (1996), Models of Teaching, 5th ed., Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Leithwood, K., Begley, P. and Cousins, B. (1990), ``The nature, causes, and consequences of principals' practices: an agenda for future research'', Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 28 No. 4, pp. 5-31. Little, J.W. (1993), ``Teachers' professional development in a climate of educational reform'', Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 129-51. Louis, K.S., Marks, H.M. and Kruse, S. (1996), ``Teachers' professional community in restructuring schools'', American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 33 No.4, pp. 757-89. Maslow, A.H. (1954), Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, New York, NY. Mead, G. H. (1934), Mind, Self, and Society, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. Mezirow, J.D. (1981), ``A critical theory of adult learning and education'', Adult Education, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 3-24. Mezirow, J.D. (1990), Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood: A Guide to Transformative and Emancipatory Learning, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA. Noddings, N. (1986), ``Fidelity in teaching, teacher education, and research for teaching'', Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 56 No. 4, pp. 496-510. Prawat, R.S. (1993), ``The role of the principal in the development of learning communities'', Wingspan, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 7-9. Reitzug, U.C. (1994), ``A case study of empowering principal behavior'', American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 283-307. Reitzug, U.C. and Cross, B. (1993), ``Deconstructing principal instructional leadership: from `super' vision to critical collaboration'', paper presented at the annual conference of the University Council for Educational Administration, Houston, TX. Schmuck, R. and Runkel, P. (1994), Handbook of Organization Development in Schools, 4th ed., Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL.
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  Effective instructional leadership 141 SchoÈn, D.A. (1987),Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Sergiovanni, T.J. (1996), Moral Leadership, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Sergiovanni, T.J. (1997), ``How can we move toward a community theory of supervision?'' in Glanz, J. and Neville, R.F. (Eds), Educational Supervision: Perspectives, Issues, and Controversies, Christopher- Gordon, Norwood, MA, pp. 264-80. Sergiovanni, T.J. and Starratt, R.J. (1998), Supervision: A Redefinition, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Sheppard, B. (1996), ``Exploring the transformational nature of instructional leadership'', The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 42 No. 4, pp. 325-44. Short, E.C. (1995), ``A review of studies in the first 10 volumes of the Journal of Curriculum and Supervision'', Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 87-105. Smyth, J. (1997), ``Is supervision more than the surveillance of instruction?'', in Glanz, J. and Neville, R.F. (Eds), Educational Supervision: Perspectives, Issues, and Controversies, Christopher-Gordon, Norwood, MA, pp. 286-95. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990), Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, Sage, Newbury Park, CA.