Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Vol.6, Iss.1 January 2023
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The document presents a study on the monitoring and quantification of carbon dioxide emissions and sea surface temperature impacts as climate change indicators in the Niger Delta, using geospatial technology. Findings indicate a consistent increase in mean tropospheric CO2 levels and sea surface temperatures from 2003 to 2011, primarily due to fossil fuel activities and environmental degradation in the region. The results emphasize the need for implementing carbon capture technologies to safeguard both marine ecosystems and human well-being.
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
1. Introduction
The greatest issue plaguing the 21st century on
a global scale is climate change. An increase in the
emission of greenhouse gas (GHG) such as methane,
nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide (CO2), and fluorinated
gases [1]
is the causal effect to which carbon dioxide
is the greatest contributor. Though CO2 is a naturally
occurring GHG with a low global warming potential
(GWP) of one [2]
, it is the major culprit due to its
longer atmospheric lifespan of 300-1000 years [2-4]
.
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmos-
phere surpasses all other GHG as a result of human
activities, which can be attributed to the increasing
population and the consequent need for energy and
change in land-use cover [5,6]
. CO2 released from
burning fossil fuels can easily be detected as it has
a peculiar signature wherein the amount of heavy
carbon -13 isotopes in the atmosphere declines, and
the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen is reduced [3,7]
. This
can be related to the increase in global surface tem-
perature over the years as [8]
indicates no net increase
from solar input [9]
. Projected a 130% increase in
CO2 emissions by 2050. The increased human-driv-
en levels of CO2 emission along the coastline from
activities, such as onshore and offshore energy drill-
ing, marine transportation of goods, and resource
extraction have resulted in higher atmospheric tem-
perature and consequently, heavier precipitation.
The coastal areas are more vulnerable to the dan-
gers of climate change which manifest as flooding,
changes in shoreline, higher water table, saltwater
intrusion in the aquifer, and oceans acidification [10]
.
The carbon cycle through which atmospheric car-
bon dioxide concentrations are regulated involves
the carbon sink which includes; forests, ocean, and
soil. All these are however under threat from human
activities like deforestation, ocean pollution, and oil
spill, limiting their ability to absorb free tropospheric
CO2. In recent times there have been frequent flood-
ing episodes, outbreaks of water-borne diseases, and
cases of massive dead fish occurring in the coastal
states of Nigeria. These necessitate the need for mon-
itoring and mapping our carbon footprint. Remote
sensing as a cost-effective method allows consistent,
precise, and comprehensive data collection of GHG
at a regional and global scale from the Atmospheric
Infrared Sounder (AIRS) on the Earth Observing
System (EOS) Aqua satellite [11]
.
2. Study area
The study location is along the Niger Delta coast-
line. Spanning about 800 km, it cuts across Lagos,
Ondo, Delta, Bayelsa, Rivers, and Akwa Ibom states.
With a 14% surge in population to over 40 million
residents according to the Niger Delta Region survey
by the National Population Commission and an es-
timated land mass of 70,000 km2
, it is densely pop-
ulated. The study area is located between longitudes
0040 00’0” and 0080 00’0” east of the first meridian
and latitudes 040 00’0” and 060 00’0” north of the
equator. There are 2 main seasons all year round; a
lengthy rainy season which commences from March
to October with precipitation of about 4000 mm [12]
and the dry season from November to February.
The peak of both wet and dry seasons are July and
December respectively. This location was chosen be-
cause it is highly susceptible to CO2 emission owing
to the fact that the 6 major seaports and all the gas
flaring points in the country are distributed within
this region (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Niger Delta coastal area map with oil and gas fields
(about 606 oilfields – 355 onshore, 251 offshore, and 178 gas
flare points). Nigerian Oil and Gas Corporation (1997) and Ani-
fowose et al. [13]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-6-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
3. Materials and method
3.1 Data collection
The remote sensing data utilized in this study are the
mean carbon dioxide emissions in ppm acquired from
the Atmosphere Infrared Sounder on National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration (NASA) Giovanni
Aqua Satellite and Sea Surface Temperature at 11 mi-
crons using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradi-
ometer (MODIS) R2019.0 (https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.
gov/giovanni/) with an accuracy of 20 × 2.50 for select-
ed geophysical parameters, and the map of the Niger
Delta coastal area highlighting the oil and gas fields and
gas flare points from Nigerian Oil and Gas Corporation
(1997) and Anifowose et al.[13]
3.2 Data processing
The monthly average CO2 and sea surface tem-
perature data were extracted from Giovanni and pro-
cessed using ArcGIS software with the spatial inter-
polation method, Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW)
from 42 stations from July 2003 to December 2011.
The ArcGIS software was launched and the ac-
quired data prepared in Microsoft Excel sheets and
saved in CSV format was imported. The area of in-
terest was delineated in Google earth, saved as kml
file, and imported into the ArcGIS software retaining
the Projected Coordinate System using WGS UTM
1984 Zone N32 which covers the coastal region
in Nigeria, and then converting it to a shapefile on
ArcGIS. Google Earth image Subsetting was done
using clipping tools in the Arc Toolbox. The editing
tool was used to digitize the shoreline boundary cre-
ating the shapefile of the area of interest.
Step1: CO2 processing: Arc Toolbox → Spatial
Analyst Tool → Interpolation → Click on the In-
verse Distance Weighting (IDW) → Import the CSV
File Containing the CO2 Result of the Area Under
Review for July, 2003 → Click on Environment →
Processing Extend Select the Shapefile of the Study
Area →Click on Spatial Analysis →Click on the
Mask and Select the Study Area → Ok. The final
result was exported for further analysis. The same
process was repeated in December 2003, 2005, 2007,
2009 and 2011. The same process was repeated for
the sea surface temperature.
3.3 Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) tech-
nique
Inverse distance weighting is a mathematical
means of estimating an unknown value from nearby
known values. Based on Toiler’s law “everything is
related to everything else but near things are more
related than distant things”, IDW uses the “weight”
of the known value(s) which is a function of the in-
verse distance, to estimate the unknown value. Bur-
rough and McDonnell [14]
found that utilizing IDW
within a squared distance yields reliable results. To
estimate the CO2 concentration across the marine en-
vironment, spatial interpolation of the CO2 emission
collected from 42 stations in the coastal environment
for each sampling year is obtained and reclassified
into five classes for the period under review. The In-
verse Distance formula is given in equation 1:
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
...
...
* n n
n
w x w x w x w x
x =
w w w w
+ + + +
+ + + +
(1)
Where x* is the unknown value at a location to
be estimated, w is the weight, x is the known point
value, and n, is the total number of x.
The weight formula is given in equation 2 as:
*
1
P
lx
wi =
d
(2)
Where di is the distance from the known point, P
a variable that stands for Power.
3.4 Data analysis
Step 2: Plotting histogram and line chart with the
analyzed statistical data such as mean, minimum,
maximum, and percentage of CO2 using Microsoft
excel to estimate the quantity of carbon dioxide
emitted each year for both wet and dry seasons and
identify the trend. Finally, the relationship between
CO2 and sea surface temperature was established us-
ing the Pearson correlation coefficient.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-7-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
The overall investigation predicts increasing CO2
emissions in both seasons over the years with higher
concentrations in the Southwest if adequate meas-
ures are not taken to reduce carbon footprint.
4.4 Sea surface temperature
The temperature of the ocean’s surface water
is an important physical property of the world’s
oceans. As the oceans absorb more heat, sea surface
temperatures rise, and the ocean circulation patterns
that transport warm and cold water around the world
change [15]
. A change in sea surface temperature,
according to Ostrander, G. K., Armstrong, K. M.,
Knobbe, E. T., et al. [16]
, can affect the marine ecosys-
tem in a variety of ways, including how variations in
ocean temperature can affect what species of plants,
animals, and microbes are present in a location, alter
migration and breeding patterns, endanger sensitive
ocean life such as corals, and change the frequency
and intensity of harmful algal blooms such as red
tide. Long-term increases in sea surface temperature
may also reduce circulation patterns that transport
nutrients from the deep sea to the surface. Changes
in reef habitat and nutrient supply could drastically
alter ocean ecosystems and lead to fish population
declines, affecting people who rely on fishing for
food or a living [17, 18]
.
The results in Figure 12, show that the sea sur-
face temperature was consistently low during the wet
season and high during the dry season from 2003
to 2011 and also indicate a spatial variability in the
monthly average sea surface temperature across the
region.
According to Tables 7 and 8, the lowest mini-
mum temperatures for both seasons were recorded in
July 2011; 25.7 °C and in December 2011; 27.8 °C.
While the highest maximum temperatures of 28.39
°C and 29.27 °C were recorded in July 2003 and
December 2009 respectively. The minimum temper-
ature values show a linear trend gradually increasing
in July and fairly constant in December in Figure
13. While Figure 14 indicates a reduction in the
maximum temperature in July and a fairly constant
trend in December. However, the spatial distributions
show a general increase in sea surface temperature
from 2003 to 2011, and factors that could influence
the rise in temperature include oil and gas operations
such as gas flaring activities as shown in Figure 1,
as well as the movement of marine vessels, and bun-
kering activities.
Table 6. Monthly average tropospheric carbon dioxide for the peak wet and dry seasons from 2003-2011 for NE and SW.
Period
North East South West
CO2 Range Mean CO2 CO2 Range Mean CO2
July 2003 374.8016-374.9458 374.8737 375.0902-375.2345 375.1623
December 2003 384.2832- 390.4947 387.3889 374.9657-378.0175 376.5186
July 2005 377.1926-378.1276 377.6586 377.1926-378.1276 377.6601
December 2005 377.7822-378.3142 378.0482 377.5162-377.7821 377.6491
July 2007 380.3929-381.137 380.7649 381.8812-382.2531 382.0671
December 2007 361.7037-381.995 371.8493 382.2595-382.3916 382.3255
July 2009 395.5414-385.9038 385.7226 385.5414-385.7226 385.632
December 2009 385.873-386.4118 386.1424 386.9506-387.2198 387.0852
July 2011 389.8888-390.3359 390.1123 388.5471-388.9943 388.7707
December 2011 390.4726-390.5879 390.5302 390.1263-390.2417 390.1840](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-16-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
4.6 Environmental implications
An increase in the levels of carbon dioxide emit-
ted and sea surface temperature leads to Global
warming which results in climate change with seri-
ous repercussions on the environment. The principal
consequence being higher temperatures has a ripple
effect beginning with frequent torrential precipitation
due to increased evaporation rate and higher water
vapour retaining capacity of a warm atmosphere.
In addition, sea level rise according to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) was expected to rise by
18 to 59 centimeters globally by the end of the 20th
century. The Niger Delta coastline is categorized as
an extreme hotspot of climate vulnerability by the
IPCC and has in recent years experienced a series
of coastal inundations, which increased annually
during the period under review [19,20]
, erosion, and
increased soil salinity induced by saltwater intrusion
depleting the mangrove reserves [21]
. Furthermore,
the effects include changes in the circulation pattern
of coastal waters [22]
and warmer ocean water. Warm
water holds less oxygen, and CO2 depletion occurs
in the upper 1km where most species live, inducing
hypoxia in some species and increasing ocean acid-
ity creating an imbalanced marine ecosystem [23]
. In
response, marine life either dies or migrate to more
conducive waters.
Public health is not spared either, as warm humid
climates encourage the breeding of vector-borne
diseases like yellow fever and waterlogged areas for
breeding mosquitos, carriers of malaria. Hot weather
reduces the size of water bodies like lakes. The dry
beds resulting from this shrinkage can be sources of
air pollution with high levels of arsenic and other
toxins which are poisonous to inhale leading to res-
piratory problems [24]
. Poor nutrition of the popula-
tion, another effect, is a function of poor crop yield
and consuming mutated aquatic organisms from the
acidic ocean.
5. Conclusions and recommendation
Geospatial Technology has demonstrated that the
continuous increase in carbon dioxide concentration
in the atmosphere caused by human activities heats
up the atmosphere, resulting in heavier precipitation,
which exacerbates coastal flooding. Climate change
is also causing ocean acidification, shoreline ero-
sion, and saltwater intrusion along the Niger Delta
marine environment. Variations in CO2 concentra-
tion and sea surface temperature across the region
reflect differences in seasons, weather, and rates of
human-driven carbon emissions. The observed trend
indicates that carbon dioxide levels will rise with
sea surface temperature serving as climate change
indicators. It is in man’s best interest to mitigate this
by reducing our carbon footprint and protecting our
carbon sink.
GIS and remote sensing technology should be
used to regularly monitor carbon dioxide levels,
and all illegal crude oil refineries in the Niger Delta
should be decimated. Environmental friendly poli-
cies, such as carbon capture and storage, should be
developed and implemented to improve the marine
ecosystem and residents’ quality of life, and thus
boost economic activity.
Table 9. Pearson correlation coefficient between CO2 and sea surface temperature.
Year r ( CO2 vs T July) Strength Direction r ( CO2 vs T December) Strength Direction
2003 .96 Strong positive 0.95 Strong positive
2005 .09 Weak positive 0.68 Strong positive
2007 .91 Strong positive -0.65 Strong Negative
2009 .72 Strong positive -0.11 Weak Negative
2011 -.59 Strong Negative 0.11 Weak positive](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-22-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest.
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
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Appendix 1
Carbon dioxide (PPM) July Sea Surface Temperature (°C) July
2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011
374.7397 378.1945 380.9311 385.9913 390.3538 26.555 26.435 27.18357 26.92857 25.99571
374.7397 378.1945 380.9311 385.9913 390.3538 26.58214 26.74429 27.145 27.16643 26.16
374.7397 378.1945 380.9311 385.9913 390.3538 26.79929 26.80428 27.04357 27.035 26.47643
374.8788 378.3543 381.7284 385.9451 389.7175 26.78214 26.58929 27.57143 26.92286 26.62071
375.2345 377.5654 382.2531 385.5414 388.5471 27.49286 26.73386 27.5 26.89786 26.53714
375.2345 377.5654 382.2531 385.5414 388.5471 27.29571 26.48071 27.54857 26.75929 26.49143
Appendix 2
Carbon dioxide (PPM) December Sea Surface Temperature (°C) December
2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011
384.0065 377.7441 381.8758 386.2906 390.5842 28.72786 28.41071 28.47429 28.79429 28.25571
384.0065 377.7441 381.8758 386.2906 390.5842 28.67429 28.30286 28.45286 28.97786 28.21429
384.0065 377.7441 381.8758 386.2906 390.5842 28.72643 28.37214 28.48571 29.07714 28.32357
377.3511 377.4448 382.1591 386.8678 390.4262 28.40714 28.19143 28.28929 29.06357 28.56286
374.9657 377.616 382.3916 387.2199 390.1263 28.3 28.07357 28.38286 28.85786 28.31243
374.9657 377.616 382.3916 387.2199 390.1263 28.45071 28.20786 28.39071 28.94857 28.17786](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-24-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
1. Introduction
Today’s most important challenge is altered cli-
matic conditions at a global level that is imposing
adverse effects on human health and the environ-
ment. Changing climate is disrupting the economic
and social structure of society and breaking the
natural association between man and wild animals.
There is a tug-of-war between those countries which
are producing high emissions and contributing the
least to climate control. People are facing growing
adversities of climate change, mainly due to shift-
ing weather patterns, rising sea levels, and more
extreme weather events such as cyclones, typhoons,
and tsunamis. The climate is dynamic and undergoes
a natural cycle all the time. Several slow-moving
natural forces contribute to climate change. Conti-
nental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents, the tilt of the
globe, comets, and meteorites are a few of the more
noticeable ones. The atmospheric quantities of water
vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide—
all greenhouse gases that help trap heat at the earth’s
surface—have significantly grown as a result of in-
dustrialization, deforestation, and pollution. Carbon
dioxide is being released into the atmosphere by
humans much more quickly than it can be taken up
by plants and oceans. Even if such emissions were
stopped today, the atmosphere would still contain
these gases for years, which would delay the onset of
global warming. Any variation or change in the natu-
ral environment brought by human action is referred
to as climate change (IPCC). However, it contrasts
with the Framework Convention on Climate Change
(FCCC), which states that over comparable periods,
any change in the composition of the global atmos-
phere may be caused either directly or indirectly by
human activities. From the re-industrial era to 2005,
the global atmospheric concentration of carbon diox-
ide, methane, and nitrous oxide increased, according
to IPCC. Global average CO2 concentrations set
a new record of 414 ppm in 2020, 417.2 parts per
million (ppm), up 2.5 ppm from 2021 levels [1]
. At-
mospheric CO2 concentrations are now 51% above
pre-industrial levels [2]
.
At present world climate system has been altered
due to the addition of greenhouse gases and aerosols
into the atmosphere. These significant effects are
caused due to industrial and automobile emissions,
delayed precipitation, massive deforestation, melting
of glaciers, and poorly managed land use patterns.
All these changes finally affected the balance of the
climate system. A deviation in natural incoming and
outgoing energy in the earth-atmosphere system
has been noted. The increase in global atmospheric
temperature is due to accelerating anthropogenic
activities. Though, natural factors like extreme radia-
tion and ozone depletion are also responsible for the
warming or cooling of the global climate [3]
. These
are environmental gases that trap long-wave radi-
ation reflected from the earth’s surface. These are
enhancing the global mean temperature of the atmos-
phere. This phenomenon is popularly known as the
“Greenhouse” effect. Water vapor is by far the most
significant greenhouse gas. However, carbon diox-
ide contributes significantly, and ozone, methane,
and nitrous oxide have less of an impact. It is well
known that atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide are rising, and in recent
years, other greenhouse gases, namely chlorofluoro-
carbons (CFCs), have been significantly increased [4]
.
The subsequent climatic impacts are difficult to
predict with any degree of certainty. Since 1860,
anthropogenic activities have increased greenhouse
gases, mostly CO2 and methane, which have caused
an increase in the global mean surface temperature
of around 0.5 EC. Based on forecast concentrations,
the temperature should be limited to 1.5 °C, and all
efforts should be made to it zero by 2050. For this
purpose “Global net human-caused emissions of
carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about
45 percent by 2030 and carry it up to zero in next 20
year” [5]
. The maintenance of the environment’s tem-
perature is mostly dependent on vegetation and for-
est cover. Local and regional climate variations have
an impact on soil temperature, biological activity,
physical composition, nutrient uptake, and plant out-
put. The Amazon basin’s forest cover has an impact
on the flux of moisture into the atmosphere, regional
convection, and regional rainfall. In the majority of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-26-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
African countries, drought is primarily caused by
warmth and the degradation of local vegetation [6]
.
Today, climate change is a serious problem that
requires prompt responses. Climate change is driving
inequitable resource use, decreased ecosystem pro-
ductivity, non-adaptive forced population migration,
disease outbreaks, and territorial conflicts. Tempera-
ture, precipitation, clouds, and wind are all variables
in the annual weather. The weather varies from one
year to the next and from one place to another. A few
unthinkable changes in air and ocean temperatures
have led to an increase in sea level and the rapid
melting of pole-located snow and ice caps. Global
warming has been occurring for the past 60 years,
and the fundamental cause is human interference
with the planet’s various primary ecological divi-
sions [7]
.
Marine, aquatic, and terrestrial lives are all being
negatively impacted by significant ongoing climate
change. Even while there are many consequences
already apparent, there may be a few unexpected
effects in the future. As a result, each of these con-
sequences has been identified one at a time, and
projects have been set up to identify answers. The
accumulation of large volumes of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere is the effect that is most obvious.
As a result of the greenhouse effect, it is raising the
average world temperature and causing unintentional
natural disasters everywhere. The survival of ter-
restrial, freshwater species, primarily planktons and
bottom-dwellers, is being hampered; in the marine
environment, coral reefs, algae, and fish fauna be-
long to various taxa. Due to the ocean’s inability to
absorb additional carbon dioxide, the food chain in
the ocean is more likely to be disrupted. Micro-flora
and micro-fauna along the seashore are drastically
declining. Large-scale disturbances have resulted
from it, including biodiversity loss, habitat dam-
age, forest depletion, land degradation, floods, and
draughts in terrestrial environments. On the other
side, unexpected weather changes can cause per-
manent damage because of hurricanes, typhoons,
storms, lightning, floods, and tsunamis, which are
often on the rise [8]
. Breakdowns in the economy and
the environment are happening more frequently and
are lasting longer.
There is a substantial increase in temperature
and heat-related deaths in dry and semi-arid regions.
Climate change is making people’s issues worse
as more hurricanes, blizzards, tornadoes, floods,
droughts, tornadoes, earthquakes, and losses to hu-
man life, health, physical riches, habitat devastation,
and resilience occur practically every year. Land
degradation, soil erosion, and destructive floods that
produce landslides are all increasing dramatically.
The biodiversity of hydrophytes, pollinators, symbi-
otic bacteria, coral reefs, fish, amphibians, reptiles,
mammals, and invertebrates—primarily insects—
has been severely damaged. Coral bleaching brought
on by seawater warming contributes to the mass
collapse of corals. The effects of climate change and
global environmental stress must be evaluated in
terms of their ecological, meteorological, socioeco-
nomic, political, thermal, biophysical, and biological
impacts. Action must then be taken to find the best
solutions and to mitigate these effects on a world-
wide scale.
Long-term changes in weather patterns and ex-
treme weather event frequency are referred to as
climate change. It could increase already existing
health issues and change the threat to human health.
The scientific data on how climate change affects
human infectious diseases are examined in this re-
view. Climate change has reached a critical level
in recent years, affecting plant and animal species
as well as making people more vulnerable and pos-
ing possible health risks in numerous eco-climatic
zones. To quickly identify answers, it is necessary
to investigate the health effects of particular diseas-
es, the shifting spectrum of infectious diseases, and
novel clinical and ecological operational approaches.
In order to forecast future health effects associated
with climate change, current research must concen-
trate more on the causes of infectious diseases, cli-
mate variables, the development of control warning
systems, and the use of improved methods [9]
. The
involvement of human society, the scientific com-
munity, economists, stakeholders, healthcare profes-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-27-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
sionals, and policymakers must come together on a
single platform to educate the public about how to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and use energy and
materials safely in order to find quick solutions [10]
.
The effect of climate change on seasonality, popu-
lation biology of parasites, pathogens, and vectors,
and their interactions with the environment have all
been highlighted in the current review article in an
effort to find innovative approaches to the current
and foreseeable challenges of communicable dis-
eases. The Coronavirus recently infected a sizable
portion of the global population; it struck forcefully
and caused millions of fatalities. The recent COV-
ID-19 outbreak has put individuals in danger and
had a negative impact on the global economy. The
primary challenge is due to massive and multiple
pharmaceutical interventions and climatic changes
going on in micro-organisms, primarily viruses, and
bacteria, which are making genomic changes mainly
drug and vaccine resistance nowadays. The second
problem is how to combat mixed infections, mostly
bacterial and fungal infections. The recent pandemic
made it abundantly evident that current clinical and
therapeutic approaches are insufficient to manage
disease transmission, treatment, and control of an in-
flux of new infectious diseases (Figure 1). The main
objective of this review is to sketch out possible
climatic pressure on the microbial genome to have
new changes in DNA or mutations for gearing up
new adaptations to ensure their survival in presence
of diverse pharmaceuticals and climatic conditions.
The main objective of this study is to find out the
most appropriate treatment for communicable dis-
eases in the near future. This article emphasizes the
need for improvement of the cultural environment,
new strategies, and control measures to cut down
rising vector and pathogen populations in endemic
areas.
[100] Carlson, C.J., Albery, G.F., Merow, C., et al., 2022. Climate change increases cross-
species viral transmission risk. Nature. 607, 555-562. Available from:
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04788-w.
[101] Shope, R., 1991. Global climate change and infectious diseases. Environmental Health
Perspectives. 96, 171-174.
[102] O’Neill, L.A.J., Netea, M.G., 2020. BCG-induced trained immunity: Can it offer
protection against COVID-19? Nature Reviews Immunology. 20(6), 335-337.
[103] Woolhouse, M.E., Webster, J.P., Domingo, E., et al., 2002. Biological and biomedical
implications of the co-evolution of pathogens and their hosts. Nature Genetics. 32(4), 569-577.
[104] Rinker, D.C., Pitts, R.J., Zwiebel, L.J., 2016. Disease vectors in the era of next generation
sequencing. Genome Biology. 17(1), 95.
Figure 1. (a) cyclic changes in seasons (b) loss faced due to climate change (c) rising impact of climate change (d) unlimited
virulence and infectivity are cause of endemic and pandemic diseases.
c d
b
a
Figure 1. (a) cyclic changes in seasons (b) loss faced due to climate change (c) rising impact of climate change (d) unlimited viru-
lence and infectivity are cause of endemic and pandemic diseases.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-28-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
Materials and methods
For writing this comprehensive research review
on the global effects of climate change on season-
al cycles, vector population, and rising challenges
of communicable diseases various databases were
searched. All concerned information was collected
from different reference books, journals, encyclo-
pedias, survey reports, and databases available on
world climate and environment were read. For col-
lection of data on climate change and climate-im-
posed risks, possible levels of gas emissions, and
their impact on seasonal cycles and human life
Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP) was
searched. For a collection of relevant information
specific terms “climate change and its impact on
the environment and human life were used such as
key text words,” published till 2022 were used in
MEDLINE. Most especially for retrieving all arti-
cles about climate-related changes, electronic bibli-
ographic databases were searched and abstracts of
published studies with relevant information on the
present topic were collected. All important IPCC
reports on climate change, climate action plans,
impacts, adaptation, vulnerability, Climate Change
Statistics, and Indicators were studied. Findings of
the Kyoto Protocol Paris Agreement, United Na-
tions Framework Convention on Climate Change,
and Key reports on climate impacts and solutions
from around the United Nations are also consid-
ered for furnishing more recent information on the
present topic of the review article. For updating the
information about a subject and incorporating recent
knowledge, relevant research articles, books, con-
ference proceedings, and public health organization
survey reports were selected and collated based on
the broader objective of the review. Three important
findings included climate justice and climate ambi-
tion and a temperature change of 1.5-degree temper-
ature limit by 2030 and zero up to 2050. Relevant
terms were used individually and in combination to
ensure an extensive literature search. Most relevant
information on this topic was acquired from various
scientific databases, including SCOPUS, Science
Direct Web of Science, EMBASE, Pubmed central,
PMC, Publon, Swissprot, and Google Scholar. From
this common methodology, discoveries and findings
were identified and summarized in this final review.
2. Seasonal cycles
The movement of the earth on its axis at a fixed
angle causes seasonal cycles because there are two
opposed points. It is decided by the position of the
sun which remains year-round in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. The lengths of the day and
night shifts are decided as a result of the earth’s ro-
tational motion. Each of the four seasons—spring,
summer, fall, and winter—has its own cycle. Weath-
er-based seasons, such as wet or dry ones, also exist
on Earth. Similarly to this, tornado and hurricane
seasons coincide in some regions with two seasonal
changes. The monsoon season in the northern Indian
Ocean is caused by this characteristic pattern, which
also underlies other periodic cycles.
Droughts and floods are happening more fre-
quently as a result of global climate change. The
rotation of the globe has a significant impact on the
troposphere’s wind patterns. The monsoon season in
the northern Indian Ocean is caused by this charac-
teristic pattern, which also underlies other periodic
cycles. There are two distinct seasonal cycles: “El
Nino”, is a warm ocean current that begins in late
December. An opposite cycle called La Nino has
milder winds. Additionally, La Nino provides strong-
er trade winds while “El Nino”, diminishes them.
Because heated air near the earth’s surface rises
swiftly and moves far, tornadoes also follow a yearly
cycle. During the spring and summer, when this hot
air becomes actively warm near the surface, it be-
comes more buoyant and quickly forms tornadoes [11]
.
Seasonal cycles therefore occur within a calendar
year, while spans of time that are shorter or longer
than a year are possible. Occasionally throughout
the course of a calendar year, regular predictable and
unpredictable shifts in climate regimes take place
during the varying seasons. Seasonal refers to any
predictable variation or pattern that recurs or repeats
over the course of a year.
A season can refer to either a commercial season,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-29-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
like the Christmas season or to a calendar season,
such as the summer or winter. Changes in the atmos-
phere caused by eco-climatic factors or variations in
the weather have a negative impact on human health,
animal behaviour, pathogen-host interactions, and
economic growth. Seasonal cycles have an impact on
economic, social, biological, and environmental var-
iables. Seasonal cycles periodically fluctuate, which
has an impact on animal and plant life. Despite the
fact that forecasting techniques and projections are
available, loss of life, economic loss, and loss of
plant and animal life occur virtually year. Unex-
pected seasonal changes and difficulties due to any
climatic element are the problems. Thermal waves
and extreme droughts have a negative impact on the
flow of sap and nutrients in sapwood and phloem
vessels. The principal effects of seasonal variations
have been seen in arid zone plants and plants on hilly
slopes. Due to a drastic reduction in water supply
brought on by dry lands and poor rainfall, a nutrient
concentration is negatively impacted in hot thermal
waves [12]
.
Conifers and flowering vegetable plants’ leaves
display dehiscence and wilting symptoms including
sunburn and significant soil water loss. High temper-
atures have a significant impact on juvenile meris-
tematic tissues in buds, tendrils, stem tips, plumules,
cambia, and roots as well as on growing seeds. In
dry soil, it causes a 90% crop loss. Due to the impact
of the aquatic and marine environment surface tem-
perature, rising temperatures and scorching winds
also enforce tidal energy and enclosing waves. Every
season’s fall brings changes in the wind’s direction,
the amount of sunlight, the humidity, and the sur-
rounding temperature. Typhoons, tides, and seasonal
and diurnal cycles all have an impact. Seawater and
air interface temperature differences of 1°C between
day and night are also noted [13]
. Diurnal cycles in the
upper ocean are being impacted by rising sea surface
temperature, which has a significant impact on the
diversity of plankton, corals, mollusks, and fish. Due
to the increase in temperature, similar effects have
been observed in estuaries or in shallow river waters.
It causes the sea level to rise, which is one of the
main reasons for the loss of biodiversity and produc-
tivity (Figure 1).
3. Effect of seasonal cycles on soil
climate, fauna and flora
Soil formation takes thousands of years, and most
soils are still developing following changes in some
of these soil-forming factors, particularly climate
and vegetation, over the past few decades. Though,
it depends on so many interactions and a number of
forces, including climate, relief, parent material, and
organisms, all acting over time. Climate is one of
the most important factors affecting the formation of
soil with important implications for its development,
use, and management perspective. Climate severe-
ly affects soil functions like a significant change
in organic matter turnover and CO2 dynamics. The
impact of climate change on soils is a slow complex
process because soils not only are strongly affected
by climate change directly. For example effect of
temperature on soil organic matter decomposition
and indirectly, for example, changes in soil moisture
via changes in plant-related evapotranspiration but
also can act as a source of greenhouse gases and
thus contribute to the gases responsible for climate
change.
Most soils are currently evolving as a result of
changes in some of these soil-forming elements, par-
ticularly temperature and vegetation, over the past
few decades. Soil development takes thousands of
years. Although, it depends on a variety of elements
that participate throughout time, such as the climate,
relief, parent material, and organisms. One of the
most significant elements influencing soil formation
is climate, which has significant implications for
their development, usage, and management. Climate
has a considerable impact on soil processes like CO2
dynamics and organic matter turnover. Because soils
are indirectly influenced by climate change in addi-
tion to being directly affected, the impact of climate
change on soils is a slow, complex process. Indirect-
ly, for instance, changes in soil moisture due to var-
iations in plant-related evapotranspiration), but they
can also operate as a source of greenhouse gases and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-30-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
4. Factors responsible for communi-
cable diseases
In the last twenty years series of virus generat-
ed infectious diseases have been emerged and re-
emerged. The zoonotic microbes are continuously
evolving and acquiring adaptations, and showing
high infectivity and mortality at global level. Sever-
ity and risks of communicable diseases have been
increased due to human movement, trade, recreation
activities and dense population structures. Presence
of pathogens in human community and its easy ex-
posure is providing new hosts while eco-climatic
conditions favoring microbial growth, transmission
and infectivity. Further, evolution of new mutant var-
iants of these pathogens has acquired high infectivity
and generating catastrophic effects in human popu-
lation. There are rising incidences of virus generated
disease, flu, dengue, hepatitis, chikungunya, rabies,
polio, gastroenteritis and encephalitis throughout the
globe (Figure 1).
There are external factors that support disease
occurrence, among them few important factors are
heavy rains, water logging, high humidity, temper-
ature difference, urbanization, deforestation, human
migration, settlement of slums, relief camps, and
nomadic movements. There is a lack of clean drink-
ing water, cooking, and washing. Lack of sanitation,
presence of disease vectors, and contaminated food
and waste disposal are responsible for the spread of
communicable diseases. Among non-communicable
diseases, diabetes is one of the important diseases
that kill roughly 30 million people per year world-
wide. Three major challenges are i.e. development of
insecticidal resistance in insects/vectors of potential-
ly communicable diseases, and drug resistance in mi-
crobes and parasites. Cases of lung infection, liver,
kidney, and gastrointestinal tract, and child diarrhea
are rapidly increasing in developing [14]
. Besides,
this incidence of child diarrhea [15]
, neonatal jaun-
dice Click et al., 2013 [16]
, Collier J et al., 2010 [17]
,
and helminths parasitic infections are spreading in
developing and in third-world countries.
Some infectious disorders caused by viruses have
originated and returned throughout the past twenty
years. The zoonotic microorganisms exhibit signif-
icant infectivity and mortality on a global scale as
well as ongoing evolution and adaptation. Human
migration, trade, recreational activities, and dense
population patterns have all contributed to an in-
crease in the severity and hazards of communicable
diseases. As new hosts are being created by diseases
in the human population and their ease of exposure,
microbial development, transmission, and infectious-
ness are encouraged by the eco-climatic conditions.
Furthermore, these infections have evolved novel
mutant versions with great infectivity that has dis-
astrous impacts on the human population. Around
the world, there are increasing numbers of viral
illnesses such as the flu, dengue, hepatitis, chikun-
gunya, rabies, polio, gastroenteritis, and encephalitis.
There are environmental factors that encourage the
spread of disease. A few of the most significant ones
are heavy rainfall, standing water, high humidity,
temperature variations, urbanization, deforestation,
and human migration, as well as the establishment
of slums, relief camps, and nomadic movements.
Cooking, washing, and access to clean drinking
water are all lacking. The causes of the spread of
communicable diseases include poor sanitation, the
existence of disease vectors, contaminated food,
and improper waste disposal. Diabetes is one of the
major non-communicable diseases that kill about 30
million people worldwide each year. The develop-
ment of insecticidal resistance in insects and possible
disease vectors, as well as medication resistance in
bacteria and parasites, are three key challenges. In
emerging nations, cases of child diarrhea, and liver,
kidney, and gastrointestinal tract infections are rising
quickly. In addition, helminths parasitic infections,
newborn jaundice, and infant diarrhea are all on the
rise in third- and developing-world nations.
Due to climatic effects and drug resistance and
new mutations in pathogens disease burden has been
exacerbated enormously at the global level. In all
cases, helminths, protozoans, fungi, bacteria, virus
pathogens, and parasite’s available drug structure
seem to be failed or their usefulness has been much
reduced due to the evolution of new mutant vari-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-32-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
ants with multiple drug resistance. There are serious
failures at the level of operation, management, and
control of the disease. The utmost failure is due to a
lack of appropriate vaccines, drug regimens, clinical
care, and awareness among people. These are major
reasons that are why diseases become uncontrolled
and unmanageable. Year after year new mutant var-
iants or climate-induced microbial pathogen geno-
types are emerging; these are not only challenging
existing drugs but also challenging vaccine efficacy.
This disastrous situation can be overcome by having
new potential drug structures, control strategies, and
methods. For finding quick solutions all biomedical
researchers should arrange drug repurposing, test-
ing, diagnosis, and treatment methods with a focus
on major human parasitic and microbial diseases. In
this article, major zoonotic infections/communicable
diseases have been explained with their specific eti-
ology, transmission and epidemiology, and control/
preventive measures. More specifically effect of cli-
mate on disease occurrence, vector population, drug
and insecticide resistance, and generation of new
genotypes of microbial pathogens and parasites have
been described.
The disease burden has significantly increased
globally as a result of climate effects, treatment re-
sistance, and new pathogen mutations. Helminthes,
protozoans, fungus, bacteria, virus pathogens, and
parasites all appear to be resistant to the available
drug structures, or at least their efficacy has been
greatly diminished as a result of the emergence of
novel mutant versions with multiple drug resist-
ance. At the level of operation, management, and
disease control, there are significant problems. The
greatest failure is brought on by the absence of the
proper vaccine, drug regimens, clinical care, and
public awareness. These are the main causes of dis-
eases becoming unmanageable and out of control.
Every year, new mutant variants or genotypes of cli-
mate-induced microorganisms pose a threat to the ef-
ficiency of vaccines as well as to the effectiveness of
currently available medications. By coming up with
new prospective medicine structures, control tactics,
and methodologies, this dreadful scenario can be
remedied. All biomedical research should set up drug
repurposing, testing, diagnostic, and treatment proce-
dures with an emphasis on the most common human
parasite and microbial disorders in order to identify
speedy fixes. Major zoonotic illnesses and commu-
nicable diseases have been described in this article
along with details on their genesis, transmission,
epidemiology, and control/preventative strategies.
The impact of climate on the occurrence of disease,
the population of disease-carrying vectors, drug and
pesticide resistance, and the emergence of new gen-
otypes of microbial diseases and parasites have been
documented in more detail.
5. Seasonal climate changes and dis-
ease occurrence
Global health largely depends on seasonal
changes felt and faced during the calendar year.
Temperature variability, rainfall, and sunlight put a
direct impact on human health [18]
. Mostly increased
cases of leptospirosis, campylobacter infections and
cryptosporidiosis have been noted after devastating
floods. Global warming affects water heating, rising
the transmission of water-borne pathogens. Patho-
gens transmitted by vectors are particularly sensitive
to climate change because they spend a good part of
their life cycle in a cold-blooded host invertebrate
whose temperature is similar to the environment
(Figure 1). A warmer climate presents more favora-
ble conditions for the survival and the completion of
the life cycle of the vector, going as far as to speed it
up as in the case of mosquitoes. This is the main rea-
son for the upspring of malaria and other viral dis-
eases. Tick-borne diseases have increased in the past
years in cold regions because rising temperatures
accelerate the cycle of development, the production
of eggs, and the density and distribution of the tick
population [19]
.
Seasonal changes experienced and confront-
ed over a year have a significant impact on global
health. The direct effects of temperature variation,
rainfall, and sunlight on human health are also ob-
served [20]
. Following disastrous floods, a rise in
leptospirosis, campylobacter infections, and cryp-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-33-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
tosporidiosis cases has been seen. Water heating
is impacted by global warming, which increases
the spread of water-borne infections. Because they
spend a significant portion of their life cycle in a
cold-blooded host invertebrate whose temperature
is similar to the environment, pathogens spread by
vectors are especially vulnerable to climate change.
A warmer environment offers better chances for the
vector to survive and complete its life cycle, even
hastening it as in the case of mosquitoes. This is the
primary cause of the spread of viral infections like
malaria. Cold regions have seen a rise in tick-borne
infections in recent years because warming temper-
atures speed up the tick life cycle, egg production,
density, and distribution [19]
.
Most pandemics and endemic diseases happen in
favorable climates and seasons to disease vectors.
Climate induces reproduction in adults of vectors
and infectivity in the human population. In the rainy
season, more cases of Cholera, malaria, diarrhea, and
dysentery rise at their peak while, cough cold and
asthma, chicken pox, and smallpox in the winter and
spring season. Thus both regular seasonal cycles and
weather factors play either direct or indirect roles in
disease occurrence and infection rate [20-23]
. Cholera
cases shoot up during rainy or monsoon season when
river water level and surface area get increased [24]
.
During the rainy season sudden rise in vector popu-
lation primary transmission of Vibrio cholerae from
an aquatic environmental reservoir get increased
manifold in endemic regions [25]
. It also varies due to
physical and biological parameters [26,27]
. Warm tem-
perature, sunlight, nutrients and winds in the aquatic
environment influence the growth of phytoplankton
and aquatic plants. These factors alter dissolved O2
and CO2 content and pH of the surrounding water
and help to accelerate Vibrio cholerae growth rate
and transmission. High phytoplankton production
produces food for zooplankton, to which V. cholerae
attaches for protection from the external environ-
ment and proliferates.
The majority of pandemics and endemic diseases
occur during times of the year when disease vectors
thrive. Climate influences adult vector reproduction
and human population infectiousness. Cholera, ma-
laria, diarrhea, and dysentery cases increase signifi-
cantly during the rainy season, whereas cough, cold,
asthma cases, chicken pox, and smallpox cases peak
in the winter and spring.
6. Multiplication of vector and path-
ogen population
Reproduction and development of disease vectors
widely depend on climatic conditions, and chang-
ing weather conditions significant effect on risk
from vector-borne diseases. Disease occurrence is
climate-dependent as it is proved by recent climate
change. It is very difficult to enumerate both the
over- and underestimated effects of climate change
on pests. In a few parts of the world, the insect pest
population is uncontrolled the best examples are
mosquitoes, house flies, termites, and locusts. Few
direct effects of climate on pesticides are responsible
for resistant pest populations. The recent corona pan-
demic, monkeypox, dengue, and malaria are the best
examples of vector-borne diseases due to climate
change. Climate-independent factors or dependent
factors are directly related to changing risk of cli-
mate change [28]
. These significant regional changes
in vector and pathogen occurrence are mostly seen in
Arctic, tropical, temperate, peri-Arctic and subtropi-
cal climatic zones. In future there is a possibility that
both climate changes and human behavior will result
in more conflicts within the society and rest of the
animal world as pressure is heavily targeting wildlife
and forests.
Climate has a big impact on how disease vectors
develop and reproduce, and shifting weather patterns
have a big impact on the risk of contracting diseases
spread by vectors. Recent climate change has demon-
strated that disease occurrence is climate-dependent.
It is highly challenging to list both overestimated
and underestimated pest consequences of climate
change. The best examples of an unregulated insect
pest population are mosquitoes, house flies, termites,
and locusts. The population of pests that are resistant
to pesticides is caused by a few indirect effects of
climate. The best examples of vector-borne diseases](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-34-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
caused by climate change are the recent corona pan-
demic, monkey pox, dengue, and malaria. Changes
in risk from climate change are directly correlated
with factors that are reliant or independent of the cli-
mate [28]
. The Arctic, tropical, temperate, peri-Arctic,
and subtropical climatic zones are where these nota-
ble regional differences in the occurrence of vectors
and pathogens are most prevalent. As pressure inten-
sifies on wild life and forests, it is possible that both
climate change and human behavior could lead to
increased conflicts within humanity and among other
animals in the future.
Shrinking resources, habitat destruction, and
changes in soil, water, and aerial climate are making
the condition more intolerable. All physical fac-
tors like light, temperature, and winds are creating
accidental disturbances that are making a loss of
life, goods, agriculture, economy, and people are
forced to migrate. The demand for commodities is
increasing while the risks of natural calamities are
increasing. There is a significant alteration in disease
occurrence, fatalities, and morbidities in marginal
agriculture-based societies. Recent genetic resistance
in insect pests and pathogens defeated the drugs and
clinical treatments, loss of action in broad-spectrum
drugs, incidence rate, and sudden pandemics have
destroyed public services, human behavior; and po-
litical stability and conflicts. Recent challenges relat-
ed to drug and insecticide resistance, and the resur-
gence of the pest population are on the rise, however,
to control the existing and emerging communicable
diseases, more funds and grants are required with
new pharmaceuticals and clinical facilities at the
global level [29]
.
Resources are being depleted, habitats are being
destroyed, and soil, water, and aerial climate changes
are making the situation increasingly untenable. All
physical conditions, including light, temperature, and
winds, cause unintentional disturbances that result
in the loss of life, property, agricultural production,
the economy, and the need for population migration.
Commodity demand is rising, and so are the chances
of natural disasters. In marginal agriculture-based
cultures, disease incidence, mortality, and morbid-
ities have significantly changed. Recent pandemics
are going on due to genetic resistance to infectious
agents and insect pests. These changes have resulted
in the loss of efficacy of broad-spectrum medications
and devastated public services, human behavior,
political stability, and conflicts. However, additional
funding and grants are needed for new medications
and clinical facilities at a global level to manage to
exist and emerging communicable illnesses. Recent
issues connected to drug and pesticide resistance, and a
rebound of the pest population are on the rise [29]
.
Changing weather conditions are imposing direct
and indirect impacts on human health and increasing
risks. Climate-sensitive infections pose a dispro-
portionate burden and ongoing risk to both smaller
and large human communities, hence, surveillance,
diagnosis and prevention of diseases become highly
important to minimize or prevent infections [30]
. Se-
vere risks of infectious disease are also made after
forced displacement due to disasters from rural sites
to urban-poor areas; labor migration and illegal hu-
man trafficking add new types of risks. Therefore,
disease diagnosis and treatment are highly essential
for migrants, because, in lack of these, they convert
into epicenters of epidemic diseases. Hence, the ad-
ministration should try to understand and respond
to the health impacts of all infectious disease cases
found in migrant populations and host communi-
ties [31]
. All three parameters changing ecology and
transmission dynamics of infectious disease and
treatments methods available must be rechecked and
advanced.
The risks associated with changing weather are
rising and having both direct and indirect effects on
human health. Smaller and larger human societies
are equally in danger from climate-sensitive illness-
es, making disease surveillance, diagnosis, and
prevention crucial for reducing or eliminating infec-
tions [30]
. After forced relocation from rural sites to
urban-poor areas owing to disasters, labor migration,
and any illicit human trafficking add additional sorts
of risks, severe infectious disease risks are also creat-
ed. For this reason, sickness diagnosis and treatment
are absolutely crucial for migrants, as without them,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-35-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
they become the centers of epidemic diseases. As a
result, management should attempt to comprehend
and address the health implications of all infectious
disease cases discovered in migrant groups and host
communities [31]
. All three variables, which include
the dynamics of evolving infectious disease ecology
and transmission, as well as current treatment op-
tions, need to be reviewed and improved.
6.1 Flies as vectors
Arthropods mainly spiders, scorpions, ticks, and
mites; lice, fleas, bedbugs, flies, bees, and ants, these
insects impose allergies, morbidity, and mortality in
human beings worldwide [32]
. Bites of these insects
are major mode of transmission of disease patho-
gens, their stings cause allergies and impose life
threatening physiological and biochemical changes.
Flies are known vectors for a variety of infectious
diseases mainly Aleutian disease in animals. Fannia
canicularis (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) is a vector of
Aleutian mink disease virus in mink farms [33]
. Coch-
liomyia hominivorax is a fly that causes oral myiasis
or fly-blown disease that is found in tropical and
subtropical areas [34]
. This disease is characterized by
symptoms of severe pain, swelling, itchy sensations,
and the feeling of something moving in the mouth [35]
.
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a viral disease predomi-
nantly located in South East Asia. It is transmitted by
the mosquito Culex tritaeniorhynchus. The disease is
causing severity due to geography, climate change,
and urbanization [36]
. Trachoma is a keratoconjunc-
tivitis caused by flies Chlamydia trachomatis, in
Botucatu Sao Paulo State, Brazil. This is a leading
cause of blindness in the world [37]
.
Insect stings can trigger allergies and have poten-
tially fatal physiological and biochemical effects. In-
sect bites are a significant way that disease infections
are transmitted. Humans develop allergic reactions
when some insects including bugs, fleas, mites, and
ticks are present, and their salivary proteins do the
same. The class Arachnida of arthropods, which in-
cludes spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites, and the
class Insecta, which includes lice, fleas, bedbugs,
flies, bees, and ants, are responsible for a significant
portion of sickness and mortality among humans
worldwide [32]
.
Flies have known vectors for a variety of infec-
tious diseases mainly Aleutian disease in animals.
Fannia canicularis (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) is a vec-
tor of the Aleutian mink disease virus in mink farms [33]
.
Oral myiasis or fly-blown disease is caused by Coch-
liomyia hominivorax a fly that is found in tropical
and subtropical areas [34]
. The main symptoms of oral
myiasis are severe pain, swelling, itchy sensation,
and the feeling of something moving in the mouth [35]
.
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a viral disease predomi-
nantly located in South East Asia. It is transmitted by
the mosquito Culex tritaeniorhynchus. The disease
is causing severity due to geography, climate change
and urbanization [36]
. In Botucatu, Sao Paulo State,
Brazil, flies carrying the keratoconjunctivitis virus
Chlamydia trachomatis are the source of trachoma.
According to Meneghim et al. [37]
, this is a major
cause of blindness worldwide.
Cattle hypodermis (warble fly infestation) is a
notorious veterinary problem throughout the world.
Larvae of Hypoderma species cause subcutaneous
myiasis in domesticated and wild ruminants. This
disease is caused by, Hypoderma bovis, Hypoderma
lineatum in cattle whereas, Hypoderma diana, Hy-
poderma actaeon, and Hypoderma tarandi, affect
roe deer, red deer, and reindeer, respectively. Adults
of the cattle grub are commonly known as heel flies,
warble flies, bomb flies or gad flies. The biology
of hypodermis is complex because it passes through
ecto- as well as endoparasitic stages in the life cycle [38]
.
Myiasis caused by Hypodermatinae flies is an eco-
nomically important disease affecting domesticated
and wild ruminants in countries of the Mediterranean
and Indian subcontinent. Adult female insects lay
eggs on the coat of animals. Hypoderma spp. primar-
ily lay their eggs on cattle, buffalo, roe deer, red deer
and reindeer, while Przhevalskiana spp. lay eggs on
the coat of goats [39]
. Hypoderma tarandi larvae in-
fect early-age calves of reindeer Rangifer tarandus
tarandus skin of the back [40]
. Dengue hemorrhagic
fever (DHF) virus or Dengue virus (DENV) is a
mosquito-borne virus mainly Aedes sp. mosquitoes](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-36-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
from an infected host to non-infected [41,42]
.
A well-known veterinary issue worldwide is
cattle hypodermis (infestation with warble flies).
Domesticated and wild ruminants that are exposed
to Hypoderma species’ larvae develop subcutaneous
myiasis. Hypoderma diana, Hypoderma actaeon,
and Hypoderma tarandi, which affect roe deer, red
deer, and reindeer, respectively, are the causes of this
disease in cattle. Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma
lineatum are the causes of the condition in humans.
Heel flies, warble flies, bomb flies, or gad flies are
common names for the adults of the cattle worm. The
life cycle of hypodermis includes both ecto- and en-
doparasitic stages, which complicates its biology [38]
.
Myiasis, a disease brought on by Hypodermatinae
flies, affects both domesticated and wild ruminants
in the Mediterranean and Indian subcontinent na-
tions. On the fur of animals, adult female insects de-
posit their eggs. While Przhevalskiana spp. lay eggs
on the coat of goats, Hypoderma spp. primarily lay
their eggs on cattle, buffalo, roe deer, red deer, and
reindeer [39]
. The skin on the back of young calves of
reindeer Rangifer tarandus is infected with Hypoder-
ma tarandi larvae [40]
. The virus that causes dengue
hemorrhagic fever (DHF) or dengue (DENV) is
spread by mosquitoes, primarily Aedes sp. mosqui-
toes, from an infected host to an uninfected host [41,42]
.
Francisella tularensis is a bacterium that causes
Tularemia an endemic zoonotic infection mostly
seen in North America and parts of Europe and Asia.
This disease is transmitted by ticks and deer flies [43]
.
Similarly, sleeping sickness or trypanosomiasis is a
vector-borne disease caused by a protozoan parasite
Trypanosoma brucei, T gambiense, Human African
trypanosomiasis. This disease is caused by bites of
tsetse flies Glossina palates. Infection with Trypano-
soma brucei rhodesiense leads to the acute, zoonotic
form of Eastern and Southern Africa [44]
. Arthropod
vectors transmit African and American trypanosomi-
ases, and disease containment through insect control
programmes is an achievable goal [45]
. Cutaneous
leishmaniasis is a disease caused by various Leish-
mania spp., which are transmitted by phlebotomine
sand flies. This fly has seven species, with Phleboto-
mus perniciosus (76.2%), Ph. papatasi (16.7%) and
Ph. sergenti (5.0%) being the most common species,
representing together 97.9% of the collected speci-
mens. The remaining specimens were identified as
Sergentomyia minuta, Se. fallax, Ph. longicuspis and
Ph. perfiliewi [46]
.
In North America, some regions of Europe, and
Asia, Francisella tularensis is a bacterium that caus-
es tularemia, an endemic zoonotic infection. Ticks
and deer flies are the carriers of this disease [43]
.
In a similar vein, trypanosomiasis, also known as
sleeping sickness, is an infection brought on by the
protozoan parasites Trypanosoma brucei, T gambi-
ense, human African trypanosomiasis. The tsetse fly,
Glossina palalis, which transmits this disease, bites
humans. The acute, zoonotic variant of Trypanoso-
ma brucei rhodesiense infects people in Eastern and
Southern Africa [44]
. African and American trypano-
somiases are transmitted by arachnid vectors, making
disease containment through insect control programs
a realistic objective. In 2003, Leishmania sp., which
is spread by phlebotomine sand flies, cause cuta-
neous leishmaniasis, a disease [45]
. There are seven
different species of this fly, with Phlebotomus perni-
ciosus (76.2%), Ph. papatasi (16.7%), and Ph. ser-
genti (5.0%) making up the majority and accounting
for 97.9% of the specimens gathered. Sergentomyia
minuta, Se. fallax, Ph. longicuspis, and Ph. perfiliewi
were named for the remaining specimens [46]
.
6.2 Tick vectors
Ticks (Acari: Ixodida) are ectoparasites that rely
on a blood meal from a vertebrate host at each de-
velopmental stage for the completion of their life
cycle. Ticks are serious health threats to humans
and both domestic and wild animals in tropical and
subtropical areas. These cause severe economic loss-
es both through the direct effects of blood-sucking
and indirectly as vectors of pathogens. Tick feeding
causes transmission of pathogens and evokes severe
infections, morbidity, and immune reactions in man.
Feeding by large numbers of ticks causes a reduc-
tion in live weight gain and anemia among domestic
animals, while tick bites also reduce the quality of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-37-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
hides. However, the major losses caused by ticks are
due to the ability to transmit protozoan, rickettsial
and viral diseases of livestock, which are of great
economic importance worldwide [47]
.
Ectoparasite ticks (Acari: Ixodida) require a blood
meal from a vertebrate host at each stage of develop-
ment to complete their life cycle. Ticks are serious
health threats to humans and both domestic and wild
animals in tropical and subtropical areas. Ticks are
responsible for severe economic losses both through
the direct effects of blood-sucking and indirectly as
vectors of pathogens. Animal health is impacted by
the tick feeding cycle because it results in hide dam-
age, secondary infections, immunological reactions,
and diseases brought on by the spread of pathogens.
Domestic animals who are heavily tick-fed experi-
ence reduced weight gain and anemia, and the qual-
ity of their hides is also compromised by tick bites.
The ability of ticks to transmit livestock diseases
including protozoan, rickettsial, and viral infections,
which are extremely important economically around
the world, is what causes the majority of losses [47]
.
Brown tick Ixodes hexagons live on the bodies of
domestic and wild animals and vegetation. It trans-
mits Theileria parva a protozoan parasite, which
causes the tick-transmitted disease East Coast fever
in cattle mainly in ruminants [48]
. Tick‐borne ana-
plasmosis and ehrlichiosis are clinically important
emerging zoonoses of ticks belonging to three genera
(Rhipicephalus, Hyalomma,Haemaphysalis).Tick-
borne relapsing fever in North America is primarily
caused by the spirochete Borrelia hermsii. Babesial
vector tick defensin against Babesia sp. parasites [48]
.
Ticks possess sticky nature and ixodid ticks stick
over the body of migratory birds, particularly pas-
serines, infected with tick-borne pathogens, like
Borrelia spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma, Rickettsia/
Coxiella, and tick-borne encephalitis virus. The prev-
alence of ticks on birds varies over years, seasons,
locality and different bird species. Adult Ixodes rici-
nus is red-brown, but the female ticks are light gray
when engorged. Before feeding, sheep tick males are
approximately 2.5-3 mm long and females 3-4 mm
long. When they are engorged, the females can be as
long as 1 cm. Their palps are longer than the base of
the gnathostome.
Black ticks live on the bodies of both domestic
and wild animals as well as on flora, Ixodes hexa-
gons are. It spreads the protozoan parasite Theileria
Parva, which is the primary cause of East Coast
fever in cattle and other ruminants [48]
. Emerging
zoonoses ticks from three genera are clinically sig-
nificant carriers of anaplasmosis and ehrlichiosis. In
North America, the spirochete Borrelia hermsii is the
main cause of tick-borne relapsing fever, Babesial
vector tick defensin against Babesia sp. parasites Ix-
odid ticks, which carry infections like Borrelia spp.,
Babesia spp., Anaplasma, Rickettsia/Coxiella, and
tick-borne encephalitis virus, adhere to the bodies of
migratory birds, especially passerines. Tick preva-
lence in birds varies depending on the year, season,
location, and type of bird. Ixodes ricinus adults are
red-brown, whereas engorged female ticks are pale
gray. Male sheep ticks are roughly 2.5-3 mm long,
whereas females are 3-4 mm long before feeding.
The females can grow up to 1 cm long when they are
engorged. Their palps extend farther than the gnatho-
stome’s base.
Ixodes ricinus is a major pest of sheep, cattle,
deer, dogs and humans. A few medically important
ixodid ticks include Amblyommaspp, Anomalohim-
alayaspp, Bothriocrotonspp, Cosmiommasp, Der-
macentorspp, Haemaphysalis spp, Hyalommaspp,
Ixodesspp, Margaropusspp, Nosommasp, Rhipi-
centorspp, and Rhipicephalusspp.Ixodesricinus a
free-living tick has been intensively studied [49,50]
.
The nymph of the western black-legged tick (Ix-
odes pacificus) is an important bridging vector of
the Lyme disease spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi)
to humans in the far-western United States [51]
.
These show horizontal and vertical movements
of host-seeking Ixodes pacificus (Acrii Ixodidae)
nymphs in hardwood forests.
Ixodes ricinus is a serious pest to humans, dogs,
cattle, sheep, and deer. Amblyommaspp, Anom-
alohimalayaspp, Bothriocrotonspp, Cosmiommaspp,
Dermacentorspp, Haemaphysalisspp, Hyalommaspp,
Ixodesspp, Margaropusspp, Nosommasp, Rhipicen-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-38-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
torsspp, and Rhipicephalusspp are a few ixodid ticks
that are significant medically. In-depth research has
been done on the free-living tick Ixodes ricinus [49,50]
.
In the far western United States, the nymph of the
western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus) is a cru-
cial bridging vector of the Lyme disease spirochete
(Borrelia burgdorferi) to humans [51]
. These depict
the movements of host-seeking Ixodespacificus
(AcriiIxodidae) nymphs in a hardwood forest in both
the horizontal and vertical planes.
Mites, nematodes and spirochaetes, feed on
ticks, as they carry diseases as the primary hosts of
pathogens. These organisms could not reach their
secondary hosts. The diseases caused may debilitate
their victims, and ticks may thus be assisting in con-
trolling animal populations and preventing overgraz-
ing [52]
. Ticks remain attached to the body of mobile
hosts and reach new far distant locations, best exam-
ple is bird hosts, which even carry ticks across the
sea. The infective agents can be present not only in
the adult tick but also in the eggs produced plentiful-
ly by the females. Many tick species have extended
their ranges as a result of the movements of people,
their pets, and livestock. With increasing participa-
tion in outdoor activities such as wilderness hikes,
more people and their dogs may find themselves ex-
posed to attack [53]
. Lyme disease transmission cycles
are maintained by different vector species Ixodes
scapularis and Ixodes pacificus, respectively. Though
these show differences in transmission efficiency can
be used to identify vector competence contributes to
variable Lyme disease risk [54]
.
Since ticks are the main hosts for the pathogens
that cause diseases, mites, nematodes, and spirochae-
tes prey on them. The secondary hosts of these or-
ganisms were out of reach. Ticks may be helping to
manage animal populations and prevent overgrazing
because the diseases they spread may render their
victims helpless [52]
. The longer period that a tick re-
mains attached, during which the mobile host can be
transported across great distances or, in the case of
hosts that are birds, across the ocean, enhances the
spread of the disease. The infectious pathogens can
be found in both the adult tick and the female ticks’
copious amounts of eggs. Because of the mobility of
people, their pets, and cattle, many tick species have
expanded their geographic ranges. As more people
engage in outdoor activities like wilderness hikes,
more people and their dogs may become vulnerable
to attack [53]
. Lyme disease transmission cycles are
maintained by different vector species Ixodes scapu-
laris and Ixodes pacificus respectively. Though these
show differences in transmission efficiency can be
used to identify vector competence contributes to
variable Lyme disease risk [54]
.
6.3 Mosquito vectors
Malaria is a worldwide disease; the spectrum of
this disease is increasing at the global level. Global
warming induced by human activities has increased
the risk of vector-borne diseases such as malaria.
During the last three decades, its incidences have
enormously increased in South East Asian coun-
tries, African countries, and Australia as changing
climates have favored the reproduction and survival
rate in vector populations. Rising temperature, rain-
fall, presence of host and parasite enhanced epide-
miological risks of malaria. In the last two decades,
the human malaria parasite has rapidly changed its
genome according to the type of human host and
vector population and ongoing climatic variations.
Anopheline mosquitoes have developed resistance
against variations in temperature, salinity, pesticides,
and against plasmodium the malaria parasite [55]
.
There are four strains of malaria parasite infections
with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and
Plasmodium berghei parasites among which newly
emerged Plasmodium knowlesi disease is more fa-
tal, its natural primate hosts are Macaca fascicula-
ris, M. nemestina, M. inus, and Saimiri scirea. All
these are transmitted by 70 species of mosquitoes
among which 41 are more prominent and dominant
vectors which that transmit the malaria parasite [55]
.
The reason behind rising cases of malaria is genetic
resistance developed by the parasite, human migra-
tion, failure of drug formulae, eco-climatic changes,
poor health policies, human migration, and pesti-
cide resistance in malaria vectors [55]
. The rise in the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-39-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
anopheline mosquito population are floods, urbani-
zation, hygiene, tropical forests, and humidity. Insec-
ticide resistance is the main problem and hurdle that is
lowering the effectiveness of vector-borne disease man-
agement [56]
. However, molecular investigations are
required to diagnose mechanisms involved in the de-
velopment of the parasites in New World vectors [57]
.
The intensity of transmission is dependent on the
vectorial capacity and competence of local mosqui-
toes (Table 1) [55]
.
Malaria is a disease that affects people all around
the world and its range is expanding globally. The
likelihood of vector-borne illnesses like malaria has
increased due to global warming brought on by hu-
man activity. Because of the changing climate, the
vector population’s survival and reproduction rates
have increased significantly during the past three
decades in South East Asian, African, and Austral-
ian nations. Increasing temperatures, precipitation,
the presence of a host and a parasite, and malaria
Table 1. Major communicable diseases with their vector and reservoir hosts.
Diseases Vector Infected Population Main Reservoir Affected Area
Dengue Fever Ades Human None (Primates)
Africa Asia America
(Inter -tropical zone)
Yellow Fever Ades Human Monkey
Africa, America
(Inter -tropical zone)
West Nile encephalitis Ades, culex Human (Horse) Birds
Africa,Middle East Southern Europe,
America
Tick-borne encephalitis Ticks Human
Wild Animals cervids,
Rodents
Central Europe Scandinavia
Japanese encephalitis Ades, culex Human (Pigs) Birds (Pigs) Far East
Chikungunya fever Ades Human Monkey Africa,South Europe,
RVF Virus (Phlevo virus) Ades
Human
(Sheep,cattle,goat,
canines,felines)
Sheep,cattle Equatorial Africa
Hantavirus Rodents Human Rodents
Asia (Hantaan virus)
America (Sin Nombre Virus)
Lymphatic filariasis
Culex/
Anopheles
Human Human Sub-Saharan Africa
Rift Valley fever Aedes Human Mosquitoes
eastern and southern Africa, sub-Saharan
Africa, Madagascar, Saudi Arabia and
Yemen.
Zika Anopheles Human Africa to Asia
Malaria Anopheles Human North America
Onchocerciasis (river
blindness)
Blackflies
livestock such as cattle,
sheep, goats, buffalo,
and camels.
Human
Africa, with additional foci in Latin
America and the Middle East.
Plague (transmitted from
rats to humans)
Fleas Human Rats Africa, Asia and the United States
Tungiasis Fleas Human pigs
Mexico to South America, the West Indies
and Africa.
Typhus Lice rats, cats, or opossums Human
Southeast Asia, Japan, and northern
Australia
Louse-borne relapsing
fever
Lice Human Dog north-eastern Africa
Leishmaniasis Sandflies Human
Mexico, Central America, and South
America
Sandfly fever
(phlebotomus fever)
Sandflies Human rodents,
Mediterranean, Middle East, northern
African and western Asian countries](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-40-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
epidemiological risks. The human malaria parasite
has quickly altered its genome during the past 20
years in response to the many human hosts, vector
populations, and ongoing environmental changes.
Anopheline mosquitoes have evolved resistance to
insecticides, plasmodium, temperature fluctuations,
and salinity changes [55]
. There are four different
types of malaria parasite illnesses, including Plasmo-
dium berghei, Plasmodium yoelii, and the recently
discovered Plasmodium knowlesi disease, which is
more deadly and has Macaca fascicularis as its nat-
ural monkey host. M. Nemestine as well as Saimiri
science. All of them are spread by 70 different kinds
of mosquitoes, of which 41 are the most common
and effective vectors for the malaria parasite [55]
.
The parasite’s genetic resistance, human movement,
medication formula failure, eco-climatic changes, in-
adequate health policies, human migration, and pes-
ticide resistance in malaria vectors are all contribut-
ing factors to the increase in instances of malaria [55]
.
Floods, urbanization, sanitation, tropical forests,
and humidity all contribute to an increase in the
anopheline mosquito population. The primary issue
and roadblock limiting the efficiency of managing
vector-borne diseases is insecticide resistance [56]
.
However, to identify the processes involved in the
growth of the parasites in New World vectors, mo-
lecular analyses are necessary [57]
. The competence
and vectorial potential of the local mosquito popu-
lation determine how intense the transmission will
be [55]
(Table 1).
6.4 Pesticide resistance in insect vectors
Resistance to currently-used insecticides varied
greatly between the four-vector species. While no
resistance to any insecticides was found in the two
Aedes species, bioassays confirmed multiple re-
sistance in Cx. p. quinquefasciatus (temephos: ~20
fold and deltamethrin: only 10% mortality after 24
hours). In An. gambiae, resistance was scarce: only
moderate resistance to temephos was found (~5
fold). resistance levels of four major vector species
(Anopheles gambiae, Culex pipiens quinquefas-
ciatus, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus) to two
types of insecticides: i) the locally currently-used
insecticides (organophosphates, pyrethroids) and ii)
alternative molecules that are promising for vector
Diseases Vector Infected Population Main Reservoir Affected Area
Crimean-
Congo haemorrhagic
fever
Ticks
wild and domestic
animals, such as cattle,
goats, sheep and hares
Hard ticks
the Mediterranean, in northwestern China,
central Asia, southern Europe, Africa, the
Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent
Lyme disease Ticks
wild and domestic
animals, such as cattle,
goats, sheep and hares
white-footed mouse
(Peromyscusleucopus)
Northeast, mid-Atlantic, upper Midwest,
and West Coast.
Relapsing fever
(borreliosis)
Ticks
wild and domestic
animals, such as cattle,
goats, sheep and hares
Human
North America, plateau regions of
Mexico, Central and South America, the
Mediterranean, Central Asia, and much of
Africa.
Rickettsial diseases (eg:
spotted fever and Q fever)
Ticks
wild and domestic
animals, such as cattle,
goats, sheep and hares
Human Hawaii, California, and Texas.
Tularaemia Ticks
wild and domestic
animals, such as cattle,
goats, sheep and hares
rabbits, hares, and
muskrats
south central United States, the Pacific
Northwest, and parts of Massachusetts,
including Martha’s Vineyard.
Chagas disease (American
trypanosomiasis)
Triatome
bugs
wild and domestic
animals, such as cattle,
Human Americas
Sleeping sickness
(African trypanosomiasis
Tsetse flies
wild and domestic
animals, such as cattle,
Human
central Africa and in limited areas of West
Africa
Table 1 continued](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-41-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
control and come from different insecticide families
(bacterial toxins or insect growth regulators) [58]
. The
emergence of genetic engineering is used to improve
human health using genetic manipulation techniques
in a clinical context. Gene therapy represents an in-
novative and appealing strategy for the treatment of
human diseases, which utilizes vehicles or vectors
for delivering therapeutic genes into the patient’s
body. However, a few past unsuccessful events that
negatively marked the beginning of gene therapy
resulted in the need for further studies regarding the
design and biology of gene therapy vectors, so that
this innovating treatment approach can successfully
move from bench to bedside (Table 1) [59]
.
6.5 Insect vectors that exhibit pesticide resist-
ance
The four-vector species showed very different lev-
els of pesticide resistance. The two Aedes species had
no pesticide resistance, while bioassays showed that
Cx had multiple insecticide resistance. P. quinque-
fasciatus (mortality after 24 hours for temephos was
20-fold lower than for deltamethrin) In An. gambiae,
resistance was limited; only a mild resistance to te-
mephos (5-fold) was discovered. Anopheles gambiae,
Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypti, and
Aedes albopictus are four major vector species. Re-
sistance levels to two types of insecticides have been
studied: The locally prevalent organic phosphates
and pyrethroids and alternative molecules that are
promising for vector control and come from different
insecticide families (bacterial toxins or insect growth
regulators). Through the use of clinically relevant
genetic alteration techniques, the development of
genetic engineering is being used to enhance human
health. Gene therapy, which uses carriers or vectors to
transport therapeutic genes into patients’ bodies, is a
cutting-edge and alluring approach to treating human
ailments. However, a few prior instances of failure
that adversely affected the development of gene ther-
apy necessitated additional research into the design
and biology of gene therapy vectors in order for this
ground-breaking therapeutic strategy to successfully
transition from bench to bedside [59]
.
6.6 Drug resistance in microbes
In normal environmental conditions mainly tem-
perature imposes mutations that confer resistance
to a drug that is rare and undetected. The genetic
switches found in bacteria are more susceptible to al-
tering the behavior of genes accordingly as the target
drug is set right and its action is foiled in two steps.
In an environment with the addition of drugs, the
drug-resistant mutants favored and replaced the nor-
mal bacteria. There occurs directive selection in bac-
teria that non-pathogenic strains are converting into
pathogenic and later on into resistant one. It might
be thought that the mutations conferring resistance
are caused or induced by the drug, but this is not
true. It is a natural phenomenon that drug-resistant
mutations occur in bacterial cells irrespective of the
presence or absence of the drug. This is the nature of
bacterial cells that mutation occurs simultaneously
without drug exposure. This is an open race between
man and microbes to sabotage each other to acquire
fitness through natural selection. Both shield and
attack are becoming more advanced and are prov-
ing lethal tools for each other. Though, in the past
and even today microbes have attained the required
resistance against thousands of synthetic drugs by
making changes in the genetic system. Microbes
are UN-conquered warriors on this earth because of
their adaptations, flexibility in the mode of feeding,
and behavioral and genetic selection than any other
organism. It has also ascertained their survival in
extreme climatic conditions both outside host or ex-
otic conditions. Among microbes most of the species
belong to various groups which are pathogenic to
man and their ultimate survival comes through the
creation of a pathogen city to the host.
Mutations that confer drug resistance are uncom-
mon and go undiscovered in typical environmental
conditions, when the temperature is the dominant
environmental constraint. The genetic switches pres-
ent in bacteria are more likely to change gene be-
havior as the target drug is corrected and its function
is thwarted in two steps. The regular bacteria were
preferred and replaced by drug-resistant mutants in
an environment where drugs were added. Directive](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-42-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
fication capacity against medicinal molecules which
could be sued by a human being as a drug.
Seventh-generation anti-microbials are undoubt-
edly effective tools for controlling microorganisms,
but they also use a genetic system that coordinates
thousands of genes to produce new enzymes. Only
a very small number of the allelopathy we consume
daily might thus not generate significant resistance.
In other words, we get what we need from 30-40
plant species, whereas bacteria have interacted with
thousands of plant and animal species, increasing
their sensitivity to and the ability for identifying
drugs that humans might use.
6.7 Gene transfer, virus vectors and drug re-
sistance
Viral vectors are promising gene carriers for
cancer therapy. These new genes delivered for thera-
peutic purposes are increasing safety risks to human
health [60]
. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors are
important delivery platforms for therapeutic genome
editing but are severely constrained by cargo limits [61]
.
These Ad vectors evade pre-deployed immuni-
ty. There is a need to make genetic and chemical
modifications capsid for modulation of vector–host
interactions of Ad-based vectors [62]
. Transgenesis
and paratransgenesis are highly important molecu-
lar methods to control insect-borne diseases. These
methods easily decrease insect vectorial capacity,
and break the transmission of pathogens such as
Plasmodium sp., Trypanosoma sp., and Dengue vi-
rus. Vector transgenesis relies on direct genetic ma-
nipulation of disease vectors making them incapable
of functioning as vectors of a given pathogen. In ad-
dition, genetically modified insect symbionts are also
used to express molecules within the vectors that are
deleterious to pathogens they transmit [63]
. Finally
new genetic additions may induce linear functional
responses from hosts and vectors that might increase
disease transmission potential in vectors and longev-
ity in the pathogen cycle within the body of hosts.
But for control of transmission of the behavioral
ecology of insects, molecular changes in pathogens
must be studied [64]
. Further, the use of virus vectors
for the transfer of silencing genes preferable integra-
tion sites must be searched with stable expression
models [65,60]
. For increasing translation efficiency
there is a need to improve the quality of oversized
vectors [66]
.
Over one million people die each year as a re-
sult of nearly 20% of infectious diseases that are
vector-borne. Recently, a few virus-based vectors
were employed to create possible vaccines to fight
the COVID-19 disease and protect people’s immune
systems. Finally, new genetic additions might cause
hosts and vectors to respond linearly, which could
increase the possibility of disease transmission in the
vectors and lengthen the pathogen cycle within the
body of the hosts. However, molecular modifications
in the pathogen must be investigated to control the
transmission of insect behavioral ecology [64]
. Addi-
tionally, stable expression models must be used to
search for the best integration locations when using
viral vectors to deliver silencing genes [65,60]
. It is
necessary to raise the caliber of large vectors to in-
crease the translation efficiency of these [66]
.
The capacity of lentiviral protein transfer vec-
tors (PTVs) for targeted antigen transfer directly
into APCs and thereby induction of cytotoxic T cell
responses. PTVs can be used as safe and efficient al-
ternatives to gene transfer vectors or live attenuated
replicating vector platforms, avoiding genotoxicity
or general toxicity in highly immunocompromised
patients, respectively. Thereby, the potential for easy
envelope exchange allows the circumventing of
neutralizing antibodies, e.g., during repeated boost
immunizations [67]
. The integrated vector manage-
ment plan, including all the good practices, learned
from previous experiences [58]
. Almost 20% of all
infectious human diseases are vector-borne and, to-
gether, are responsible for over one million deaths
per annum. Recently few of the virus-based vectors
were used for the generation of potential vaccines to
fight against COVID-19 disease, the immune safety
of people.
Lentiviral protein transfer vectors’ (PTVs’) abil-
ity to transfer specific antigens directly into APCs
and consequently trigger cytotoxic T-cell responses.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-44-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
PTVs can be employed as effective and safe substi-
tutes for live attenuated replicating vector platforms
or gene transfer vectors, preventing genotoxicity or
general toxicity in severely immunocompromised in-
dividuals, respectively. As a result, the possibility of
simple envelope exchange enables the avoidance of
neutralizing antibodies, for instance, during repeated
booster immunizations [67]
. A comprehensive vector
management strategy that takes into account all the
wise decisions made in the past [58]
. Almost 20% of
all infectious human diseases are vector-borne and,
together, are responsible for over one million deaths
per annum. Recently few of the virus-based vectors
were used for the generation of potential vaccines to
fight against COVID-19 disease, the immune safety
of people.
6.8 Drug resistance, virus vectors, and gene
transfer
Promising gene carriers for cancer therapy are
viral vectors. These spread genes for therapeutic pur-
poses but raise security concerns and bring about the
emergence of new virus strains as a result of gene
fusion and conversion [60]
. Although cargo restric-
tions severely restrict the use of Adeno-Associated
Virus (AAV) vectors as therapeutic genome editing
delivery platforms [61]
. These advertisement routes
avoid deployed immunity. Ad-based vectors’ capsids
require genetic and chemical alterations in order to
control the interactions between the vector and the
host [62]
. Insect-borne disease control uses transgen-
esis and paratransgenesis, two crucial molecular
techniques. These techniques can reduce the ability
of insects to transmit disease and stop the spread of
viruses like the Dengue virus, Trypanosoma species,
and Plasmodium species. By directly altering the
genetic code of disease vectors, vector transgenesis
renders them unable to spread a specific pathogen.
The goal of paratransgenesis is to use genetically
altered insect symbionts to express chemicals that
are harmful to the infections they transmit within the
vector [63]
.
7. Host immunity and pathogen an-
tigens
New interactions between plasmodium and
mosquito vectors have been observed related to the
mechanism of innate immune defense responses in
anopheline mosquitoes. The body of these mosqui-
toes makes an innate immune defense and is applied
to confine and kill malaria parasites under migration
and development. It could be used as one of the
effective strategies to control malaria vectors [68]
.
Mosquitoes and other insects lack adaptive immune
defense but they respond to different bacteria and
fungi with the same innate immune system by us-
ing different defense peptides. Anopheles gambiae
mosquito vector contains transition stages of midgut
invasion and relocation of sporozoites from the oo-
cysts to the salivary glands. After invasion mosquito
innate immune system is activated that kills plasmo-
dium parasite inside salivary glands [69]
.
The mechanism of innate immune defense re-
sponses in anopheline mosquitoes has revealed new
interactions between the plasmodium and insect vec-
tor. These mosquitoes’ bodies produce an inherent
immune defense that is used to contain and elimi-
nate malaria parasites while they are migrating and
developing. It could be one of the most successful
methods for controlling malaria vectors [68]
. Although
mosquitoes and other insects lack adaptive immune
protection, they nonetheless use the same innate
immune system to respond to various bacteria and
fungus by employing various defense peptides. The
mosquito vector Anopheles gambiae has intermedi-
ate stages of midgut invasion and sporozoites that go
from the oocysts to the salivary glands. Following
the invasion, the innate immune system of the mos-
quito destroys the parasite plasmodium inside the
salivary glands [69]
.
There is one important question Anopheles mos-
quitoes have developed mechanisms to confront
Plasmodium infections during feeding, if vector
immune competence may be explored it will help to
prevent pathogen transmission [70]
. There are three
important points seasonal variations, new variants of
parasites, and new defense molecules in vectors are](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-45-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
favored by a climate that leads to increased trans-
mission, high infectivity, and mortality in hosts even
after clinical care and vaccine-based prophylaxis.
Further, climatic and other environmental factors
affecting biological systems and inducing molecular
changes in parasites and vectors towards a more re-
sistant life, while almost no change or slow changes
in hosts are the main driving forces that have in-
creased resistant malaria across different Spatio-tem-
poral regions [71]
. Infection by extracellular bacteria
induces the production of humoral antibodies, which
are ordinarily secreted by plasma cells in regional
lymph nodes and the sub-mucosa of the respiratory
and gastrointestinal tracts. The humoral immune re-
sponse is the main protective response against extra-
cellular bacteria. The antibodies act in several ways
to protect the host from the invading organisms, in-
cluding the removal of the bacteria and the inactiva-
tion of bacterial toxins. Extracellular bacteria can be
pathogenic because they induce a localized inflam-
matory response or because they produce toxins.
One crucial issue is how Anopheles mosquitoes
combat Plasmodium infections during feeding; if
vector immune competence can be investigated, it
will aid in preventing pathogen transmission [70]
.
There are three crucial reasons. Climate-favored
seasonal changes, novel parasite variants, and novel
vector defense molecules result in increased trans-
mission, high infectivity, and mortality in hosts even
in the presence of medical care and vaccine-based
prophylaxis. Additionally, climatic and other envi-
ronmental conditions have an impact on biological
systems and cause molecular changes in parasites
and vectors that make them live longer and more
robustly. While modest or nearly no changes in hosts
are the primary factors that have increased malaria
resistance across various spatiotemporal regions [71]
.
Humoral antibodies are often released by plasma
cells in local lymph nodes and the sub-mucosa of the
respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts in response to
external bacterial infection. The primary defensive
reaction against extracellular germs is the humoral
immune response. The antibodies have a variety of
protective effects on the host, including the elimi-
nation of pathogens and the inactivation of bacterial
toxins. Because they trigger a localized inflammato-
ry response or because they produce toxins, extracel-
lular bacteria have the potential to be harmful.
Need of most appropriate vaccines
Today risk of microbial infection has been in-
creased due to a lack of control of pathogens and
vectors. Both transmissions of pathogen and host
availability become easier. These are the main rea-
sons for the spread of deadly pathogens which are
causing malaria, diarrhea, Ebola, meningitis, tubercu-
losis, HIV/AIDS, and many other viral, parasitic and
fungal infections. Poor countries are major victims
of these diseases as inappropriate health services
and lack of prophylactic vaccinations are two major
issues related to clinical care [72]
. On the other side,
those countries which have done prophylactic vacci-
nation are free of these diseases or kept under con-
trol. Vaccination has helped in the eradication of dis-
eases like polio, hepatitis, diphtheria, meningitis, and
measles in most developed countries [73]
. Despite ir-
rational and dangerously erupting anti-vaccine move-
ments that fuel the dwindling public confidence [74]
,
therapeutic vaccines have also been effective at the
intersection of infections and cancer [75]
, as shown
by the successful human papilloma virus vaccine [76]
.
However, screening, testing, diagnosis and vacci-
nation are major facts to adopt rather than adopting
medicine of the medieval ages [74]
. However, both
traditional and new vaccination technologies [77]
are
to be required to establish herd immunity for wider
protection of the people [78]
for preventing the speedy
expansion of local infectious diseases and their con-
version into global pandemics [79,80]
. For successful
vaccination disease status, infection rate, eco-climat-
ic changes, geographical, seasonal infectious disease
epidemiology and mathematical analysis of routine
and pulse vaccination programmes must be done [81]
.
Today risk of microbial infection has been in-
creased due to a lack of control of pathogens and
vectors. Both transmissions of pathogen and host
availability become easier. Malaria, diarrhea, Ebola,
meningitis, TB, HIV/AIDS, and several other viral,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-46-320.jpg)
![43
Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
parasite, and fungi infections are just a few of the
devastating diseases that hold less developed nations
prisoner. The measles’ spectacular recent resurgence,
even in affluent nations, shows that health author-
ities have been ineffective in educating the public
about the benefits of preventative and prophylactic
immunization [72]
. The success of prophylactic immu-
nization over 200 years makes a strong case for the
advantages. In most affluent nations, vaccinations
have eliminated diseases including polio, hepatitis,
diphtheria, meningitis, and measles [73]
. Therapeutic
vaccinations have also been successful at the nexus
of infections and cancer [75]
, as proven by the suc-
cessful human papilloma virus vaccine, despite irra-
tional and dangerously exploding anti-vaccine move-
ments that fuel the waning public confidence [74,76]
.
However, anti-vaccine campaigns have frequent-
ly been louder than scientific evidence and have
demonstrated how harmful “alternative facts” com-
munication tactics can persuade even intelligent
people, sometimes regressing medicine to the Mid-
dle Ages [74]
. Traditional and modern immunization
methods are significant [77]
and will be necessary to
build herd immunity, a crucial barrier to prevent-
ing the spread of regional infectious illnesses into
worldwide pandemics [78]
. To combat drug-resistant
tuberculosis, the tuberculosis vaccine is crucial [79,80]
.
According to Nicholas C. Grassly and Christophe
Fraser, mathematical analysis of routine and pulse
vaccination programs must be done in order to de-
termine illness status, infection rate, eco-climatic
variations, geographical, seasonal infectious disease
epidemiology, and vaccine success.
8. Migration of people
The worst condition of human social groups is
climate-induced forced migration. Changing weather
conditions, on two sides of the world are alarming,
on one side there is ice shelling in Northern Amer-
ican countries, and people are facing super cool
temperatures while in Australia there are no rains,
and people are facing longer droughts and rising
temperatures. Such climate-related population dis-
placements have been seen in the Caribbean basin
where people are facing negative climatic exposure.
Artificial physical structural dependence makes the
system less sensitive to the environment. Because
of rising sensitivity and minimum adaptive capacity
anthropogenic climate changes, have increased the
vulnerability and given rise to territorial conflicts.
Over-industrialization has changed the scenario as
the climate-based weather cycle has changed the life
of the people and all-around pollution and global ef-
fects of rising temperature have imposed climate-re-
lated migration. Today these effects are vulnerable
but in the future, these will become more hazardous,
and anthropogenic climate change will displace peo-
ple in spite of their economic richness. Hence future
population movements will be riskier as random ter-
ritorial conflicts will be increased.
Forced migration brought on by climate change
is the worst situation for human social groups. Awk-
ward weather changes are occurring on opposite
ends of the globe. In northern American countries,
people are dealing with extremely cold temperatures,
while in Australia, where there have been no rains,
people are experiencing extended droughts and
rising temperatures. In the Caribbean basin, where
people are exposed to adverse climate conditions,
such population displacements connected to climate
change have been seen. As a result of artificial phys-
ical structural dependence, the system is less envi-
ronment-sensitive. Anthropogenic climate change
has raised vulnerability and led to territorial conflicts
due to rising sensitivity and low adaptive capability.
Over-industrialization has altered the situation just as
people’s lives have been altered by the climate-based
weather cycle, and global warming’s effects on pol-
lution and pollution everywhere have forced people
to migrate. These effects are already dangerous, but
as anthropogenic climate change displaces people re-
gardless of their economic wealth, future population
movements will become riskier as the number of
sporadic territorial conflicts rises.
Post-migration establishment also depends on
climate-based stimulus-response, the interaction of
environmental changes or events with human social,
economic, and cultural processes [82,83]
. In the field](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-47-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
of climate change research, interactions between cli-
mate and migration are increasingly situated within
the context of human vulnerability to climate change,
which is in turn identified as being a function of
exposure to the impacts of climate change, the sen-
sitivity of communities or socioeconomic systems to
such impacts, and the capacity of those exposed to
adapt. Migration responses to climate change may
therefore be treated as one of the ranges of possi-
ble ways by which people may adapt to the adverse
impacts of climate change or take advantage of re-
sultant opportunities. Though there are migrations
in the long historic past that were not so destructive
because the need of people was minimum, post-in-
dustrialization has increased the population pressure
because of development.
Climate-based stimulus-response, the interaction
of environmental changes or occurrences with hu-
man social, economic, and cultural processes, and
post-migration settlement are all factors that influ-
ence [82,83]
. Climate and migration interactions are
increasingly seen in the context of human vulnera-
bility to climate change in the field of climate change
research. This vulnerability is then understood to
be a function of exposure to the impacts of climate
change, the sensitivity of communities or socioeco-
nomic systems to such impacts, and the capacity of
those exposed to adapt. Therefore, one of the many
potential means by which individuals may cope with
the negative effects of climate change or seize asso-
ciated possibilities is through migration responses
to that change. Migration has existed for a very long
time, but it was not as harmful then since there were
fewer needs for people. However, post-industrializa-
tion has increased population pressure due to devel-
opment.
There are both spatial and temporal patterns of
climate-related migration. Displaced people need,
societal well-being in a new environment, but it is
only possible if state policy is inclusive. If it is not
inclusive then in such a condition more vulnerable
groups will be formed. Hence, extremes of climate
change possibilities kept in mind before making any
policy. All climates-induced adverse effects and ex-
tremes need more prompt actions to find timely solu-
tions. Besides, ecological factors human interaction
in groups, and their living in different social systems,
communities, and households within particular sys-
tems also shape few differences. These differences
are shaped by a variety of factors including the
particular nature of climate impacts; the degree of
exposure to such impacts; the sensitivity of human
systems to such changes; and the capacity of the ex-
posed population and its socioeconomic systems to
adapt [84,85]
. For abatement of climate-related effects
and controlling disease incidences ecological effects
related to human behavior and climate must be stud-
ied in a broad sense [86-88]
. All climate-related envi-
ronmental issues which are affecting human health
and socioeconomic systems must be resolved early
as possible to save humanity. More often, include
poor countries which have agricultural and natural
resource dependence and living in low-lying coastal
areas, small island states, and other settings where
exposure to climate-related risks is high and human
livelihood possibilities are limited should give prior-
ity [89,90]
.
Migration that is influenced by the climate has
both spatial and temporal trends. In order for society
to thrive in its new surroundings, displaced indi-
viduals must be included in state policies. If it isn’t
inclusive, more vulnerable groups will develop as a
result. Therefore, before implementing any policies,
the extremes of possible climate change were con-
sidered. More immediate steps are required to ad-
dress the negative effects and extremes that climate
change has caused. In addition, ecological factors
influence how people interact in groups, how they
live in various social systems, and how communities
and households differ within certain systems. These
disparities are influenced by a number of variables,
such as the specific nature of climatic impacts, the
extent of exposure to such impacts, the sensitivity of
human systems to such changes, and the adaptabil-
ity of the exposed population and its socioeconomic
systems.
Some socioeconomic systems are intrinsically
more susceptible to changes in the environment](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-48-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
brought on by climate change, which increases the
likelihood of adaptive migration. These include
those in low-lying coastal areas, tiny island states,
and other environments where danger from climate
change is high and human livelihood options are
constrained. These systems are characterized by a
reliance on agriculture and natural resources.
9. Induction of communicable dis-
eases
9.1 Protozoan diseases
Protozoans are unicellular organisms most of
them are internal parasite infections of man. Rotozoa
is single-celled organisms classified as eukaryotes
(organisms whose cells contain membrane-bound
organelles and nuclei. These accidents directly or
indirectly reach the human host and evoke dreadful
diseases. In the past, the most prevalent and deadly
human diseases were caused by protozoan infections.
These dreadful diseases are African sleeping sick-
ness, amoebic dysentery, and malaria. Common in-
fectious diseases caused by protozoans include Ma-
laria, Giardia, and Toxoplasmosis. These infections
are found in very different parts of the body. There
are drug resistant strains of Entamoeba histolytica.
It is a major health problem in the whole of China
south-east and Western Asia and Latin America,
especially Mexico. It is generally agreed that amoe-
biasis affects about 15 percent of the Indian popula-
tion. An estimated 10% of the world’s population is
infected with E histolytica. The highest prevalence is
in developing countries with the lowest levels of san-
itation. This results in 50-100 million cases of colitis
or liver abscesses per year and up to 100,000 deaths
annually (Figure 2).
Filariasis is seen mainly in developing countries.
Lymphatic filariasis is often associated with urban-
ization, industrialization, illiteracy, poverty and
poor sanitation. The migration of people favored
the spread of filariasis. Giardia lamblia starts its in-
vasion in gut toxoplasmosis can be found in lymph
nodes, the eye, and also (worrisomely) the brain.
After ingestion of mature cysts (infective dose var-
ies from 10-100 cysts) via contaminated water or
food, the trophozoite emerges in the small intestine,
rapidly multiplies, and attaches to the small intestinal
villi [91]
. Trophozoites do not survive outside the body.
Another intracellular parasite of the genus Leishmania
attacks macrophage cells and causes leishmaniasis or
Kala Azar. The parasite is transmitted by a variety of
sand fly species belonging to subfamily Phlebotom-
inae. This parasite largely affects macrophages and
causes enlargement of the spleen and liver (Figure 2).
Most protozoans, which are unicellular creatures,
infect people as internal parasites. As eukaryotes (an-
imals whose cells have membrane-bound organelles
and nuclei), protozoa are single-celled organisms.
These unintentionally reach the human host, either
directly or indirectly, and cause terrible diseases. The
most common and lethal human diseases in the past,
including malaria, amoebic dysentery, and African
sleeping sickness, were brought on by protozoan
infections. Malaria, Giardia, and toxoplasmosis are
a few common infectious disorders brought on by
protozoans. These infections can be seen in many
different body parts. Entamoeba histolytica strains
exist that are resistant to medication. It is a signif-
icant public health issue throughout all of China,
south and west Asia, and Latin America, particularly
Mexico. It is the cause of amoebiasis. It is common-
ly accepted that roughly 15% of Indians are affected
by amoebiasis. The prevalence of E histolytica is
highest in poorer nations with the poorest sanitation,
where it affects an estimated 10% of the world’s
population. This causes up to 100,000 fatalities an-
nually and 50 to 100 million instances of colitis or
liver abscesses (Figure 2).
Most cases of filariasis occur in underdeveloped
nations. Lymphatic filariasis is frequently linked to
industrialization, urbanization, poverty, illiteracy,
and inadequate sanitation. The spread of filariasis
was aided by population migration. The infection of
Giardia lamblia begins in the intestines. The lymph
nodes, the eye, and (worrisomely) the brain can
all be affected by toxoplasmosis. The trophozoite
emerges in the small intestine, multiplies quickly,
and attaches to the tiny intestinal villi following](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-49-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
ingestion of mature cysts (infective dose varies
from 10-100 cysts) through infected water or food.
Trophozoites are incapable of surviving outside of
the body. Leishmaniasis or Kala azar is caused by
an additional intracellular parasite of the species
Leishmania that attacks macrophage cells. A variety
of sand fly species belonging to the subfamily Phle-
botominae transmit the parasite. This parasite mostly
affects macrophages and results in spleen and liver
enlargement (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Inter-relationship of anthropogenic and climate change on ecosystem dynamics and host pathogen interactions.
Figure 3. Sequential effects of climate change on ecosystem production and land use.
Figure 2. Inter-relationship of anthropogenic and climate change
on ecosystem dynamics and host pathogen interactions.
Malaria is a very dreadful protozoan disease
caused by a ciliate i.e. Plasmodium, its five species
(Plasmodium falcipa-rum, Plasmodium knowlesi,
Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale, and Plas-
modium vivax) are identical but it’s environmental
induced variants are different according to eco-cli-
matic zones. Parasite shows high antigenic variation
and acquired both climatic adaptations and drug
resistance against the conventional drug spectrum.
The level of parasitemia varies according to region,
person and endemicity. The disease is controlled but
its reemergence is occurring at an interval of two-
three years. There is two-way problem; on one side
mosquitoes have developed resistance against insec-
ticides and parasite has developed resistance against
anti-malarial drugs. In both cases changing climatic
conditions, urbanization, migration and slums have
supported the severity of incidence. A new species
Plasmodium knowlesi has been identified during the
last decade in Malaysia [92]
. Its natural hosts or reser-
voir hosts are monkeys Macaca fascicularis, M. ne-
mestina, M. inus, and Saimiri scirea [92]
. This shows
increased disease severity and parasitemia. This
seems to be co-evolved due to vectorial competence
and climatic adaptability [57]
.
Although the five Plasmodium species (Plasmo-
dium falciparum, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodi-
um malariae, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium
vivax species) are identical, their environmental
variants vary depending on the eco-climatic zones,
making malaria a highly terrible protozoan disease.
In addition to acquiring ecologic adaptations and
therapeutic resistance against the standard treatment
spectrum, the parasite exhibits considerable antigen-
ic variation. The severity of parasitemia varies by
area, individual, and endemicity. Although the condi-
tion is under control, it reemerges every two to three
years. On one side, parasites have become resistant
to anti-malarial medications, and on the other, mos-
quitoes have become resistant to insecticides. Slums,
urbanization, migration, and changing climatic cir-
cumstances have all contributed to the severity of
the incidence in both cases. Over the past ten years,
Malaysia has seen the discovery of new Plasmodium
species hosts or reservoir hosts [92]
. This demonstrates
increasing parasitemia and illness severity. Due to
vectorial competency and environmental adaptation,
this appears to have co-evolved (Figure 2) [57]
.
African sleeping sickness is caused by T. brucei
gambiense and T. brucei rhodesiense in man. The
vector which transfers this parasite from an infected
person to an unaffected person is tsetse fly. Another
species of trypanosome causes T. cruzi American
trypanosomiasis or chagas diseases. This disease is
spread by vector bugs of the genus Rhodnius and
other arthropods such as lice. Sleeping sickness
vector is reported in 36 countries, the disease caus-
es serious neurologic effects. Protozoan parasites
have different modes of transmission.-Balantidium,
Giardia, Entamoeba, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplas-
ma, Cyclospora, Microsporidia show Enteric trans-
mission while Trichomonas transmitted sexually.
Babesia, Plasmodium, Leishmania, Trypanosoma
is transmitted by insect vectors. Toxoplasma is the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-50-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
only pathogenic fecal-oral transmitted protozoa that
have not been associated with gastroenteritis. Tro-
phozoite-staged organisms are more dangerous rath-
er than Spore-forming protozoa (Goodgame RW.).
B hominis is pathogenic only when present in large
numbers in the intestine. Three distinct morphologic
stages are recognized: vacuolar, granular, and ame-
boid. B hominis inhabits the large intestine and has
no evident life cycle in humans (Figure 2) (Table 1).
T. brucei gambiense and T. brucei rhodesiense
are the human causes of African sleeping sickness.
The tsetse fly is the vector that spreads this parasite
from an infected person to an unaffected person. T.
cruzi American trypanosomiasis and chagas illnesses
are caused by a different species of trypanosome.
Rhodnius vector bugs and other arthropods, like lice,
are the main carriers of this disease. 36 countries
have recorded cases of sleeping sickness, which
has devastating neurologic consequences. There are
various ways that protozoan parasites are transmit-
ted. Trichomonas does not exhibit enteric transmis-
sion, although Balantidium, Giardia, Entamoeba,
Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, Cyclospora, and
Microsporidia do. Insect vectors are used to spread
Babesia, Plasmodium, Leishmania, and Trypano-
soma diseases. The only pathogenic protozoa that
are transferred by feces and saliva that has not been
linked to gastroenteritis is toxoplasma. Infants have
Trichomonas hominis. Rather than spore-forming
protozoa, organisms in the Trophozoite stage are
more hazardous (Goodgame RW.). Only when B
hominis is prevalent in high concentrations in the in-
testine is it harmful. Vacuolar, granular, and ameboid
are characterized as three separate morphologic stag-
es. B hominis lives in the large intestine and doesn’t
appear to have a typical life cycle in people (Figure 2).
9.2 Bacterial infections
Several factors lead to the development of bac-
terial infection and disease. The environment also
plays a role in host susceptibility. Air pollution as
well as chemicals and contaminants in the environ-
ment weakens the body’s defenses against bacterial
infection. Fouling or an unhygienic environment
is the first factor that sets in and favors pathogen
multiplication. Second is the presence of a host and
transmission vector or any agent. These critically de-
termine whether the disease will develop following
transmission of a bacterial agent. Another factor is
the number of susceptible and exposed individuals
in a population group. The health status of the host is
one of the important factors that decide the spectrum
of pathogenicity caused by an infectious organism.
Pathogenic bacteria evade the body’s protective
mechanisms and use its resources, causing disease.
Finally, virulence shows internal changes occurred in
physiological pathways inside the organism’s body,
and its propensity to cause disease. Among internal
factors, toxins released by bacteria decide invasive-
ness and the level of morbidity caused. Other impor-
tant factors are genetic constitution, nutritional sta-
tus, age, duration of exposure to the organism, and
coexisting illnesses [93]
. There are different bacterial
species i.e. Bacillus anthracis, Brucella sp, Coxiella
burnetii, Francisella tularenis, Leptospira, Mycobac-
terium tuberculosis complex, Yersinia pestis major
lethal disease. Due to environmental impact as well
as high transmission rate they become uncontrolled
and unmanageable (Figure 2).
Several things can cause bacterial infections and
diseases. In addition, the host’s environment affects
susceptibility. The body’s defenses against bacterial
infection are weakened by environmental pollut-
ants, toxins, and air pollution. The first element that
develops and promotes disease growth is a foul or
unsanitary environment. The existence of a host, a
transmission vector, or any agent comes in second.
These are crucial in determining whether sickness
will manifest itself after bacterial agent transmis-
sion. The number of vulnerable and exposed people
within a population group is another issue. One of
the key variables that determine the range of path-
ogenicity a given infectious bacterium can cause is
the health level of the host. The disease is brought
on by pathogenic germs that make use of the body’s
resources while evading its defenses. Last but not
least, virulence demonstrates intrinsic changes in
physiological pathways within the organism’s body](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-51-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
as well as its potential to spread disease. Toxins se-
creted by bacteria determine the degree of morbidity
induced, among other internal factors. The genetic
make-up, nutritional status, age, length of exposure
to the organism, and co-occurring disorders are addi-
tional crucial variables. Bacillus anthracis, Brucella
sp., Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Lep-
tospira, Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, and
Yersinia pestis are only a few of the numerous dead-
ly bacterial species. They become uncontrollable and
unmanageable due to the high transmission rate and
environmental damage (Figure 2).
Climate change, lead to an increase in severe
weather events resulting in frequent and more severe
flooding and surface water contamination. Because
flood water carries lots of untreated waste that con-
tains typhoid pathogens in large numbers and disease
spreads easily through the environment. Its caus-
ative organisms are acquired via ingestion of food
or water, contaminated with human excreta from
infected persons. Antibiotic resistance is reported
in Salmonella typhi which causes typhoid fever [94]
.
A cholera epidemic is largely supported by climate
and changes its rhythms according to environmental
variables, as low precipitation and high temperatures
in warmer months bacterial replication occurs faster
than in other months [95]
. Tuberculosis is a disease
more likely to develop due to poor nutrition, over-
crowding, and low socio-economic status. Control
of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR TB) is the biggest
challenge as it becomes resistant to more than one
anti-TB drug and imposes more severe multiple
pathological changes in patients and results in high
mortality [96]
. A different condition is with Pertussis
is a severe respiratory infection caused by Bordetella
pertussis. Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Shigellosis
is an infection of the intestine; it is caused by a group
of bacteria called Shigella, M. leprae has acquired
multidrug resistance, Anthrax is a zoonotic disease,
that is transmitted from animals to humans. Plague is
a disease that affects humans and other mammals. It
is caused by the bacterium, Yersinia pestis (formerly
Pasteurella pestis). It is caused by a Gram-positive
rod-shaped bacterium Bacillus anthracis, transmitted
by a bite of an Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis)
(Table 1) (Figure 2).
Surface water contamination and frequent, more
severe flooding are outcomes of climate change,
which causes an increase in extreme weather oc-
currences because typhoid bacteria are abundant in
untreated sewage carried by floodwater, and because
the disease is readily contagious. The organisms that
cause it can be consumed through drinking or eat-
ing things that have been contaminated with human
excreta from sick people. Typhoid fever is brought
on by Salmonella typhi, which has been linked to
antibiotic resistance. Because of limited precipitation
and high temperatures in warmer months, bacterial
reproduction happens more quickly than in other
months, which supports the cholera outbreak in a
major. Poor nutrition, overcrowding, and low socio-
economic position are the three main risk factors for
the disease tuberculosis. The main problem is con-
trolling multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB),
which is resistant to various anti-TB drugs, causes
severe numerous pathological alterations in patients,
and has a high mortality rate. The severe respiratory
infection pertussis is brought on by Bordetella per-
tussis. Shigellosis is an intestinal infection brought
on by a collection of bacteria known as Shigella,
M. leprae has developed multidrug resistance, and
Corynebacterium diphtheriae. The zoonotic illness
anthrax spreads from animals to people. Both hu-
mans and other mammals can contract the plague.
Yersinia pestis, a bacteria, is the culprit (formerly
Pasteurella pestis) Bacillus anthracis, a Gram-pos-
itive rod-shaped bacteria that causes it, spreads
through the bite of an Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla
cheopis) (Figure 2).
9.3 Fungal infection
Fungi are especially sensitive to climate ex-
tremes. Persistently warmer temperatures at in-
creasingly higher latitudes are contributing to the
ongoing expansion of the geographic ranges of
known fungal pathogens. Alongside fungal species’
advancement into new territories, many can develop
thermotolerance. Different types of fungus cause](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-52-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
a variety of fungal infections in monsoon season.
Fungal spores and mycelia normally grow in high
humidity and on unclean surfaces. Opportunistic
fungal infections happen due to the massive use of
antibiotics. These fungi are nonpathogenic but grow
in the upper respiratory tract flora or ear of the im-
munocompetent host; Aspergillosis is an infection
that affects the respiratory system. It is caused by a
type of mold (fungus) Aspergillus. Mucormycosis
(previously called zygomycosis) is a serious but
rare fungal infection [97]
. This is an invasive oppor-
tunistic fungal disease caused by a group of molds
(mucormycetes) Rhizopus species, Mucor species,
Rhizomucor species, Syncephalastrum species,
Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Apophysomyces spe-
cies, and Lichtheimia (formerly Absidia) species [98]
.
Other invasive fungal diseases like pneumocystosis,
cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, and coccidioidomy-
cosis are also most frequently seen in autoimmune
or immune-deficient patients. These are also evoked
all of sudden due to immunological defects and/or
concomitant immunosuppressive therapies [99]
. Fungi
dermatophytes parasitize the horny cell layer which
results dermatophytosis. The most common derma-
tophytes are Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton
mentagrophytes. Candidiasis is an infection caused
by a yeast (a type of fungus) called Candida (Table 1)
(Figure 2).
Extremes in climate can be particularly harmful
to fungi. The geographic ranges of recognized fungal
diseases are continuing to expand as a result of con-
sistently warmer temperatures at higher and higher
latitudes. Many fungal species have the ability to
develop thermotolerance, which helps them spread
into new areas. Various fungal infections are caused
by various species of fungus during the monsoon
season. Mycelia and fungal spores typically flourish
on dirty surfaces with high humidity levels. Antibi-
otic overuse leads to opportunistic fungal infections.
Aspergillosis is an infection that affects the respira-
tory system; nonetheless, these fungi flourish in the
upper respiratory tract flora or in the ears of immu-
nocompetent hosts despite being nonpathogenic.
Aspergillus is a type of mold (fungus) that causes it.
A dangerous yet uncommon fungal infection called
mucormycosis (formerly known as zygomycosis) [97]
.
A group of molds (mucormycetes) including the
Rhizopus species, Mucor species, Rhizomucor spe-
cies, Syncephalastrum species, Cunninghamella
bertholletiae, Apophysomyces species, and Lich-
theimia (previously Absidia) species is responsible
for this invasive opportunistic fungal illness [98]
.
Pneumocystosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, and
coccidioidomycosis are some other invasive fungal
illnesses that are most frequently observed in auto-
immune or immune-compromised patients. These
can also appear suddenly as a result of immunolog-
ical issues and/or concurrent immunosuppressive
treatments. The horny cell layer that arises from der-
matophytosis is parasitized by fungi dermatophytes.
Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagro-
phytes are the two most typical dermatophytes. The
yeast (or fungus) called Candida is the source of the
infection known as candidiasis (Figure 2).
9.4 Virus generated diseases
Many of the root causes of climate change also
increase the risk of virus or bacterial pandemics.
Climate change is directly or indirectly responsible
for global environmental change and zoonotic dis-
ease emergence. This is massively affecting human
health in Europe, Asia and Africa where so many
hotspots of the virus, protozoan and bacterial dead-
ly diseases have been identified. Climate change
mainly shifting seasonal cycles has increased the
risk of emerging infectious diseases propagating
from animals to humans, from humans to animals
or vice versa over the last several decades, includ-
ing the flu, HIV, Ebola and coronavirus. The virus
is finding and establishing itself in new hosts with
new epidemiological routes of infection. Most of
the virus-generated diseases have been evoked due
to climatic effects, drug regimens, and resistance
acquired by their circulating strains. Most viruses
such as Rhinovirus, Respiratory Syncytial Virus,
Herpes Simplex Virus, Adenovirus, cytomegalovi-
rus, influenza virus Type A, Type B, parainfluenza
virus, SARS corona virus, poliovirus, HTLV-1,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-53-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
gastroenteritis virus, adenovirus, rotavirus, Norovi-
rus, Astrovirus, coronavirus, pancreatitis coxsackie
virus, Hepatitis virus A, B, C, D, E, dengue, and
West Nile Virus, Rabies generated disease are on the
rise because of attainment of new genetic variations
and resistance to therapeutic drugs and vaccines [93]
.
Recently, WHO has alarmed many countries about
new waves of infection caused by Ebola virus, Han-
tavirus associated with HCPS, Hendra virus, highly
pathogenic virus H5N1, Lassa fever virus, lympho-
cyte choriomeningitis virus, monkeypox virus, Nipah
virus, Rabies and Rubella, Rotavirus B, Chikungunia
virus and Yellow fever virus. Since 2000 many virus
diseases have re-emerged after a prolonged time.
Every year incidence rate of sexually transmitted
diseases, Herpes simplex virus type 2, human papil-
lomavirus, SARS and H1N1 is increasing. All these
viruses changed the intensity of infection, morbidity
and mortality rate; even despite clinical and thera-
peutic care, the mortality rate is not coming down.
The major reason for the occurrence of virus and
protozoan diseases is the induction of disease trans-
mission vectors in endemic areas. Though no direct
evidence of the effect of climate on the transmission
of coronavirus has been identified it is well known
that climate is supporting vector and pathogen popu-
lations and natural boundaries of disease occurrence
are extended from endemic to non-endemic areas
(Figure 2).
Many of the underlying factors contributing to
climate change also raise the danger of bacterial or
viral pandemics. Environmental change on a global
scale and the emergence of zoonotic diseases are
caused by climate change, either directly or indi-
rectly. In regions where lethal viral, protozoan, and
bacterial illnesses have been identified as hotspots,
such as Europe, Asia, and Africa, this is having a
significant negative impact on human health. Over
the past few decades, climate change has raised the
possibility of developing infectious illnesses includ-
ing the flu, HIV, Ebola, and coronavirus spreading
from animals to humans, from humans to animals,
or vice versa. With the help of new epidemiological
pathways of infection, the virus is locating and estab-
lishing itself in new hosts.. The majority of viral dis-
eases have been brought on by treatment regimens,
environmental factors, and resistance developed by
circulating strains. The majority of viruses, including
the rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, herpes
simplex virus, adenovirus, cytomegalovirus, influ-
enza type A, type B, parainfluenza virus, poliovirus,
HTLV-1, gastroenteritis virus, rotavirus, norovirus,
astrovirus, coronavirus, pancreatitis coxsackie virus,
hepatitis virus A, B, C, Recent outbreaks of infection
brought on by the Ebola virus, Hantavirus associated
with HCPS, Hendra virus, highly pathogenic H5N1,
Lassa fever virus, lymphocyte choriomeningitis vi-
rus, monkeypox virus, Nipah virus, Rabies and Ru-
bella, Rotavirus B, Chikungunya virus, and Yellow
fever virus have alarmed many nations, according
to the World Health Organization. Numerous vi-
rus-related diseases have returned in large numbers
since the year 2000. Sexually transmitted illnesses,
human papillomavirus type 2, SARS, and H1N1 all
have risen incidence rates each year. Even with clin-
ical and therapeutic treatment, the mortality rate is
not decreasing because all these viruses altered the
severity of infection, morbidity, and fatality rates.
The introduction of disease transmission vectors in
endemic areas is the main cause of the occurrence of
viral and protozoan infections. Although there is no
clear proof that the climate affects coronavirus trans-
mission, it is well-recognized that the climate sup-
ports the populations of pathogens and vectors and
that the natural bounds of disease occurrence stretch
from endemic to non-endemic locations (Figure 2).
10. Results and discussion
Climate changes have increased the risk of infec-
tions. Diseases most likely to increase in their distri-
bution and severity have three-factor (agent, vector,
and human being) and four-factor (plus vertebrate
reservoir host) ecology. Aedes aegypti and Aedes al-
bopictus mosquitoes may move northward and have
more rapid metamorphosis with global warming.
These mosquitoes transmit the dengue virus, and Ae-
des aegypti transmits the yellow fever virus. Climate
change has increased the chances of cross-species](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-54-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
viral transmission risk [100]
. The faster metamorphosis
and a shorter extrinsic incubation of dengue and yel-
low fever viruses could lead to epidemics in North
America [101]
. For example temperature-sensitive mu-
tants of Japanese encephalitis virus, Dengue fever,
H1N1, Hepatitis B have been detected. Heat-sensi-
tive strains of rotaviruses are causing life-threatening
dehydrating gastroenteritis in children and animals.
10.1 Molecular alterations in host-pathogen
interactions
For finding quick solutions detailed study of
“host-pathogen” interactions is highly important. For
this purpose all ecological, physiological and molec-
ular reasons are explored to find out the reasons for
disease outbreaks, their progression and the outcome
of infections. There is a gap in host-parasite inter-
action about the origin and route of infection, trans-
mission, latency time, progression, host immunity
and defense acquired by viral, parasitic and zoonotic
pathogens. For solving the pathogenesis and disease
occurrence host immunity [102]
growing resistance in
pathogens and co-evolution of microbial antigens
and host receptor interactions must be explored [103]
.
This is also important for discovering rapid reme-
dies.
Exploring “host-pathogen” interactions will be
more useful for understanding the causes, course,
and effects of infectious diseases. It will also help in
finding the level of host immunity to disease patho-
genesis and inadvertent incidences occurring year
after year [102]
, as how does host immune alterations
affect stopping pathogens to invade the host [103]
.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been
many improper responses that have been observed,
either delayed or early [103]
. As a result, there has
been an increase in fatalities, economic loss, and
clinical health harm.
Host vector interactions and environmental re-
sponses must be gauzed for disease transmission
by infected and non infected vector population in
natural ecological divisions. In addition, all effects
related to physiology, behavior, and evolution of hu-
man disease vectors must be checked according to
genomic data available to map the global health of
people (Rinker, David C., 2016). In order to prevent
disease transmission by infected and non-infected
vector populations in naturally occurring ecological
divisions, host vector interactions and environmental
reactions must be considered. the host models are
required to predict future disease occurrence, epide-
miology, genetic invasion of the host and length of
pathogen life cycles. Additionally, in order to map
the worldwide health of people, all consequences
linked to the physiology, behavior, and evolution
of human disease vectors must be evaluated [104]
. To
forecast future disease occurrence, epidemiology, ge-
netic host invasion, and pathogen life-cycle length,
computer-based models are necessary.
10.2 Future planning and solutions
Climate change is an emerging disastrous prob-
lem that is creating adversities not only for nature
but it is a great challenge to human life and well-be-
ing. As seasonal climatic variations occur with the
changing weather conditions and the seasonal cycle
completes almost every year. Climate change is
creating human health-related issues mainly inci-
dences of communicable diseases have increased.
Significant elevation in the level of environmental
pollutants and their regular exposure caused many
human health-related risks. Global climate has se-
verely affected human behavior. Due to contact with
contaminated air, water, and food untimely diseases,
pathogenic morbidities, gastric problems, and psy-
chosocial stress have increased the vulnerability of
humans to pollutants/chemicals. Unfortunately, on
one side climate change has increased the chances
of droughts that are happening around the globe
and developing countries suffering at higher rates.
Droughts are highly problematic for all farmers. On
the other side, there is simultaneous happening of
floods that are affecting agriculture production that
resulted in price hike in food commodities and put-
ting a large section of people at higher risk of hun-
ger. Climate change is threatening the world’s food
production and supply. Heavy rains and floods also
forced people to migrate. It results in the degradation](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-55-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
These can control problems related to water scarcity.
On the other hand, pretreatment of wastewater be-
fore its discharge into water bodies will protect the
flowing water from pollution. The further cultural
environment could be maintained by renewing and
preservation of scenic beauty and developing histor-
ical sites, airy and making residential development
open and using only eco-friendly land use methods
for management of climate-related effects. For find-
ing quick solutions local and national governments
should cooperate to manage crop production, price
rise, and storage with solutions for weather-related
risks mainly making society, administration, and
government proactive in disaster response. Making
environment safety-based policies, and development
planning establishing control-warning centers can re-
duce vulnerability to disasters caused due to climate
change.
11. Conclusions
To reverse climatic conditions as normal a 50%
cut down must be required in gaseous emissions.
Further, to reduce major prevailing major changes
in the elevation of global temperature CO2 emission
must be stopped completely up to zero by 2050. It
will solve the problem of accidental torrent rains;
floods, droughts, and vector population. For control
of communicable diseases integrated surveillance,
investigation, long term funding is required. It will
assist in to study of epidemiological reasons and the
identification of pathogen-host-vector interaction at
the molecular level. Further, to reduce the burden of
infectious diseases as the development of rapid, ac-
curate, low-cost diagnostics; novel therapeutics, and
vaccines; innovative vector control and surveillance
tools are also required for quick action. An early
warning system is required to integrate clinical re-
search, health, and climate operations. More speedy
data and knowledge-sharing platforms, outreach
and education, response activities, community edu-
cation, and social mobilization via social media are
essentially required. The global health community
has many actors that pursue this common agenda,
including multilateral organizations; funders, includ-
ing governments and foundations; non-governmental
organizations; researchers; and practitioners. Besides
following a long route to combat communicable dis-
eases, it will be much better to aware people of their
self-protection, vector control, sanitation, and recy-
cling of waste, and approach them to learn health and
hygiene principles. Parasites show high antigenic
variation and acquired both eco-climatic adaptations
and drug resistance against conventional drug spec-
trum, therefore, new highly effective drug regimens,
antibodies, antiserum, and vaccines are required to
fight against newly emerging climate-induced mi-
crobial diseases. This is highly important to know
the ecology, genetics, and molecular mechanisms of
disease transmission, host-parasitic interaction and
developing drug resistance in microbial pathogens.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest re-
garding the publication of this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to HOD Zoology and
HOD Biotechnology for facilities.
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[100] Carlson, C.J., Albery, G.F., Merow, C., et al.,
2022. Climate change increases cross-species
viral transmission risk. Nature. 607, 555-562.
Available from: https://www.nature.com/arti-
cles/s41586-022-04788-w.
[101] Shope, R., 1991. Global climate change and
infectious diseases. Environmental Health Per-
spectives. 96, 171-174.
[102] O’Neill, L.A.J., Netea, M.G., 2020. BCG-in-
duced trained immunity: Can it offer protection
against COVID-19? Nature Reviews Immunol-
ogy. 20(6), 335-337.
[103] Woolhouse, M.E., Webster, J.P., Domingo, E.,
et al., 2002. Biological and biomedical impli-
cations of the co-evolution of pathogens and
their hosts. Nature Genetics. 32(4), 569-577.
[104] Rinker, D.C., Pitts, R.J., Zwiebel, L.J., 2016.
Disease vectors in the era of next generation
sequencing. Genome Biology. 17(1), 95.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-63-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
1. Introduction
There is regional heterogeneity in India, where
places with various atmospheric conditions result in
different indoor air quality. North Indian states, for ex-
ample, have higher PM2.5 g/m3
levels (557-601 g/m3
)
than southern states (183-214 g/m3
) [1]
. Because of
their low incomes, those who utilize solid biomass
for domestic purposes are exposed to poor-quality,
toxic air within their homes. It is noteworthy that
three billion people use the aforementioned energy
source to prepare their everyday needs for cook-
ing and heating [2]
. Long-term exposure to indoor
environments with insufficient air exchange and
poor air quality and harmful bio-aerosols may cause
sick-building syndrome (SBS), allergic reactions,
respiratory tract infections, chronic obstructive pul-
monary disease(COPD), and asthma [3]
. Since most
individuals spend 90% of their time indoors, primar-
ily at home or at work, indoor environmental factors
have a significant impact on human well-being [4]
.
Indoor air pollution can be produced by occupant
activities such as cooking, smoking, using electronic
equipment, using consumer products, or emissions
from building materials inside homes or structures.
Dangerous pollutants can be found inside buildings,
including biological contaminants, particulate matter
(PM), aerosols, volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
carbon monoxide (CO), and others [5]
. Biological
aerosols (bio-aerosols) are a subgroup of atmospher-
ic PMs made up of cellular components, microorgan-
isms (bacteria and archaea), and dispersal units (fun-
gal spores and plant pollen) [6]
. Indoor air pollution
levels can be impacted by concentrations of outdoor
air pollution associated with anthropogenic and nat-
ural sources, including road traffic, wildfire smoke,
and dust re-suspension. Additionally, factors includ-
ing the kind, location, and distance of the pollutant
sources; the size, shape, orientation, and arrangement
of the buildings; as well as geography and weather
patterns, all have an impact on how the pollutants
around the structure disperse [7]
. Indoor exposure is
greatly influenced by household characteristics and
occupant behaviours, particularly cigarette smoking
for PM2.5, gas appliances for NO2, and household
items for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). High interior air
pollution is caused by a home’s proximity to busy
highways, redecorating, and tiny housing size [8]
.
People in metropolitan areas spend more than 90%
of their waking hours indoors, according to research
on this group. A considerable majority of people’s
time is spent outside of residential indoor spaces,
in workplaces, schools, and other commercial and
industrial structures. Adults in North America spend
87% of their time indoors, with the remaining 17%
spent in automobiles and 7% outdoors, according
to specific studies [9]
. Studies have indicated that
breathing “clean” indoor air helps with both respira-
tory and non-respiratory symptoms like headaches
and eye pain [10]
. A common but avoidable risk factor
for respiratory illnesses is household air pollution.
The most efficient intervention to lower the burden
of household air pollution (HAP)-related diseases
is probably the substitution of solid cooking fuels
with clean fuels like liquid petroleum gas (LPG), as
demonstrated by India’s “Ujjwala” initiative [11]
. In
India, the national burden of disease is accounted for
by environmental and occupational risk factors, with
indoor and outdoor air pollution ranked as one of the
major risk factors [12]
.
Very little data are available on indoor air pollu-
tion in Jaipur. Therefore, the study was carried out
with the objectives of studying indoor air pollution
in different household settings in Jaipur and deter-
mining the effect of atmospheric parameters and land
use patterns.
2. Materials and methods
Study location: The study was conducted in Jai-
pur, the capital of Rajasthan, a state in the western
part of India. The Thar Desert is a part of the state.
It is located at latitude-N 26.922070 and longitude-E
75.778885. It has a population of 3,073,350 (2011
Census) and is spread over 11,143 km2
. The city
has mixed land use, with residential, commercial,
and industrial areas coexisting and dotted with slum
clusters in between. At its periphery, the city is sur-
rounded by rural areas where the primary occupation](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-65-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
switching to renewable energy sources, providing
sufficient ventilation in dwellings, and cross ventila-
tion in homes can also assist, using exhaust fans in
homes with inadequate ventilation helps re-mediate
the air quality issues. Rural areas should switch to
LPG for cooking purposes, as biomass fuel usage
along with regular smoking is affecting health at a
crucial level, maintenance of hygiene in the house
by cleaning animal droppings regularly should come
into practice. This study may form the basis for re-
ducing pollution in households.
Ethical Approval
The proposal was approved by the Institutional
Ethics Committee of ICMR-NIIRNCD, Biomedical
and Health Research ICMR-NIIRNCD Jodhpur.
Author Contributions
1) Corresponding Author - Anukrati Dhabhai,
(Project technical officer) ICMR – NIIRNCD, single
handedly collected data from all locations in Jaipur
city, performed all the laboratory tests and identifi-
cations of bioaerosolsand prepared proposal, manu-
script, and did the data analysis.
2) Co-author - Dr. Arun Kumar Sharma, Director,
(Scientist “G”) ICMR – NIIRNCD, Jodhpur helped
in conceptualizing the proposal, data analysis and
manuscript preparation.
3) Co-author - Dr Gaurav Dalela, Head of De-
partment (Microbiology) RUHS, College of Medical
Sciences helped in bio-aerosols estimation and iden-
tification.
4) Co-author - Dr S.S Mohanty, (Scientist “E”)
ICMR-NIIRNCD helped in bio-aerosols estimation
with fungal identification.
5) Co-author - Dr Ramesh Kumar Huda, (Scientist
“C”) ICMR-NIIRNCD provided help and support in
execution of laboratory work for bioaerosols estima-
tion.
6) Co-author - Dr Rajnish Gupta (Technical As-
sistant) ICMR-NIIRNCD helped in all ways possible
to carry out bio-aerosols part of the study along with
fungal identification.
Conflict of Interest
The authors share no conflict of interest.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
References
[1] Saud, T., Gautam, R., Mandal, T.K., et al., 2012.
Emission estimates of organic and elemental
carbon from household biomass fuel used over
the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP), India. Atmo-
spheric Environment. 61, 212-220.
[2] Neidell, M.J., 2004. Air pollution, health, and
socio-economic status: The effect of outdoor air
quality on childhood asthma. Journal of Health
Economics. 23(6), 1209-1236.
[3] Huang, H.L., Lee, M.K., Shih, H.W., 2017. As-
sessment of indoor bio-aerosols in public spaces
by real-time measured airborne particles. Aero-
sol Air Quality Research. 17(9).
[4] Leech, J.A., Nelson, W.C., Burnett, R.T., et al.,
2002. It’s about time: A comparison of canadi-
an and american time-activity patterns. Journal
of Exposure Analysis. Sci. Environmental.
Epidemiology. 12, 427-432. doi: 10.1038/sj.
jea.7500244.
[5] Kumar, P., Imam, B., 2013. Footprints of air
pollution and changing environment on the
sustainability of built infrastructure. Science of
Total Environment. 444, 85-101. doi: 10.1016/
j.scitotenv.2012.11.056.
[6] Shiraiwa, M., Ueda, K., Pozzer, A., et al., 2017.
Aerosol health effects from molecular to global
scales. Environmental Science and Technology.
51, 13545-13567. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04417.
[7] Vardoulakis, S., Fisher, B.E.A., Pericleous, K.,
et al., 2003. Modelling air quality in street can-
yons: A review. Atmospheric Environment. 37,
155-182. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00857-9.
[8] Vardoulakis, S., Giagloglou, E., Steinle, S., et
al., 2020. Indoor exposure to selected air pol-
lutants in the home environment: A systematic](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-70-320.jpg)
![67
Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
review. International Journal of Environmental
Research Public Health. 17(23), 8972. doi:
10.3390/ijerph17238972.
[9] Klepeis, N.E., Nelson, W.C., Ott, W.R., et al.,
2001. The national human activity pattern
survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing ex-
posure to environmental pollutants. Journal of
Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemi-
ology. 11, 231-252. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500165.
[10]Huffaker, M., Phipatanakul, W., 2014. Introduc-
ing an environmental assessment and interven-
tion program in inner-city schools. Journal of
Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 134, 1232-
1237.
[11] Jindal, S.K., Aggarwal, A.N., Jindal, A.,
2021. Household air pollution in India and
respiratory diseases: Current status and fu-
ture directions. Current Opinion in Pulmo-
nary Medicine. 26(2), 128-134. doi: 10.1097/
MCP.0000000000000642.
[12]Kalpana, B., Padmavathi, R., Sankar, S., et al.,
2011. Air pollution from household solid fuel
combustion in India: An overview of exposure
and health related information to inform health
research priorities. Global Health Action. 4. doi:
10.3402/gha.v4i0.5638.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-71-320.jpg)
![69
Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
nents: The Main Field, the External Magnetic Field,
and the Crustal Field. The Main Field is the largest
component of the magnetic field and is thought to be
produced by electrical currents in the fluid outer core
of the Earth. The External Magnetic Field is thought
to be produced by interactions between the Earth’s
ionosphere and the solar wind. Electric currents are
comparable to those fluctuating in the atmosphere
of the Earth flow in the conducting Earth below the
source current. The characteristics of the source cur-
rents and the distribution of electrically conducting
materials in the Earth affect the size, direction, and
depth of penetration of the induced currents. Mag-
netometers detect the composite of external (source)
and interior (induced) field components from the
currents at observatories on the surface of the Earth.
The amplitudes and phase connections were demon-
strated to be helpful in calculating the conductivity
of the deep earth when these currents were divided
into their component portions using Spherical Har-
monic Analysis (SHA) or other integral techniques [1]
.
The period of fluctuation of the source current and
the distribution of electrically conducting materials
in the area of the earth beginning to be explored de-
termine the depth of penetration of the induced cur-
rent into the deep earth [2]
.
Campbell and Schiffmacher [3]
established equiv-
alent ionospheric source currents representing the
quiet-day geomagnetic variations for a half-sector of
the Earth that induced Australia. They used a spher-
ical harmonic separation of the external and internal
fields for the extremely quiet condition existing in
1965. According to their result, the month-by-month
behavior of the current system indicated a clockwise
vortex source with a maximum of 12.8 × 104
A in
January and a minimum of 4.4 × 104
A in June.
Takeda [4]
noted that the intensity of the Sq cur-
rents in high solar activity was about twice as large
as it is in low solar activity. By comparing the am-
plitude of the Sq for the same value of conductivity,
Takeda [5]
pointed out that solar activity depends on
the Sq amplitude. He noted that the seasonal varia-
tion is seemingly due to differences in neutral winds
or due to the magnetic effect of the field-aligned
current (FAC) flowing between the two Hemispheres
generated by the asymmetry in the dynamo action.
The aim of this work is to separate the qui-
et-day field variations obtained in the equatorial and
low-latitude regions of Africa into their external and
internal field contributions and then to use the paired
external and internal coefficients of the SHA to de-
termine the source current and induced currents.
2. Data source
The average hourly geomagnetic data used in
this study were obtained from geomagnetic stations
established in parts of the region (Ilorin (8.5o
N,
4.68o
E), Lagos (6.4o
N, 3.27o
E), Addis Ababa (9.04o
N,
38.77o
E) and Hermanus (34.34o
S, 19.24o
E)) by mag-
netic data acquisition set (MAGDAS), Japan for the
year 2008 as presented in Figure 1.
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
-90
-60
-30
0
30
60
90
ILR AAB
HER
LAG
Longitude (degree)
Latitude
(degree)
Figure 1. Geographical map showing the study area.
3. Method of analysis
The method employed in this work involves the
Spherical Harmonic Analsysis (SHA) devised by
Guass (1838) in solving the magnetic potential func-
tion V. It was Guass [6]
who showed that the potential
has two parts: the external (source) and internal (in-
duced) parts of the potential function. He expressed
the magnetic potential of the Sq field, V measured
from the daily mean values at the universal time, T
comprises of both the internal (induced) current and
the external source current as a sum of spherical har-
monics as:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-73-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
4
1 0
sin
1
cos
1
n
n
m
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
r
a
a
mi
n
n
a
r
a
me
n
a
C
m
n
V
where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
the local time of the observatory respectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
Following Campbell [7]
the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
longitude divided by 15o
) is obtained from:
= =1
4
=
12
cos +
sin
(2)
With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
representation, we have:
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(3)
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(4)
And the internal current representation, we have:
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(5)
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(6)
where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers.
The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by:
= + ∅ (9)
4
sin
1
cos
1
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
r
a
a
mi
n
onstant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
ory respectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
external and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
alent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
ned from:
sin
(2)
value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
(3)
(4)
representation, we have:
(5)
(6)
h in kilometers.
dius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
ynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
− 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
in amperes) from J by:
(7)
(8)
nt intensity (internal and external) can be given by:
(9)
(1)
where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integra-
tion, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius
and the local time of the observatory respectively.
4
sin
1
cos
1
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
r
a
ant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
espectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
rnal and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
y. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
t current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
from:
sin
(2)
ue of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
(3)
(4)
sentation, we have:
(5)
(6)
kilometers.
of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
rces are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
o current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
rnal current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
mperes) from J by:
(7)
(8)
tensity (internal and external) can be given by:
(9)
,
4
sin
1
cos
1
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
nt of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
spectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
nal and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
om:
n
(2)
of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
(3)
(4)
entation, we have:
(5)
(6)
lometers.
f a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
es are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
nal current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
peres) from J by:
(7)
(8)
nsity (internal and external) can be given by:
(9)
,
4
sin
1
cos
1
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
t of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
pectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
al and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
urrent function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
om:
n
(2)
of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
(3)
(4)
ntation, we have:
(5)
(6)
ometers.
a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
es are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
al current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
eres) from J by:
(7)
(8)
nsity (internal and external) can be given by:
(9)
and
4
sin
1
cos
1
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
ectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
rrent function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
m:
(2)
m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
(3)
(4)
ation, we have:
5)
6)
meters.
sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
urface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
urrent source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
ay be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
res) from J by:
(7)
(8)
ity (internal and external) can be given by:
(9)
are Legendre polynomial co-
efficients, e and i represent the external and internal
values, respectively.
sin
1
cos
1
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
ectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
l and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
rrent function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
m:
(2)
f m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
(3)
(4)
tation, we have:
(5)
(6)
meters.
a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
urrent source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
ay be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
l current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
res) from J by:
(7)
(8)
sity (internal and external) can be given by:
(9)
are Legendre polynomials
and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers,
n and m are called degree and order respectively.
Following Campbell [7]
the equivalent current func-
tion, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
longitude divided by 15o
) is obtained from:
1 0
sin
1
cos
1
n
n
m
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
r
a
a
mi
n
n
a
r
a
me
n
a
C
m
n
V
where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
the local time of the observatory respectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
Following Campbell [7]
the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
longitude divided by 15o
) is obtained from:
= =1
4
=
12
cos +
sin
(2)
With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
representation, we have:
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(3)
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(4)
And the internal current representation, we have:
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(5)
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(6)
where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers.
The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by:
= + ∅ (9)
(2)
With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for
the maximum value of n. For the external current
representation, we have:
1 0
sin
1
cos
1
n
n
m
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
r
a
a
mi
n
n
a
r
a
me
n
a
C
m
n
V
where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
the local time of the observatory respectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
Following Campbell [7]
the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
longitude divided by 15o
) is obtained from:
= =1
4
=
12
cos +
sin
(2)
With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
representation, we have:
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(3)
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(4)
And the internal current representation, we have:
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(5)
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(6)
where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers.
The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by:
= + ∅ (9)
(3)
1 0
sin
1
cos
1
n
n
m
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
r
a
a
mi
n
n
a
r
a
me
n
a
C
m
n
V
where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
the local time of the observatory respectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
Following Campbell [7]
the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
longitude divided by 15o
) is obtained from:
= =1
4
=
12
cos +
sin
(2)
With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
representation, we have:
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(3)
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(4)
And the internal current representation, we have:
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(5)
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(6)
where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers.
The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by:
= + ∅ (9)
(4)
And the internal current representation, we have:
1 0
sin
1
cos
1
n
n
m
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
r
a
a
mi
n
n
a
r
a
me
n
a
C
m
n
V
where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
the local time of the observatory respectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
Following Campbell [7]
the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
longitude divided by 15o
) is obtained from:
= =1
4
=
12
cos +
sin
(2)
With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
representation, we have:
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(3)
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(4)
And the internal current representation, we have:
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(5)
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(6)
where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers.
The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by:
= + ∅ (9)
(5)
1 0
sin
1
cos
1
n
n
m
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
r
a
a
mi
n
n
a
r
a
me
n
a
C
m
n
V
where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
the local time of the observatory respectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
Following Campbell [7]
the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
longitude divided by 15o
) is obtained from:
= =1
4
=
12
cos +
sin
(2)
With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
representation, we have:
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(3)
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(4)
And the internal current representation, we have:
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(5)
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(6)
where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers.
The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by:
= + ∅ (9)
(6)
where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers.
The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose sur-
face is located where a current could flow to give the
fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA,
hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is believed
that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospher-
ic E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because there is
other evidence that the dynamo current source is in
the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, the
value of a ≈ R and the ratio
1 0
sin
1
cos
1
n
n
m
p
m
n
m
n
r
a
b
mi
n
n
a
r
b
me
n
m
n
r
a
a
mi
n
n
a
r
a
me
n
a
C
m
n
V
where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and
the local time of the observatory respectively.
,
,
and
are Legendre polynomial
coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively.
are Legendre polynomials
and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively.
Following Campbell [7]
the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the
longitude divided by 15o
) is obtained from:
= =1
4
=
12
cos +
sin
(2)
With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current
representation, we have:
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(3)
=−
5
2
2+1
+1
(4)
And the internal current representation, we have:
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(5)
=
5
2
2+1
+1
(6)
where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers.
The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to
give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is
believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because
there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude,
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8]
.
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by:
may be omitted
from the current computations [8]
.
However, the equivalent external current intensity
I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal com-
ponent ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
4
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the cu
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of la
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external
= + ∅
(7)
4
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the cu
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of la
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external
= + ∅
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and
external) can be given by:
4
there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-r
the value of a ≈ R and the ratio
− 1 may be omitted from the cu
However, the equivalent external current intensity I of la
component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by:
=
1
∅
(7)
∅ = −
1
(8)
Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external
= + ∅ (9)
4. Results and discussion
Figure 2 shows the external currents for the four
African stations: ILR, LAG, AAB and HER while
Figure 3 shows the contour map for the external cur-
rent in Africa. The variation in the external currents
occurred in all hours of the day from dawn to dusk.
The external current curves for all the stations are
seen to increase gradually from midnight values to
a maximum intensity around 10:00 for AAB, 11:00
for LAG, 11:00 for Lagos and 13:00 for HER and a
gradual decrease to midnight values. This effect is
also observed in the contour maps for the external
current shown in Figure 3. The contour lines of the
contour map are seen to be increasing inwards which
indicates a positive variation pattern.
It is observed that the nighttime values are min-
imal. This is due to the disappearance of the sun
which is the main source of ionization in the iono-
sphere. Takeda [4]
noted that the intensity of the Sq
currents in high solar activity was about twice as
large as it is in low solar activity. Moldwin [9]
also
noted that the ionospheric ionization at any given
position depends on the position of the sun in the sky
and on its absolute output.
At night, the amount of sunlight goes to zero and
production due to photoionization ceases. However,
the currents are not observed to be zero. This there-
fore suggests that the observed nighttime currents
are from sources different from the ionospheric sourc-
es. Moldwin [9]
noted that these currents are from oth-
er sources like the magnetospheric and ring currents.
Obiekezie [10]
pointed out that these currents filter into
the ionosphere at night even during magnetic quiet
periods. This non-zero current at night is reported by
other researchers such as Campbell [11]
, Okeke and Ra-
biu [12]
, Rabiu [13]
, and Obiekezie, et al. [14]
.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-74-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
The maximum current was observed in ILR in
January and in AAB in almost all the months. AAB
and ILR are equatorial electrojet stations located
at latitude 0.18o
of the dip equator. The equatorial
electrojet is a narrow belt of intense electric current
in the ionosphere confined to about ±3o
of the dip
equator. This result is in agreement with the work of
Rastogi [15]
who observed a maximum diurnal and
semi-diurnal variation in X over the dip equator in-
dicative of EEJ. Obiekezie et al. [14]
also observed a
maximum Sq (H) variation at the AAB station indic-
ative of the EEJ.
The external current pattern in HER station which
is in the Southern hemisphere shows a crest-like
pattern just like the other three stations in Africa in
the Northern hemisphere. This is not in line with the
suggested pattern of the ionospheric current system.
The ionospheric currents typically form two global
horizontal current vortices at the sunlit side of the
Earth, one flowing clockwise in the Southern hem-
isphere and the other flowing counterclockwise in
the Northern hemisphere. The HER is expected to
have a current pattern opposite that of ILR, LAG and
AAB because of the hemispherical differences be-
tween them, however, it was observed that HER was
having a crest also. This behavior could be attributed
to the position of the station with respect to the Sq
focus in the southern hemisphere. Hence, it is sug-
gested that within the equatorial and low latitudes,
the ionospheric current pattern is the same in both
hemispheres.
Maximum external currents were obtained in
March equinox for all the stations: ILR, LAG, AAB
and HER with a value of approximately 4.8 × 103
A
for ILR, 4.2 × 103
A for LAG, 8 × 103
A for AAB and
1.5 × 103
A for HER. This equinoctial maximum in
the external currents is in agreement with Obiekezie
and Okeke [2]
. The minimum external current was
observed in June Solstice in ILR, and HER with a
value of 3.8 × 103
A, 5 × 103
A and 8 × 103
A respec-
tively. At LAG and AAB, minimum variation was
observed during the December Solstice and Septem-
ber equinox with a value of 2.85 × 103
A and 2.5 ×
103
A respectively.
As can be seen in Figure 4, the variation in the
internal currents occurred in all hours of the day
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
JANUARY
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 111315 171921 23
-10
-5
0
5
FEBRUARY
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 111315 171921 23
-10
-5
0
5
MARCH
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
-6
-4
-2
0
2
APRIL
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
-6
-4
-2
0
2
MAY
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
JUNE
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
-4
-2
0
2
JULY
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
AUGUST
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 111315 171921 23
-10
-5
0
5
SEPTEMBER
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 111315 171921 23
-10
-5
0
5
OCTOBER
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
NOVEMBER
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
-6
-4
-2
0
2
DECEMBER
Local Time (Hours)
Internal
Current
(x10
3
A)
AAB
HER
ILR
LAG
Figure 4. Internal Sq current across Africa (ILR, LAG, AAB, HER).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-76-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
from dawn to dusk. The observed variation in in-
ternal currents is seen to be different from the ex-
ternal currents both in amplitude and phase. These
differences observed in the phase and amplitude are
a function of the Earth’s conductivity. This is also
reflected in the contour maps of the internal currents
as shown in Figure 5. The calculated internal and
external currents are seen to be lower than those of
Campbell, et al. [16]
, and Obiekezie and Okeke [2]
.
Campbell et al. [16]
observed external and internal
currents in the order of 104
A while Obiekezie and
Okeke [2]
observed external and internal currents in
the order of 106
A.
5. Conclusions
The application of the solar quiet day ionosphere
current has enabled us to study the ionospheric Sq
current system in the equatorial and low latitudes of
Africa. The following deductions can be made from
the results:
1) The maximum current observed in AAB and
ILR is due to the Equatorial Electrojet Current pres-
ent in the AAB and ILR stations.
2) Within the equatorial and low latitudes regions,
the ionospheric current pattern is the same in both
hemispheres.
3) The position of the station with respect to the
Sq focus affects the external current pattern.
4) The source currents varied from the induced
currents both in amplitude and phase.
5) Seasonal variation was observed in the ge-
omagnetic component variations as well as in the
currents. This is attributed to the position of the sun
with respect to the earth at different months of the
year.
6) The equinoctial maximum is observed in exter-
nal current intensity which occurred mostly during
the March Equinox.
Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
JANUARY
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-4
-2
0
2
FEBRUARY
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-6
-4
-2
0
2
MARCH
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
APRIL
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-6
-4
-2
0
2
MAY
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-4
-2
0
2
JUNE
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-4
-2
0
2
JULY
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-6
-4
-2
0
2
AUGUST
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-4
-2
0
2
SEPTEMBER
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-6
-4
-2
0
2
OCTOBER
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-6
-4
-2
0
2
NOVEMBER
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-4
-2
0
2
DECEMBER
Local Time (Hours)
Geographic
Latitude
(deg.)
Int.
Current
(x10
3
A)
1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123
-30
-20
-10
0
-6
-4
-2
0
2
Figure 5. Contour map of internal current for equatorial, low and mid latitudes of Africa.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/journalofatmosphericscienceresearchvol6no1january2023-230313030926-12198046/85/Journal-of-Atmospheric-Science-Research-Vol-6-Iss-1-January-2023-77-320.jpg)
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023
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Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Vol.6, Iss.1 January 2023
- 2. Alexander Kokhanovsky, Germany Fan Ping, China Svetlana Vasilivna Budnik, Ukraine S. M. Robaa, Egypt Daniel Andrade Schuch, Brazil Nicolay Nikolayevich Zavalishin, Russian Federation Isidro A. Pérez, Spain Lucille Joanna Borlaza, France Che Abd Rahim Bin Mohamed, Malaysia Mengqian Lu, China Sheikh Nawaz Ali, India ShenMing Fu, China Nathaniel Emeka Urama, Nigeria Thi Hien To, Vietnam Prabodha Kumar Pradhan, India Tianxing Wang, China Zhengqiang Li, China Haider Abbas Khwaja, United States Kuang Yu Chang, United States Wen Zhou, China Mohamed El-Amine Slimani, Algeria Xiaodong Tang, China Perihan Kurt-Karakus, Turkey Anning Huang, China Olusegun Folarin Jonah, United States Pallav Purohit, Austria Pardeep Pall, Canada Service Opare, Canada Donglian Sun, United States Jian Peng, United Kingdom Vladislav Vladimirovich Demyanov, Russian Federation Chuanfeng Zhao, China Jingsong Li, China Suleiman Alsweiss, United States Ranis Nail Ibragimov, United States Raj Kamal Singh, United States Lei Zhong, China Chenghai Wang, China Lichuan Wu, Sweden Naveen Shahi, South Africa Hassan Hashemi, Iran David Onojiede Edokpa, Nigeria Maheswaran Rathinasamy, India Zhen Li, United Kingdom Anjani Kumar, India Netrananda Sahu, India Aisulu Tursunova, Kazakhstan Hirdan Katarina de Medeiros Costa, Brazil Masoud Rostami, Germany Barbara Małgorzata Sensuła, Poland Editor-in-Chief Dr. Qiang Zhang Beijing Normal University, China Dr. José Francisco Oliveira Júnior Federal University of Alagoas (UFAL), Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil Dr. Jianhui Bai Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China Editorial Board Members
- 3. Volume 5 Issue 3 • July 2022 • ISSN 2630-5119 (Online) Journal of Atmospheric Science Research Editor-in-Chief Dr. Qiang Zhang Dr. José Francisco Oliveira Júnior Dr. Jianhui Bai Volume 6 Issue 1 • January 2023 • ISSN 2630-5119 (Online) Dr. Qiang Zhang Dr. José Francisco Oliveira Júnior Dr. Jianhui Bai Editor-in-Chief Volume 5 Issue 3 • July 2022 • ISSN 2630-5119 (Online) Journal of Atmospheric Science Research Editor-in-Chief Dr. Qiang Zhang Dr. José Francisco Oliveira Júnior Dr. Jianhui Bai
- 4. Volume 6 ｜ Issue 1 ｜ January 2023 ｜ Page1-74 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research Contents Articles 1 Monitoring and Quantification of Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Impact of Sea Surface Temperature on Marine Ecosystems as Climate Change Indicators in the Niger Delta Using Geospatial Technology Okechukwu Okpobiri, Eteh Desmond Rowland, Francis Emeka Egobueze, Mogo Felicia Chinwe 60 Indoor Air Pollution and Its Determinants in Household Settings in Jaipur, India Anukrati Dhabhai, Arun Kumar Sharma, Gaurav Dalela, S.S Mohanty, Ramesh Kumar Huda, Rajnish Gupta 68 Ionospheric Currents in the Equatorial and Low Latitudes of Africa G.C Emenike, T.N Obiekezie, V.N Ojeh Review 21 Global Effect of Climate Change on Seasonal Cycles, Vector Population and Rising Challenges of Com- municable Diseases: A Review Nidhi Yadav, Ravi Kant Upadhyay
- 5. 1 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jasr ARTICLE Monitoring and Quantification of Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Impact of Sea Surface Temperature on Marine Ecosystems as Climate Change Indicators in the Niger Delta Using Geospatial Technology Okechukwu Okpobiri1* , Eteh Desmond Rowland2 , Francis Emeka Egobueze3 , Mogo Felicia Chinwe4 1 Department of Geology, River State University, Rivers State, 500101, Nigeria 2 Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Amassoma. Bayelsa State, 560103, Nigeria 3 Institution of Geoscience Space Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, River State, 500101, Nigeria 4 African Marine Environment Sustainability Initiative (AFMESI) Festac Lagos, 102312, Nigeria ABSTRACT The Niger Delta marine environment has experienced a series of environmental disasters since the inception of oil and gas exploration, which can be attributed to climate change. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and sea surface temperature (T) ties associated with burning fossil fuels, such as gas flaring, vehicular traffic, and marine vessel movement along the sea, are increasing. Using data extracted from the NASA Giovanni satellite’s Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), this study mapped the carbon footprint and T along the coastline into the deep sea from 2003 to 2011, using ArcGIS software. The spatial distribution of CO2 and T concentrations determined by the inverse distance weighting (IDW) method reveals variations in the study area. The results show an increase in the quantity of the mean tropospheric CO2 from July 2003 to December 2011, from 374.5129 ppm to 390.7831 ppm annual CO2 emissions, which also reflects a continuous increase. The average Monthly sea surface temperature had a general increasing trend from 25.79 °C in July 2003 to 27.8 °C in December, with the Pearson correlation coefficient between CO2 and T indicating 50% strongly positive, 20% strongly negative, 20% weakly positive, and 10% weakly negative. CO2 levels, like temperature, follow a seasonal cycle, with a decrease during the wet season due to precipitation dissolving and plant uptake during the growing season, and then a rise during the dry season. Carbon capture and storage technologies must be implemented to benefit the marine ecosystem and human well-being. Keywords: Carbon footprint; NASA Giovanni; Climate change; Coastline; Carbon capture and storage *CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: Okechukwu Okpobiri, Department of Geology, River State University, Rivers State, Nigeria; Email: [email protected] ARTICLE INFO Received: 27 September 2022 | Revised: 30 November 2022 | Accepted: 05 December 2022 | Published: 30 December 2022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v6i1.5107 CITATION Okpobiri, O., Rowland, E.D., Egobueze, F.E., et al., 2023. Monitoring and Quantification of Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Impact of Sea Sur- face Temperature on Marine Ecosystems as Climate Change Indicators in the Niger Delta Using Geospatial Technology. Journal of Atmospheric Science Research. 6(1): 1-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v6i1.5107 COPYRIGHT Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu- tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
- 6. 2 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 1. Introduction The greatest issue plaguing the 21st century on a global scale is climate change. An increase in the emission of greenhouse gas (GHG) such as methane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide (CO2), and fluorinated gases [1] is the causal effect to which carbon dioxide is the greatest contributor. Though CO2 is a naturally occurring GHG with a low global warming potential (GWP) of one [2] , it is the major culprit due to its longer atmospheric lifespan of 300-1000 years [2-4] . The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmos- phere surpasses all other GHG as a result of human activities, which can be attributed to the increasing population and the consequent need for energy and change in land-use cover [5,6] . CO2 released from burning fossil fuels can easily be detected as it has a peculiar signature wherein the amount of heavy carbon -13 isotopes in the atmosphere declines, and the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen is reduced [3,7] . This can be related to the increase in global surface tem- perature over the years as [8] indicates no net increase from solar input [9] . Projected a 130% increase in CO2 emissions by 2050. The increased human-driv- en levels of CO2 emission along the coastline from activities, such as onshore and offshore energy drill- ing, marine transportation of goods, and resource extraction have resulted in higher atmospheric tem- perature and consequently, heavier precipitation. The coastal areas are more vulnerable to the dan- gers of climate change which manifest as flooding, changes in shoreline, higher water table, saltwater intrusion in the aquifer, and oceans acidification [10] . The carbon cycle through which atmospheric car- bon dioxide concentrations are regulated involves the carbon sink which includes; forests, ocean, and soil. All these are however under threat from human activities like deforestation, ocean pollution, and oil spill, limiting their ability to absorb free tropospheric CO2. In recent times there have been frequent flood- ing episodes, outbreaks of water-borne diseases, and cases of massive dead fish occurring in the coastal states of Nigeria. These necessitate the need for mon- itoring and mapping our carbon footprint. Remote sensing as a cost-effective method allows consistent, precise, and comprehensive data collection of GHG at a regional and global scale from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) on the Earth Observing System (EOS) Aqua satellite [11] . 2. Study area The study location is along the Niger Delta coast- line. Spanning about 800 km, it cuts across Lagos, Ondo, Delta, Bayelsa, Rivers, and Akwa Ibom states. With a 14% surge in population to over 40 million residents according to the Niger Delta Region survey by the National Population Commission and an es- timated land mass of 70,000 km2 , it is densely pop- ulated. The study area is located between longitudes 0040 00’0” and 0080 00’0” east of the first meridian and latitudes 040 00’0” and 060 00’0” north of the equator. There are 2 main seasons all year round; a lengthy rainy season which commences from March to October with precipitation of about 4000 mm [12] and the dry season from November to February. The peak of both wet and dry seasons are July and December respectively. This location was chosen be- cause it is highly susceptible to CO2 emission owing to the fact that the 6 major seaports and all the gas flaring points in the country are distributed within this region (Figure 1). Figure 1. Niger Delta coastal area map with oil and gas fields (about 606 oilfields – 355 onshore, 251 offshore, and 178 gas flare points). Nigerian Oil and Gas Corporation (1997) and Ani- fowose et al. [13]
- 7. 3 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 3. Materials and method 3.1 Data collection The remote sensing data utilized in this study are the mean carbon dioxide emissions in ppm acquired from the Atmosphere Infrared Sounder on National Aero- nautics and Space Administration (NASA) Giovanni Aqua Satellite and Sea Surface Temperature at 11 mi- crons using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradi- ometer (MODIS) R2019.0 (https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa. gov/giovanni/) with an accuracy of 20 × 2.50 for select- ed geophysical parameters, and the map of the Niger Delta coastal area highlighting the oil and gas fields and gas flare points from Nigerian Oil and Gas Corporation (1997) and Anifowose et al.[13] 3.2 Data processing The monthly average CO2 and sea surface tem- perature data were extracted from Giovanni and pro- cessed using ArcGIS software with the spatial inter- polation method, Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) from 42 stations from July 2003 to December 2011. The ArcGIS software was launched and the ac- quired data prepared in Microsoft Excel sheets and saved in CSV format was imported. The area of in- terest was delineated in Google earth, saved as kml file, and imported into the ArcGIS software retaining the Projected Coordinate System using WGS UTM 1984 Zone N32 which covers the coastal region in Nigeria, and then converting it to a shapefile on ArcGIS. Google Earth image Subsetting was done using clipping tools in the Arc Toolbox. The editing tool was used to digitize the shoreline boundary cre- ating the shapefile of the area of interest. Step1: CO2 processing: Arc Toolbox → Spatial Analyst Tool → Interpolation → Click on the In- verse Distance Weighting (IDW) → Import the CSV File Containing the CO2 Result of the Area Under Review for July, 2003 → Click on Environment → Processing Extend Select the Shapefile of the Study Area →Click on Spatial Analysis →Click on the Mask and Select the Study Area → Ok. The final result was exported for further analysis. The same process was repeated in December 2003, 2005, 2007, 2009 and 2011. The same process was repeated for the sea surface temperature. 3.3 Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) tech- nique Inverse distance weighting is a mathematical means of estimating an unknown value from nearby known values. Based on Toiler’s law “everything is related to everything else but near things are more related than distant things”, IDW uses the “weight” of the known value(s) which is a function of the in- verse distance, to estimate the unknown value. Bur- rough and McDonnell [14] found that utilizing IDW within a squared distance yields reliable results. To estimate the CO2 concentration across the marine en- vironment, spatial interpolation of the CO2 emission collected from 42 stations in the coastal environment for each sampling year is obtained and reclassified into five classes for the period under review. The In- verse Distance formula is given in equation 1: 1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3 ... ... * n n n w x w x w x w x x = w w w w + + + + + + + + (1) Where x* is the unknown value at a location to be estimated, w is the weight, x is the known point value, and n, is the total number of x. The weight formula is given in equation 2 as: * 1 P lx wi = d (2) Where di is the distance from the known point, P a variable that stands for Power. 3.4 Data analysis Step 2: Plotting histogram and line chart with the analyzed statistical data such as mean, minimum, maximum, and percentage of CO2 using Microsoft excel to estimate the quantity of carbon dioxide emitted each year for both wet and dry seasons and identify the trend. Finally, the relationship between CO2 and sea surface temperature was established us- ing the Pearson correlation coefficient.
- 8. 4 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 4. Results and discussion 4.1 Monitoring and quantifying carbon foot- print The monthly average CO2 spatial distribution as seen in Figures 2a to 2e and their estimated CO2 in Table 1, is constantly increasing annually for both July and December. This reflects an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide emitted from burning fossil fuels in electric power generating sets, marine vessels, and vehicles associated with the increasing populace. Deforestation for industrial and residential needs as well as agricultural degradation resulting from oil spills typical of the Niger Delta is another likely factor. Most important is the fact that the con- tinuous exploration of fossil fuels and the increasing spate of illegal refineries in the region in response to the ever-increasing need for energy is not abating. December has the highest mean CO2 concentrations increasing from 376.5186 ppm in 2003 to 390.5302 ppm in 2011. Whereas in July, the lowest values ranging from 374.8737 ppm in 2003 with a contin- uous increase to 390.1123 ppm are recorded. This contrast represents the different seasons and can be attributed to various factors. Firstly, July is the peak of the rainy season when carbon dioxide is dissolved into carbonic acid during precipitation. Also, De- cember is characterized by hot, dry spells which are grounds for cooling thereby increasing electrical energy consumption and inadvertently increasing the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. Another vital factor is that the consumption of CO2 gas by plants for photosynthesis is low in December, thus reducing the use of carbon dioxide. (a)
- 9. 5 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 (b) (c)
- 10. 6 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 (d) (e) Figure 2. Monthly mean Tropospheric CO2 in the marine environment in Nigeria. (a)July 2003 and December 2003, (b) July 2005 and December 2005, (c) July 2007 and December 2007, (d) July 2009 and December 2009, (e) July 2011 and December 2011.
- 11. 7 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Ideally, higher CO2 levels are expected in De- cember and lower values in July. However, the trend in Figure 3 shows a dip in the maximum amount of CO2 emitted in December 2005 which gradually built up in 2007 corresponding to the drop in the av- erage carbon dioxide level recorded for that month in Table 1 and Figures 2a to 2e. This anomaly could result from wind action or low CO2 absorption by carbon sink within that period. Although the mean CO2 values for December were only lower than that of July in the year 2005 see Table 1. The relative frequency of the maximum CO2 levels between December and July in Table 2 and Figure 4 shows a plunge in 2005 from a 0.64% increase in 2003. This dip continually plunges till 2011 when it slowly builds up. In the case of the minimum values, Table 3 and Figure 5 indicate a 0.03% increase in December 2007 over July 2007 and a 0.05% increase in December 2011 over July of the same year. Whereas in 2003, 2005, and 2009, the percentage decreased in December and increased in July. 4.2 Comparative analysis of the spatial varia- tion Figure 2a to 2e a pictorial of the spatial distribu- tion of the monthly carbon dioxide concentrations was derived using the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) method. It can be observed that the values show a spatial difference between two major parts of the region; the Northeast (NE) and the South- west (SW), with variations in the spatial patterns for each season. The highest and lowest monthly average values of 390.5302 ppm in December 2011 and 374.8737 in July 2003 were both recorded in the NE. The significant dip from 380.7649 ppm in July 2007 to 371.8493 ppm in December of the same Table 1. Average tropospheric carbon dioxide for the wet and dry seasons from 2003-2011. YEAR July Minimum July Maximum Mean CO2 December Minimum December Maximum Mean CO2 2003 374.5129 375.2345 374.8737 374.9657 390.4947 382.73 2005 377.1926 379.5301 378.3614 376.9839 378.3142 377.649 2007 380.3929 382.2531 381.323 381.7307 382.3916 382.061 2009 385.5414 386.4473 385.9944 385.873 387.2198 386.546 2011 388.5471 390.7831 389.6651 390.1263 390.7032 390.415 370 375 380 385 390 395 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 CO 2 (PPM) AVERAGE TROPOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE TREND July Minimum July Maximum December Minimum December Maximum Figure 3. Minimum and Maximum carbon dioxide levels for July and December 2003–2011.
- 12. 8 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Table 2. Percentage change in the maximum carbon dioxide levels for July and December 2003-2011. YEAR % July Maximum % December Maximum % +/- in Mean CO2 December from July Interpretation 2003 19.60 20.24 0.64 Higher in December than July 2005 19.83 19.61 -0.22 Higher in July than December 2007 19.97 19.82 -0.15 Higher in July than December 2009 20.19 20.07 -0.12 Higher in July than December 2011 20.41 20.25 -0.16 Higher in July than December Figure 4. Percentage increase and decrease in the mean maximum carbon dioxide between December and July. Table 3. Percentage change in the minimum carbon dioxide levels for July and December 2003-2011. YEAR % July Minimum % December Minimum % +/- in Mean CO2 December from July Interpretation 2003 19.65 19.64 -0.01 Higher in July than December 2005 19.79 19.74 -0.05 Higher in July than December 2007 19.96 19.99 0.03 Higher in December than July 2009 20.23 20.21 -0.02 Higher in July than December 2011 20.38 20.43 0.05 Higher in December than July Figure 5. Percentage increase and decrease in the mean minimum carbon dioxide between December and July.
- 13. 9 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Table 4. Percentage change in carbon dioxide levels for July 2003-2011 in the NE and SW. Period % Northeast Mean CO2 % Southwest Mean CO2 % +/- in Mean CO2 North East from South west Interpretation 2003 July 19.64 19.65 -0.01 Higher in South West than North East 2005 July 19.78 19.78 0.00 Equal 2007 July 19.94 20.01 -0.07 Higher in South West than North East 2009 July 20.20 20.20 0.00 Equal 2011 July 20.43 20.36 0.07 Higher in North East than South West Figure 6. Percentage increase/decrease in Mean CO2 NE from SW for July. year not with standing, the NE experienced the most elevated concentrations over time with an overall mean CO2 value of 3823.0911ppm. While the SW with fairly consistent increasing CO2 values and a negligible drop in rates between July and December 2005 recorded 3823.0596ppm. This is a function of the population, the level of industrialization, urban expansion, and the number of gas flaring points. The Spatio-temporal carbon dioxide values, for July in Table 4 and Figure 6 show that in 2003 and 2007, the NE was lower than the SW by 0.01%. In 2005 and 2009, the percentage of CO2 across the NE and SW was the same, whereas in 2011, the NE is 0.07% higher than the SW. As a result, the South West emitted more CO2 than the North East. Factors that could influence CO2 in the marine environment during the wet season include rainfall and temper- ature differences, gas flaring activities, marine ves- sels, and illegal oil bunkering. For the months of December as shown in Table 5 and Figure 7, in 2003, 2005, and 2011, the NE surpassed the SW by 0.57%, 0.02%, and 0.02% re- spectively. While in 2007 and 2009, the percentage of CO2 in the NE decreased by 0.55%, and 0.05%, respectively, implying that CO2 was higher in the South West than in the North East. This could be a function of temperature and rainfall differences, gas flaring activities, marine vessels, urban expansion, and the level of industrialization.
- 14. 10 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 x Figure 8. Trend line for the minimum CO2 concentration. Table 5. Percentage change in carbon dioxide levels for December 2003-2011 in the NE and SW. Period % Northeast mean CO2 % Southwest mean CO2 % +/- in Mean CO2 North East from South west Interpretation 2003 December 20.24 19.67 0.57 Higher in North East than South West 2005 December 19.76 19.73 0.02 Higher in North East than South West 2007 December 19.43 19.98 -0.55 Higher in South West than North East 2009 December 20.18 20.23 -0.05 Higher in South West than North East 2011 December 20.41 20.39 0.02 Higher in North East than South West Figure 7. Percentage increase/decrease in Mean CO2 NE from SW for December. 4.3 Predictions From the projections made using Microsoft excel, Figure 8 shows a steep linear trend in the minimum emission for both July and December with higher values in December. While the maximum values show a gradual trend in December, and a steep trend line to about 398ppm in July see Figure 9. In July, Figure 10 and Table 6 projects a uniform steep trend in the NE and SW whereas there is a variation in December, where the NE has a gradual trend and the SW, has a steep trend in Figure 11.
- 15. 11 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Figure 9. Trend line for the Maximum CO2 concentration. Figure 10. Trend line for the mean CO2 concentration in the NE and SW for July. Figure 11. Trend line for the mean CO2 concentration in the NE and SW for December.
- 16. 12 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 The overall investigation predicts increasing CO2 emissions in both seasons over the years with higher concentrations in the Southwest if adequate meas- ures are not taken to reduce carbon footprint. 4.4 Sea surface temperature The temperature of the ocean’s surface water is an important physical property of the world’s oceans. As the oceans absorb more heat, sea surface temperatures rise, and the ocean circulation patterns that transport warm and cold water around the world change [15] . A change in sea surface temperature, according to Ostrander, G. K., Armstrong, K. M., Knobbe, E. T., et al. [16] , can affect the marine ecosys- tem in a variety of ways, including how variations in ocean temperature can affect what species of plants, animals, and microbes are present in a location, alter migration and breeding patterns, endanger sensitive ocean life such as corals, and change the frequency and intensity of harmful algal blooms such as red tide. Long-term increases in sea surface temperature may also reduce circulation patterns that transport nutrients from the deep sea to the surface. Changes in reef habitat and nutrient supply could drastically alter ocean ecosystems and lead to fish population declines, affecting people who rely on fishing for food or a living [17, 18] . The results in Figure 12, show that the sea sur- face temperature was consistently low during the wet season and high during the dry season from 2003 to 2011 and also indicate a spatial variability in the monthly average sea surface temperature across the region. According to Tables 7 and 8, the lowest mini- mum temperatures for both seasons were recorded in July 2011; 25.7 °C and in December 2011; 27.8 °C. While the highest maximum temperatures of 28.39 °C and 29.27 °C were recorded in July 2003 and December 2009 respectively. The minimum temper- ature values show a linear trend gradually increasing in July and fairly constant in December in Figure 13. While Figure 14 indicates a reduction in the maximum temperature in July and a fairly constant trend in December. However, the spatial distributions show a general increase in sea surface temperature from 2003 to 2011, and factors that could influence the rise in temperature include oil and gas operations such as gas flaring activities as shown in Figure 1, as well as the movement of marine vessels, and bun- kering activities. Table 6. Monthly average tropospheric carbon dioxide for the peak wet and dry seasons from 2003-2011 for NE and SW. Period North East South West CO2 Range Mean CO2 CO2 Range Mean CO2 July 2003 374.8016-374.9458 374.8737 375.0902-375.2345 375.1623 December 2003 384.2832- 390.4947 387.3889 374.9657-378.0175 376.5186 July 2005 377.1926-378.1276 377.6586 377.1926-378.1276 377.6601 December 2005 377.7822-378.3142 378.0482 377.5162-377.7821 377.6491 July 2007 380.3929-381.137 380.7649 381.8812-382.2531 382.0671 December 2007 361.7037-381.995 371.8493 382.2595-382.3916 382.3255 July 2009 395.5414-385.9038 385.7226 385.5414-385.7226 385.632 December 2009 385.873-386.4118 386.1424 386.9506-387.2198 387.0852 July 2011 389.8888-390.3359 390.1123 388.5471-388.9943 388.7707 December 2011 390.4726-390.5879 390.5302 390.1263-390.2417 390.1840
- 17. 13 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 (a) (b)
- 18. 14 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 (c) (d)
- 19. 15 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 (e) Figure 12. Monthly mean Sea Surface Temperature in the marine environment in Nigeria. (a)July 2003 and December 2003, (b) July 2005 and December 2005, (c) July 2007 and December 2007, (d) July 2009 and December 2009, (e) July 2011 and December 2011. Figure 13. Trend line for the Minimum Sea surface temperature.
- 20. 16 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Figure 14. Trend line for the Maximum Sea surface temperature. Table 7. Sea Surface Temperature for Minimum from 2003-2011. Year 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 Mini July 25.79 25.76 26.2 26.32 25.7 Mini December 28.13 27.95 28.06 28.54 27.8 Table 8. Sea Surface Temperature for Maximum from 2003-2011 Year 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 Maxi July 28.39 27.72 27.87 27.58 26.91 Maxi December 29.04 28.75 28.86 29.27 28.72 4.5 Correlation between carbon dioxide and sea surface temperature The regional distribution of carbon dioxide re- vealed that carbon dioxide is continuously increasing as a result of increased combustion of fossil fuels in oil and gas exploration, marine vessel movement, and population density in coastal communities. Con- sequently, the study area was classified into two: NE and SW for CO2, based on these activities. The Pear- son correlation coefficient was utilized to determine the relationship between the carbon dioxide concen- trations and the sea surface temperatures (Table 9). The correlation coefficient revealed that 50% of the study stations showed a strong positive relationship between increased carbon dioxide concentrations and high temperatures during both the dry and wet sea- sons, 20% showed a strong negative relationship, 20% showed a weak positive relationship, and 10% showed a weak negative relationship. As earlier observed, the CO2 levels are low in July and higher in December. This corresponds with lower sea surface temperatures in July and higher values in December. A scatter plot of correlation coefficients between temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations for July and December from 2003 to 2001 is shown in Figure 15.
- 21. 17 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Figure 15. Pearson Correlation coefficient between CO2 and Sea surface temperature.
- 22. 18 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 4.6 Environmental implications An increase in the levels of carbon dioxide emit- ted and sea surface temperature leads to Global warming which results in climate change with seri- ous repercussions on the environment. The principal consequence being higher temperatures has a ripple effect beginning with frequent torrential precipitation due to increased evaporation rate and higher water vapour retaining capacity of a warm atmosphere. In addition, sea level rise according to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was expected to rise by 18 to 59 centimeters globally by the end of the 20th century. The Niger Delta coastline is categorized as an extreme hotspot of climate vulnerability by the IPCC and has in recent years experienced a series of coastal inundations, which increased annually during the period under review [19,20] , erosion, and increased soil salinity induced by saltwater intrusion depleting the mangrove reserves [21] . Furthermore, the effects include changes in the circulation pattern of coastal waters [22] and warmer ocean water. Warm water holds less oxygen, and CO2 depletion occurs in the upper 1km where most species live, inducing hypoxia in some species and increasing ocean acid- ity creating an imbalanced marine ecosystem [23] . In response, marine life either dies or migrate to more conducive waters. Public health is not spared either, as warm humid climates encourage the breeding of vector-borne diseases like yellow fever and waterlogged areas for breeding mosquitos, carriers of malaria. Hot weather reduces the size of water bodies like lakes. The dry beds resulting from this shrinkage can be sources of air pollution with high levels of arsenic and other toxins which are poisonous to inhale leading to res- piratory problems [24] . Poor nutrition of the popula- tion, another effect, is a function of poor crop yield and consuming mutated aquatic organisms from the acidic ocean. 5. Conclusions and recommendation Geospatial Technology has demonstrated that the continuous increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere caused by human activities heats up the atmosphere, resulting in heavier precipitation, which exacerbates coastal flooding. Climate change is also causing ocean acidification, shoreline ero- sion, and saltwater intrusion along the Niger Delta marine environment. Variations in CO2 concentra- tion and sea surface temperature across the region reflect differences in seasons, weather, and rates of human-driven carbon emissions. The observed trend indicates that carbon dioxide levels will rise with sea surface temperature serving as climate change indicators. It is in man’s best interest to mitigate this by reducing our carbon footprint and protecting our carbon sink. GIS and remote sensing technology should be used to regularly monitor carbon dioxide levels, and all illegal crude oil refineries in the Niger Delta should be decimated. Environmental friendly poli- cies, such as carbon capture and storage, should be developed and implemented to improve the marine ecosystem and residents’ quality of life, and thus boost economic activity. Table 9. Pearson correlation coefficient between CO2 and sea surface temperature. Year r ( CO2 vs T July) Strength Direction r ( CO2 vs T December) Strength Direction 2003 .96 Strong positive 0.95 Strong positive 2005 .09 Weak positive 0.68 Strong positive 2007 .91 Strong positive -0.65 Strong Negative 2009 .72 Strong positive -0.11 Weak Negative 2011 -.59 Strong Negative 0.11 Weak positive
- 23. 19 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Conflict of Interest There is no conflict of interest. References [1] Melissa, D., Greenhouse Effect 101 [Internet]. [cited 2019 Jul 26]. Available from: https:// www.nrdc.org/stories/greenhouse-effect-10. [2] United States Environmental Protection Agency [Internet]. [cited 2022 May 5]. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understand- ing-global-warming-potentials. [3] Alan, B., The Atmosphere: Getting a Handle on Carbon Dioxide [Internet]. [cited 2019 Oct 9]. Available from: https://climate.nasa.gov/ news/2915/the-atmosphere-getting-a-han- dle-on-carbondioxide/#:~:text=Carbon%20 dioxide%20is%20a%20different,between%20 300%20to%201%2C000%20years. [4] Hansen, J.E., (Editor). Air Pollution as a Cli- mate Forcing; 2002 Apr 29-May 3; Hawaii. New York: NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. [5] Petrokofsky, G., Kanamaru, H., Achard, F., 2012. Comparison of methods for measuring and assessing carbon stocks and carbon stock changes in terrestrial carbon pools. How do the accuracy and precision of current methods com- pare: A systematic review protocol. Environ- mental Evidence. 1, 6. [6] Shakir, J.A., Mazin, Mashee, F., 2020. Monitor- ing and calculating the carbon dioxide emissions in Baghdad and its effect on increasing tem- peratures from 2003-2018 using remote sensing data. Periódico Tchê Qumica. 17, 357-371. DOI: 10.52571/PTQ.v17.n36.2020.372_Periodico36_ pgs_357_371.pdf. [7] Prather, M., Ehhalt, D., In climate change 2001: The scientific basis: Contributions of working group I to the third assessment report of the In- tergovernmental panel on climate change, eds. Houghton, J.T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D.J., et al., Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press; p. 239-287. [8] NOAA National Centers for Environmental In- formation, Climate at a Glance [Internet]. 2019: Global Time Series [cited 2022 Aug 29]. Avail- able from: https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/ monitoring/climate-at-a-glance/. [9] Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage : A Key Carbon Abatement Option (International Ener- gy Agency). China: OECD Publishing; 2008. p. 264. ISBN-10: 9264041400, ISBN-13: 978- 9264041400. [10]National Ocean and Atmospheric Administra- tion [Internet]. Ocean Acidification [cited 2020 Apr 1]. Available from: https://www.noaa.gov/ education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ ocean-acidification. [11] Rajab, J.M., MatJafri, M.Z., Lim, H.S., et al., 2009. Satellite mapping of CO2 emissions from forest fires in Indonesia using AIRS measure- ments. Modern Applied Science. 3(12), 68-75. [12]World Bank Group [Internet]. Current Climate Climatology 2021. Available from: https://cli- mateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/ Nigeria/climate-data-historical. [13]Anifowose, D., Lawler, D., Vander, H., et al., 2014. Evaluating interdiction of oil pipelines at river crossings using environmental impact assessments. Area. 46(1), 4-17. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/area.12065. [14]Burrough, P.A., McDonnell, R.A., Lloyd, C.D., Principles of geographical information systems. UK: Oxford University Press; 2015. p. 352. [15]National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- tration [Internet]. NOAA Merged Land Ocean Global Surface Temperature Analysis [Accessed March 2021]. Available from: https://www.ncei. noaa.gov/products/land-based-station/noaa- global-temp. [16]Ostrander, G.K., Armstrong, K.M., Knobbe, E.T., et al., 2000. Rapid transition in the struc- ture of a coral reef community: The effects of coral bleaching and physical disturbance. Pro- ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97(10), 5297-5302. [17]Pratchett, M.S., Wilson, S.K., Berumen, M.L.,
- 24. 20 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 et al., 2004. Sublethal effects of coral bleaching on an obligate coral feeding butterflyfish. Coral Reefs. 23(3), 352-356. [18]Pershing, A., Griffis, R., Jewett, E.B., et al., 2018. Oceans and marine resources: Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States. Vol- ume 2 : The Fourth National Climate Assess- ment. Available from: https://nca2018.global- change.gov/. [19]Robert, J., Nicholls, 2007. “Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas” in M. L. Parry et al., eds., Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovern- mental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2007. p. 327. [20]Uyigue, E., Agho, M., 2007. Coping with Cli- mate Change and Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta of Southern Nigeria, Commu- nity Research and Development Centre (CREDC) Nigeria [Internet]. Climate Change in Niger Del- ta-Global Greenhouse Warming. Available from: https://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com. [21]Chen, Y., Ye, Y., 2014. Effects of salinity and nutrient addition on mangrove excoecaria agallocha. Plos One. 9(4), e93337. [22]FitzGerald, M., Fenster, M.S., Argow, B.A., et al., 2008. Coastal impacts due to sea-level rise. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 36, 601-47. [23]Breitburg, Denise, L., Lisa, O., et al., 2018. Declin- ing oxygen in the global ocean and coastal waters. Science (New York, N.Y.). 359(10), 1126. [24]Jones, B.A., Fleck, J., 2020. Shrinking lakes, air pollution, and human health: Evidence from California’s Salton Sea. Science of the Total En- vironment. 712, 136490. Appendix 1 Carbon dioxide (PPM) July Sea Surface Temperature (°C) July 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 374.7397 378.1945 380.9311 385.9913 390.3538 26.555 26.435 27.18357 26.92857 25.99571 374.7397 378.1945 380.9311 385.9913 390.3538 26.58214 26.74429 27.145 27.16643 26.16 374.7397 378.1945 380.9311 385.9913 390.3538 26.79929 26.80428 27.04357 27.035 26.47643 374.8788 378.3543 381.7284 385.9451 389.7175 26.78214 26.58929 27.57143 26.92286 26.62071 375.2345 377.5654 382.2531 385.5414 388.5471 27.49286 26.73386 27.5 26.89786 26.53714 375.2345 377.5654 382.2531 385.5414 388.5471 27.29571 26.48071 27.54857 26.75929 26.49143 Appendix 2 Carbon dioxide (PPM) December Sea Surface Temperature (°C) December 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 384.0065 377.7441 381.8758 386.2906 390.5842 28.72786 28.41071 28.47429 28.79429 28.25571 384.0065 377.7441 381.8758 386.2906 390.5842 28.67429 28.30286 28.45286 28.97786 28.21429 384.0065 377.7441 381.8758 386.2906 390.5842 28.72643 28.37214 28.48571 29.07714 28.32357 377.3511 377.4448 382.1591 386.8678 390.4262 28.40714 28.19143 28.28929 29.06357 28.56286 374.9657 377.616 382.3916 387.2199 390.1263 28.3 28.07357 28.38286 28.85786 28.31243 374.9657 377.616 382.3916 387.2199 390.1263 28.45071 28.20786 28.39071 28.94857 28.17786
- 25. 21 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jasr *CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: Ravi Kant Upadhyay, Department of Zoology, D. D. U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, 273009, India; Email: [email protected] ARTICLE INFO Received: 19 October 2022 | Revised: 01 January 2023 | Accepted: 03 January 2023 | Published Online: 15 January 2023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v6i1.5165 CITATION Yadav, N., Upadhyay, R.K., 2023. Global Effect of Climate Change on Seasonal Cycles, Vector Population and Rising Challenges of Communi- cable Diseases: A Review. Journal of Atmospheric Science Research. 6(1): 21-59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v6i1.5165 COPYRIGHT Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu- tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). REVIEW Global Effect of Climate Change on Seasonal Cycles, Vector Population and Rising Challenges of Communicable Diseases: A Review Nidhi Yadav , Ravi Kant Upadhyay* Department of Zoology, D. D. U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, 273009, India ABSTRACT This article explains ongoing changes in global climate and their effect on the resurgence of vector and pathogen populations in various parts of the world. Today, major prevailing changes are the elevation of global temperature and accidental torrent rains, floods, droughts, and loss of productivity and food commodities. Due to the increase in water surface area and the longer presence of flood water, the breeding of insect vectors becomes very high; it is responsible for the emergence and re-emergence of so many communicable diseases. Due to the development of resistance to chemicals in insect pests, and pathogens and lack of control measures, communicable zoonotic diseases are remerging with high infectivity and mortality. This condition is becoming more alarming as the climate is favoring pathogen- host interactions and vector populations. Rapid changes seen in meteorology are promoting an unmanageable array of vector-borne infectious diseases, such as malaria, Japanese encephalitis, filarial, dengue, and leishmaniasis. Similarly, due to unhygienic conditions, poor sanitation, and infected ground and surface water outbreak of enteric infections such as cholera, vibriosis, and rotavirus is seen on the rise. In addition, parasitic infection ascariasis, fasciolosis, schistosomiasis, and dysentery cases are increasing. Today climate change is a major issue and challenge that needs timely quick solutions. Climate change is imposing non-adaptive forced human migration territorial conflicts, decreasing ecosystem productivity, disease outbreaks, and impelling unequal resource utilization. Rapid climate changes, parasites, pathogens, and vector populations are on the rise, which is making great threats to global health and the environment. This article highlighted the necessity to develop new strategies and control measures to cut down rising vector and pathogen populations in endemic areas. For finding quick solutions educational awareness, technology up-gradation, new vaccines, and safety measures have to be adopted to break the cycle of dreadful communicable diseases shortly. Keywords: Global climate change; Biodiversity loss; Loss of life; Habitat; Economic losses; Biomarkers; Challenges and solutions
- 26. 22 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 1. Introduction Today’s most important challenge is altered cli- matic conditions at a global level that is imposing adverse effects on human health and the environ- ment. Changing climate is disrupting the economic and social structure of society and breaking the natural association between man and wild animals. There is a tug-of-war between those countries which are producing high emissions and contributing the least to climate control. People are facing growing adversities of climate change, mainly due to shift- ing weather patterns, rising sea levels, and more extreme weather events such as cyclones, typhoons, and tsunamis. The climate is dynamic and undergoes a natural cycle all the time. Several slow-moving natural forces contribute to climate change. Conti- nental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents, the tilt of the globe, comets, and meteorites are a few of the more noticeable ones. The atmospheric quantities of water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide— all greenhouse gases that help trap heat at the earth’s surface—have significantly grown as a result of in- dustrialization, deforestation, and pollution. Carbon dioxide is being released into the atmosphere by humans much more quickly than it can be taken up by plants and oceans. Even if such emissions were stopped today, the atmosphere would still contain these gases for years, which would delay the onset of global warming. Any variation or change in the natu- ral environment brought by human action is referred to as climate change (IPCC). However, it contrasts with the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), which states that over comparable periods, any change in the composition of the global atmos- phere may be caused either directly or indirectly by human activities. From the re-industrial era to 2005, the global atmospheric concentration of carbon diox- ide, methane, and nitrous oxide increased, according to IPCC. Global average CO2 concentrations set a new record of 414 ppm in 2020, 417.2 parts per million (ppm), up 2.5 ppm from 2021 levels [1] . At- mospheric CO2 concentrations are now 51% above pre-industrial levels [2] . At present world climate system has been altered due to the addition of greenhouse gases and aerosols into the atmosphere. These significant effects are caused due to industrial and automobile emissions, delayed precipitation, massive deforestation, melting of glaciers, and poorly managed land use patterns. All these changes finally affected the balance of the climate system. A deviation in natural incoming and outgoing energy in the earth-atmosphere system has been noted. The increase in global atmospheric temperature is due to accelerating anthropogenic activities. Though, natural factors like extreme radia- tion and ozone depletion are also responsible for the warming or cooling of the global climate [3] . These are environmental gases that trap long-wave radi- ation reflected from the earth’s surface. These are enhancing the global mean temperature of the atmos- phere. This phenomenon is popularly known as the “Greenhouse” effect. Water vapor is by far the most significant greenhouse gas. However, carbon diox- ide contributes significantly, and ozone, methane, and nitrous oxide have less of an impact. It is well known that atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are rising, and in recent years, other greenhouse gases, namely chlorofluoro- carbons (CFCs), have been significantly increased [4] . The subsequent climatic impacts are difficult to predict with any degree of certainty. Since 1860, anthropogenic activities have increased greenhouse gases, mostly CO2 and methane, which have caused an increase in the global mean surface temperature of around 0.5 EC. Based on forecast concentrations, the temperature should be limited to 1.5 °C, and all efforts should be made to it zero by 2050. For this purpose “Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent by 2030 and carry it up to zero in next 20 year” [5] . The maintenance of the environment’s tem- perature is mostly dependent on vegetation and for- est cover. Local and regional climate variations have an impact on soil temperature, biological activity, physical composition, nutrient uptake, and plant out- put. The Amazon basin’s forest cover has an impact on the flux of moisture into the atmosphere, regional convection, and regional rainfall. In the majority of
- 27. 23 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 African countries, drought is primarily caused by warmth and the degradation of local vegetation [6] . Today, climate change is a serious problem that requires prompt responses. Climate change is driving inequitable resource use, decreased ecosystem pro- ductivity, non-adaptive forced population migration, disease outbreaks, and territorial conflicts. Tempera- ture, precipitation, clouds, and wind are all variables in the annual weather. The weather varies from one year to the next and from one place to another. A few unthinkable changes in air and ocean temperatures have led to an increase in sea level and the rapid melting of pole-located snow and ice caps. Global warming has been occurring for the past 60 years, and the fundamental cause is human interference with the planet’s various primary ecological divi- sions [7] . Marine, aquatic, and terrestrial lives are all being negatively impacted by significant ongoing climate change. Even while there are many consequences already apparent, there may be a few unexpected effects in the future. As a result, each of these con- sequences has been identified one at a time, and projects have been set up to identify answers. The accumulation of large volumes of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is the effect that is most obvious. As a result of the greenhouse effect, it is raising the average world temperature and causing unintentional natural disasters everywhere. The survival of ter- restrial, freshwater species, primarily planktons and bottom-dwellers, is being hampered; in the marine environment, coral reefs, algae, and fish fauna be- long to various taxa. Due to the ocean’s inability to absorb additional carbon dioxide, the food chain in the ocean is more likely to be disrupted. Micro-flora and micro-fauna along the seashore are drastically declining. Large-scale disturbances have resulted from it, including biodiversity loss, habitat dam- age, forest depletion, land degradation, floods, and draughts in terrestrial environments. On the other side, unexpected weather changes can cause per- manent damage because of hurricanes, typhoons, storms, lightning, floods, and tsunamis, which are often on the rise [8] . Breakdowns in the economy and the environment are happening more frequently and are lasting longer. There is a substantial increase in temperature and heat-related deaths in dry and semi-arid regions. Climate change is making people’s issues worse as more hurricanes, blizzards, tornadoes, floods, droughts, tornadoes, earthquakes, and losses to hu- man life, health, physical riches, habitat devastation, and resilience occur practically every year. Land degradation, soil erosion, and destructive floods that produce landslides are all increasing dramatically. The biodiversity of hydrophytes, pollinators, symbi- otic bacteria, coral reefs, fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and invertebrates—primarily insects— has been severely damaged. Coral bleaching brought on by seawater warming contributes to the mass collapse of corals. The effects of climate change and global environmental stress must be evaluated in terms of their ecological, meteorological, socioeco- nomic, political, thermal, biophysical, and biological impacts. Action must then be taken to find the best solutions and to mitigate these effects on a world- wide scale. Long-term changes in weather patterns and ex- treme weather event frequency are referred to as climate change. It could increase already existing health issues and change the threat to human health. The scientific data on how climate change affects human infectious diseases are examined in this re- view. Climate change has reached a critical level in recent years, affecting plant and animal species as well as making people more vulnerable and pos- ing possible health risks in numerous eco-climatic zones. To quickly identify answers, it is necessary to investigate the health effects of particular diseas- es, the shifting spectrum of infectious diseases, and novel clinical and ecological operational approaches. In order to forecast future health effects associated with climate change, current research must concen- trate more on the causes of infectious diseases, cli- mate variables, the development of control warning systems, and the use of improved methods [9] . The involvement of human society, the scientific com- munity, economists, stakeholders, healthcare profes-
- 28. 24 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 sionals, and policymakers must come together on a single platform to educate the public about how to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and use energy and materials safely in order to find quick solutions [10] . The effect of climate change on seasonality, popu- lation biology of parasites, pathogens, and vectors, and their interactions with the environment have all been highlighted in the current review article in an effort to find innovative approaches to the current and foreseeable challenges of communicable dis- eases. The Coronavirus recently infected a sizable portion of the global population; it struck forcefully and caused millions of fatalities. The recent COV- ID-19 outbreak has put individuals in danger and had a negative impact on the global economy. The primary challenge is due to massive and multiple pharmaceutical interventions and climatic changes going on in micro-organisms, primarily viruses, and bacteria, which are making genomic changes mainly drug and vaccine resistance nowadays. The second problem is how to combat mixed infections, mostly bacterial and fungal infections. The recent pandemic made it abundantly evident that current clinical and therapeutic approaches are insufficient to manage disease transmission, treatment, and control of an in- flux of new infectious diseases (Figure 1). The main objective of this review is to sketch out possible climatic pressure on the microbial genome to have new changes in DNA or mutations for gearing up new adaptations to ensure their survival in presence of diverse pharmaceuticals and climatic conditions. The main objective of this study is to find out the most appropriate treatment for communicable dis- eases in the near future. This article emphasizes the need for improvement of the cultural environment, new strategies, and control measures to cut down rising vector and pathogen populations in endemic areas. [100] Carlson, C.J., Albery, G.F., Merow, C., et al., 2022. Climate change increases cross- species viral transmission risk. Nature. 607, 555-562. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04788-w. [101] Shope, R., 1991. Global climate change and infectious diseases. Environmental Health Perspectives. 96, 171-174. [102] O’Neill, L.A.J., Netea, M.G., 2020. BCG-induced trained immunity: Can it offer protection against COVID-19? Nature Reviews Immunology. 20(6), 335-337. [103] Woolhouse, M.E., Webster, J.P., Domingo, E., et al., 2002. Biological and biomedical implications of the co-evolution of pathogens and their hosts. Nature Genetics. 32(4), 569-577. [104] Rinker, D.C., Pitts, R.J., Zwiebel, L.J., 2016. Disease vectors in the era of next generation sequencing. Genome Biology. 17(1), 95. Figure 1. (a) cyclic changes in seasons (b) loss faced due to climate change (c) rising impact of climate change (d) unlimited virulence and infectivity are cause of endemic and pandemic diseases. c d b a Figure 1. (a) cyclic changes in seasons (b) loss faced due to climate change (c) rising impact of climate change (d) unlimited viru- lence and infectivity are cause of endemic and pandemic diseases.
- 29. 25 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Materials and methods For writing this comprehensive research review on the global effects of climate change on season- al cycles, vector population, and rising challenges of communicable diseases various databases were searched. All concerned information was collected from different reference books, journals, encyclo- pedias, survey reports, and databases available on world climate and environment were read. For col- lection of data on climate change and climate-im- posed risks, possible levels of gas emissions, and their impact on seasonal cycles and human life Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP) was searched. For a collection of relevant information specific terms “climate change and its impact on the environment and human life were used such as key text words,” published till 2022 were used in MEDLINE. Most especially for retrieving all arti- cles about climate-related changes, electronic bibli- ographic databases were searched and abstracts of published studies with relevant information on the present topic were collected. All important IPCC reports on climate change, climate action plans, impacts, adaptation, vulnerability, Climate Change Statistics, and Indicators were studied. Findings of the Kyoto Protocol Paris Agreement, United Na- tions Framework Convention on Climate Change, and Key reports on climate impacts and solutions from around the United Nations are also consid- ered for furnishing more recent information on the present topic of the review article. For updating the information about a subject and incorporating recent knowledge, relevant research articles, books, con- ference proceedings, and public health organization survey reports were selected and collated based on the broader objective of the review. Three important findings included climate justice and climate ambi- tion and a temperature change of 1.5-degree temper- ature limit by 2030 and zero up to 2050. Relevant terms were used individually and in combination to ensure an extensive literature search. Most relevant information on this topic was acquired from various scientific databases, including SCOPUS, Science Direct Web of Science, EMBASE, Pubmed central, PMC, Publon, Swissprot, and Google Scholar. From this common methodology, discoveries and findings were identified and summarized in this final review. 2. Seasonal cycles The movement of the earth on its axis at a fixed angle causes seasonal cycles because there are two opposed points. It is decided by the position of the sun which remains year-round in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The lengths of the day and night shifts are decided as a result of the earth’s ro- tational motion. Each of the four seasons—spring, summer, fall, and winter—has its own cycle. Weath- er-based seasons, such as wet or dry ones, also exist on Earth. Similarly to this, tornado and hurricane seasons coincide in some regions with two seasonal changes. The monsoon season in the northern Indian Ocean is caused by this characteristic pattern, which also underlies other periodic cycles. Droughts and floods are happening more fre- quently as a result of global climate change. The rotation of the globe has a significant impact on the troposphere’s wind patterns. The monsoon season in the northern Indian Ocean is caused by this charac- teristic pattern, which also underlies other periodic cycles. There are two distinct seasonal cycles: “El Nino”, is a warm ocean current that begins in late December. An opposite cycle called La Nino has milder winds. Additionally, La Nino provides strong- er trade winds while “El Nino”, diminishes them. Because heated air near the earth’s surface rises swiftly and moves far, tornadoes also follow a yearly cycle. During the spring and summer, when this hot air becomes actively warm near the surface, it be- comes more buoyant and quickly forms tornadoes [11] . Seasonal cycles therefore occur within a calendar year, while spans of time that are shorter or longer than a year are possible. Occasionally throughout the course of a calendar year, regular predictable and unpredictable shifts in climate regimes take place during the varying seasons. Seasonal refers to any predictable variation or pattern that recurs or repeats over the course of a year. A season can refer to either a commercial season,
- 30. 26 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 like the Christmas season or to a calendar season, such as the summer or winter. Changes in the atmos- phere caused by eco-climatic factors or variations in the weather have a negative impact on human health, animal behaviour, pathogen-host interactions, and economic growth. Seasonal cycles have an impact on economic, social, biological, and environmental var- iables. Seasonal cycles periodically fluctuate, which has an impact on animal and plant life. Despite the fact that forecasting techniques and projections are available, loss of life, economic loss, and loss of plant and animal life occur virtually year. Unex- pected seasonal changes and difficulties due to any climatic element are the problems. Thermal waves and extreme droughts have a negative impact on the flow of sap and nutrients in sapwood and phloem vessels. The principal effects of seasonal variations have been seen in arid zone plants and plants on hilly slopes. Due to a drastic reduction in water supply brought on by dry lands and poor rainfall, a nutrient concentration is negatively impacted in hot thermal waves [12] . Conifers and flowering vegetable plants’ leaves display dehiscence and wilting symptoms including sunburn and significant soil water loss. High temper- atures have a significant impact on juvenile meris- tematic tissues in buds, tendrils, stem tips, plumules, cambia, and roots as well as on growing seeds. In dry soil, it causes a 90% crop loss. Due to the impact of the aquatic and marine environment surface tem- perature, rising temperatures and scorching winds also enforce tidal energy and enclosing waves. Every season’s fall brings changes in the wind’s direction, the amount of sunlight, the humidity, and the sur- rounding temperature. Typhoons, tides, and seasonal and diurnal cycles all have an impact. Seawater and air interface temperature differences of 1°C between day and night are also noted [13] . Diurnal cycles in the upper ocean are being impacted by rising sea surface temperature, which has a significant impact on the diversity of plankton, corals, mollusks, and fish. Due to the increase in temperature, similar effects have been observed in estuaries or in shallow river waters. It causes the sea level to rise, which is one of the main reasons for the loss of biodiversity and produc- tivity (Figure 1). 3. Effect of seasonal cycles on soil climate, fauna and flora Soil formation takes thousands of years, and most soils are still developing following changes in some of these soil-forming factors, particularly climate and vegetation, over the past few decades. Though, it depends on so many interactions and a number of forces, including climate, relief, parent material, and organisms, all acting over time. Climate is one of the most important factors affecting the formation of soil with important implications for its development, use, and management perspective. Climate severe- ly affects soil functions like a significant change in organic matter turnover and CO2 dynamics. The impact of climate change on soils is a slow complex process because soils not only are strongly affected by climate change directly. For example effect of temperature on soil organic matter decomposition and indirectly, for example, changes in soil moisture via changes in plant-related evapotranspiration but also can act as a source of greenhouse gases and thus contribute to the gases responsible for climate change. Most soils are currently evolving as a result of changes in some of these soil-forming elements, par- ticularly temperature and vegetation, over the past few decades. Soil development takes thousands of years. Although, it depends on a variety of elements that participate throughout time, such as the climate, relief, parent material, and organisms. One of the most significant elements influencing soil formation is climate, which has significant implications for their development, usage, and management. Climate has a considerable impact on soil processes like CO2 dynamics and organic matter turnover. Because soils are indirectly influenced by climate change in addi- tion to being directly affected, the impact of climate change on soils is a slow, complex process. Indirect- ly, for instance, changes in soil moisture due to var- iations in plant-related evapotranspiration), but they can also operate as a source of greenhouse gases and
- 31. 27 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 so contribute to the gases that are responsible for cli- mate change (Figure 1). Climate change is affecting soil formation, tor- rent rains and accidental floods are depleting the upper layer of fertile soil with massive soil erosion in semi-arid and agricultural fields and hilly areas. The final impact of all these physical and chemical factors is affecting soil microbial nutrient availabil- ity and loss of productivity year after year. Due to anthropogenic interventions and carbon inputs to the soil from crop biomass decreasing with massive changes in soil climate, and rate of organic matter digestion has been decreased due to rising temper- ature and shifting of seasonal cycles in subtropical climatic areas. Water availability to forest soil in hot summer and dry winter is unbalanced which is hard heating on CO2 dynamics and O2 release from photo- synthetic plants (Figure 1). Massive soil erosion in semi-arid, agricultural fields and hilly places is a result of climate change, which also affects the formation of soil. Torrential rains and unintentional floods are removing the top layer of fertile soil. The cumulative effect of all these physical and chemical factors affects the availability of nutrients for soil microbes and their productivity loss year after year. The rate of organic matter di- gestion has decreased due to rising temperatures and shifting seasonal cycles in subtropical climate zones due to anthropogenic interventions and carbon inputs to soil from crop biomass, which is decreasing with significant changes in soil climate. Unbalanced water availability to forest soil throughout the hot summer and dry winter has a negative impact on the dynam- ics of CO2 and the release of oxygen from photosyn- thetic plants. As constant inputs to the soil from vegetation de- pend on temperature, precipitation, and evaporation. More often, losses of soil carbon affect soil functions like soil structure, stability, topsoil water holding capacity, nutrient availability, and erosion. The loss of soil carbon is also accelerated by the increase in temperature. Further, climate also indirectly affects changes in growth rates or water-use efficiencies, through sea-level rise, through climate-induced de- crease or increase in vegetative cover, or anthropo- genic intervention. Soil pollution interaction of the various soil-forming processes, particularly biological ones, makes it difficult to quantify the changes (Fig- ure 1). Increased rainfall could increase atmospheric N deposition to soils, and may promote soil distur- bances, flooding, and subsidence which changes in wetland and waterlogged habitats and also enhance soil erosion, potentially leading to the pollution of sur- face waters. Increased rainfall enhances bypass flow and downward movements. Increased environmental temperature affects evapotranspiration and photosyn- thesis in C3 plants. Increased CO2 affects fertilization and flowering in both C3 and C4 plants. Both climatic warming and rising CO2 levels in the atmosphere will enhance tree growth in the short term. Temperature, precipitation, and evaporation are all constant inputs to the soil from vegetation. More frequently, soil functions like soil structure, stability, topsoil water holding capacity, nutrient availability, and erosion are impacted by losses of soil carbon. The rise in temperature also hastens the loss of soil carbon. Additionally, changes in growth rates or water usage efficiency are indirectly impacted by climate through sea level rise, changes in vegetation due to the climate, anthropogenic interference, or both. It is challenging to measure the changes as a result of soil pollution since different soil-forming processes, particularly biological ones, interact with one another. Increased precipitation has the ability to increase atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition on soils, encourage soil disturbances, flooding, and sub- sidence, which can affect wetland and waterlogged habitats. It can also increase soil erosion, which has the potential to pollute surface waters. Rainfall that is more abundant is enhanced by downward move- ments and pass flow. Elevated ambient temperature has an impact on C3 plants’ evapotranspiration and photosynthesis. Both C3 and C4 plants’ fertilization and flowering are impacted by increased CO2. In the short term, both climate warming and growing CO2 levels in the atmosphere will promote tree growth (Figure 1).
- 32. 28 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 4. Factors responsible for communi- cable diseases In the last twenty years series of virus generat- ed infectious diseases have been emerged and re- emerged. The zoonotic microbes are continuously evolving and acquiring adaptations, and showing high infectivity and mortality at global level. Sever- ity and risks of communicable diseases have been increased due to human movement, trade, recreation activities and dense population structures. Presence of pathogens in human community and its easy ex- posure is providing new hosts while eco-climatic conditions favoring microbial growth, transmission and infectivity. Further, evolution of new mutant var- iants of these pathogens has acquired high infectivity and generating catastrophic effects in human popu- lation. There are rising incidences of virus generated disease, flu, dengue, hepatitis, chikungunya, rabies, polio, gastroenteritis and encephalitis throughout the globe (Figure 1). There are external factors that support disease occurrence, among them few important factors are heavy rains, water logging, high humidity, temper- ature difference, urbanization, deforestation, human migration, settlement of slums, relief camps, and nomadic movements. There is a lack of clean drink- ing water, cooking, and washing. Lack of sanitation, presence of disease vectors, and contaminated food and waste disposal are responsible for the spread of communicable diseases. Among non-communicable diseases, diabetes is one of the important diseases that kill roughly 30 million people per year world- wide. Three major challenges are i.e. development of insecticidal resistance in insects/vectors of potential- ly communicable diseases, and drug resistance in mi- crobes and parasites. Cases of lung infection, liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract, and child diarrhea are rapidly increasing in developing [14] . Besides, this incidence of child diarrhea [15] , neonatal jaun- dice Click et al., 2013 [16] , Collier J et al., 2010 [17] , and helminths parasitic infections are spreading in developing and in third-world countries. Some infectious disorders caused by viruses have originated and returned throughout the past twenty years. The zoonotic microorganisms exhibit signif- icant infectivity and mortality on a global scale as well as ongoing evolution and adaptation. Human migration, trade, recreational activities, and dense population patterns have all contributed to an in- crease in the severity and hazards of communicable diseases. As new hosts are being created by diseases in the human population and their ease of exposure, microbial development, transmission, and infectious- ness are encouraged by the eco-climatic conditions. Furthermore, these infections have evolved novel mutant versions with great infectivity that has dis- astrous impacts on the human population. Around the world, there are increasing numbers of viral illnesses such as the flu, dengue, hepatitis, chikun- gunya, rabies, polio, gastroenteritis, and encephalitis. There are environmental factors that encourage the spread of disease. A few of the most significant ones are heavy rainfall, standing water, high humidity, temperature variations, urbanization, deforestation, and human migration, as well as the establishment of slums, relief camps, and nomadic movements. Cooking, washing, and access to clean drinking water are all lacking. The causes of the spread of communicable diseases include poor sanitation, the existence of disease vectors, contaminated food, and improper waste disposal. Diabetes is one of the major non-communicable diseases that kill about 30 million people worldwide each year. The develop- ment of insecticidal resistance in insects and possible disease vectors, as well as medication resistance in bacteria and parasites, are three key challenges. In emerging nations, cases of child diarrhea, and liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal tract infections are rising quickly. In addition, helminths parasitic infections, newborn jaundice, and infant diarrhea are all on the rise in third- and developing-world nations. Due to climatic effects and drug resistance and new mutations in pathogens disease burden has been exacerbated enormously at the global level. In all cases, helminths, protozoans, fungi, bacteria, virus pathogens, and parasite’s available drug structure seem to be failed or their usefulness has been much reduced due to the evolution of new mutant vari-
- 33. 29 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 ants with multiple drug resistance. There are serious failures at the level of operation, management, and control of the disease. The utmost failure is due to a lack of appropriate vaccines, drug regimens, clinical care, and awareness among people. These are major reasons that are why diseases become uncontrolled and unmanageable. Year after year new mutant var- iants or climate-induced microbial pathogen geno- types are emerging; these are not only challenging existing drugs but also challenging vaccine efficacy. This disastrous situation can be overcome by having new potential drug structures, control strategies, and methods. For finding quick solutions all biomedical researchers should arrange drug repurposing, test- ing, diagnosis, and treatment methods with a focus on major human parasitic and microbial diseases. In this article, major zoonotic infections/communicable diseases have been explained with their specific eti- ology, transmission and epidemiology, and control/ preventive measures. More specifically effect of cli- mate on disease occurrence, vector population, drug and insecticide resistance, and generation of new genotypes of microbial pathogens and parasites have been described. The disease burden has significantly increased globally as a result of climate effects, treatment re- sistance, and new pathogen mutations. Helminthes, protozoans, fungus, bacteria, virus pathogens, and parasites all appear to be resistant to the available drug structures, or at least their efficacy has been greatly diminished as a result of the emergence of novel mutant versions with multiple drug resist- ance. At the level of operation, management, and disease control, there are significant problems. The greatest failure is brought on by the absence of the proper vaccine, drug regimens, clinical care, and public awareness. These are the main causes of dis- eases becoming unmanageable and out of control. Every year, new mutant variants or genotypes of cli- mate-induced microorganisms pose a threat to the ef- ficiency of vaccines as well as to the effectiveness of currently available medications. By coming up with new prospective medicine structures, control tactics, and methodologies, this dreadful scenario can be remedied. All biomedical research should set up drug repurposing, testing, diagnostic, and treatment proce- dures with an emphasis on the most common human parasite and microbial disorders in order to identify speedy fixes. Major zoonotic illnesses and commu- nicable diseases have been described in this article along with details on their genesis, transmission, epidemiology, and control/preventative strategies. The impact of climate on the occurrence of disease, the population of disease-carrying vectors, drug and pesticide resistance, and the emergence of new gen- otypes of microbial diseases and parasites have been documented in more detail. 5. Seasonal climate changes and dis- ease occurrence Global health largely depends on seasonal changes felt and faced during the calendar year. Temperature variability, rainfall, and sunlight put a direct impact on human health [18] . Mostly increased cases of leptospirosis, campylobacter infections and cryptosporidiosis have been noted after devastating floods. Global warming affects water heating, rising the transmission of water-borne pathogens. Patho- gens transmitted by vectors are particularly sensitive to climate change because they spend a good part of their life cycle in a cold-blooded host invertebrate whose temperature is similar to the environment (Figure 1). A warmer climate presents more favora- ble conditions for the survival and the completion of the life cycle of the vector, going as far as to speed it up as in the case of mosquitoes. This is the main rea- son for the upspring of malaria and other viral dis- eases. Tick-borne diseases have increased in the past years in cold regions because rising temperatures accelerate the cycle of development, the production of eggs, and the density and distribution of the tick population [19] . Seasonal changes experienced and confront- ed over a year have a significant impact on global health. The direct effects of temperature variation, rainfall, and sunlight on human health are also ob- served [20] . Following disastrous floods, a rise in leptospirosis, campylobacter infections, and cryp-
- 34. 30 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 tosporidiosis cases has been seen. Water heating is impacted by global warming, which increases the spread of water-borne infections. Because they spend a significant portion of their life cycle in a cold-blooded host invertebrate whose temperature is similar to the environment, pathogens spread by vectors are especially vulnerable to climate change. A warmer environment offers better chances for the vector to survive and complete its life cycle, even hastening it as in the case of mosquitoes. This is the primary cause of the spread of viral infections like malaria. Cold regions have seen a rise in tick-borne infections in recent years because warming temper- atures speed up the tick life cycle, egg production, density, and distribution [19] . Most pandemics and endemic diseases happen in favorable climates and seasons to disease vectors. Climate induces reproduction in adults of vectors and infectivity in the human population. In the rainy season, more cases of Cholera, malaria, diarrhea, and dysentery rise at their peak while, cough cold and asthma, chicken pox, and smallpox in the winter and spring season. Thus both regular seasonal cycles and weather factors play either direct or indirect roles in disease occurrence and infection rate [20-23] . Cholera cases shoot up during rainy or monsoon season when river water level and surface area get increased [24] . During the rainy season sudden rise in vector popu- lation primary transmission of Vibrio cholerae from an aquatic environmental reservoir get increased manifold in endemic regions [25] . It also varies due to physical and biological parameters [26,27] . Warm tem- perature, sunlight, nutrients and winds in the aquatic environment influence the growth of phytoplankton and aquatic plants. These factors alter dissolved O2 and CO2 content and pH of the surrounding water and help to accelerate Vibrio cholerae growth rate and transmission. High phytoplankton production produces food for zooplankton, to which V. cholerae attaches for protection from the external environ- ment and proliferates. The majority of pandemics and endemic diseases occur during times of the year when disease vectors thrive. Climate influences adult vector reproduction and human population infectiousness. Cholera, ma- laria, diarrhea, and dysentery cases increase signifi- cantly during the rainy season, whereas cough, cold, asthma cases, chicken pox, and smallpox cases peak in the winter and spring. 6. Multiplication of vector and path- ogen population Reproduction and development of disease vectors widely depend on climatic conditions, and chang- ing weather conditions significant effect on risk from vector-borne diseases. Disease occurrence is climate-dependent as it is proved by recent climate change. It is very difficult to enumerate both the over- and underestimated effects of climate change on pests. In a few parts of the world, the insect pest population is uncontrolled the best examples are mosquitoes, house flies, termites, and locusts. Few direct effects of climate on pesticides are responsible for resistant pest populations. The recent corona pan- demic, monkeypox, dengue, and malaria are the best examples of vector-borne diseases due to climate change. Climate-independent factors or dependent factors are directly related to changing risk of cli- mate change [28] . These significant regional changes in vector and pathogen occurrence are mostly seen in Arctic, tropical, temperate, peri-Arctic and subtropi- cal climatic zones. In future there is a possibility that both climate changes and human behavior will result in more conflicts within the society and rest of the animal world as pressure is heavily targeting wildlife and forests. Climate has a big impact on how disease vectors develop and reproduce, and shifting weather patterns have a big impact on the risk of contracting diseases spread by vectors. Recent climate change has demon- strated that disease occurrence is climate-dependent. It is highly challenging to list both overestimated and underestimated pest consequences of climate change. The best examples of an unregulated insect pest population are mosquitoes, house flies, termites, and locusts. The population of pests that are resistant to pesticides is caused by a few indirect effects of climate. The best examples of vector-borne diseases
- 35. 31 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 caused by climate change are the recent corona pan- demic, monkey pox, dengue, and malaria. Changes in risk from climate change are directly correlated with factors that are reliant or independent of the cli- mate [28] . The Arctic, tropical, temperate, peri-Arctic, and subtropical climatic zones are where these nota- ble regional differences in the occurrence of vectors and pathogens are most prevalent. As pressure inten- sifies on wild life and forests, it is possible that both climate change and human behavior could lead to increased conflicts within humanity and among other animals in the future. Shrinking resources, habitat destruction, and changes in soil, water, and aerial climate are making the condition more intolerable. All physical fac- tors like light, temperature, and winds are creating accidental disturbances that are making a loss of life, goods, agriculture, economy, and people are forced to migrate. The demand for commodities is increasing while the risks of natural calamities are increasing. There is a significant alteration in disease occurrence, fatalities, and morbidities in marginal agriculture-based societies. Recent genetic resistance in insect pests and pathogens defeated the drugs and clinical treatments, loss of action in broad-spectrum drugs, incidence rate, and sudden pandemics have destroyed public services, human behavior; and po- litical stability and conflicts. Recent challenges relat- ed to drug and insecticide resistance, and the resur- gence of the pest population are on the rise, however, to control the existing and emerging communicable diseases, more funds and grants are required with new pharmaceuticals and clinical facilities at the global level [29] . Resources are being depleted, habitats are being destroyed, and soil, water, and aerial climate changes are making the situation increasingly untenable. All physical conditions, including light, temperature, and winds, cause unintentional disturbances that result in the loss of life, property, agricultural production, the economy, and the need for population migration. Commodity demand is rising, and so are the chances of natural disasters. In marginal agriculture-based cultures, disease incidence, mortality, and morbid- ities have significantly changed. Recent pandemics are going on due to genetic resistance to infectious agents and insect pests. These changes have resulted in the loss of efficacy of broad-spectrum medications and devastated public services, human behavior, political stability, and conflicts. However, additional funding and grants are needed for new medications and clinical facilities at a global level to manage to exist and emerging communicable illnesses. Recent issues connected to drug and pesticide resistance, and a rebound of the pest population are on the rise [29] . Changing weather conditions are imposing direct and indirect impacts on human health and increasing risks. Climate-sensitive infections pose a dispro- portionate burden and ongoing risk to both smaller and large human communities, hence, surveillance, diagnosis and prevention of diseases become highly important to minimize or prevent infections [30] . Se- vere risks of infectious disease are also made after forced displacement due to disasters from rural sites to urban-poor areas; labor migration and illegal hu- man trafficking add new types of risks. Therefore, disease diagnosis and treatment are highly essential for migrants, because, in lack of these, they convert into epicenters of epidemic diseases. Hence, the ad- ministration should try to understand and respond to the health impacts of all infectious disease cases found in migrant populations and host communi- ties [31] . All three parameters changing ecology and transmission dynamics of infectious disease and treatments methods available must be rechecked and advanced. The risks associated with changing weather are rising and having both direct and indirect effects on human health. Smaller and larger human societies are equally in danger from climate-sensitive illness- es, making disease surveillance, diagnosis, and prevention crucial for reducing or eliminating infec- tions [30] . After forced relocation from rural sites to urban-poor areas owing to disasters, labor migration, and any illicit human trafficking add additional sorts of risks, severe infectious disease risks are also creat- ed. For this reason, sickness diagnosis and treatment are absolutely crucial for migrants, as without them,
- 36. 32 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 they become the centers of epidemic diseases. As a result, management should attempt to comprehend and address the health implications of all infectious disease cases discovered in migrant groups and host communities [31] . All three variables, which include the dynamics of evolving infectious disease ecology and transmission, as well as current treatment op- tions, need to be reviewed and improved. 6.1 Flies as vectors Arthropods mainly spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites; lice, fleas, bedbugs, flies, bees, and ants, these insects impose allergies, morbidity, and mortality in human beings worldwide [32] . Bites of these insects are major mode of transmission of disease patho- gens, their stings cause allergies and impose life threatening physiological and biochemical changes. Flies are known vectors for a variety of infectious diseases mainly Aleutian disease in animals. Fannia canicularis (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) is a vector of Aleutian mink disease virus in mink farms [33] . Coch- liomyia hominivorax is a fly that causes oral myiasis or fly-blown disease that is found in tropical and subtropical areas [34] . This disease is characterized by symptoms of severe pain, swelling, itchy sensations, and the feeling of something moving in the mouth [35] . Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a viral disease predomi- nantly located in South East Asia. It is transmitted by the mosquito Culex tritaeniorhynchus. The disease is causing severity due to geography, climate change, and urbanization [36] . Trachoma is a keratoconjunc- tivitis caused by flies Chlamydia trachomatis, in Botucatu Sao Paulo State, Brazil. This is a leading cause of blindness in the world [37] . Insect stings can trigger allergies and have poten- tially fatal physiological and biochemical effects. In- sect bites are a significant way that disease infections are transmitted. Humans develop allergic reactions when some insects including bugs, fleas, mites, and ticks are present, and their salivary proteins do the same. The class Arachnida of arthropods, which in- cludes spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites, and the class Insecta, which includes lice, fleas, bedbugs, flies, bees, and ants, are responsible for a significant portion of sickness and mortality among humans worldwide [32] . Flies have known vectors for a variety of infec- tious diseases mainly Aleutian disease in animals. Fannia canicularis (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) is a vec- tor of the Aleutian mink disease virus in mink farms [33] . Oral myiasis or fly-blown disease is caused by Coch- liomyia hominivorax a fly that is found in tropical and subtropical areas [34] . The main symptoms of oral myiasis are severe pain, swelling, itchy sensation, and the feeling of something moving in the mouth [35] . Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a viral disease predomi- nantly located in South East Asia. It is transmitted by the mosquito Culex tritaeniorhynchus. The disease is causing severity due to geography, climate change and urbanization [36] . In Botucatu, Sao Paulo State, Brazil, flies carrying the keratoconjunctivitis virus Chlamydia trachomatis are the source of trachoma. According to Meneghim et al. [37] , this is a major cause of blindness worldwide. Cattle hypodermis (warble fly infestation) is a notorious veterinary problem throughout the world. Larvae of Hypoderma species cause subcutaneous myiasis in domesticated and wild ruminants. This disease is caused by, Hypoderma bovis, Hypoderma lineatum in cattle whereas, Hypoderma diana, Hy- poderma actaeon, and Hypoderma tarandi, affect roe deer, red deer, and reindeer, respectively. Adults of the cattle grub are commonly known as heel flies, warble flies, bomb flies or gad flies. The biology of hypodermis is complex because it passes through ecto- as well as endoparasitic stages in the life cycle [38] . Myiasis caused by Hypodermatinae flies is an eco- nomically important disease affecting domesticated and wild ruminants in countries of the Mediterranean and Indian subcontinent. Adult female insects lay eggs on the coat of animals. Hypoderma spp. primar- ily lay their eggs on cattle, buffalo, roe deer, red deer and reindeer, while Przhevalskiana spp. lay eggs on the coat of goats [39] . Hypoderma tarandi larvae in- fect early-age calves of reindeer Rangifer tarandus tarandus skin of the back [40] . Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) virus or Dengue virus (DENV) is a mosquito-borne virus mainly Aedes sp. mosquitoes
- 37. 33 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 from an infected host to non-infected [41,42] . A well-known veterinary issue worldwide is cattle hypodermis (infestation with warble flies). Domesticated and wild ruminants that are exposed to Hypoderma species’ larvae develop subcutaneous myiasis. Hypoderma diana, Hypoderma actaeon, and Hypoderma tarandi, which affect roe deer, red deer, and reindeer, respectively, are the causes of this disease in cattle. Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma lineatum are the causes of the condition in humans. Heel flies, warble flies, bomb flies, or gad flies are common names for the adults of the cattle worm. The life cycle of hypodermis includes both ecto- and en- doparasitic stages, which complicates its biology [38] . Myiasis, a disease brought on by Hypodermatinae flies, affects both domesticated and wild ruminants in the Mediterranean and Indian subcontinent na- tions. On the fur of animals, adult female insects de- posit their eggs. While Przhevalskiana spp. lay eggs on the coat of goats, Hypoderma spp. primarily lay their eggs on cattle, buffalo, roe deer, red deer, and reindeer [39] . The skin on the back of young calves of reindeer Rangifer tarandus is infected with Hypoder- ma tarandi larvae [40] . The virus that causes dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) or dengue (DENV) is spread by mosquitoes, primarily Aedes sp. mosqui- toes, from an infected host to an uninfected host [41,42] . Francisella tularensis is a bacterium that causes Tularemia an endemic zoonotic infection mostly seen in North America and parts of Europe and Asia. This disease is transmitted by ticks and deer flies [43] . Similarly, sleeping sickness or trypanosomiasis is a vector-borne disease caused by a protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, T gambiense, Human African trypanosomiasis. This disease is caused by bites of tsetse flies Glossina palates. Infection with Trypano- soma brucei rhodesiense leads to the acute, zoonotic form of Eastern and Southern Africa [44] . Arthropod vectors transmit African and American trypanosomi- ases, and disease containment through insect control programmes is an achievable goal [45] . Cutaneous leishmaniasis is a disease caused by various Leish- mania spp., which are transmitted by phlebotomine sand flies. This fly has seven species, with Phleboto- mus perniciosus (76.2%), Ph. papatasi (16.7%) and Ph. sergenti (5.0%) being the most common species, representing together 97.9% of the collected speci- mens. The remaining specimens were identified as Sergentomyia minuta, Se. fallax, Ph. longicuspis and Ph. perfiliewi [46] . In North America, some regions of Europe, and Asia, Francisella tularensis is a bacterium that caus- es tularemia, an endemic zoonotic infection. Ticks and deer flies are the carriers of this disease [43] . In a similar vein, trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is an infection brought on by the protozoan parasites Trypanosoma brucei, T gambi- ense, human African trypanosomiasis. The tsetse fly, Glossina palalis, which transmits this disease, bites humans. The acute, zoonotic variant of Trypanoso- ma brucei rhodesiense infects people in Eastern and Southern Africa [44] . African and American trypano- somiases are transmitted by arachnid vectors, making disease containment through insect control programs a realistic objective. In 2003, Leishmania sp., which is spread by phlebotomine sand flies, cause cuta- neous leishmaniasis, a disease [45] . There are seven different species of this fly, with Phlebotomus perni- ciosus (76.2%), Ph. papatasi (16.7%), and Ph. ser- genti (5.0%) making up the majority and accounting for 97.9% of the specimens gathered. Sergentomyia minuta, Se. fallax, Ph. longicuspis, and Ph. perfiliewi were named for the remaining specimens [46] . 6.2 Tick vectors Ticks (Acari: Ixodida) are ectoparasites that rely on a blood meal from a vertebrate host at each de- velopmental stage for the completion of their life cycle. Ticks are serious health threats to humans and both domestic and wild animals in tropical and subtropical areas. These cause severe economic loss- es both through the direct effects of blood-sucking and indirectly as vectors of pathogens. Tick feeding causes transmission of pathogens and evokes severe infections, morbidity, and immune reactions in man. Feeding by large numbers of ticks causes a reduc- tion in live weight gain and anemia among domestic animals, while tick bites also reduce the quality of
- 38. 34 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 hides. However, the major losses caused by ticks are due to the ability to transmit protozoan, rickettsial and viral diseases of livestock, which are of great economic importance worldwide [47] . Ectoparasite ticks (Acari: Ixodida) require a blood meal from a vertebrate host at each stage of develop- ment to complete their life cycle. Ticks are serious health threats to humans and both domestic and wild animals in tropical and subtropical areas. Ticks are responsible for severe economic losses both through the direct effects of blood-sucking and indirectly as vectors of pathogens. Animal health is impacted by the tick feeding cycle because it results in hide dam- age, secondary infections, immunological reactions, and diseases brought on by the spread of pathogens. Domestic animals who are heavily tick-fed experi- ence reduced weight gain and anemia, and the qual- ity of their hides is also compromised by tick bites. The ability of ticks to transmit livestock diseases including protozoan, rickettsial, and viral infections, which are extremely important economically around the world, is what causes the majority of losses [47] . Brown tick Ixodes hexagons live on the bodies of domestic and wild animals and vegetation. It trans- mits Theileria parva a protozoan parasite, which causes the tick-transmitted disease East Coast fever in cattle mainly in ruminants [48] . Tick‐borne ana- plasmosis and ehrlichiosis are clinically important emerging zoonoses of ticks belonging to three genera (Rhipicephalus, Hyalomma,Haemaphysalis).Tick- borne relapsing fever in North America is primarily caused by the spirochete Borrelia hermsii. Babesial vector tick defensin against Babesia sp. parasites [48] . Ticks possess sticky nature and ixodid ticks stick over the body of migratory birds, particularly pas- serines, infected with tick-borne pathogens, like Borrelia spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma, Rickettsia/ Coxiella, and tick-borne encephalitis virus. The prev- alence of ticks on birds varies over years, seasons, locality and different bird species. Adult Ixodes rici- nus is red-brown, but the female ticks are light gray when engorged. Before feeding, sheep tick males are approximately 2.5-3 mm long and females 3-4 mm long. When they are engorged, the females can be as long as 1 cm. Their palps are longer than the base of the gnathostome. Black ticks live on the bodies of both domestic and wild animals as well as on flora, Ixodes hexa- gons are. It spreads the protozoan parasite Theileria Parva, which is the primary cause of East Coast fever in cattle and other ruminants [48] . Emerging zoonoses ticks from three genera are clinically sig- nificant carriers of anaplasmosis and ehrlichiosis. In North America, the spirochete Borrelia hermsii is the main cause of tick-borne relapsing fever, Babesial vector tick defensin against Babesia sp. parasites Ix- odid ticks, which carry infections like Borrelia spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma, Rickettsia/Coxiella, and tick-borne encephalitis virus, adhere to the bodies of migratory birds, especially passerines. Tick preva- lence in birds varies depending on the year, season, location, and type of bird. Ixodes ricinus adults are red-brown, whereas engorged female ticks are pale gray. Male sheep ticks are roughly 2.5-3 mm long, whereas females are 3-4 mm long before feeding. The females can grow up to 1 cm long when they are engorged. Their palps extend farther than the gnatho- stome’s base. Ixodes ricinus is a major pest of sheep, cattle, deer, dogs and humans. A few medically important ixodid ticks include Amblyommaspp, Anomalohim- alayaspp, Bothriocrotonspp, Cosmiommasp, Der- macentorspp, Haemaphysalis spp, Hyalommaspp, Ixodesspp, Margaropusspp, Nosommasp, Rhipi- centorspp, and Rhipicephalusspp.Ixodesricinus a free-living tick has been intensively studied [49,50] . The nymph of the western black-legged tick (Ix- odes pacificus) is an important bridging vector of the Lyme disease spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi) to humans in the far-western United States [51] . These show horizontal and vertical movements of host-seeking Ixodes pacificus (Acrii Ixodidae) nymphs in hardwood forests. Ixodes ricinus is a serious pest to humans, dogs, cattle, sheep, and deer. Amblyommaspp, Anom- alohimalayaspp, Bothriocrotonspp, Cosmiommaspp, Dermacentorspp, Haemaphysalisspp, Hyalommaspp, Ixodesspp, Margaropusspp, Nosommasp, Rhipicen-
- 39. 35 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 torsspp, and Rhipicephalusspp are a few ixodid ticks that are significant medically. In-depth research has been done on the free-living tick Ixodes ricinus [49,50] . In the far western United States, the nymph of the western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus) is a cru- cial bridging vector of the Lyme disease spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi) to humans [51] . These depict the movements of host-seeking Ixodespacificus (AcriiIxodidae) nymphs in a hardwood forest in both the horizontal and vertical planes. Mites, nematodes and spirochaetes, feed on ticks, as they carry diseases as the primary hosts of pathogens. These organisms could not reach their secondary hosts. The diseases caused may debilitate their victims, and ticks may thus be assisting in con- trolling animal populations and preventing overgraz- ing [52] . Ticks remain attached to the body of mobile hosts and reach new far distant locations, best exam- ple is bird hosts, which even carry ticks across the sea. The infective agents can be present not only in the adult tick but also in the eggs produced plentiful- ly by the females. Many tick species have extended their ranges as a result of the movements of people, their pets, and livestock. With increasing participa- tion in outdoor activities such as wilderness hikes, more people and their dogs may find themselves ex- posed to attack [53] . Lyme disease transmission cycles are maintained by different vector species Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus, respectively. Though these show differences in transmission efficiency can be used to identify vector competence contributes to variable Lyme disease risk [54] . Since ticks are the main hosts for the pathogens that cause diseases, mites, nematodes, and spirochae- tes prey on them. The secondary hosts of these or- ganisms were out of reach. Ticks may be helping to manage animal populations and prevent overgrazing because the diseases they spread may render their victims helpless [52] . The longer period that a tick re- mains attached, during which the mobile host can be transported across great distances or, in the case of hosts that are birds, across the ocean, enhances the spread of the disease. The infectious pathogens can be found in both the adult tick and the female ticks’ copious amounts of eggs. Because of the mobility of people, their pets, and cattle, many tick species have expanded their geographic ranges. As more people engage in outdoor activities like wilderness hikes, more people and their dogs may become vulnerable to attack [53] . Lyme disease transmission cycles are maintained by different vector species Ixodes scapu- laris and Ixodes pacificus respectively. Though these show differences in transmission efficiency can be used to identify vector competence contributes to variable Lyme disease risk [54] . 6.3 Mosquito vectors Malaria is a worldwide disease; the spectrum of this disease is increasing at the global level. Global warming induced by human activities has increased the risk of vector-borne diseases such as malaria. During the last three decades, its incidences have enormously increased in South East Asian coun- tries, African countries, and Australia as changing climates have favored the reproduction and survival rate in vector populations. Rising temperature, rain- fall, presence of host and parasite enhanced epide- miological risks of malaria. In the last two decades, the human malaria parasite has rapidly changed its genome according to the type of human host and vector population and ongoing climatic variations. Anopheline mosquitoes have developed resistance against variations in temperature, salinity, pesticides, and against plasmodium the malaria parasite [55] . There are four strains of malaria parasite infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium berghei parasites among which newly emerged Plasmodium knowlesi disease is more fa- tal, its natural primate hosts are Macaca fascicula- ris, M. nemestina, M. inus, and Saimiri scirea. All these are transmitted by 70 species of mosquitoes among which 41 are more prominent and dominant vectors which that transmit the malaria parasite [55] . The reason behind rising cases of malaria is genetic resistance developed by the parasite, human migra- tion, failure of drug formulae, eco-climatic changes, poor health policies, human migration, and pesti- cide resistance in malaria vectors [55] . The rise in the
- 40. 36 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 anopheline mosquito population are floods, urbani- zation, hygiene, tropical forests, and humidity. Insec- ticide resistance is the main problem and hurdle that is lowering the effectiveness of vector-borne disease man- agement [56] . However, molecular investigations are required to diagnose mechanisms involved in the de- velopment of the parasites in New World vectors [57] . The intensity of transmission is dependent on the vectorial capacity and competence of local mosqui- toes (Table 1) [55] . Malaria is a disease that affects people all around the world and its range is expanding globally. The likelihood of vector-borne illnesses like malaria has increased due to global warming brought on by hu- man activity. Because of the changing climate, the vector population’s survival and reproduction rates have increased significantly during the past three decades in South East Asian, African, and Austral- ian nations. Increasing temperatures, precipitation, the presence of a host and a parasite, and malaria Table 1. Major communicable diseases with their vector and reservoir hosts. Diseases Vector Infected Population Main Reservoir Affected Area Dengue Fever Ades Human None (Primates) Africa Asia America (Inter -tropical zone) Yellow Fever Ades Human Monkey Africa, America (Inter -tropical zone) West Nile encephalitis Ades, culex Human (Horse) Birds Africa,Middle East Southern Europe, America Tick-borne encephalitis Ticks Human Wild Animals cervids, Rodents Central Europe Scandinavia Japanese encephalitis Ades, culex Human (Pigs) Birds (Pigs) Far East Chikungunya fever Ades Human Monkey Africa,South Europe, RVF Virus (Phlevo virus) Ades Human (Sheep,cattle,goat, canines,felines) Sheep,cattle Equatorial Africa Hantavirus Rodents Human Rodents Asia (Hantaan virus) America (Sin Nombre Virus) Lymphatic filariasis Culex/ Anopheles Human Human Sub-Saharan Africa Rift Valley fever Aedes Human Mosquitoes eastern and southern Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Zika Anopheles Human Africa to Asia Malaria Anopheles Human North America Onchocerciasis (river blindness) Blackflies livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo, and camels. Human Africa, with additional foci in Latin America and the Middle East. Plague (transmitted from rats to humans) Fleas Human Rats Africa, Asia and the United States Tungiasis Fleas Human pigs Mexico to South America, the West Indies and Africa. Typhus Lice rats, cats, or opossums Human Southeast Asia, Japan, and northern Australia Louse-borne relapsing fever Lice Human Dog north-eastern Africa Leishmaniasis Sandflies Human Mexico, Central America, and South America Sandfly fever (phlebotomus fever) Sandflies Human rodents, Mediterranean, Middle East, northern African and western Asian countries
- 41. 37 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 epidemiological risks. The human malaria parasite has quickly altered its genome during the past 20 years in response to the many human hosts, vector populations, and ongoing environmental changes. Anopheline mosquitoes have evolved resistance to insecticides, plasmodium, temperature fluctuations, and salinity changes [55] . There are four different types of malaria parasite illnesses, including Plasmo- dium berghei, Plasmodium yoelii, and the recently discovered Plasmodium knowlesi disease, which is more deadly and has Macaca fascicularis as its nat- ural monkey host. M. Nemestine as well as Saimiri science. All of them are spread by 70 different kinds of mosquitoes, of which 41 are the most common and effective vectors for the malaria parasite [55] . The parasite’s genetic resistance, human movement, medication formula failure, eco-climatic changes, in- adequate health policies, human migration, and pes- ticide resistance in malaria vectors are all contribut- ing factors to the increase in instances of malaria [55] . Floods, urbanization, sanitation, tropical forests, and humidity all contribute to an increase in the anopheline mosquito population. The primary issue and roadblock limiting the efficiency of managing vector-borne diseases is insecticide resistance [56] . However, to identify the processes involved in the growth of the parasites in New World vectors, mo- lecular analyses are necessary [57] . The competence and vectorial potential of the local mosquito popu- lation determine how intense the transmission will be [55] (Table 1). 6.4 Pesticide resistance in insect vectors Resistance to currently-used insecticides varied greatly between the four-vector species. While no resistance to any insecticides was found in the two Aedes species, bioassays confirmed multiple re- sistance in Cx. p. quinquefasciatus (temephos: ~20 fold and deltamethrin: only 10% mortality after 24 hours). In An. gambiae, resistance was scarce: only moderate resistance to temephos was found (~5 fold). resistance levels of four major vector species (Anopheles gambiae, Culex pipiens quinquefas- ciatus, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus) to two types of insecticides: i) the locally currently-used insecticides (organophosphates, pyrethroids) and ii) alternative molecules that are promising for vector Diseases Vector Infected Population Main Reservoir Affected Area Crimean- Congo haemorrhagic fever Ticks wild and domestic animals, such as cattle, goats, sheep and hares Hard ticks the Mediterranean, in northwestern China, central Asia, southern Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent Lyme disease Ticks wild and domestic animals, such as cattle, goats, sheep and hares white-footed mouse (Peromyscusleucopus) Northeast, mid-Atlantic, upper Midwest, and West Coast. Relapsing fever (borreliosis) Ticks wild and domestic animals, such as cattle, goats, sheep and hares Human North America, plateau regions of Mexico, Central and South America, the Mediterranean, Central Asia, and much of Africa. Rickettsial diseases (eg: spotted fever and Q fever) Ticks wild and domestic animals, such as cattle, goats, sheep and hares Human Hawaii, California, and Texas. Tularaemia Ticks wild and domestic animals, such as cattle, goats, sheep and hares rabbits, hares, and muskrats south central United States, the Pacific Northwest, and parts of Massachusetts, including Martha’s Vineyard. Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) Triatome bugs wild and domestic animals, such as cattle, Human Americas Sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis Tsetse flies wild and domestic animals, such as cattle, Human central Africa and in limited areas of West Africa Table 1 continued
- 42. 38 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 control and come from different insecticide families (bacterial toxins or insect growth regulators) [58] . The emergence of genetic engineering is used to improve human health using genetic manipulation techniques in a clinical context. Gene therapy represents an in- novative and appealing strategy for the treatment of human diseases, which utilizes vehicles or vectors for delivering therapeutic genes into the patient’s body. However, a few past unsuccessful events that negatively marked the beginning of gene therapy resulted in the need for further studies regarding the design and biology of gene therapy vectors, so that this innovating treatment approach can successfully move from bench to bedside (Table 1) [59] . 6.5 Insect vectors that exhibit pesticide resist- ance The four-vector species showed very different lev- els of pesticide resistance. The two Aedes species had no pesticide resistance, while bioassays showed that Cx had multiple insecticide resistance. P. quinque- fasciatus (mortality after 24 hours for temephos was 20-fold lower than for deltamethrin) In An. gambiae, resistance was limited; only a mild resistance to te- mephos (5-fold) was discovered. Anopheles gambiae, Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypti, and Aedes albopictus are four major vector species. Re- sistance levels to two types of insecticides have been studied: The locally prevalent organic phosphates and pyrethroids and alternative molecules that are promising for vector control and come from different insecticide families (bacterial toxins or insect growth regulators). Through the use of clinically relevant genetic alteration techniques, the development of genetic engineering is being used to enhance human health. Gene therapy, which uses carriers or vectors to transport therapeutic genes into patients’ bodies, is a cutting-edge and alluring approach to treating human ailments. However, a few prior instances of failure that adversely affected the development of gene ther- apy necessitated additional research into the design and biology of gene therapy vectors in order for this ground-breaking therapeutic strategy to successfully transition from bench to bedside [59] . 6.6 Drug resistance in microbes In normal environmental conditions mainly tem- perature imposes mutations that confer resistance to a drug that is rare and undetected. The genetic switches found in bacteria are more susceptible to al- tering the behavior of genes accordingly as the target drug is set right and its action is foiled in two steps. In an environment with the addition of drugs, the drug-resistant mutants favored and replaced the nor- mal bacteria. There occurs directive selection in bac- teria that non-pathogenic strains are converting into pathogenic and later on into resistant one. It might be thought that the mutations conferring resistance are caused or induced by the drug, but this is not true. It is a natural phenomenon that drug-resistant mutations occur in bacterial cells irrespective of the presence or absence of the drug. This is the nature of bacterial cells that mutation occurs simultaneously without drug exposure. This is an open race between man and microbes to sabotage each other to acquire fitness through natural selection. Both shield and attack are becoming more advanced and are prov- ing lethal tools for each other. Though, in the past and even today microbes have attained the required resistance against thousands of synthetic drugs by making changes in the genetic system. Microbes are UN-conquered warriors on this earth because of their adaptations, flexibility in the mode of feeding, and behavioral and genetic selection than any other organism. It has also ascertained their survival in extreme climatic conditions both outside host or ex- otic conditions. Among microbes most of the species belong to various groups which are pathogenic to man and their ultimate survival comes through the creation of a pathogen city to the host. Mutations that confer drug resistance are uncom- mon and go undiscovered in typical environmental conditions, when the temperature is the dominant environmental constraint. The genetic switches pres- ent in bacteria are more likely to change gene be- havior as the target drug is corrected and its function is thwarted in two steps. The regular bacteria were preferred and replaced by drug-resistant mutants in an environment where drugs were added. Directive
- 43. 39 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 selection occurs in bacteria, resulting in the transfor- mation of non-pathogenic strains into pathogenic and then resistant ones. Contrary to popular belief, the medication does not actually cause or trigger the mu- tations that confer resistance. Regardless of whether a medicine is present or not, drug-resistant mutations in bacterial cells are a common occurrence. Bacterial cells naturally undergo simultaneous mutations with- out being exposed to drugs. Mankind and germs are engaged in a competitive race to sabotage one anoth- er in order to improve their fitness through natural selection. Shield and assault are both evolving and proving to be deadly instruments for one another. However, both in the past and in the present, bacteria have developed the necessary resistance to count- less man-made medications by altering their genetic makeup. This is a reality that infectious agents have increased their selection against existing drugs and vaccines available and becoming unbeatable combat- ants on our planet. Additionally, it has been demon- strated that they can survive in hostile environments or under ideal conditions regardless of the climate. Most microbe species belong to groups that are harmful to humans, and they ultimately survive by developing pathogen cities in their hosts. There is a strong tug-of-war between pathogenic genes and medicine mainly broad-spectrum chem- ical agents. It is the finest work of pharmacists and chemists but has a worthless future. There is neg- ative and positive selection seen in newly altered genes due to mutations providing strong biological scissors against bacterial pathogens in spite of the fact that new medicines are coming generation after generation with much-enhanced lethality. There is no drug that can absolutely kill drug-resistant bacterial strains. This is because microbes are developing re- sistance through evolutionary selection patterns and new enzyme system is becoming stronger and strong- er. Are we ready to fight against nature-supported microbes as we are opting for artificial selection and losing our own fitness and adaptation by living in ar- tificial conditions? For nature man is a societal wise animal that is living luxurious life without knowing its consequences and is facing many risks, there is no way to make protection against the sudden evoking of pathogenic endemics. Man has self compromising genetic system, and having noncompromising atti- tude toward nature and her organisms. A large pile of the drug has been proven worthless and it could not able to kill even a single resistant strain of bacteria, viruses, fungi, PPLOs, and Prions. Pathogenic genes and largely broad-spectrum chemical drugs are engaged in a fierce battle. De- spite being a pharmacy and chemist’s finest achieve- ment, it has little future value. Despite the fact that new medications are being developed every generation with significantly increased lethality, there is still negative and positive selection found in newly altered genes as a result of mutations that gave strong biological scissors against bacterial in- fections. Drug-resistant bacterial strains cannot be completely eradicated by any medication. This is due to the fact that novel enzyme systems are get- ting increasingly potent and that microorganisms are evolving resistance through patterns of evolutionary selection. Are we prepared to fight back against the germs that nature supports, as we are choosing the artificial selection, losing our own fitness, and failing to adapt to our environment? Since man is a socially intelligent animal who leads a lavish lifestyle with- out considering the implications and is exposed to numerous risks, there is no way to be protected from the rapid emergence of pathogenic endemics. Man has a genetic system that compromises him, and he has a non-compromising attitude toward nature and her creatures. Numerous drugs have been shown to be useless and unable to eradicate even one resistant strain of bacteria, virus, fungus, PPLOs, or Prions. It is considerable truth that seventh-generation anti-microbials are highly lethal to microbes, but microbes generated the capability to gain resistance by employing genes to synthesize new enzymes to cleave drug formulae. Only very few allelopathies we intake in daily meals hence, could not achieve sizable resistance. In other words, we receive all utilizable from 30-40 plant species but bacteria have interacted with thousands of plants and animal spe- cies and have generated more sensitivity and identi-
- 44. 40 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 fication capacity against medicinal molecules which could be sued by a human being as a drug. Seventh-generation anti-microbials are undoubt- edly effective tools for controlling microorganisms, but they also use a genetic system that coordinates thousands of genes to produce new enzymes. Only a very small number of the allelopathy we consume daily might thus not generate significant resistance. In other words, we get what we need from 30-40 plant species, whereas bacteria have interacted with thousands of plant and animal species, increasing their sensitivity to and the ability for identifying drugs that humans might use. 6.7 Gene transfer, virus vectors and drug re- sistance Viral vectors are promising gene carriers for cancer therapy. These new genes delivered for thera- peutic purposes are increasing safety risks to human health [60] . Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors are important delivery platforms for therapeutic genome editing but are severely constrained by cargo limits [61] . These Ad vectors evade pre-deployed immuni- ty. There is a need to make genetic and chemical modifications capsid for modulation of vector–host interactions of Ad-based vectors [62] . Transgenesis and paratransgenesis are highly important molecu- lar methods to control insect-borne diseases. These methods easily decrease insect vectorial capacity, and break the transmission of pathogens such as Plasmodium sp., Trypanosoma sp., and Dengue vi- rus. Vector transgenesis relies on direct genetic ma- nipulation of disease vectors making them incapable of functioning as vectors of a given pathogen. In ad- dition, genetically modified insect symbionts are also used to express molecules within the vectors that are deleterious to pathogens they transmit [63] . Finally new genetic additions may induce linear functional responses from hosts and vectors that might increase disease transmission potential in vectors and longev- ity in the pathogen cycle within the body of hosts. But for control of transmission of the behavioral ecology of insects, molecular changes in pathogens must be studied [64] . Further, the use of virus vectors for the transfer of silencing genes preferable integra- tion sites must be searched with stable expression models [65,60] . For increasing translation efficiency there is a need to improve the quality of oversized vectors [66] . Over one million people die each year as a re- sult of nearly 20% of infectious diseases that are vector-borne. Recently, a few virus-based vectors were employed to create possible vaccines to fight the COVID-19 disease and protect people’s immune systems. Finally, new genetic additions might cause hosts and vectors to respond linearly, which could increase the possibility of disease transmission in the vectors and lengthen the pathogen cycle within the body of the hosts. However, molecular modifications in the pathogen must be investigated to control the transmission of insect behavioral ecology [64] . Addi- tionally, stable expression models must be used to search for the best integration locations when using viral vectors to deliver silencing genes [65,60] . It is necessary to raise the caliber of large vectors to in- crease the translation efficiency of these [66] . The capacity of lentiviral protein transfer vec- tors (PTVs) for targeted antigen transfer directly into APCs and thereby induction of cytotoxic T cell responses. PTVs can be used as safe and efficient al- ternatives to gene transfer vectors or live attenuated replicating vector platforms, avoiding genotoxicity or general toxicity in highly immunocompromised patients, respectively. Thereby, the potential for easy envelope exchange allows the circumventing of neutralizing antibodies, e.g., during repeated boost immunizations [67] . The integrated vector manage- ment plan, including all the good practices, learned from previous experiences [58] . Almost 20% of all infectious human diseases are vector-borne and, to- gether, are responsible for over one million deaths per annum. Recently few of the virus-based vectors were used for the generation of potential vaccines to fight against COVID-19 disease, the immune safety of people. Lentiviral protein transfer vectors’ (PTVs’) abil- ity to transfer specific antigens directly into APCs and consequently trigger cytotoxic T-cell responses.
- 45. 41 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 PTVs can be employed as effective and safe substi- tutes for live attenuated replicating vector platforms or gene transfer vectors, preventing genotoxicity or general toxicity in severely immunocompromised in- dividuals, respectively. As a result, the possibility of simple envelope exchange enables the avoidance of neutralizing antibodies, for instance, during repeated booster immunizations [67] . A comprehensive vector management strategy that takes into account all the wise decisions made in the past [58] . Almost 20% of all infectious human diseases are vector-borne and, together, are responsible for over one million deaths per annum. Recently few of the virus-based vectors were used for the generation of potential vaccines to fight against COVID-19 disease, the immune safety of people. 6.8 Drug resistance, virus vectors, and gene transfer Promising gene carriers for cancer therapy are viral vectors. These spread genes for therapeutic pur- poses but raise security concerns and bring about the emergence of new virus strains as a result of gene fusion and conversion [60] . Although cargo restric- tions severely restrict the use of Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV) vectors as therapeutic genome editing delivery platforms [61] . These advertisement routes avoid deployed immunity. Ad-based vectors’ capsids require genetic and chemical alterations in order to control the interactions between the vector and the host [62] . Insect-borne disease control uses transgen- esis and paratransgenesis, two crucial molecular techniques. These techniques can reduce the ability of insects to transmit disease and stop the spread of viruses like the Dengue virus, Trypanosoma species, and Plasmodium species. By directly altering the genetic code of disease vectors, vector transgenesis renders them unable to spread a specific pathogen. The goal of paratransgenesis is to use genetically altered insect symbionts to express chemicals that are harmful to the infections they transmit within the vector [63] . 7. Host immunity and pathogen an- tigens New interactions between plasmodium and mosquito vectors have been observed related to the mechanism of innate immune defense responses in anopheline mosquitoes. The body of these mosqui- toes makes an innate immune defense and is applied to confine and kill malaria parasites under migration and development. It could be used as one of the effective strategies to control malaria vectors [68] . Mosquitoes and other insects lack adaptive immune defense but they respond to different bacteria and fungi with the same innate immune system by us- ing different defense peptides. Anopheles gambiae mosquito vector contains transition stages of midgut invasion and relocation of sporozoites from the oo- cysts to the salivary glands. After invasion mosquito innate immune system is activated that kills plasmo- dium parasite inside salivary glands [69] . The mechanism of innate immune defense re- sponses in anopheline mosquitoes has revealed new interactions between the plasmodium and insect vec- tor. These mosquitoes’ bodies produce an inherent immune defense that is used to contain and elimi- nate malaria parasites while they are migrating and developing. It could be one of the most successful methods for controlling malaria vectors [68] . Although mosquitoes and other insects lack adaptive immune protection, they nonetheless use the same innate immune system to respond to various bacteria and fungus by employing various defense peptides. The mosquito vector Anopheles gambiae has intermedi- ate stages of midgut invasion and sporozoites that go from the oocysts to the salivary glands. Following the invasion, the innate immune system of the mos- quito destroys the parasite plasmodium inside the salivary glands [69] . There is one important question Anopheles mos- quitoes have developed mechanisms to confront Plasmodium infections during feeding, if vector immune competence may be explored it will help to prevent pathogen transmission [70] . There are three important points seasonal variations, new variants of parasites, and new defense molecules in vectors are
- 46. 42 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 favored by a climate that leads to increased trans- mission, high infectivity, and mortality in hosts even after clinical care and vaccine-based prophylaxis. Further, climatic and other environmental factors affecting biological systems and inducing molecular changes in parasites and vectors towards a more re- sistant life, while almost no change or slow changes in hosts are the main driving forces that have in- creased resistant malaria across different Spatio-tem- poral regions [71] . Infection by extracellular bacteria induces the production of humoral antibodies, which are ordinarily secreted by plasma cells in regional lymph nodes and the sub-mucosa of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. The humoral immune re- sponse is the main protective response against extra- cellular bacteria. The antibodies act in several ways to protect the host from the invading organisms, in- cluding the removal of the bacteria and the inactiva- tion of bacterial toxins. Extracellular bacteria can be pathogenic because they induce a localized inflam- matory response or because they produce toxins. One crucial issue is how Anopheles mosquitoes combat Plasmodium infections during feeding; if vector immune competence can be investigated, it will aid in preventing pathogen transmission [70] . There are three crucial reasons. Climate-favored seasonal changes, novel parasite variants, and novel vector defense molecules result in increased trans- mission, high infectivity, and mortality in hosts even in the presence of medical care and vaccine-based prophylaxis. Additionally, climatic and other envi- ronmental conditions have an impact on biological systems and cause molecular changes in parasites and vectors that make them live longer and more robustly. While modest or nearly no changes in hosts are the primary factors that have increased malaria resistance across various spatiotemporal regions [71] . Humoral antibodies are often released by plasma cells in local lymph nodes and the sub-mucosa of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts in response to external bacterial infection. The primary defensive reaction against extracellular germs is the humoral immune response. The antibodies have a variety of protective effects on the host, including the elimi- nation of pathogens and the inactivation of bacterial toxins. Because they trigger a localized inflammato- ry response or because they produce toxins, extracel- lular bacteria have the potential to be harmful. Need of most appropriate vaccines Today risk of microbial infection has been in- creased due to a lack of control of pathogens and vectors. Both transmissions of pathogen and host availability become easier. These are the main rea- sons for the spread of deadly pathogens which are causing malaria, diarrhea, Ebola, meningitis, tubercu- losis, HIV/AIDS, and many other viral, parasitic and fungal infections. Poor countries are major victims of these diseases as inappropriate health services and lack of prophylactic vaccinations are two major issues related to clinical care [72] . On the other side, those countries which have done prophylactic vacci- nation are free of these diseases or kept under con- trol. Vaccination has helped in the eradication of dis- eases like polio, hepatitis, diphtheria, meningitis, and measles in most developed countries [73] . Despite ir- rational and dangerously erupting anti-vaccine move- ments that fuel the dwindling public confidence [74] , therapeutic vaccines have also been effective at the intersection of infections and cancer [75] , as shown by the successful human papilloma virus vaccine [76] . However, screening, testing, diagnosis and vacci- nation are major facts to adopt rather than adopting medicine of the medieval ages [74] . However, both traditional and new vaccination technologies [77] are to be required to establish herd immunity for wider protection of the people [78] for preventing the speedy expansion of local infectious diseases and their con- version into global pandemics [79,80] . For successful vaccination disease status, infection rate, eco-climat- ic changes, geographical, seasonal infectious disease epidemiology and mathematical analysis of routine and pulse vaccination programmes must be done [81] . Today risk of microbial infection has been in- creased due to a lack of control of pathogens and vectors. Both transmissions of pathogen and host availability become easier. Malaria, diarrhea, Ebola, meningitis, TB, HIV/AIDS, and several other viral,
- 47. 43 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 parasite, and fungi infections are just a few of the devastating diseases that hold less developed nations prisoner. The measles’ spectacular recent resurgence, even in affluent nations, shows that health author- ities have been ineffective in educating the public about the benefits of preventative and prophylactic immunization [72] . The success of prophylactic immu- nization over 200 years makes a strong case for the advantages. In most affluent nations, vaccinations have eliminated diseases including polio, hepatitis, diphtheria, meningitis, and measles [73] . Therapeutic vaccinations have also been successful at the nexus of infections and cancer [75] , as proven by the suc- cessful human papilloma virus vaccine, despite irra- tional and dangerously exploding anti-vaccine move- ments that fuel the waning public confidence [74,76] . However, anti-vaccine campaigns have frequent- ly been louder than scientific evidence and have demonstrated how harmful “alternative facts” com- munication tactics can persuade even intelligent people, sometimes regressing medicine to the Mid- dle Ages [74] . Traditional and modern immunization methods are significant [77] and will be necessary to build herd immunity, a crucial barrier to prevent- ing the spread of regional infectious illnesses into worldwide pandemics [78] . To combat drug-resistant tuberculosis, the tuberculosis vaccine is crucial [79,80] . According to Nicholas C. Grassly and Christophe Fraser, mathematical analysis of routine and pulse vaccination programs must be done in order to de- termine illness status, infection rate, eco-climatic variations, geographical, seasonal infectious disease epidemiology, and vaccine success. 8. Migration of people The worst condition of human social groups is climate-induced forced migration. Changing weather conditions, on two sides of the world are alarming, on one side there is ice shelling in Northern Amer- ican countries, and people are facing super cool temperatures while in Australia there are no rains, and people are facing longer droughts and rising temperatures. Such climate-related population dis- placements have been seen in the Caribbean basin where people are facing negative climatic exposure. Artificial physical structural dependence makes the system less sensitive to the environment. Because of rising sensitivity and minimum adaptive capacity anthropogenic climate changes, have increased the vulnerability and given rise to territorial conflicts. Over-industrialization has changed the scenario as the climate-based weather cycle has changed the life of the people and all-around pollution and global ef- fects of rising temperature have imposed climate-re- lated migration. Today these effects are vulnerable but in the future, these will become more hazardous, and anthropogenic climate change will displace peo- ple in spite of their economic richness. Hence future population movements will be riskier as random ter- ritorial conflicts will be increased. Forced migration brought on by climate change is the worst situation for human social groups. Awk- ward weather changes are occurring on opposite ends of the globe. In northern American countries, people are dealing with extremely cold temperatures, while in Australia, where there have been no rains, people are experiencing extended droughts and rising temperatures. In the Caribbean basin, where people are exposed to adverse climate conditions, such population displacements connected to climate change have been seen. As a result of artificial phys- ical structural dependence, the system is less envi- ronment-sensitive. Anthropogenic climate change has raised vulnerability and led to territorial conflicts due to rising sensitivity and low adaptive capability. Over-industrialization has altered the situation just as people’s lives have been altered by the climate-based weather cycle, and global warming’s effects on pol- lution and pollution everywhere have forced people to migrate. These effects are already dangerous, but as anthropogenic climate change displaces people re- gardless of their economic wealth, future population movements will become riskier as the number of sporadic territorial conflicts rises. Post-migration establishment also depends on climate-based stimulus-response, the interaction of environmental changes or events with human social, economic, and cultural processes [82,83] . In the field
- 48. 44 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 of climate change research, interactions between cli- mate and migration are increasingly situated within the context of human vulnerability to climate change, which is in turn identified as being a function of exposure to the impacts of climate change, the sen- sitivity of communities or socioeconomic systems to such impacts, and the capacity of those exposed to adapt. Migration responses to climate change may therefore be treated as one of the ranges of possi- ble ways by which people may adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change or take advantage of re- sultant opportunities. Though there are migrations in the long historic past that were not so destructive because the need of people was minimum, post-in- dustrialization has increased the population pressure because of development. Climate-based stimulus-response, the interaction of environmental changes or occurrences with hu- man social, economic, and cultural processes, and post-migration settlement are all factors that influ- ence [82,83] . Climate and migration interactions are increasingly seen in the context of human vulnera- bility to climate change in the field of climate change research. This vulnerability is then understood to be a function of exposure to the impacts of climate change, the sensitivity of communities or socioeco- nomic systems to such impacts, and the capacity of those exposed to adapt. Therefore, one of the many potential means by which individuals may cope with the negative effects of climate change or seize asso- ciated possibilities is through migration responses to that change. Migration has existed for a very long time, but it was not as harmful then since there were fewer needs for people. However, post-industrializa- tion has increased population pressure due to devel- opment. There are both spatial and temporal patterns of climate-related migration. Displaced people need, societal well-being in a new environment, but it is only possible if state policy is inclusive. If it is not inclusive then in such a condition more vulnerable groups will be formed. Hence, extremes of climate change possibilities kept in mind before making any policy. All climates-induced adverse effects and ex- tremes need more prompt actions to find timely solu- tions. Besides, ecological factors human interaction in groups, and their living in different social systems, communities, and households within particular sys- tems also shape few differences. These differences are shaped by a variety of factors including the particular nature of climate impacts; the degree of exposure to such impacts; the sensitivity of human systems to such changes; and the capacity of the ex- posed population and its socioeconomic systems to adapt [84,85] . For abatement of climate-related effects and controlling disease incidences ecological effects related to human behavior and climate must be stud- ied in a broad sense [86-88] . All climate-related envi- ronmental issues which are affecting human health and socioeconomic systems must be resolved early as possible to save humanity. More often, include poor countries which have agricultural and natural resource dependence and living in low-lying coastal areas, small island states, and other settings where exposure to climate-related risks is high and human livelihood possibilities are limited should give prior- ity [89,90] . Migration that is influenced by the climate has both spatial and temporal trends. In order for society to thrive in its new surroundings, displaced indi- viduals must be included in state policies. If it isn’t inclusive, more vulnerable groups will develop as a result. Therefore, before implementing any policies, the extremes of possible climate change were con- sidered. More immediate steps are required to ad- dress the negative effects and extremes that climate change has caused. In addition, ecological factors influence how people interact in groups, how they live in various social systems, and how communities and households differ within certain systems. These disparities are influenced by a number of variables, such as the specific nature of climatic impacts, the extent of exposure to such impacts, the sensitivity of human systems to such changes, and the adaptabil- ity of the exposed population and its socioeconomic systems. Some socioeconomic systems are intrinsically more susceptible to changes in the environment
- 49. 45 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 brought on by climate change, which increases the likelihood of adaptive migration. These include those in low-lying coastal areas, tiny island states, and other environments where danger from climate change is high and human livelihood options are constrained. These systems are characterized by a reliance on agriculture and natural resources. 9. Induction of communicable dis- eases 9.1 Protozoan diseases Protozoans are unicellular organisms most of them are internal parasite infections of man. Rotozoa is single-celled organisms classified as eukaryotes (organisms whose cells contain membrane-bound organelles and nuclei. These accidents directly or indirectly reach the human host and evoke dreadful diseases. In the past, the most prevalent and deadly human diseases were caused by protozoan infections. These dreadful diseases are African sleeping sick- ness, amoebic dysentery, and malaria. Common in- fectious diseases caused by protozoans include Ma- laria, Giardia, and Toxoplasmosis. These infections are found in very different parts of the body. There are drug resistant strains of Entamoeba histolytica. It is a major health problem in the whole of China south-east and Western Asia and Latin America, especially Mexico. It is generally agreed that amoe- biasis affects about 15 percent of the Indian popula- tion. An estimated 10% of the world’s population is infected with E histolytica. The highest prevalence is in developing countries with the lowest levels of san- itation. This results in 50-100 million cases of colitis or liver abscesses per year and up to 100,000 deaths annually (Figure 2). Filariasis is seen mainly in developing countries. Lymphatic filariasis is often associated with urban- ization, industrialization, illiteracy, poverty and poor sanitation. The migration of people favored the spread of filariasis. Giardia lamblia starts its in- vasion in gut toxoplasmosis can be found in lymph nodes, the eye, and also (worrisomely) the brain. After ingestion of mature cysts (infective dose var- ies from 10-100 cysts) via contaminated water or food, the trophozoite emerges in the small intestine, rapidly multiplies, and attaches to the small intestinal villi [91] . Trophozoites do not survive outside the body. Another intracellular parasite of the genus Leishmania attacks macrophage cells and causes leishmaniasis or Kala Azar. The parasite is transmitted by a variety of sand fly species belonging to subfamily Phlebotom- inae. This parasite largely affects macrophages and causes enlargement of the spleen and liver (Figure 2). Most protozoans, which are unicellular creatures, infect people as internal parasites. As eukaryotes (an- imals whose cells have membrane-bound organelles and nuclei), protozoa are single-celled organisms. These unintentionally reach the human host, either directly or indirectly, and cause terrible diseases. The most common and lethal human diseases in the past, including malaria, amoebic dysentery, and African sleeping sickness, were brought on by protozoan infections. Malaria, Giardia, and toxoplasmosis are a few common infectious disorders brought on by protozoans. These infections can be seen in many different body parts. Entamoeba histolytica strains exist that are resistant to medication. It is a signif- icant public health issue throughout all of China, south and west Asia, and Latin America, particularly Mexico. It is the cause of amoebiasis. It is common- ly accepted that roughly 15% of Indians are affected by amoebiasis. The prevalence of E histolytica is highest in poorer nations with the poorest sanitation, where it affects an estimated 10% of the world’s population. This causes up to 100,000 fatalities an- nually and 50 to 100 million instances of colitis or liver abscesses (Figure 2). Most cases of filariasis occur in underdeveloped nations. Lymphatic filariasis is frequently linked to industrialization, urbanization, poverty, illiteracy, and inadequate sanitation. The spread of filariasis was aided by population migration. The infection of Giardia lamblia begins in the intestines. The lymph nodes, the eye, and (worrisomely) the brain can all be affected by toxoplasmosis. The trophozoite emerges in the small intestine, multiplies quickly, and attaches to the tiny intestinal villi following
- 50. 46 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 ingestion of mature cysts (infective dose varies from 10-100 cysts) through infected water or food. Trophozoites are incapable of surviving outside of the body. Leishmaniasis or Kala azar is caused by an additional intracellular parasite of the species Leishmania that attacks macrophage cells. A variety of sand fly species belonging to the subfamily Phle- botominae transmit the parasite. This parasite mostly affects macrophages and results in spleen and liver enlargement (Figure 2). Figure 2. Inter-relationship of anthropogenic and climate change on ecosystem dynamics and host pathogen interactions. Figure 3. Sequential effects of climate change on ecosystem production and land use. Figure 2. Inter-relationship of anthropogenic and climate change on ecosystem dynamics and host pathogen interactions. Malaria is a very dreadful protozoan disease caused by a ciliate i.e. Plasmodium, its five species (Plasmodium falcipa-rum, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale, and Plas- modium vivax) are identical but it’s environmental induced variants are different according to eco-cli- matic zones. Parasite shows high antigenic variation and acquired both climatic adaptations and drug resistance against the conventional drug spectrum. The level of parasitemia varies according to region, person and endemicity. The disease is controlled but its reemergence is occurring at an interval of two- three years. There is two-way problem; on one side mosquitoes have developed resistance against insec- ticides and parasite has developed resistance against anti-malarial drugs. In both cases changing climatic conditions, urbanization, migration and slums have supported the severity of incidence. A new species Plasmodium knowlesi has been identified during the last decade in Malaysia [92] . Its natural hosts or reser- voir hosts are monkeys Macaca fascicularis, M. ne- mestina, M. inus, and Saimiri scirea [92] . This shows increased disease severity and parasitemia. This seems to be co-evolved due to vectorial competence and climatic adaptability [57] . Although the five Plasmodium species (Plasmo- dium falciparum, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodi- um malariae, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium vivax species) are identical, their environmental variants vary depending on the eco-climatic zones, making malaria a highly terrible protozoan disease. In addition to acquiring ecologic adaptations and therapeutic resistance against the standard treatment spectrum, the parasite exhibits considerable antigen- ic variation. The severity of parasitemia varies by area, individual, and endemicity. Although the condi- tion is under control, it reemerges every two to three years. On one side, parasites have become resistant to anti-malarial medications, and on the other, mos- quitoes have become resistant to insecticides. Slums, urbanization, migration, and changing climatic cir- cumstances have all contributed to the severity of the incidence in both cases. Over the past ten years, Malaysia has seen the discovery of new Plasmodium species hosts or reservoir hosts [92] . This demonstrates increasing parasitemia and illness severity. Due to vectorial competency and environmental adaptation, this appears to have co-evolved (Figure 2) [57] . African sleeping sickness is caused by T. brucei gambiense and T. brucei rhodesiense in man. The vector which transfers this parasite from an infected person to an unaffected person is tsetse fly. Another species of trypanosome causes T. cruzi American trypanosomiasis or chagas diseases. This disease is spread by vector bugs of the genus Rhodnius and other arthropods such as lice. Sleeping sickness vector is reported in 36 countries, the disease caus- es serious neurologic effects. Protozoan parasites have different modes of transmission.-Balantidium, Giardia, Entamoeba, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplas- ma, Cyclospora, Microsporidia show Enteric trans- mission while Trichomonas transmitted sexually. Babesia, Plasmodium, Leishmania, Trypanosoma is transmitted by insect vectors. Toxoplasma is the
- 51. 47 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 only pathogenic fecal-oral transmitted protozoa that have not been associated with gastroenteritis. Tro- phozoite-staged organisms are more dangerous rath- er than Spore-forming protozoa (Goodgame RW.). B hominis is pathogenic only when present in large numbers in the intestine. Three distinct morphologic stages are recognized: vacuolar, granular, and ame- boid. B hominis inhabits the large intestine and has no evident life cycle in humans (Figure 2) (Table 1). T. brucei gambiense and T. brucei rhodesiense are the human causes of African sleeping sickness. The tsetse fly is the vector that spreads this parasite from an infected person to an unaffected person. T. cruzi American trypanosomiasis and chagas illnesses are caused by a different species of trypanosome. Rhodnius vector bugs and other arthropods, like lice, are the main carriers of this disease. 36 countries have recorded cases of sleeping sickness, which has devastating neurologic consequences. There are various ways that protozoan parasites are transmit- ted. Trichomonas does not exhibit enteric transmis- sion, although Balantidium, Giardia, Entamoeba, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, Cyclospora, and Microsporidia do. Insect vectors are used to spread Babesia, Plasmodium, Leishmania, and Trypano- soma diseases. The only pathogenic protozoa that are transferred by feces and saliva that has not been linked to gastroenteritis is toxoplasma. Infants have Trichomonas hominis. Rather than spore-forming protozoa, organisms in the Trophozoite stage are more hazardous (Goodgame RW.). Only when B hominis is prevalent in high concentrations in the in- testine is it harmful. Vacuolar, granular, and ameboid are characterized as three separate morphologic stag- es. B hominis lives in the large intestine and doesn’t appear to have a typical life cycle in people (Figure 2). 9.2 Bacterial infections Several factors lead to the development of bac- terial infection and disease. The environment also plays a role in host susceptibility. Air pollution as well as chemicals and contaminants in the environ- ment weakens the body’s defenses against bacterial infection. Fouling or an unhygienic environment is the first factor that sets in and favors pathogen multiplication. Second is the presence of a host and transmission vector or any agent. These critically de- termine whether the disease will develop following transmission of a bacterial agent. Another factor is the number of susceptible and exposed individuals in a population group. The health status of the host is one of the important factors that decide the spectrum of pathogenicity caused by an infectious organism. Pathogenic bacteria evade the body’s protective mechanisms and use its resources, causing disease. Finally, virulence shows internal changes occurred in physiological pathways inside the organism’s body, and its propensity to cause disease. Among internal factors, toxins released by bacteria decide invasive- ness and the level of morbidity caused. Other impor- tant factors are genetic constitution, nutritional sta- tus, age, duration of exposure to the organism, and coexisting illnesses [93] . There are different bacterial species i.e. Bacillus anthracis, Brucella sp, Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularenis, Leptospira, Mycobac- terium tuberculosis complex, Yersinia pestis major lethal disease. Due to environmental impact as well as high transmission rate they become uncontrolled and unmanageable (Figure 2). Several things can cause bacterial infections and diseases. In addition, the host’s environment affects susceptibility. The body’s defenses against bacterial infection are weakened by environmental pollut- ants, toxins, and air pollution. The first element that develops and promotes disease growth is a foul or unsanitary environment. The existence of a host, a transmission vector, or any agent comes in second. These are crucial in determining whether sickness will manifest itself after bacterial agent transmis- sion. The number of vulnerable and exposed people within a population group is another issue. One of the key variables that determine the range of path- ogenicity a given infectious bacterium can cause is the health level of the host. The disease is brought on by pathogenic germs that make use of the body’s resources while evading its defenses. Last but not least, virulence demonstrates intrinsic changes in physiological pathways within the organism’s body
- 52. 48 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 as well as its potential to spread disease. Toxins se- creted by bacteria determine the degree of morbidity induced, among other internal factors. The genetic make-up, nutritional status, age, length of exposure to the organism, and co-occurring disorders are addi- tional crucial variables. Bacillus anthracis, Brucella sp., Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Lep- tospira, Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, and Yersinia pestis are only a few of the numerous dead- ly bacterial species. They become uncontrollable and unmanageable due to the high transmission rate and environmental damage (Figure 2). Climate change, lead to an increase in severe weather events resulting in frequent and more severe flooding and surface water contamination. Because flood water carries lots of untreated waste that con- tains typhoid pathogens in large numbers and disease spreads easily through the environment. Its caus- ative organisms are acquired via ingestion of food or water, contaminated with human excreta from infected persons. Antibiotic resistance is reported in Salmonella typhi which causes typhoid fever [94] . A cholera epidemic is largely supported by climate and changes its rhythms according to environmental variables, as low precipitation and high temperatures in warmer months bacterial replication occurs faster than in other months [95] . Tuberculosis is a disease more likely to develop due to poor nutrition, over- crowding, and low socio-economic status. Control of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR TB) is the biggest challenge as it becomes resistant to more than one anti-TB drug and imposes more severe multiple pathological changes in patients and results in high mortality [96] . A different condition is with Pertussis is a severe respiratory infection caused by Bordetella pertussis. Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Shigellosis is an infection of the intestine; it is caused by a group of bacteria called Shigella, M. leprae has acquired multidrug resistance, Anthrax is a zoonotic disease, that is transmitted from animals to humans. Plague is a disease that affects humans and other mammals. It is caused by the bacterium, Yersinia pestis (formerly Pasteurella pestis). It is caused by a Gram-positive rod-shaped bacterium Bacillus anthracis, transmitted by a bite of an Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) (Table 1) (Figure 2). Surface water contamination and frequent, more severe flooding are outcomes of climate change, which causes an increase in extreme weather oc- currences because typhoid bacteria are abundant in untreated sewage carried by floodwater, and because the disease is readily contagious. The organisms that cause it can be consumed through drinking or eat- ing things that have been contaminated with human excreta from sick people. Typhoid fever is brought on by Salmonella typhi, which has been linked to antibiotic resistance. Because of limited precipitation and high temperatures in warmer months, bacterial reproduction happens more quickly than in other months, which supports the cholera outbreak in a major. Poor nutrition, overcrowding, and low socio- economic position are the three main risk factors for the disease tuberculosis. The main problem is con- trolling multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), which is resistant to various anti-TB drugs, causes severe numerous pathological alterations in patients, and has a high mortality rate. The severe respiratory infection pertussis is brought on by Bordetella per- tussis. Shigellosis is an intestinal infection brought on by a collection of bacteria known as Shigella, M. leprae has developed multidrug resistance, and Corynebacterium diphtheriae. The zoonotic illness anthrax spreads from animals to people. Both hu- mans and other mammals can contract the plague. Yersinia pestis, a bacteria, is the culprit (formerly Pasteurella pestis) Bacillus anthracis, a Gram-pos- itive rod-shaped bacteria that causes it, spreads through the bite of an Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) (Figure 2). 9.3 Fungal infection Fungi are especially sensitive to climate ex- tremes. Persistently warmer temperatures at in- creasingly higher latitudes are contributing to the ongoing expansion of the geographic ranges of known fungal pathogens. Alongside fungal species’ advancement into new territories, many can develop thermotolerance. Different types of fungus cause
- 53. 49 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 a variety of fungal infections in monsoon season. Fungal spores and mycelia normally grow in high humidity and on unclean surfaces. Opportunistic fungal infections happen due to the massive use of antibiotics. These fungi are nonpathogenic but grow in the upper respiratory tract flora or ear of the im- munocompetent host; Aspergillosis is an infection that affects the respiratory system. It is caused by a type of mold (fungus) Aspergillus. Mucormycosis (previously called zygomycosis) is a serious but rare fungal infection [97] . This is an invasive oppor- tunistic fungal disease caused by a group of molds (mucormycetes) Rhizopus species, Mucor species, Rhizomucor species, Syncephalastrum species, Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Apophysomyces spe- cies, and Lichtheimia (formerly Absidia) species [98] . Other invasive fungal diseases like pneumocystosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, and coccidioidomy- cosis are also most frequently seen in autoimmune or immune-deficient patients. These are also evoked all of sudden due to immunological defects and/or concomitant immunosuppressive therapies [99] . Fungi dermatophytes parasitize the horny cell layer which results dermatophytosis. The most common derma- tophytes are Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Candidiasis is an infection caused by a yeast (a type of fungus) called Candida (Table 1) (Figure 2). Extremes in climate can be particularly harmful to fungi. The geographic ranges of recognized fungal diseases are continuing to expand as a result of con- sistently warmer temperatures at higher and higher latitudes. Many fungal species have the ability to develop thermotolerance, which helps them spread into new areas. Various fungal infections are caused by various species of fungus during the monsoon season. Mycelia and fungal spores typically flourish on dirty surfaces with high humidity levels. Antibi- otic overuse leads to opportunistic fungal infections. Aspergillosis is an infection that affects the respira- tory system; nonetheless, these fungi flourish in the upper respiratory tract flora or in the ears of immu- nocompetent hosts despite being nonpathogenic. Aspergillus is a type of mold (fungus) that causes it. A dangerous yet uncommon fungal infection called mucormycosis (formerly known as zygomycosis) [97] . A group of molds (mucormycetes) including the Rhizopus species, Mucor species, Rhizomucor spe- cies, Syncephalastrum species, Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Apophysomyces species, and Lich- theimia (previously Absidia) species is responsible for this invasive opportunistic fungal illness [98] . Pneumocystosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, and coccidioidomycosis are some other invasive fungal illnesses that are most frequently observed in auto- immune or immune-compromised patients. These can also appear suddenly as a result of immunolog- ical issues and/or concurrent immunosuppressive treatments. The horny cell layer that arises from der- matophytosis is parasitized by fungi dermatophytes. Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagro- phytes are the two most typical dermatophytes. The yeast (or fungus) called Candida is the source of the infection known as candidiasis (Figure 2). 9.4 Virus generated diseases Many of the root causes of climate change also increase the risk of virus or bacterial pandemics. Climate change is directly or indirectly responsible for global environmental change and zoonotic dis- ease emergence. This is massively affecting human health in Europe, Asia and Africa where so many hotspots of the virus, protozoan and bacterial dead- ly diseases have been identified. Climate change mainly shifting seasonal cycles has increased the risk of emerging infectious diseases propagating from animals to humans, from humans to animals or vice versa over the last several decades, includ- ing the flu, HIV, Ebola and coronavirus. The virus is finding and establishing itself in new hosts with new epidemiological routes of infection. Most of the virus-generated diseases have been evoked due to climatic effects, drug regimens, and resistance acquired by their circulating strains. Most viruses such as Rhinovirus, Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Herpes Simplex Virus, Adenovirus, cytomegalovi- rus, influenza virus Type A, Type B, parainfluenza virus, SARS corona virus, poliovirus, HTLV-1,
- 54. 50 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 gastroenteritis virus, adenovirus, rotavirus, Norovi- rus, Astrovirus, coronavirus, pancreatitis coxsackie virus, Hepatitis virus A, B, C, D, E, dengue, and West Nile Virus, Rabies generated disease are on the rise because of attainment of new genetic variations and resistance to therapeutic drugs and vaccines [93] . Recently, WHO has alarmed many countries about new waves of infection caused by Ebola virus, Han- tavirus associated with HCPS, Hendra virus, highly pathogenic virus H5N1, Lassa fever virus, lympho- cyte choriomeningitis virus, monkeypox virus, Nipah virus, Rabies and Rubella, Rotavirus B, Chikungunia virus and Yellow fever virus. Since 2000 many virus diseases have re-emerged after a prolonged time. Every year incidence rate of sexually transmitted diseases, Herpes simplex virus type 2, human papil- lomavirus, SARS and H1N1 is increasing. All these viruses changed the intensity of infection, morbidity and mortality rate; even despite clinical and thera- peutic care, the mortality rate is not coming down. The major reason for the occurrence of virus and protozoan diseases is the induction of disease trans- mission vectors in endemic areas. Though no direct evidence of the effect of climate on the transmission of coronavirus has been identified it is well known that climate is supporting vector and pathogen popu- lations and natural boundaries of disease occurrence are extended from endemic to non-endemic areas (Figure 2). Many of the underlying factors contributing to climate change also raise the danger of bacterial or viral pandemics. Environmental change on a global scale and the emergence of zoonotic diseases are caused by climate change, either directly or indi- rectly. In regions where lethal viral, protozoan, and bacterial illnesses have been identified as hotspots, such as Europe, Asia, and Africa, this is having a significant negative impact on human health. Over the past few decades, climate change has raised the possibility of developing infectious illnesses includ- ing the flu, HIV, Ebola, and coronavirus spreading from animals to humans, from humans to animals, or vice versa. With the help of new epidemiological pathways of infection, the virus is locating and estab- lishing itself in new hosts.. The majority of viral dis- eases have been brought on by treatment regimens, environmental factors, and resistance developed by circulating strains. The majority of viruses, including the rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, herpes simplex virus, adenovirus, cytomegalovirus, influ- enza type A, type B, parainfluenza virus, poliovirus, HTLV-1, gastroenteritis virus, rotavirus, norovirus, astrovirus, coronavirus, pancreatitis coxsackie virus, hepatitis virus A, B, C, Recent outbreaks of infection brought on by the Ebola virus, Hantavirus associated with HCPS, Hendra virus, highly pathogenic H5N1, Lassa fever virus, lymphocyte choriomeningitis vi- rus, monkeypox virus, Nipah virus, Rabies and Ru- bella, Rotavirus B, Chikungunya virus, and Yellow fever virus have alarmed many nations, according to the World Health Organization. Numerous vi- rus-related diseases have returned in large numbers since the year 2000. Sexually transmitted illnesses, human papillomavirus type 2, SARS, and H1N1 all have risen incidence rates each year. Even with clin- ical and therapeutic treatment, the mortality rate is not decreasing because all these viruses altered the severity of infection, morbidity, and fatality rates. The introduction of disease transmission vectors in endemic areas is the main cause of the occurrence of viral and protozoan infections. Although there is no clear proof that the climate affects coronavirus trans- mission, it is well-recognized that the climate sup- ports the populations of pathogens and vectors and that the natural bounds of disease occurrence stretch from endemic to non-endemic locations (Figure 2). 10. Results and discussion Climate changes have increased the risk of infec- tions. Diseases most likely to increase in their distri- bution and severity have three-factor (agent, vector, and human being) and four-factor (plus vertebrate reservoir host) ecology. Aedes aegypti and Aedes al- bopictus mosquitoes may move northward and have more rapid metamorphosis with global warming. These mosquitoes transmit the dengue virus, and Ae- des aegypti transmits the yellow fever virus. Climate change has increased the chances of cross-species
- 55. 51 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 viral transmission risk [100] . The faster metamorphosis and a shorter extrinsic incubation of dengue and yel- low fever viruses could lead to epidemics in North America [101] . For example temperature-sensitive mu- tants of Japanese encephalitis virus, Dengue fever, H1N1, Hepatitis B have been detected. Heat-sensi- tive strains of rotaviruses are causing life-threatening dehydrating gastroenteritis in children and animals. 10.1 Molecular alterations in host-pathogen interactions For finding quick solutions detailed study of “host-pathogen” interactions is highly important. For this purpose all ecological, physiological and molec- ular reasons are explored to find out the reasons for disease outbreaks, their progression and the outcome of infections. There is a gap in host-parasite inter- action about the origin and route of infection, trans- mission, latency time, progression, host immunity and defense acquired by viral, parasitic and zoonotic pathogens. For solving the pathogenesis and disease occurrence host immunity [102] growing resistance in pathogens and co-evolution of microbial antigens and host receptor interactions must be explored [103] . This is also important for discovering rapid reme- dies. Exploring “host-pathogen” interactions will be more useful for understanding the causes, course, and effects of infectious diseases. It will also help in finding the level of host immunity to disease patho- genesis and inadvertent incidences occurring year after year [102] , as how does host immune alterations affect stopping pathogens to invade the host [103] . During the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been many improper responses that have been observed, either delayed or early [103] . As a result, there has been an increase in fatalities, economic loss, and clinical health harm. Host vector interactions and environmental re- sponses must be gauzed for disease transmission by infected and non infected vector population in natural ecological divisions. In addition, all effects related to physiology, behavior, and evolution of hu- man disease vectors must be checked according to genomic data available to map the global health of people (Rinker, David C., 2016). In order to prevent disease transmission by infected and non-infected vector populations in naturally occurring ecological divisions, host vector interactions and environmental reactions must be considered. the host models are required to predict future disease occurrence, epide- miology, genetic invasion of the host and length of pathogen life cycles. Additionally, in order to map the worldwide health of people, all consequences linked to the physiology, behavior, and evolution of human disease vectors must be evaluated [104] . To forecast future disease occurrence, epidemiology, ge- netic host invasion, and pathogen life-cycle length, computer-based models are necessary. 10.2 Future planning and solutions Climate change is an emerging disastrous prob- lem that is creating adversities not only for nature but it is a great challenge to human life and well-be- ing. As seasonal climatic variations occur with the changing weather conditions and the seasonal cycle completes almost every year. Climate change is creating human health-related issues mainly inci- dences of communicable diseases have increased. Significant elevation in the level of environmental pollutants and their regular exposure caused many human health-related risks. Global climate has se- verely affected human behavior. Due to contact with contaminated air, water, and food untimely diseases, pathogenic morbidities, gastric problems, and psy- chosocial stress have increased the vulnerability of humans to pollutants/chemicals. Unfortunately, on one side climate change has increased the chances of droughts that are happening around the globe and developing countries suffering at higher rates. Droughts are highly problematic for all farmers. On the other side, there is simultaneous happening of floods that are affecting agriculture production that resulted in price hike in food commodities and put- ting a large section of people at higher risk of hun- ger. Climate change is threatening the world’s food production and supply. Heavy rains and floods also forced people to migrate. It results in the degradation
- 56. 52 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 of farmlands, and loss of seed and crop production. It leads to competition over precious natural resourc- es. Over time, social conflicts displaced entire com- munities and thrashed to live under life-threatening hunger. Increasing temperature, unavailability of wa- ter, and massive hunting are depleting wildlife, de- forestation is also very high, and habitat and species loss are on high stakes. Increasing temperatures are problematic for those who own livestock. Year after year sequential cumulative effects of climate change on ecosystem production are worsening; there is devastation due to heavy floods or heavy draughts in croplands (Figure 3). This is the main cause of price hikes, poverty, crime, and human migration. This wide impact is increasing in agrarian societies be- cause of the loss of fertile lands and low crop yield. Higher temperatures make it harder for animals to live; if farmers cannot provide enough fresh water to keep their livestock hydrated, they can become diseased or die of dehydration. Loss of glaciers is an important alarm that the earth atmospheric temper- ature is on the rise and it is causing global warming and showing multiple effects on both human, animal, and plant life (Figure 3). Figure 2. Inter-relationship of anthropogenic and climate change on ecosystem dynamics and host pathogen interactions. Figure 3. Sequential effects of climate change on ecosystem production and land use. Figure 3. Sequential effects of climate change on ecosystem production and land use. Climate change is disturbing atmospheric tem- perature hydro-biological cycle as torrent rains and heavy floods or longer draughts have been seen in so many parts of the world. Due to lesser downpours and precipitation, rainwater, underground water, and hydrologic aquifers are drying out. Agriculture is drying out and irrigated crops are diminishing at a high rate. Due to rising diesel prices, farming be- comes more expensive and difficult for poor farmers. In all regions, traditional agriculture is no longer practiced because of changing weather conditions and rising temperatures. For making human society pollution free, cut down all types of pollutants by making source-level inhibition. For prompt action policy, an action plan and budgetary provisions are to be made to solve the problem. Use the most recent technology for auto- mobile vehicles to minimize diesel exhaust particles, carbon monoxide, and particulate pollutants in the air. For vertical mixing of pollutants uses precipita- tors and power air filters to minimize the air pollu- tion levels in urban cities. To minimize the gaseous air pollutants such as oxides of sulfur, nitrogen and carbon, hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons, ozone and other oxidants, fine technology network system and fuel options be made. Maximize the use of electric, solar and nuclear power-operated vehicles. There must be a ban on the production of single-use poly- mers which are un-biodegradable, polymers, pollut- ants, toxic gases, and coal ashes. For economic well being of farmers search, de- velop and use resistant plant varieties or cultivars by incorporating the genes causing the leaf surface to become coated in wax crystals, repelling water and decrease evapo-transpiration. Search more genes to increase long-term flood tolerance, make CO2-smart plants to cut down carbon level in atmosphere. Re- place synthetic antibiotics by searching new plant origin bio-organic chemicals to end the problem of drug resistance and vicious cycle of remerging com- municable diseases. Increase carbon mineralization across the forest communities by using bacterial population to fix more carbon other than large plant species. Grow new perennial forests and convert land use pattern for long sustainable use, cut down use of synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, weedicides, and apply safe integrated agro-ecosystem practices for control of insects, parasites, and predators. Make policies to facilitate resource-sharing agreements and promote cooperation between com- munities to reduce conflict, providing a space for people living there to pursue new types of work such
- 57. 53 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 as cooking, cleaning, or construction. Form green governance, and collaborate with local and national governments to improve their ability to manage and prepare for weather-related risks. The income of farmers should increase and they should not give up agriculture in search of other ways/means to bring income to their families. Favor people for learning new technologies, and redesigning their farmland to maximize land productivity and protect the soil in the face of increasingly severe and frequent droughts. Make more adaptation strategies for the operational management of aging dams in a chang- ing climate, together with adequate and timely main- tenance. Therefore, long-term policy frame work and environmental management and planning must be made to save the life of the future generation. There- fore, for displaced vulnerable populations proactive adaptive capacity should be made by generating funds and green policies, practices, and laws. To control ongoing and projected damage to eco- systems and human communities, global warming keeps to a maximum of 2 ºC over pre-industrial lev- els, more than this will threaten human health, water supplies and ecosystems more vulnerable, hence, a warming of at least 1 ºC appears unavoidable (Figure 3). The main reason for this warming is man-made emissions of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases. These gaseous clouds have made a thick blan- ket over the earth and are trapping extra sunlight and strong rays are reverting. It resulted in temperatures rising. To find quick solutions there must be a ban on coal-based manufacturing units, and other sources of greenhouse gas emissions must be controlled with efforts to minimize the anticipated effects of climate change. Hence, for developing new safe gourds CO2 emissions should be minimized and forest cover is being increased to minimize adverse episodic chang- es in the atmosphere and their impact on human health. The more suggestible point is to immediately check the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Coal is particularly damaging, as it produces 70% more CO2 emissions than natural gas for the same energy output. Electricity generation is the single largest source of manmade CO2, amount- ing to 37% of worldwide emissions. Efforts of Unit- ed Nations environmental protection programs are directing every nation to replace CO2-releasing in- dustrial units with electric power that should be gen- erated from noncoal sources sector to become CO2- free. It is mandatory for developed, developing, and underdeveloped countries. Organizations responsible for the assessment and management of health risks of chemicals, therefore, need to be more proactive and consider the implications of GCC for their pro- cedures and processes. For mitigation of automobile-generated aerosols and particulate matter, air purifies and uses alterna- tive sources of fuel other than gasoline and hydro- carbons. Eco-friendly alternatives are CNG, electric vehicles, solar power vehicles, and ethanol as fuel. Automobile engine design and filters can also save environmental oxygen. Cut down the use of CFCs in air conditioners, freezers, and other appliances. Stop using heat-generating plants and think about low-energy processors and liquid fuels which con- vert into a gas at low ignition temperatures. Utilities can support meaningful global warming legislation, to improve the energy efficiency of power plants, increase their use of renewable energy sources, and halt investment in new coal plants and coal mining. Electricity consumers should opt for “green power” where it is available, demand this choice where it is not, and invest in highly efficient appliances. Poli- cymakers must ease the transition to a carbon-free energy industry by passing legislation that creates fa- vorable market conditions, shaping new frameworks for change, and ensuring that the Kyoto Protocol, the world’s primary legal tool to combat global warm- ing, enters into force as soon as possible. Ecological modeling, farm track engineering, and urban forestry could play an important role in find- ing solutions to air pollution soil, erosion control, and noise. Technological development is required to manage industrial wastes, emissions, and wastewater treatment for environmental safety. Pilot projects are required for the management of good recharging, rainwater harvesting, and drip irrigation methods.
- 58. 54 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 These can control problems related to water scarcity. On the other hand, pretreatment of wastewater be- fore its discharge into water bodies will protect the flowing water from pollution. The further cultural environment could be maintained by renewing and preservation of scenic beauty and developing histor- ical sites, airy and making residential development open and using only eco-friendly land use methods for management of climate-related effects. For find- ing quick solutions local and national governments should cooperate to manage crop production, price rise, and storage with solutions for weather-related risks mainly making society, administration, and government proactive in disaster response. Making environment safety-based policies, and development planning establishing control-warning centers can re- duce vulnerability to disasters caused due to climate change. 11. Conclusions To reverse climatic conditions as normal a 50% cut down must be required in gaseous emissions. Further, to reduce major prevailing major changes in the elevation of global temperature CO2 emission must be stopped completely up to zero by 2050. It will solve the problem of accidental torrent rains; floods, droughts, and vector population. For control of communicable diseases integrated surveillance, investigation, long term funding is required. It will assist in to study of epidemiological reasons and the identification of pathogen-host-vector interaction at the molecular level. Further, to reduce the burden of infectious diseases as the development of rapid, ac- curate, low-cost diagnostics; novel therapeutics, and vaccines; innovative vector control and surveillance tools are also required for quick action. An early warning system is required to integrate clinical re- search, health, and climate operations. More speedy data and knowledge-sharing platforms, outreach and education, response activities, community edu- cation, and social mobilization via social media are essentially required. The global health community has many actors that pursue this common agenda, including multilateral organizations; funders, includ- ing governments and foundations; non-governmental organizations; researchers; and practitioners. Besides following a long route to combat communicable dis- eases, it will be much better to aware people of their self-protection, vector control, sanitation, and recy- cling of waste, and approach them to learn health and hygiene principles. Parasites show high antigenic variation and acquired both eco-climatic adaptations and drug resistance against conventional drug spec- trum, therefore, new highly effective drug regimens, antibodies, antiserum, and vaccines are required to fight against newly emerging climate-induced mi- crobial diseases. This is highly important to know the ecology, genetics, and molecular mechanisms of disease transmission, host-parasitic interaction and developing drug resistance in microbial pathogens. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest re- garding the publication of this paper. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to HOD Zoology and HOD Biotechnology for facilities. References [1] Olivier, J.G.J., Peters, J.A.H.W. (editors), 2019. Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions: 2019 report; 2020 May 26; PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague. Australia: PBL Publishers. Avail- able from: https://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/ files/downloads/pbl-2020-trends-in-global-co2- and-total-greenhouse-gas-emissions-2019-re- port_4068.pdf. [2] Olivier, J.G.J., Peters, J.A.H.W., 2018. Trends in global CO2 and total GHG emissions: 2018 report; 2018 May 12; PBL Netherlands Environ- mental Assessment Agency, The Hague. Avail- able from: https://www.pbl.nl/en/publications/ trends-in-global-co2-and-total-greenhouse-gase- missions-2018-report.
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- 64. 60 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jasr *CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: Anukrati Dhabhai, ICMR, NIIRNCD, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, 273013, India; Email: [email protected] ARTICLE INFO Received: 04 November 2022 | Revised: 22 December 2022 | Accepted: 23 December 2022 | Published Online: 12 January 2023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v6i1.5284 CITATION Dhabhai, A., Sharma, A.K., Dalela, G., et al., 2023. Indoor Air Pollution and Its Determinants in Household Settings in Jaipur, India. Journal of Atmospheric Science Research. 6(1): 60-67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v6i1.5284 COPYRIGHT Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu- tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). ARTICLE Indoor Air Pollution and Its Determinants in Household Settings in Jaipur, India Anukrati Dhabhai1* , Arun Kumar Sharma1 , Gaurav Dalela2 , S.S Mohanty1 , Ramesh Kumar Huda1 , Rajnish Gupta1 1 ICMR, NIIRNCD, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, 273013, India 2 RUHS, College of Medical Sciences, Jaipur, Rajasthan, 302033, India ABSTRACT Individuals spend 90% of their time indoors, primarily at home or at work. Indoor environmental factors have a significant impact on human well-being. It was a longitudinal study that assessed the major factors that reduce indoor air quality, namely particulate matter, and bio-aerosols, using low-cost sensors and the settle plate method, respectively also to determine the effect of atmospheric parameters and land use patterns in households of commercial, industrial, residential, slum, and rural areas of the city. PM2.5 concentration levels were similar in most parts of the day across all sites. PM10.0 concentration levels increased indoors in a commercial area. PM2.5 concentration showed a negative correlation with temperature and a positive correlation with relative humidity in some areas. Very high values of PM2.5 concentration and PM10.0 concentration have been observed in this study, inside households of selected rural and urban areas. Pathogenic gram-positive cocci, gram-positive rods, Aspergillus, and Mucor species were the most common bacterial and fungal species respectively found inside households. This study examined particulate matter concentration along with bio-aerosols, as very less studies have been conducted in Jaipur the capital of Rajasthan, a state in the western part of India which assessed both of these factors together to determine the indoor air quality. Rural households surrounding the periphery of the city were found to have similar pollution levels as urban households. So, this study may form the basis for reducing pollution inside households and also for taking suitable measures for the reduction of pollution in the indoor environment. Keywords: Indoor air pollution; Particulate matter; Bio-aerosols
- 65. 61 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 1. Introduction There is regional heterogeneity in India, where places with various atmospheric conditions result in different indoor air quality. North Indian states, for ex- ample, have higher PM2.5 g/m3 levels (557-601 g/m3 ) than southern states (183-214 g/m3 ) [1] . Because of their low incomes, those who utilize solid biomass for domestic purposes are exposed to poor-quality, toxic air within their homes. It is noteworthy that three billion people use the aforementioned energy source to prepare their everyday needs for cook- ing and heating [2] . Long-term exposure to indoor environments with insufficient air exchange and poor air quality and harmful bio-aerosols may cause sick-building syndrome (SBS), allergic reactions, respiratory tract infections, chronic obstructive pul- monary disease(COPD), and asthma [3] . Since most individuals spend 90% of their time indoors, primar- ily at home or at work, indoor environmental factors have a significant impact on human well-being [4] . Indoor air pollution can be produced by occupant activities such as cooking, smoking, using electronic equipment, using consumer products, or emissions from building materials inside homes or structures. Dangerous pollutants can be found inside buildings, including biological contaminants, particulate matter (PM), aerosols, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), and others [5] . Biological aerosols (bio-aerosols) are a subgroup of atmospher- ic PMs made up of cellular components, microorgan- isms (bacteria and archaea), and dispersal units (fun- gal spores and plant pollen) [6] . Indoor air pollution levels can be impacted by concentrations of outdoor air pollution associated with anthropogenic and nat- ural sources, including road traffic, wildfire smoke, and dust re-suspension. Additionally, factors includ- ing the kind, location, and distance of the pollutant sources; the size, shape, orientation, and arrangement of the buildings; as well as geography and weather patterns, all have an impact on how the pollutants around the structure disperse [7] . Indoor exposure is greatly influenced by household characteristics and occupant behaviours, particularly cigarette smoking for PM2.5, gas appliances for NO2, and household items for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). High interior air pollution is caused by a home’s proximity to busy highways, redecorating, and tiny housing size [8] . People in metropolitan areas spend more than 90% of their waking hours indoors, according to research on this group. A considerable majority of people’s time is spent outside of residential indoor spaces, in workplaces, schools, and other commercial and industrial structures. Adults in North America spend 87% of their time indoors, with the remaining 17% spent in automobiles and 7% outdoors, according to specific studies [9] . Studies have indicated that breathing “clean” indoor air helps with both respira- tory and non-respiratory symptoms like headaches and eye pain [10] . A common but avoidable risk factor for respiratory illnesses is household air pollution. The most efficient intervention to lower the burden of household air pollution (HAP)-related diseases is probably the substitution of solid cooking fuels with clean fuels like liquid petroleum gas (LPG), as demonstrated by India’s “Ujjwala” initiative [11] . In India, the national burden of disease is accounted for by environmental and occupational risk factors, with indoor and outdoor air pollution ranked as one of the major risk factors [12] . Very little data are available on indoor air pollu- tion in Jaipur. Therefore, the study was carried out with the objectives of studying indoor air pollution in different household settings in Jaipur and deter- mining the effect of atmospheric parameters and land use patterns. 2. Materials and methods Study location: The study was conducted in Jai- pur, the capital of Rajasthan, a state in the western part of India. The Thar Desert is a part of the state. It is located at latitude-N 26.922070 and longitude-E 75.778885. It has a population of 3,073,350 (2011 Census) and is spread over 11,143 km2 . The city has mixed land use, with residential, commercial, and industrial areas coexisting and dotted with slum clusters in between. At its periphery, the city is sur- rounded by rural areas where the primary occupation
- 66. 62 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 is farming. Study Design: Longitudinal Study Design. Study location: For data collection, one house- hold was chosen from each of the following areas: residential, commercial, industrial, slum, and rural (Figure 1). Data collection: Data on pollution parameters were collected in selected households through re- al-time continuous monitoring of particulate matter using laser base sensors and outdoor data were ob- tained from Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board (RSPCB). Assessment of bio-aerosols in the house- holds to identify pathogenic microorganisms present inside households was done using the passive settle plate method. Indoor air quality was monitored using sen- sor-based low-cost air quality monitors, the Purple Air PA-II (Manufactured by Purple Air Inc., USA). One unit was installed in each of the selected house- holds. Data were collected for a period of three months from 07 March 2022 to 30 June 2022. The device captured PM2.5 levels at a 60-second interval along with PM10, PM1.0, temperature, and relative humidity. On the day of sampling, the Petri plates were examined for contamination prior to use for the bio-aerosol assessment. The labeling of information and media pouring was done in a laminar air flow hood in a sterile environment. The plates were cov- ered with a sterile lid and were assembled in a sterile transport bag or container according to the schedule of sampling. At the sampling site, the passive settle plate method was used, which meant that the Petri dish was placed 1 m above ground level, 1 m from any obstacle, and exposed for one hour. The exposed Petri dishes for bacteria were incubated at 37 de- grees Celsius, for 48 hours of growth and CFU/plate was counted. Petri dishes for fungi were incubated at 28 degrees Celsius, for 72 hours of growth and CFU/plate was counted. Bacterial colonies grown on blood agar were subjected further to gram staining for identification of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Fungal colonies were subjected to staining with cotton blue dye for identification of the type of fungi species. Data analysis: The PM2.5 µg/m3 levels obtained from the monitors were transferred to an MS Excel sheet and converted into six hourly average values. Figure 1. Sampling sites map of Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.
- 67. 63 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 The quarters were divided as 6.00 a.m. to 11.59 a.m., 12.00 noon to 5.59 p.m., 6.00 p.m. to 11.59 p.m., and 0.00 hours to 5.59 a.m. Similarly, the temperature and relative humidity data were also converted to six-hourly averages. 3. Results The quarterly average values of PM2.5 µg/m3 of all sites for three months are shown in graphs (Fig- ures 2 to 5). It was found that in the morning hours, PM2.5 µg/m3 values in all places were highest in March than in April; this might be due to low ambi- ent temperature and high humidity observed during this time, as shown in Figure 2. In the afternoon slot, as shown in Figure 3, all the places have shown different rise and drop patterns, indicating other fac- tors like domestic pollutant emission sources and ex- ternal outdoor sources affect PM2.5 µg/m3 concen- tration and values. The evening and night slot values of PM2.5 µg/m3 also varied spatially. Very high concentrations of particulate matter are found inside households as the moderate range for PM2.5 is from 0 to 35 and for PM10.0 it is 51-154 according to air quality index: a guide to air quality and your health. EPA, August 2019 AQI air quality index “a” People with heart or lung disease, children, or older adults (EPA-456/F-19-002), as in most areas the values are reaching 250 to 300 which is above the normal range. 3.1 Indoor and outdoor PM10.0 µg/m3 levels A comparison of PM10.0 µg/m3 twenty-four hourly average data obtained from Purple Air PA- II (Manufactured by Purple Air Inc., USA) with outdoor PM10.0 µg/m3 twenty-four hourly average data obtained from Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board (RSPCB) from March 2022 to May 2022 is given in Figures 6 to 9. On March 22nd, we ob- served that the value of PM10.0 µg/m3 increased indoors (101 µg/m3 ) as compared to outdoors (74 µg/m3 ) in the commercial area due to heavy dust presence by the construction work taking place in the street during this time period which also affected the households nearby. Again, on April 8th, 2022, the value of PM10.0 µg/m3 increased in the commercial area. 3.2 Correlation of PM2.5 µg/m3 and tempera- ture PM2.5 µg/m3 and temperature were found to have a negative correlation at the 0.01 (2-tailed) level in industrial (–0.445), rural (–0.447), slum (0.358), residential (–0.315) areas and not in a commercial area. 3.3 Correlation of PM2.5 µg/m3 and relative humidity A positive correlation between PM2.5 µg/m3 and humidity was found to be significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) in commercial areas (0.161), rural areas (0.557), slum areas (0.257) and not in an industrial and residential area as there were no proper ventila- tion sources present in commercial, rural and slum area so, due to humid environment particulate matter showed a positive correlation with humidity whereas residential area has proper ventilation sources and industrial area have more of the dusty environment due to continuous industrial activities, factories work and on road traffic presence so a negative correlation was observed. 3.4 The effect of land on bacterial and fungal counts In the rural area, the bacterial microbial counts were highest inside the bedroom, bathroom, kitch- en, and living room as compared to other areas as shown in Table 1, due to the presence of more dust, pet presence, improper cleaning of households, ac- cess to pet waste, no ventilation sources like exhaust fans or air purifiers, biomass fuel used for cooking which produced more waste and improper waste disposal as compared to urban and slum area where these reasons were less observed. Also, the fungal microbial counts in the bathroom, bedroom, kitchen, and living room were more due to similar reasons as
- 68. 64 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 compared to other areas as shown in Table 2. Path- ogenic gram-positive cocci and gram-positive rods were the dominant bacterial species found in all the areas. Aspergillus and Mucor species were identified as the dominant fungal species in all the sampled households in the city which can cause a group of infections. Figure 2. All five zones’ quarter 1 PM2.5 µg/m3 values. Figure 3. All five zones’ quarter 2 PM2.5 µg/m3 values. Figure 4. All five zones’ quarter 3 PM2.5 µg/m3 values. Figure 5. All five zones’ quarter 4 PM2.5 µg/m3 values. Figure6.PM10.0µg/m3 indoorandoutdoorlevelsinacommercialarea. Figure 7. PM10.0 µg/m3 indoor and outdoor levels in a residential area. Figure 8. PM10.0 µg/m3 indoor and outdoor levels in an industrial area.
- 69. 65 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Figure 9. PM10.0 µg/m3 indoor and outdoor levels in a slum area. 4. Discussion The patterns of PM2.5 µg/m3 levels were similar for three-quarters of the day across all sites. PM2.5 µg/m3 showed a statistically significant negative correlation with temperature and a positive correla- tion with relative humidity in some areas of the city. Very high values of PM2.5 µg/m3 and PM10.0 µg/m3 have been observed in the study inside households including rural areas. The effect land used on micro- bial counts (bacterial and fungal) is shown. Inclusion of all the environmental (presence of different PM levels, presence of different bio-aerosols with their amounts), geographical (all the different land pat- terns taken for the study), and atmospheric param- eters (temperature and relative humidity) in Jaipur city and based on the observed results, it can be safely inferred that indoor air pollution is as high as outdoor air pollution, contrary to the belief about in- doors being less polluted. In the case of extreme pol- lution, residents are advised to stay indoors. It was also an important observation, that rural households were as polluted indoors as urban households. 5. Conclusions This study examined particulate matter concen- tration and bio-aerosols in households in Jaipur. Ru- ral households have similar pollution levels as urban areas. Many policies have been introduced to reduce the level of outdoor air pollution but very less poli- cies have been introduced which are working on in- door air pollution and their implementation remains a challenge. Issues with air quality starts at home, Table 1. The influence of land used on bacterial microbial counts (CFU/Plate). Place - Commercial area Industrial area Slum area Residential area Rural area Bedroom 25 45 18 20 95 Kitchen 22 16 19 9 33 Barth room 50 23 12 8 88 Living room 25 24 21 14 39 Balcony 50 47 30 40 30 Table 2. The influence of land used on fungal microbial counts (CFU/Plate). Place- Commercial area Industrial Area Slum area Residential area Rural area Bedroom 4 5 1 2 6 Kitchen 8 2 3 3 6 Barth room 1 2 4 2 7 Living room 6 7 6 3 7 Balcony 4 6 3 5 9
- 70. 66 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 switching to renewable energy sources, providing sufficient ventilation in dwellings, and cross ventila- tion in homes can also assist, using exhaust fans in homes with inadequate ventilation helps re-mediate the air quality issues. Rural areas should switch to LPG for cooking purposes, as biomass fuel usage along with regular smoking is affecting health at a crucial level, maintenance of hygiene in the house by cleaning animal droppings regularly should come into practice. This study may form the basis for re- ducing pollution in households. Ethical Approval The proposal was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of ICMR-NIIRNCD, Biomedical and Health Research ICMR-NIIRNCD Jodhpur. Author Contributions 1) Corresponding Author - Anukrati Dhabhai, (Project technical officer) ICMR – NIIRNCD, single handedly collected data from all locations in Jaipur city, performed all the laboratory tests and identifi- cations of bioaerosolsand prepared proposal, manu- script, and did the data analysis. 2) Co-author - Dr. Arun Kumar Sharma, Director, (Scientist “G”) ICMR – NIIRNCD, Jodhpur helped in conceptualizing the proposal, data analysis and manuscript preparation. 3) Co-author - Dr Gaurav Dalela, Head of De- partment (Microbiology) RUHS, College of Medical Sciences helped in bio-aerosols estimation and iden- tification. 4) Co-author - Dr S.S Mohanty, (Scientist “E”) ICMR-NIIRNCD helped in bio-aerosols estimation with fungal identification. 5) Co-author - Dr Ramesh Kumar Huda, (Scientist “C”) ICMR-NIIRNCD provided help and support in execution of laboratory work for bioaerosols estima- tion. 6) Co-author - Dr Rajnish Gupta (Technical As- sistant) ICMR-NIIRNCD helped in all ways possible to carry out bio-aerosols part of the study along with fungal identification. Conflict of Interest The authors share no conflict of interest. Funding This research received no external funding. References [1] Saud, T., Gautam, R., Mandal, T.K., et al., 2012. Emission estimates of organic and elemental carbon from household biomass fuel used over the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP), India. Atmo- spheric Environment. 61, 212-220. [2] Neidell, M.J., 2004. Air pollution, health, and socio-economic status: The effect of outdoor air quality on childhood asthma. Journal of Health Economics. 23(6), 1209-1236. [3] Huang, H.L., Lee, M.K., Shih, H.W., 2017. As- sessment of indoor bio-aerosols in public spaces by real-time measured airborne particles. Aero- sol Air Quality Research. 17(9). [4] Leech, J.A., Nelson, W.C., Burnett, R.T., et al., 2002. It’s about time: A comparison of canadi- an and american time-activity patterns. Journal of Exposure Analysis. Sci. Environmental. Epidemiology. 12, 427-432. doi: 10.1038/sj. jea.7500244. [5] Kumar, P., Imam, B., 2013. Footprints of air pollution and changing environment on the sustainability of built infrastructure. Science of Total Environment. 444, 85-101. doi: 10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2012.11.056. [6] Shiraiwa, M., Ueda, K., Pozzer, A., et al., 2017. Aerosol health effects from molecular to global scales. Environmental Science and Technology. 51, 13545-13567. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04417. [7] Vardoulakis, S., Fisher, B.E.A., Pericleous, K., et al., 2003. Modelling air quality in street can- yons: A review. Atmospheric Environment. 37, 155-182. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00857-9. [8] Vardoulakis, S., Giagloglou, E., Steinle, S., et al., 2020. Indoor exposure to selected air pol- lutants in the home environment: A systematic
- 71. 67 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 review. International Journal of Environmental Research Public Health. 17(23), 8972. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17238972. [9] Klepeis, N.E., Nelson, W.C., Ott, W.R., et al., 2001. The national human activity pattern survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing ex- posure to environmental pollutants. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemi- ology. 11, 231-252. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500165. [10]Huffaker, M., Phipatanakul, W., 2014. Introduc- ing an environmental assessment and interven- tion program in inner-city schools. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 134, 1232- 1237. [11] Jindal, S.K., Aggarwal, A.N., Jindal, A., 2021. Household air pollution in India and respiratory diseases: Current status and fu- ture directions. Current Opinion in Pulmo- nary Medicine. 26(2), 128-134. doi: 10.1097/ MCP.0000000000000642. [12]Kalpana, B., Padmavathi, R., Sankar, S., et al., 2011. Air pollution from household solid fuel combustion in India: An overview of exposure and health related information to inform health research priorities. Global Health Action. 4. doi: 10.3402/gha.v4i0.5638.
- 72. 68 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jasr 1. Introduction The magnetic field can be divided into three distinct parts as seen on the earth’s surface: The observed magnetic field is made up of three compo- *CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: V.N Ojeh, Department of Geography, Taraba State University, Jalingo, 660213, Nigeria; Email: [email protected] ARTICLE INFO Received: 23 September 2022 | Revised: 05 February 2023 | Accepted: 07 February 2023 | Published Online: 10 February 2023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v6i1.5092 CITATION Emenike, G.C., Obiekezie, T.N., Ojeh, V.N., 2023. Ionospheric Currents in the Equatorial and Low Latitudes of Africa. Journal of Atmospheric Science Research. 6(1): 68-74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jasr.v6i1.5092 COPYRIGHT Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Co. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu- tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). ARTICLE Ionospheric Currents in the Equatorial and Low Latitudes of Africa G.C Emenike1 , T.N Obiekezie1 , V.N Ojeh2* 1 Department of Physics and Industrial Physics, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, PMB 5025, Awka, Nigeria 2 Department of Geography, Taraba State University, Jalingo, 660213, Nigeria ABSTRACT The magnetometer data obtained for 2008 from geomagnetic stations installed across Africa by magnetic data acquisition set (MAGDAS) have been used to study the ionospheric Sq current system in the equatorial and low- latitudes of Africa. The aim of this work is to separate the quiet-day field variations obtained in the equatorial and low latitude regions of Africa into their external and internal field contributions and then to use the paired external and internal coefficients of the SHA to determine the source current and induced currents. The method used involved a spherical harmonic analysis (SHA). This was applied in the separation of the internal and external field/current contribution to the Sq variations. The result shows that the variation in the currents is seen to be a dawn-to-dusk phenomenon with the variation in the external currents different from that of the internal currents both in amplitude and in phase. Furthermore, the seasonal variation in the external current maximizes during the March equinox and minimizes during the December solstice. The maximum current observed in AAB and ILR is due to the Equatorial Electrojet Current present in the AAB and ILR stations. Seasonal variation was observed in the geomagnetic component variations as well as in the currents. This is attributed to the position of the sun with respect to the earth at different months of the year. The equinoctial maximum is observed in external current intensity which occurred mostly during the March Equinox. Keywords: Equatorial; Low latitudes; Africa; Ionospheric Sq; Currents
- 73. 69 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 nents: The Main Field, the External Magnetic Field, and the Crustal Field. The Main Field is the largest component of the magnetic field and is thought to be produced by electrical currents in the fluid outer core of the Earth. The External Magnetic Field is thought to be produced by interactions between the Earth’s ionosphere and the solar wind. Electric currents are comparable to those fluctuating in the atmosphere of the Earth flow in the conducting Earth below the source current. The characteristics of the source cur- rents and the distribution of electrically conducting materials in the Earth affect the size, direction, and depth of penetration of the induced currents. Mag- netometers detect the composite of external (source) and interior (induced) field components from the currents at observatories on the surface of the Earth. The amplitudes and phase connections were demon- strated to be helpful in calculating the conductivity of the deep earth when these currents were divided into their component portions using Spherical Har- monic Analysis (SHA) or other integral techniques [1] . The period of fluctuation of the source current and the distribution of electrically conducting materials in the area of the earth beginning to be explored de- termine the depth of penetration of the induced cur- rent into the deep earth [2] . Campbell and Schiffmacher [3] established equiv- alent ionospheric source currents representing the quiet-day geomagnetic variations for a half-sector of the Earth that induced Australia. They used a spher- ical harmonic separation of the external and internal fields for the extremely quiet condition existing in 1965. According to their result, the month-by-month behavior of the current system indicated a clockwise vortex source with a maximum of 12.8 × 104 A in January and a minimum of 4.4 × 104 A in June. Takeda [4] noted that the intensity of the Sq cur- rents in high solar activity was about twice as large as it is in low solar activity. By comparing the am- plitude of the Sq for the same value of conductivity, Takeda [5] pointed out that solar activity depends on the Sq amplitude. He noted that the seasonal varia- tion is seemingly due to differences in neutral winds or due to the magnetic effect of the field-aligned current (FAC) flowing between the two Hemispheres generated by the asymmetry in the dynamo action. The aim of this work is to separate the qui- et-day field variations obtained in the equatorial and low-latitude regions of Africa into their external and internal field contributions and then to use the paired external and internal coefficients of the SHA to de- termine the source current and induced currents. 2. Data source The average hourly geomagnetic data used in this study were obtained from geomagnetic stations established in parts of the region (Ilorin (8.5o N, 4.68o E), Lagos (6.4o N, 3.27o E), Addis Ababa (9.04o N, 38.77o E) and Hermanus (34.34o S, 19.24o E)) by mag- netic data acquisition set (MAGDAS), Japan for the year 2008 as presented in Figure 1. -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 ILR AAB HER LAG Longitude (degree) Latitude (degree) Figure 1. Geographical map showing the study area. 3. Method of analysis The method employed in this work involves the Spherical Harmonic Analsysis (SHA) devised by Guass (1838) in solving the magnetic potential func- tion V. It was Guass [6] who showed that the potential has two parts: the external (source) and internal (in- duced) parts of the potential function. He expressed the magnetic potential of the Sq field, V measured from the daily mean values at the universal time, T comprises of both the internal (induced) current and the external source current as a sum of spherical har- monics as:
- 74. 70 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 4 1 0 sin 1 cos 1 n n m p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n r a a mi n n a r a me n a C m n V where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and the local time of the observatory respectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. Following Campbell [7] the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the longitude divided by 15o ) is obtained from: = =1 4 = 12 cos + sin (2) With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current representation, we have: =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (3) =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (4) And the internal current representation, we have: = 5 2 2+1 +1 (5) = 5 2 2+1 +1 (6) where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers. The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8] . However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by: = + ∅ (9) 4 sin 1 cos 1 p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n r a a mi n onstant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and ory respectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial external and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. alent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the ned from: sin (2) value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current (3) (4) representation, we have: (5) (6) h in kilometers. dius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because ynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, − 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8] . external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal in amperes) from J by: (7) (8) nt intensity (internal and external) can be given by: (9) (1) where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integra- tion, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and the local time of the observatory respectively. 4 sin 1 cos 1 p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n r a ant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and espectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial rnal and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials y. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. t current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the from: sin (2) ue of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current (3) (4) sentation, we have: (5) (6) kilometers. of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to ’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is rces are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because o current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, may be omitted from the current computations [8] . rnal current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal mperes) from J by: (7) (8) tensity (internal and external) can be given by: (9) , 4 sin 1 cos 1 p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n nt of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and spectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial nal and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials . The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the om: n (2) of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current (3) (4) entation, we have: (5) (6) lometers. f a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is es are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, may be omitted from the current computations [8] . nal current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal peres) from J by: (7) (8) nsity (internal and external) can be given by: (9) , 4 sin 1 cos 1 p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n t of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and pectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial al and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. urrent function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the om: n (2) of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current (3) (4) ntation, we have: (5) (6) ometers. a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is es are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, may be omitted from the current computations [8] . al current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal eres) from J by: (7) (8) nsity (internal and external) can be given by: (9) and 4 sin 1 cos 1 p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and ectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. rrent function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the m: (2) m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current (3) (4) ation, we have: 5) 6) meters. sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to urface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because urrent source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, ay be omitted from the current computations [8] . current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal res) from J by: (7) (8) ity (internal and external) can be given by: (9) are Legendre polynomial co- efficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively. sin 1 cos 1 p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and ectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial l and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. rrent function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the m: (2) f m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current (3) (4) tation, we have: (5) (6) meters. a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because urrent source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, ay be omitted from the current computations [8] . l current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal res) from J by: (7) (8) sity (internal and external) can be given by: (9) are Legendre polynomials and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. Following Campbell [7] the equivalent current func- tion, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the longitude divided by 15o ) is obtained from: 1 0 sin 1 cos 1 n n m p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n r a a mi n n a r a me n a C m n V where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and the local time of the observatory respectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. Following Campbell [7] the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the longitude divided by 15o ) is obtained from: = =1 4 = 12 cos + sin (2) With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current representation, we have: =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (3) =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (4) And the internal current representation, we have: = 5 2 2+1 +1 (5) = 5 2 2+1 +1 (6) where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers. The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8] . However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by: = + ∅ (9) (2) With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current representation, we have: 1 0 sin 1 cos 1 n n m p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n r a a mi n n a r a me n a C m n V where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and the local time of the observatory respectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. Following Campbell [7] the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the longitude divided by 15o ) is obtained from: = =1 4 = 12 cos + sin (2) With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current representation, we have: =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (3) =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (4) And the internal current representation, we have: = 5 2 2+1 +1 (5) = 5 2 2+1 +1 (6) where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers. The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8] . However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by: = + ∅ (9) (3) 1 0 sin 1 cos 1 n n m p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n r a a mi n n a r a me n a C m n V where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and the local time of the observatory respectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. Following Campbell [7] the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the longitude divided by 15o ) is obtained from: = =1 4 = 12 cos + sin (2) With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current representation, we have: =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (3) =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (4) And the internal current representation, we have: = 5 2 2+1 +1 (5) = 5 2 2+1 +1 (6) where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers. The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8] . However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by: = + ∅ (9) (4) And the internal current representation, we have: 1 0 sin 1 cos 1 n n m p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n r a a mi n n a r a me n a C m n V where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and the local time of the observatory respectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. Following Campbell [7] the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the longitude divided by 15o ) is obtained from: = =1 4 = 12 cos + sin (2) With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current representation, we have: =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (3) =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (4) And the internal current representation, we have: = 5 2 2+1 +1 (5) = 5 2 2+1 +1 (6) where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers. The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8] . However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by: = + ∅ (9) (5) 1 0 sin 1 cos 1 n n m p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n r a a mi n n a r a me n a C m n V where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and the local time of the observatory respectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. Following Campbell [7] the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the longitude divided by 15o ) is obtained from: = =1 4 = 12 cos + sin (2) With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current representation, we have: =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (3) =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (4) And the internal current representation, we have: = 5 2 2+1 +1 (5) = 5 2 2+1 +1 (6) where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers. The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8] . However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by: = + ∅ (9) (6) where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers. The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose sur- face is located where a current could flow to give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospher- ic E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, the value of a ≈ R and the ratio 1 0 sin 1 cos 1 n n m p m n m n r a b mi n n a r b me n m n r a a mi n n a r a me n a C m n V where C, θ, a, r and ϕ denote a constant of integration, the geomagnetic colatitude, the earth’s radius and the local time of the observatory respectively. , , and are Legendre polynomial coefficients, e and i represent the external and internal values, respectively. are Legendre polynomials and are functions of colatitude θ only. The integers, n and m are called degree and order respectively. Following Campbell [7] the equivalent current function, J(φ) in Amperes for an hour of the day, φ/15 (the longitude divided by 15o ) is obtained from: = =1 4 = 12 cos + sin (2) With 4 for the maximum value of m, and 12 for the maximum value of n. For the external current representation, we have: =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (3) =− 5 2 2+1 +1 (4) And the internal current representation, we have: = 5 2 2+1 +1 (5) = 5 2 2+1 +1 (6) where, R is the radius of the Earth in kilometers. The value of a is the radius of a sphere whose surface is located where a current could flow to give the fields described at the Earth’s surface by the SHA, hence the name “Equivalent Current”. It is believed that the dynamo current sources are in the ionospheric E-region (near 100 km altitude). Because there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-region ionosphere, near 100 km altitude, the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the current computations [8] . However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by: may be omitted from the current computations [8] . However, the equivalent external current intensity I of latitudinal component Ө and longitudinal com- ponent ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: 4 the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the cu However, the equivalent external current intensity I of la component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external = + ∅ (7) 4 the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the cu However, the equivalent external current intensity I of la component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external = + ∅ (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external) can be given by: 4 there is other evidence that the dynamo current source is in the E-r the value of a ≈ R and the ratio − 1 may be omitted from the cu However, the equivalent external current intensity I of la component ø can be determined (in amperes) from J by: = 1 ∅ (7) ∅ = − 1 (8) Therefore, the total current intensity (internal and external = + ∅ (9) 4. Results and discussion Figure 2 shows the external currents for the four African stations: ILR, LAG, AAB and HER while Figure 3 shows the contour map for the external cur- rent in Africa. The variation in the external currents occurred in all hours of the day from dawn to dusk. The external current curves for all the stations are seen to increase gradually from midnight values to a maximum intensity around 10:00 for AAB, 11:00 for LAG, 11:00 for Lagos and 13:00 for HER and a gradual decrease to midnight values. This effect is also observed in the contour maps for the external current shown in Figure 3. The contour lines of the contour map are seen to be increasing inwards which indicates a positive variation pattern. It is observed that the nighttime values are min- imal. This is due to the disappearance of the sun which is the main source of ionization in the iono- sphere. Takeda [4] noted that the intensity of the Sq currents in high solar activity was about twice as large as it is in low solar activity. Moldwin [9] also noted that the ionospheric ionization at any given position depends on the position of the sun in the sky and on its absolute output. At night, the amount of sunlight goes to zero and production due to photoionization ceases. However, the currents are not observed to be zero. This there- fore suggests that the observed nighttime currents are from sources different from the ionospheric sourc- es. Moldwin [9] noted that these currents are from oth- er sources like the magnetospheric and ring currents. Obiekezie [10] pointed out that these currents filter into the ionosphere at night even during magnetic quiet periods. This non-zero current at night is reported by other researchers such as Campbell [11] , Okeke and Ra- biu [12] , Rabiu [13] , and Obiekezie, et al. [14] .
- 75. 71 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -2 0 2 4 6 JANUARY Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -5 0 5 10 FEBRUARY Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -5 0 5 10 MARCH Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -2 0 2 4 6 APRIL Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -2 0 2 4 6 MAY Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 JUNE Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -2 0 2 4 JULY Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 AUGUST Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -5 0 5 10 SEPTEMBER Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -5 0 5 10 OCTOBER Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 NOVEMBER Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -2 0 2 4 6 DECEMBER Local Time (Hours) External Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG Figure 2. External Sq current across Africa (ILR, LAG, AAB, HER). JANUARY Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -1 0 1 2 3 4 FEBRUARY Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -2 0 2 4 6 MARCH Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -2 0 2 4 6 APRIL Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -2 0 2 4 MAY Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -1 0 1 2 3 4 JUNE Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -2 0 2 4 JULY Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 AUGUST Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -2 0 2 4 SEPTEMBER Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -2 0 2 4 6 OCTOBER Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -2 0 2 4 6 8 NOVEMBER Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -2 0 2 4 DECEMBER Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Ext. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 0 2 4 6 Figure 3. Contour map of external current for equatorial, low and mid latitudes of Africa.
- 76. 72 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 The maximum current was observed in ILR in January and in AAB in almost all the months. AAB and ILR are equatorial electrojet stations located at latitude 0.18o of the dip equator. The equatorial electrojet is a narrow belt of intense electric current in the ionosphere confined to about ±3o of the dip equator. This result is in agreement with the work of Rastogi [15] who observed a maximum diurnal and semi-diurnal variation in X over the dip equator in- dicative of EEJ. Obiekezie et al. [14] also observed a maximum Sq (H) variation at the AAB station indic- ative of the EEJ. The external current pattern in HER station which is in the Southern hemisphere shows a crest-like pattern just like the other three stations in Africa in the Northern hemisphere. This is not in line with the suggested pattern of the ionospheric current system. The ionospheric currents typically form two global horizontal current vortices at the sunlit side of the Earth, one flowing clockwise in the Southern hem- isphere and the other flowing counterclockwise in the Northern hemisphere. The HER is expected to have a current pattern opposite that of ILR, LAG and AAB because of the hemispherical differences be- tween them, however, it was observed that HER was having a crest also. This behavior could be attributed to the position of the station with respect to the Sq focus in the southern hemisphere. Hence, it is sug- gested that within the equatorial and low latitudes, the ionospheric current pattern is the same in both hemispheres. Maximum external currents were obtained in March equinox for all the stations: ILR, LAG, AAB and HER with a value of approximately 4.8 × 103 A for ILR, 4.2 × 103 A for LAG, 8 × 103 A for AAB and 1.5 × 103 A for HER. This equinoctial maximum in the external currents is in agreement with Obiekezie and Okeke [2] . The minimum external current was observed in June Solstice in ILR, and HER with a value of 3.8 × 103 A, 5 × 103 A and 8 × 103 A respec- tively. At LAG and AAB, minimum variation was observed during the December Solstice and Septem- ber equinox with a value of 2.85 × 103 A and 2.5 × 103 A respectively. As can be seen in Figure 4, the variation in the internal currents occurred in all hours of the day 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 JANUARY Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 111315 171921 23 -10 -5 0 5 FEBRUARY Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 111315 171921 23 -10 -5 0 5 MARCH Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -6 -4 -2 0 2 APRIL Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -6 -4 -2 0 2 MAY Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 JUNE Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -4 -2 0 2 JULY Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 AUGUST Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 111315 171921 23 -10 -5 0 5 SEPTEMBER Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 111315 171921 23 -10 -5 0 5 OCTOBER Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 NOVEMBER Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 -6 -4 -2 0 2 DECEMBER Local Time (Hours) Internal Current (x10 3 A) AAB HER ILR LAG Figure 4. Internal Sq current across Africa (ILR, LAG, AAB, HER).
- 77. 73 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 from dawn to dusk. The observed variation in in- ternal currents is seen to be different from the ex- ternal currents both in amplitude and phase. These differences observed in the phase and amplitude are a function of the Earth’s conductivity. This is also reflected in the contour maps of the internal currents as shown in Figure 5. The calculated internal and external currents are seen to be lower than those of Campbell, et al. [16] , and Obiekezie and Okeke [2] . Campbell et al. [16] observed external and internal currents in the order of 104 A while Obiekezie and Okeke [2] observed external and internal currents in the order of 106 A. 5. Conclusions The application of the solar quiet day ionosphere current has enabled us to study the ionospheric Sq current system in the equatorial and low latitudes of Africa. The following deductions can be made from the results: 1) The maximum current observed in AAB and ILR is due to the Equatorial Electrojet Current pres- ent in the AAB and ILR stations. 2) Within the equatorial and low latitudes regions, the ionospheric current pattern is the same in both hemispheres. 3) The position of the station with respect to the Sq focus affects the external current pattern. 4) The source currents varied from the induced currents both in amplitude and phase. 5) Seasonal variation was observed in the ge- omagnetic component variations as well as in the currents. This is attributed to the position of the sun with respect to the earth at different months of the year. 6) The equinoctial maximum is observed in exter- nal current intensity which occurred mostly during the March Equinox. Conflict of Interest There is no conflict of interest. Funding This research received no external funding. JANUARY Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -4 -2 0 2 FEBRUARY Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 MARCH Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 APRIL Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 MAY Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -4 -2 0 2 JUNE Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -4 -2 0 2 JULY Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 AUGUST Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -4 -2 0 2 SEPTEMBER Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 OCTOBER Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 NOVEMBER Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -4 -2 0 2 DECEMBER Local Time (Hours) Geographic Latitude (deg.) Int. Current (x10 3 A) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123 -30 -20 -10 0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 Figure 5. Contour map of internal current for equatorial, low and mid latitudes of Africa.
- 78. 74 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023 References [1] Chapman, S., Bartels, J., 1940. Geomagnetism. Oxford University Press: London. [2] Obiekezie, T.N., Okeke, F.N., 2010. Upper man- tle conductivity determined from the solar quiet day ionospheric currents in the dip equatorial latitudes of West Africa. Moldavian Journal of the Physical Sciences. 9(2), 199-204. [3] Campbell, W.H., Schiffmacher, E.R., 1988. Upper mantle electrical conductivity for seven subcontinental regions of the earth. Journal of Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity. 40(11), 1387- 1406. doi: 10.5636/jgg.40.1387. [4] Takeda, M., 1999. Time variation of global geomagnetic sq field in 1964 and 1980. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics. 61(10), 765-774. [5] Takeda, M., 2002. The correlation between the variation in ionospheric conductivity and that of the geomagnetic Sq field. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics. 64(15), 1617-1621. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6826(02)00140-2. [6] Gauss, C.F., 1838. Allgemeine Theories des Erdmagnetismus, in Resultate aus den Beo- bachtungen des magnetischem Vereins in Yahr (in German) [General theories of terrestrial magnetism, in results from the observations of the magnetic society in Yahr]. Sci. Mem. Select. Trans. For. Acad. Learned Society Foreign Jour- nal. 2, 184-251. [7] Campbell, W.H., 1997. Introduction to geomag- netic fields. Cambridge University Press: New York. [8] Campbell, W.H., 2003. Introduction to geomag- netic fields. New York: Cambridge University Press. [9] Moldwin, M., 2008. An introduction to Space Weather. New York: Cambridge University Press. 122. [10]Obiekezie, T.N., 2012. Geomagnetic field vari- ations in the dip equatorial latitudes of West Af- rica. International Journal of Physical Sciences. 7(36), 5372-5377. [11] Campbell, W.H., 1979. Occurrence of AE and Dst geomagnetic index levels and the selection of the quietest days in the year. Journal of Geo- physical Research. 84, 875. [12]Okeke, F.N., Rabiu, A.B., 1998. Some aspects of the earth’s mid-latitude geomagnetic field varia- tions. Irish Astronomical Journal. 26(1), 29-32. [13]Rabiu, A.B., 2002. Seasonal Variability of Sq at Middle latitudes [PhD thesis]. Nsukka, Nigeria: University of Nigeria. [14]Obiekezie, T.N., Obiadazie, S.C., Agbo, G.A., 2013. Day-to-Day Variability of H and Z Com- ponents of the Geomagnetic Field at the African longitudes. ISRN Geophysics. 7. [15]Rastogi, R.G., 2002. A new look at the iono- spheric current system. Indian Journal and Ra- dio and Space Physics. 31, 67-74. [16]Campbell, W.H., Arora, E.R., Schiffmacher, E.R., 1993. External Sq currents in the Indian— Siberia region. Journal of Geophysical Re- search: Space Physics. 98, 3741-3752.
- 79. 75 Journal of Atmospheric Science Research | Volume 06 | Issue 01 | January 2023