Islamic Architecture

Prof. Amal Shah, Faculty of Design, CEPT University
HISTORY OF DESIGN
A JOU RNEY INTO T H E H ISTORY OF A RC H IT EC T U RE A ND INT ERIOR D ES IG N
ISLAMIC STYLE
E a r l y M e d i e v a l O t t o m a n

Islamic architecture
encompasses a wide range of both
secular and religious styles from
the foundation of Islam to the
present day. What today is known as
Islamic architecture was influenced
by Roman, Byzantine and all other
lands which the Muslims conquered
in the 7th and 8th centuries.
Further east, it was also influenced
by Chinese and Indian
architecture as Islam spread
to Southeast Asia. The principal
Islamic architectural types are:
the Mosque, the Tomb,
the Palace and the Fort. From these
four types, the vocabulary of Islamic
architecture is derived and used for
other buildings such as public
baths, fountains and domestic
architecture.
There are different attitudes.
Symbolic views of some scholars on
Islamic architecture have
consistently been criticized by
historians for lacking historical
evidence.
The interior side view of the main dome of Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey. (Ottoman style)

THE SPREAD OF ISLAM
The expansion of the Arab Empire in
the years following Muhammad's death
led to the creation of caliphates,
occupying a vast geographical area
and conversion to Islam was boosted
by missionary activities particularly
those of Imams, who easily
intermingled with local populace to
propagate the religious teachings.
These early caliphates, coupled
with Muslim economics and
trading and the later expansion of
the Ottoman Empire resulted in Islam's
spread outwards from Mecca towards
both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
and the creation of the Muslim
world. Trading played an important
role in the spread of Islam in several
parts of the world, notably southeast
Asia

SPREAD OF ISLAM
The birth of Islam is marked by the first revelation
conveyed to the prophet Muhammad by god (in
Arabic, Allah), which occurred in the seventh century
near the city of mecca on the Arabian peninsula.
Islam emerged in a polytheistic environment;
although there were notable Jewish and Christian
communities, most people living on the Arabian
peninsula believed in multiple gods.
In contrast, the fundamental tenet of Islam was
monotheism—the belief in one god alone. What began
as a religious movement soon took on a political
dimension and Islam spread quickly throughout the
middle and near east.
The fall of the Sasanian empire in Persia and
Byzantium's weakening control of its eastern
territories in the seventh century provided fertile
ground for this expansion, and within a hundred years
of the prophet’s death the new leaders of the Islamic
community (ummah), the caliphs, controlled lands
reaching from Spain to present-day Pakistan.

Assimilation of earlier
traditions
Islamic architectural styles
was influenced by two
different ancient traditions:
Western tradition: In
particular, the regions of the
newly conquered Byzantine
Empire (Southwestern
Anatolia, Syria, Egypt and
the Maghreb) supplied
architects, masons, mosaicists
and other craftsmen to the
new Islamic rulers.
These artisans were trained
in Byzantine architecture and
decorative arts, and continued
building and decorating in
Byzantine style, which had
developed out
of Hellenistic and ancient
Roman architecture.

Eastern tradition:
Mesopotamia and Persia,
despite adopting elements of
Hellenistic and Roman
representative style, retained
their independent
architectural traditions, which
derived from Sasanian
architecture and its
predecessors.
The transition process
between late Antiquity, or
post-classical, and Islamic
architecture is exemplified by
archaeologic findings in North
Syria and Palestine, the Bilad
al-Sham of the Umayyad and
Abbasid dynasties. In this
region, late antique, or
Christian, architectural
traditions merged with the
pre-Islamic Arabian heritage
of the conquerors. Recent
research on the history
of Islamic art and architecture
has revised a number
of colonialist ideas.

CONVERSIONS in Islam:
1.1Phase I: Early Caliphs and
Umayyads (610–750 CE)
1.2Phase II: The Abbasids
(750–1258)
1.3Phase III: Dissolution of the
Abbasids and the emergence
of the Seljuks and Ottomans
(950-1450)
1.4Phase IV: Ottoman Empire:
1299 – 1924
1.5Phase V: Post-Ottoman
Empire to the present
Territories in Central Europe under the Ottoman
Empire, 1683 CE
Age of the Caliphs :
Expansion under the Prophet Mohammad, 622-632 Expansion during the
Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661 Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

Early period: the
Umayyad and Abbasid
dynasties
The first years following the
death of Muhammad were, of
course, formative for the
religion and its artwork. The
immediate needs of the religion
included places to worship
(mosques) and holy books
(Korans) to convey the word of
God. So, naturally, many of the
first artistic projects included
ornamented mosques where
the faithful could gather and
Korans with beautiful
calligraphy.
Because Islam was still a very
new religion, it had no artistic
vocabulary of its own, and its
earliest work was heavily
influenced by older styles in
the region. Chief among these
sources were the Byzantine
tradition of present-day Egypt
and Syria, with its scrolling
vines and geometric motifs,
Sassanian metalwork and
crafts from what is now Iraq
with their rhythmic, sometimes
abstracted qualities, and
naturalistic Byzantine mosaics
depicting animals and plants.
It occurred first in Syria and
Iraq, the two areas with the
largest influx of Muslims and
with the two successive
capitals of the empire,
Damascus under the Umayyads
and Baghdad under the early
Abbasids.
From Syria and Iraq this new
taste spread in all directions
and adapted itself to local
conditions and local materials,
thus creating considerable
regional and chronological
variations in early Islamic art.
From a historical point of view,
two major dynasties are
involved. One is the Umayyad
dynasty, which ruled from
661 to 750. It was the only
Muslim dynasty ever to control
the whole of the Islamic-
conquered world. The second
dynasty is the ʿAbbāsid
dynasty. Its rule extended as
late as 1258.

PRACTICE OF ISLAM
• Profession of faith (shahada).
The belief that “there is no god
but god, And Muhammad is the
messenger of god” is central to
Islam. This Phrase, written in
Arabic, is often prominently
featured in architecture.
• Prayer (salat). Muslims pray
facing mecca five times a day: at
dawn, noon, mid-afternoon,
sunset, and after dark. Muslims
can pray individually at any
location or together in a
mosque, where a leader in
prayer (imam) guides the
congregation. Men gather in the
mosque for the noonday prayer
on Friday; women are welcome
but not obliged to participate.
• Alms (zakat). In accordance
with Islamic law, Muslims
donate a fixed portion of their
income to community members
in need. Many rulers and
wealthy Muslims build
mosques, drinking fountains,
hospitals, schools, and other
institutions both as a religious
duty and to secure the blessings
associated with charity.
• Fasting (sawm). During the
daylight hours of Ramazan, the
ninth month of the Islamic
calendar, all healthy adult
Muslims are required to abstain
from food and drink.
• Pilgrimage (hajj ). every
Muslim whose health and
finances permit it must make at
least one visit to the holy city of
mecca, in present-day Saudi
Arabia. The Ka'ba, a cubical
structure covered in black
embroidered hangings, is at the
centre of the haram mosque in
mecca. Muslims believe that it is
the house Abraham (Ibrahim in
Arabic) built for god, and face in
its direction (qibla) when they
pray.

THE MOSQUE: ORIGINS
A mosque from Arabic: ‫المسجد‬ al-masjid is a place of
worship for followers of Islam.
There are strict and detailed requirements in Sunni
jurisprudence (fiqh) for a place of worship to be
considered a masjid, with places that do not meet these
requirements regarded as musallas.
There are stringent restrictions on the uses of the area
formally demarcated as the mosque (which is often a
small portion of the larger complex), and, in the Islamic
Sharia law, after an area is formally designated as a
mosque, it remains so until the Last Day.
The mosque serves as a place where Muslims can come
together for salat ( ‫صالة‬ṣalāt, meaning "prayer") as well
as a center for information, education, social welfare, and
dispute settlement.
The first mosque in the world is often considered to be
the area around the Kaaba in Mecca now known as the
Masjid al-Haram. Since as early as 638 AD, the Masjid al-
Haram has been expanded on several occasions to
accommodate the increasing number of Muslims who
either live in the area or make the annual pilgrimage
known as hajj to the city.

THE MOSQUE
Essential Architectural Elements
of a Mosque The essential
architectural elements of the
mosque include:
The qibla is the direction Muslims
face when praying toward the
Ka‘ba in Mecca. The qibla wall is
the wall in a mosque that faces
Mecca.
The mihrab is a niche in the qibla
wall indicating the direction of
Mecca; because of its importance,
it is usually the most ornate part
of a mosque, highly decorated and
often embellished with
inscriptions from the Qur’an.
The minbar is a pulpit in the form
of a staircase on which the prayer
leader (imam) stands
situated to the right of the mihrab
and is often made of elaborately
carved wood or stone.
A minaret is a tall tower attached
or adjacent to a mosque. It is
designed so the call to prayer,
issued from mosques five times a
day, can be heard loud and clear
throughout a town or city.
Alternatively, the call may be
made from the roof or entrance,
and is now often projected with
the aid of microphones and
speakers. The minaret is also a
visual symbol of the presence of
Islam.
Most mosque courtyards (sahn)
contain a public fountain, where
believers can perform ablutions,
the ritual washing of the hands,
feet, and face required before
prayer. In the arid lands of Arabia,
water is revered as a gift from
God, and fountains also have
symbolic meaning, alluding to the
four rivers of Paradise mentioned
in the Qur’an.

THE MOSQUE
The Islamic Prophet Muhammad went on to establish
another mosque in Medina, which is now known as the
Masjid an-Nabawi, or the Prophet's Mosque. Built on the
site of his home, Muhammad participated in the
construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer
the concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic
city.
Mosques had been built in Iraq and North Africa by the
end of the 7th century, as Islam spread outside the
Arabian Peninsula with early caliphates. The Imam
Husayn Shrine in Karbala is reportedly one of the oldest
mosques in Iraq.
The shrine, while still operating as a mosque, remains one
of the holiest sites for Shia Muslims, as it honors the
death of the third Shia imam, and Prophet Muhammad's
grandson, Hussein ibn Ali.
Quba Mosque, Medina
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (The Mosque of the Prophet) Medina Shrine of Imam Hussain ibn Ali

Architecture of the Early religious
buildings
The one obviously new function developed during
this period is that of the mosque, or masjid. The
earliest adherents of Islam used the private house of
the Prophet in Medina as the main place for their
religious and other activities and muṣallās without
established forms for certain holy ceremonies.
The key phenomenon of the first decades that
followed the conquest is the creation outside Arabia
of masjids in every centre taken over by the new
faith. These were not simply or even primarily
religious centres. They were rather the community
centres of the faithful, in which all social, political,
educational, and individual affairs were transacted.
Among those activities were common prayer and
the ceremony of the khuṭbah. The first mosques
were built primarily to serve as the restricted space
in which the new community would make its own
collective decisions. It is there that the treasury of
the community was kept, and early accounts are full
of anecdotes about the immense variety of events.
Great mosque of Kairouan

Architecture of the Early religious
buildings
Only in one area, Iraq, did the mosque acquire a unique
form of its own, the oriented hypostyle. Neither in Iraq nor
elsewhere is there evidence of symbolic or functional
components in mosque design.
The only exception is that of the maqṣūrah (literally
“closed-off space”), an enclosure, probably in wood, built
near the centre of the qiblah wall. Its purpose was to
protect the caliph or his replacement.
None of those early mosques has survived, and no
descriptions of the smaller ones have been preserved.
There do remain, however, accurate textual descriptions of
the large congregational buildings erected at Kūfah and
Basra in Iraq and at Al-Fusṭāṭ in Egypt.
The new Muslim cities of Iraq created the hypostyle
mosque (a building with the roof resting on rows of
columns). A flexible architectural unit, a hypostyle structure
could be square or rectangular and could be increased or
decreased in size by the addition or subtraction of columns.
The single religious or symbolic feature of the hypostyle
mosque was a minbar (a pulpit) for the preacher, and the
direction of prayer was indicated by the greater depth of
the colonnade on one side of the structure.
Great Umayyad Mosque, Syria

THE MOSQUE: THE PROHIBITION AGAINST
IMAGES
A second and closely parallel development of the
impact of the Islamic religion on the visual arts is
the celebrated question of a Muslim iconoclasm. It
was from about the middle of the 8th century a
prohibition had been formally stated.
The justification for the prohibition tended to
be that any representation of a living thing was
an act of competition with God, for he alone
can create something that is alive.
Instead there occurred very soon a replacement of
imagery with calligraphy and the concomitant
transformation of calligraphy into a major artistic
medium. Furthermore, the world of Islam tended
to seek means of representing the holy other than
by images of human beings, and one of the main
problems of interpretation of Islamic art is that of
the degree of means it achieved in this search.

THE MOSQUE: THE PROHIBITION AGAINST IMAGES
Throughout the ages mystics & theologians have used geometry as
a contemplative focus, as it enables the viewer a vision of the
underlying order of both the cosmos and the natural world . The
cyclical movement of heavenly bodies, which Plato described as the
‘music of the spheres’, finds its Earthly reflection in the natural
symmetries found throughout nature and most strikingly within
the world of flowers, the proportions of which are governed by
simple geometric laws.
The origin of the word ‘cosmos’ is adornment (from which we
derive the modern word ‘cosmetics’) and the adornment of sacred
buildings with both floral and geometric patterns makes the viewer
sensitive to the subtle harmonies uniting the natural world around
us with the cosmos.
In Islamic art the geometric figure of the circle represents the
ancient symbol of unity and the ultimate source of all diversity
in creation. The natural division of the circle into regular divisions
is the ritual starting point for many traditional Islamic patterns.
In the Alhambra (14th C), Spain, geometric pattern is perfectly
integrated with biomorphic design (arabesque) and calligraphy.
These are the three distinct, but complementary, disciplines that
comprise Islamic art. They form a three-fold hierarchy in which
geometry is seen as foundational. This is often signified by its use
on the floors or lower parts of walls.
The decorative elements deployed use a range of symmetries that
have now been classified as belonging to distinct mathematical
groups, but the subtlety and beauty of the designs is unparalleled in
modern mathematical thinking.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF THE MUSLIM CITY
A number of factors played decisive roles in ordering and
shaping the plan and form of the Muslim City. In addition to
the influence of local topography, and morphological features of
pre-existing towns, the Muslim City reflected the general socio-
cultural, political, and economic structures of the newly created
society. In general this involved the following:
1. Natural laws:
The first principle that defined much of the character of the
Muslim city is the adaptation of the built form and plan of the
city to natural circumstances expressed through weather
conditions and topography. These were expressed in the
adoption of concepts such as courtyard, terrace, narrow covered
streets and gardens. Such elements were designed for coping with
hot weather conditions dominating the Muslim environment.
2. Religious and cultural beliefs:
The religious beliefs and practices formed the centre of
cultural life for these populations, thus giving the mosque the
central position in spatial and institutional hierarchies. The
cultural beliefs separating public and private lives regulated the
spatial order between uses and areas. Thus, the town plan
consisted of narrow streets and cul-de-sacs separating private and
public domains, while the land use emphasized the separation of
male and female users. Consequently, economic activity that
involved exchange and public presence was separated from
residential (private dwellings) use and concentrated in public
areas and in the main streets.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF THE MUSLIM
CITY
3. Design principles stemmed from Sharia Law :
The Muslim city also reflected the rules of Sharia
(Islamic Law) in terms of physical and social relations
between public and private realms, and between
neighbours and social groups. The privacy principle
was made into a law which sets the height of the wall
above the height of a camel rider. This as well as the
laws of the property rights, for example, were all
factors determining the form of the Muslim city.
4. Social principles:
The social organisation of the urban society was
based on social groupings sharing the same blood,
ethnic origin and cultural perspectives. Development
was therefore directed towards meeting these social
needs especially in terms of kinship solidarity,
defence, social order and religious practices. Such
groups included; Arabs, Moors, Jews and other groups
such as Andalusians, Turkish, and Berbers as in cities
of the Maghreb. These were reflected in the concept
of quarters known as Ahiaa (in the Mashraq) or Huma
(in the Maghreb).

ELEMENTS OF SPACE MAKING
PARADISE GARDEN
Gardens and water have for many centuries
played an essential role in Islamic culture,
and are often compared to the garden of
Paradise. he classical form of the Persian
Paradise garden, or the Charbagh, comprises
a rectangular irrigated space with elevated
pathways, which divide the garden into four
sections of equal size:
One of the hallmarks of Persian gardens is
the four-part garden laid out with axial paths
that intersect at the garden's centre. This
highly structured geometrical scheme, called
the chaharbagh, became a powerful
metaphor for the organization and
domestication of the landscape, itself a
symbol of political territory.

ISLAMIC WEST
The double-arched system of arcades of the Mosque–Cathedral of
Córdoba is generally considered to be derived from Roman
aqueducts like the nearby aqueduct of Los Milagros. Columns are
connected by horseshoe arches, and support pillars of brickwork,
which are in turn interconnected by semicircular arches
supporting the flat timberwork ceiling.
In later-period additions to the Mosque of Córdoba, the basic
architectural design was changed: Horseshoe arches were now
used for the upper row of arcades, which is now supported by
five-pass arches. In sections which now supported domes,
additional supporting structures were needed to bear the thrust
of the cupolas.

ISLAMIC EAST
The system of squinches, which is a
construction filling in the upper angles of a
square room so as to form a base to receive
an octagonal or spherical dome, was
already known.
The spherical triangles of the squinches
were split up into further subdivisions or
systems of niches, resulting in a complex
interplay of supporting structures forming
an ornamental spatial pattern which hides
the weight of the structure.
The "non-radial rib vault", an architectural
form of ribbed vaults with a superimposed
spherical dome, is the characteristic
architectural vault form of the Islamic East.

DOMES
Based on the model of pre-existing Byzantine domes,
the Ottoman Architecture developed a specific form of
monumental, representative building: Wide central
domes with huge diameters were erected on top of a
centre-plan building. Despite their enormous weight,
the domes appear virtually weightless. Some of the
most elaborate domed buildings have been constructed
by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan.
When the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople,
they found a variety of Byzantine Christian churches,
the largest and most prominent amongst them was the
Hagia Sophia. The brickwork-and-mortar ribs and the
spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia
were built simultaneously, as a self-supporting
structure without any wooden centring.
Mimar Sinan solved the structural issues of the Hagia
Sophia dome by constructing a system of centrally
symmetric pillars with flanking semi-domes, as
exemplified by the design of the Süleymaniye Mosque
(four pillars with two flanking shield walls and two
semi-domes.

MUQARNAS
The architectural element of muqarnas developed
in northeastern Iran and the Maghreb around the
middle of the 10th century. The ornament is created
by the geometric subdivision of a vaulting structure
into miniature, superimposed pointed-arch
substructures, also known as "honeycomb", or
"stalactite" vaults. Made from different materials
like stone, brick, wood or stucco, its use in
architecture spread over the entire Islamic world.
In the Islamic West, muqarnas are also used to
adorn the outside of a dome, cupola, or similar
structure, whilst in the East is more limited to the
interior face of a vault.
The muqarnas are a form of architectural
ornamented vaulting, the "geometric subdivision of
a squinch, or cupola, or corbel, into a large number
of miniature squinches, producing a sort of cellular
structure", sometimes also called "honeycomb"
vaults from their resemblance to these. They are
used for domes, and especially half-domes in
entrances, iwans and apses, mostly in traditional
Islamic and Persian architecture.

OTTOMAN ARCHITECTURE
MIMAR SINAN
Koca Mi'mâr Sinân Âğâ (Sinan Agha the Grand
Architect) He was responsible for the
construction of more than 300 major structures
and other more modest projects.
He rose rapidly through the ranks to become
first an officer and finally a Janissary
commander, with the honorific title of ağa. He
refined his architectural and engineering skills
while on campaign with the Janissaries,
becoming expert at constructing fortifications of
all kinds, as well as military infrastructure
projects, such as roads, bridges and aqueducts.
At about the age of fifty, he was appointed as
chief royal architect.
His masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in
Edirne, although his most famous work is the
Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul.
Prince’s Mosque

The Topkapı Palace is a large
palace in Istanbul, Turkey that was
one of the major residences of
the Ottoman sultans for almost
400 years (1465–1856) of their
624-year reign.
As well as a royal residence, the
palace was a setting for state
occasions and royal
entertainments.
It is now a museum and as such a
major tourist attraction. It also
contains important relics of the
Muslim world, including
Muhammed's cloak and sword.
The Topkapı Palace is among the
monuments contained within the
"Historic Areas of Istanbul", which
became a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in 1985, and is described
under UNESCO's criterion iv as
"the best example[s] of ensembles
of palaces of the Ottoman period."

The palace complex consists of
four main courtyards and
many smaller buildings. At its
peak, the palace was home to
as many as 4,000 people, and
covered a large area with a
long shoreline. It contained
mosques, a hospital, bakeries,
and a mint.Construction
began in 1459, ordered by
Sultan Mehmed II the
conqueror of
Byzantine Constantinople.
It was originally called
the New Palace (Yeni
Saray or Saray-ı Cedîd-i Âmire)
to distinguish it from the
previous residence. It received
the name "Topkapı" (Cannon
Gate) in the 19th century, after
a (now lost) gate and shore
pavilion. The complex was
expanded over the centuries,
with major renovations after
the 1509 earthquake and the
1665 fire.

The Imperial Gate is the main
entrance into the First Courtyard.
The four courtyards lead to each
other and during the Ottoman
Empire, each became steadily more
exclusive leading to the Fourth
Courtyard, which was the sultan's
private courtyard.
This First Courtyard functioned as
an outer precinct or park and is the
largest of all the courtyards of the
palace. The steep slopes leading
towards the sea had already been
terraced under Byzantine rule.
The large Gate of Salutation
(Arabic: Bâb-üs Selâm), also known
as the Middle Gate (Turkish: Orta
Kapı), leads into the palace and the
Second Courtyard. This crenelated
gate has two large octagonal pointed
towers. The date of construction of
this gate is not clear, since the
architecture of the towers is of
Byzantine influence rather than
Ottoman.
The Gate of Salutation (Bâb-üs Selâm), entrance to the Second courtyard of
Topkapı Palace
Church of Hagia Eirene in the First Courtyard
The Imperial Gate

The Imperial Council (Dîvân-ı
Hümâyûn) building is the chamber
in which the ministers of state,
council ministers (Dîvân Heyeti),
the Imperial Council, consisting of
the Grand Vizier (Paşa Kapısı),
viziers, and other leading officials
of the Ottoman state, held meetings.
It is also called Kubbealtı, which
means "under the dome", in
reference to the dome in the council
main hall. It is situated in the
northwestern corner of the
courtyard next to the Gate of
Felicity.
All the statesmen, apart from the
Grand Vizier, performed their dawn
prayers in the Hagia Sophia and
entered the Imperial Gate according
to their rank, passing through the
Gate of Salutation and into the
divan chamber, where they would
wait for the arrival of the Grand
Vizier. The Grand Vizier performed
his prayers at home, and was
accompanied to the palace by his
own attendants.

The Imperial Harem (Harem-i
Hümayûn) occupied one of the
sections of the private
apartments of the sultan; it
contained more than 400
rooms. The harem was home
to the sultan's mother,
the Valide Sultan;
the concubines and wives of
the sultan; and the rest of his
family, including children; and
their servants
The harem consists of a series
of buildings and structures,
connected through hallways
and courtyards. Every service
team and hierarchical group
residing in the harem had its
own living space clustered
around a courtyard. The
number of rooms is not
determined, with probably
over 100, of which only a few
are open to the public..

Imperial Hall
The Imperial Hall (Hünkâr Sofası), also
known as the Imperial Sofa, Throne
Room Within or Hall of Diversions, is a
domed hall in the Harem, believed to
have been built in the late 16th century.
It has the largest dome in the palace. The
hall served as the official reception hall
of the sultan as well as for the
entertainment of the Harem. Here the
sultan received his confidants, guests, his
mother, his first wife (Hasseki), consorts,
and his children. Entertainments, paying
of homage during religious festivals, and
wedding ceremonies took place here in
the presence of the members of the
dynasty
After the Great Harem Fire of 1666, the
hall was renovated in the rococo style
during the reign of Sultan Osman III. The
tile belt surrounding the walls bearing
calligraphic inscriptions were revetted
with 18th-century blue-and-
white Delftware and mirrors of Venetian
glass. But the domed arch and
pendantives still bear classical paintings
dating from the original construction.

Islamic Architecture

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