Stop Trashing the Climate: Zero Waste

Stop Trashing
the Climate
FULL REPORT
June 2008

A ZERO WASTE APPROACH IS ONE OF THE FASTEST, CHEAPEST,
AND MOST EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES TO PROTECT THE CLIMATE.
Significantly decreasing waste disposed in landfills and incinerators will reduce
greenhouse gas emissions the equivalent to closing 21% of U.S. coal-fired
power plants. This is comparable to leading climate protection proposals such
as improving national vehicle fuel efficiency. Indeed, preventing waste and
expanding reuse, recycling, and composting are essential to put us on the
path to climate stability.

KEY FINDINGS:
1. A zero waste approach is one of the fastest, cheapest, and most effective strategies we can use to protect the
climate and the environment. Significantly decreasing waste disposed in landfills and incinerators will reduce
greenhouse gases the equivalent to closing one-fifth of U.S. coal-fired power plants. This is comparable to leading
climate protection proposals such as improving vehicle fuel efficiency. Indeed, implementing waste reduction and
materials recovery strategies nationally are essential to put us on the path to stabilizing the climate by 2050.
2. Wasting directly impacts climate change because it is directly linked to global resource extraction, transportation,
processing, and manufacturing. When we minimize waste, we can reduce greenhouse gas emissions in sectors
that together represent 36.7% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.
3. A zero waste approach is essential. Through the Urban Environmental Accords, 103 city mayors worldwide have
committed to sending zero waste to landfills and incinerators by the year 2040 or earlier.
4. Existing waste incinerators should be retired, and no new incinerators or landfills should be constructed.
5. Landfills are the largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions in the U.S., and the impact of landfill
emissions in the short term is grossly underestimated — methane is 72 times more potent than CO2 over a
20-year time frame.
6. The practice of landfilling and incinerating biodegradable materials such as food scraps, paper products, and yard
trimmings should be phased out immediately. Composting these materials is critical to protecting our climate and
restoring our soils.
7. Incinerators emit more CO2 per megawatt-hour than coal-fired, natural-gas-fired, or oil-fired power plants.
Incinerating materials such as wood, paper, yard debris, and food discards is far from “climate neutral”; rather,
incinerating these and other materials is detrimental to the climate.
8. Incinerators, landfill gas capture systems, and landfill “bioreactors” should not be subsidized under state and
federal renewable energy and green power incentive programs or carbon trading schemes. In addition, subsidies
to extractive industries such as mining, logging, and drilling should be eliminated.
9. New policies are needed to fund and expand climate change mitigation strategies such as waste reduction, reuse,
recycling, composting, and extended producer responsibility. Policy incentives are also needed to create locally-
based materials recovery jobs and industries.
10. Improved tools are needed for assessing the true climate implications of the wasting sector.

Stop Trashing
the Climate
www.stoptrashingtheclimate.org
zerowaste@stoptrashingtheclimate.org

by

Brenda Platt
Institute for Local Self-Reliance

David Ciplet
Global Anti-Incinerator Alliance/Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives

Kate M. Bailey and Eric Lombardi
Eco-Cycle

JUNE 2008

© 2008, Institute for Local Self-Reliance. All rights reserved.

About the Institute for Local Self-Reliance

ILSR is a nationally recognized organization providing research and technical assistance on recycling and
community-based economic development, building deconstruction, zero waste planning, renewable energy, and
policies to protect local main streets and other facets of a homegrown economy. Our mission is to provide the
conceptual framework and information to aid the creation of ecologically sound and economically equitable
communities. ILSR works with citizens, activists, policy makers, and entrepreneurs. Since our inception in 1974, we
have actively addressed the burgeoning waste crisis, overdependence on fossil fuels, and other materials efficiency
issues. We advocate for better practices that support local economies and healthy communities.

For more information contact: 927 15th Street, NW, 4th Floor
Washington, DC 20005
(202)898-1610 • www.ilsr.org • info@ilsr.org

About Eco-Cycle

Founded in 1976, Eco-Cycle is one of the largest non-profit recyclers in the USA and has an international reputation
as a pioneer and innovator in resource conservation. We believe in individual and community action to transform
society’s throw-away ethic into environmentally-friendly stewardship. Our mission is to provide publicly-accountable
recycling, conservation and education services, and to identify, explore and demonstrate the emerging frontiers of
sustainable resource management and Zero Waste.

For more information contact: P.O. Box 19006 Boulder, CO 80308
(303)444-6634 • www.ecocycle.org • recycle@ecocycle.org

About the Global Anti-Incinerator Alliance/Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives

GAIA is a worldwide alliance of more than 500 grassroots organizations, non-governmental organizations, and
individuals in 81 countries whose ultimate vision is a just, toxic-free world without incineration. Our goal is clean
production and the creation of a closed-loop, materials-efficient economy where all products are reused, repaired
or recycled. GAIA’s greatest strength lies in its membership, which includes some of the most active leaders in
environmental health and justice struggles internationally. Worldwide, we are proving that it is possible to stop
incinerators, take action to protect the climate, and implement zero waste alternatives. GAIA’s members work
through a combination of grassroots organizing, strategic alliances, and creative approaches to local economic
development. In the United States, GAIA is a project of the Ecology Center (ecologycenter.org).

For more information contact:

Unit 320, Eagle Court Condominium, 1442A Walnut Street, #20
26 Matalino Street, Barangay Central, Berkeley, California 94709, USA
Quezon City 1101, Philippines Tel: 1 (510) 883 9490 • Fax: 1 (510) 883-9493
Tel: 63 (2) 929-0376 • Fax: 63 (2) 436-4733

www.no-burn.org • info@no-burn.org

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables

List of Figures

Preface

Acknowledgments

Executive Summary 1

Key Findings 6

A Call to Action – 12 Priority Policies Needed Now 12

Introduction 14

Wasting = Climate Change 17

Lifecycle Impacts of Wasting: Virgin Material Mining, Processing, and Manufacturing 19

Landfills Are Huge Methane Producers 25

Waste Incinerators Emit Greenhouse Gases and Waste Energy 29

Debunking Common Myths 34

A Zero Waste Approach is One of the Fastest, Cheapest, and Most
Effective Strategies for Mitigating Climate Change in the Short Term 43

Zero Waste Approach Versus Business As Usual 49

Composting Is Key to Restoring the Climate and Our Soils 54

New Policies and Tools Are Needed 59

Conclusions 66

Endnotes 71

Stop Trashing The Climate

LIST OF TABLES

Table ES-1: Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategies: Zero Waste Path Compared to
Commonly Considered Options 2

Table ES-2: Potent Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming Potential 8

Table ES-3: Major Sources of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 2005, 100 Year vs. 20 Year Time Horizon 8

Table 1: Impact of Paper Recycling on Greenhouse Gas Emissions 20

Table 2: Primary Aluminum Production, Greenhouse Gas Emissions 22

Table 3: Landfill Gas Constituents, % by volume 26

Table 4: Potent Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming Potential 26

Table 5: Major Sources of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 2005, 100 Year vs. 20 Year Time Horizon 28

Table 6: Direct and Indirect U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Municipal Waste Incinerators, 2005 30

Table 7: Select Resource Conservation Practices Quantified 47

Table 8: U.S. EPA WARM GHG Emissions by Solid Waste Management Options 48

Table 9: Zero Waste by 2030, Materials Diversion Tonnages and Rates 50

Table 10: Source Reduction by Material 50

Table 11: Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategies: Zero Waste Path Compared to
Commonly Considered Options 51

Table 12: Investment Cost Estimates for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation from Municipal Solid Waste 57


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure ES-1: Business As Usual Recycling, Composting, Disposal 4

Figure ES-2: Zero Waste Approach 4

Figure ES-3: Wasting is Linked to 36.7% of Total U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 2005 5

Figure ES-4: Comparison of Total CO2 Emissions Between Incinerators
and Fossil-Fuel-Based Power Plants (lbs CO2/megawatt-hour) 9

Figure 1: Conventional View – U.S. EPA Data on Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector, 2005 18

Figure 2: Wasting Is Linked to 36.7% of Total U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 2005 24

Figure 3: U.S. Methane Emissions by Source, 2005 25

Figure 4: Comparison of Total CO2 Emissions Between Incinerators
and Fossil-Fuel-Based Power Plants (lbs CO2/megawatt-hour) 40

Figure 5: Energy Usage for Virgin vs. Recycled-Content Products (million Btus/ton) 46

Figure 6: Business As Usual Recycling, Composting, Disposal 49

Figure 7: Zero Waste Approach 49

Figure 8: 100-Year Time Frame, Landfill Methane Emissions 68

Figure 9: 20-Year Time Frame, Landfill Methane Emissions 68


PREFACE

How beneficial would it be to the climate if we were to shut down one-fifth of the nation’s coal-fired power plants?
To say it would be “very beneficial” is probably an understatement. It turns out that we can reduce greenhouse gas
emissions by an amount equivalent to shutting down one-fifth of the nation’s coal-fired power plants by making
practical and achievable changes to America’s waste management system. Indeed, taking logical steps to reduce
the amount that we waste in landfills and incinerators would also have comparable climate benefits to significantly
improving national vehicle fuel efficiency standards and other leading climate protection strategies.

The authors of Stop Trashing the Climate are building a dialogue with this report. The world is already in dialogue
about energy and climate change, but the discussion of how wasting impacts global warming has only just begun.
This report shines the spotlight on the immediate, cost-effective, and momentous gains that are possible through
better resource management. Stemming waste is a crucial element to mitigating climate change.

Wasting occurs at every step of our one-way system of resource consumption. From resource extraction to
manufacturing to transportation to disposal, each step impacts the state of our climate and our environment. Stop
Trashing the Climate presents a bird’s-eye view of this unsustainable system, showing both the cumulative impacts
of our choices and the huge potential for change.

While this report focuses only on climate implications, the decisions to cut waste will also reduce human health
risks, conserve dwindling resources, protect habitat, improve declining soil quality, address issues of social and
environmental justice, and strengthen local economies.

One shocking revelation within the pages that follow is the grossly inaccurate way that the world has been
measuring the global warming impact of methane — especially landfill methane. We have documented here that
the choice of measuring the impact of methane over a 100-year timeline is the result of a policy decision, and not
a scientific one. We have found that the climate crisis necessitates looking at the near-term impact of our actions.
Our calculations of greenhouse gas emissions over a 20-year timeline show that the climate impacts of landfill gas
have been greatly understated in popular U.S. EPA models.

But that’s far from the end of the story. We also expose incinerators as energy wasters rather than generators, and
as significant emitters of carbon dioxide. We describe the absurdity of the current reality in which our agricultural
soil is in increasingly desperate need of organic materials while we waste valuable nutrients and space in landfills
by simply failing to compost food scraps and yard trimmings. We call attention to the negative impact of misguided
subsidies that fund incinerators and landfills as generators of “renewable energy.” We also reveal the many fallacies
behind estimated landfill gas capture rates and show how preventing methane generation is the only effective
strategy for protecting our climate.


We are addressing these critical issues because few others are, and as leading organizations at the forefront of
resource conservation, we see how these issues connect many of our environmental challenges — especially
climate change. We’ve sought to provide a factual analysis and to fill in the data gaps when we could, but we don’t
claim that our analysis is fully conclusive or comprehensive. The authors of this report are concerned people who
work at the interface of society, technology, and the environment. We welcome hard data to challenge us and refine
our findings! If you disagree with our policy positions and recommendations for action, we welcome that, too! But if
you agree with the findings and assertions in this report, then we expect to link arms with you, the reader, and move
the discussion forward about how to change the negative impacts of our planetary wasting patterns, reduce reliance
on disposal systems, capitalize on the environmental and economic opportunities in sustainable resource use,
support environmental justice, and make real change in policy so that we can make real change in the world.

Significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are achieved when we reduce materials consumption in the first
place, and when we replace the use of virgin materials with reused and recycled materials in the production
process. This is the heart of a zero waste approach. The time to act is now, and this report provides a roadmap for
us to address global climate change starting in our own communities.

Eric Lombardi Brenda Platt David Ciplet
Eco-Cycle Institute for Local Self-Reliance GAIA

June 2008

Please email us at: zerowaste@stoptrashingtheclimate.org


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This report was made possible by the generous support of the Rockefeller Family Fund, the Giles W. and Elise G. Mead
Foundation, The Ettinger Foundation, the Roy A. Hunt Foundation, the Ford Foundation, and the Overbrook Foundation. Brenda
Platt of the Institute for Local Self-Reliance (ILSR) was the lead author and researcher. She is deeply indebted to her co-authors:
David Ciplet at GAIA and Kate M. Bailey and Eric Lombardi at Eco-Cycle. They guided this report at every step – adding, editing,
rewriting, checking, and framing content. This report represents a true collaborative effort. ILSR intern Heeral Bhalala deserves
special recognition for calculating our business-as-usual wasting scenario and comparing this to a zero waste path using the
EPA’s waste characterization data and its WAste Reduction Model (WARM). ILSR’s Sarah Gilberg helped research the paper facts
and industrial energy use, while Sarah Pickell was a whiz at formatting the tables. Many thanks to Kelly Heekin for her thorough
edits of this document and to Leonardo Bodmer of Bodmer Design for designing the report and its executive summary. Special
thanks to the following individuals for reviewing and improving our findings and other parts of this document:

Peter Anderson :: Center for a Competitive Waste Industry, Madison, WI
Sally Brown :: University of Washington, WA
Wael Hmaiden :: IndyAct-The League of Independent Activists, Beirut, Lebanon
Gary Liss :: Gary Liss & Associates, Loomis, CA
Marti Matsch :: Eco-Cycle, Boulder, CO
David Morris :: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Washington, DC
Jeffrey Morris :: Sound Resource Management, Seattle, WA
Neil Seldman :: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Washington, DC
Neil Tangri :: GAIA, Berkeley, CA
Alan Watson :: Public Interest Consultants, Wales, UK
Monica Wilson :: GAIA, Berkeley, CA

All responsibility for the views expressed in this report or for any errors in it rests with the authoring organizations.


Executive Summary

Stop Trashing the Climate provides compelling evidence that preventing waste and expanding reuse,
recycling, and composting programs — that is, aiming for zero waste — is one of the fastest, cheapest, and
most effective strategies available for combating climate change. This report documents the link between
climate change and unsustainable patterns of consumption and wasting, dispels myths about the climate benefits
of landfill gas recovery and waste incineration, outlines policies needed to effect change, and offers a roadmap for
how to significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within a short period.

Immediate and comprehensive action by the United By reducing waste creation and disposal, the U.S.
States to dramatically reduce greenhouse gas can conservatively decrease greenhouse gas emissions
emissions is desperately needed. Though the U.S. by 406 megatons‡ CO2 eq. per year by 2030. This
represents less than 5% of the world’s population, we zero waste approach would reduce greenhouse gas
generate 22% of the world’s carbon dioxide emissions the equivalent of closing one-fifth of the
emissions, use 30% of the world’s resources, and existing 417 coal-fired power plants in the U.S.5 This
create 30% of the world’s waste.1 If unchecked, would achieve 7% of the cuts in U.S. greenhouse gas
annual greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. will emissions needed to put us on the path to achieving
increase to 9.7 gigatons* carbon-dioxide equivalents what many leading scientists say is necessary to
(CO2 eq.) by 2030, up from 6.2 gigatons CO2 eq. in stabilize the climate by 2050.6, 7, 8 Indeed, reducing
1990.2 Those who are most impacted by climate waste has comparable (and sometimes
change, both globally and within the U.S., are people complementary) benefits to the leading strategies
of color and low-income and indigenous identified for climate protection, such as significantly
communities — the same people who are least improving vehicle fuel efficiency and hybridizing
responsible for rapidly increasing greenhouse gas vehicles, expanding and enhancing carbon sinks
emissions.3 To effectively address global climate (such as forests), and retrofitting lighting and
change, the U.S. must dramatically shift its improving electronic equipment. (See Table ES-1.)
relationship to natural resources. A zero waste Further, a zero waste approach has greater potential
approach is a crucial solution to the climate change for protecting the climate than environmentally
problem. harmful strategies proposed to reduce carbon
emissions such as the expansion of nuclear energy.
Stop Trashing the Climate provides an alternative Moreover, reuse, recycling, and composting facilities
scenario to business-as-usual wasting in the U.S. By do not have the severe liability or permitting issues
reducing waste generation 1% each year and associated with building nuclear power plants or
diverting 90% of our discards from landfills and carbon capture and storage systems.9
incinerators by the year 2030, we could dramatically
reduce greenhouse gas emissions within the U.S. and
The good news is that readily available
around the world. This waste reduction scenario
would put us solidly on track to achieving the goal of
cost-competitive and effective strategies
sending zero waste to landfills and incinerators by to reduce, reuse, and recover discarded
the year 2040, the target established by the Urban materials can be implemented on a wide
Environmental Accords, which 103 city mayors scale within a relatively short time period.
worldwide have signed.4

* 1 gigaton = 1 billion metric tons
‡ 1 megaton = 1 million metric tons = 1 Tg (teragram)

2 Stop Trashing The Climate 1

Table ES-1: Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategies: Zero Waste Path Compared to Commonly
Considered Options (annual reductions in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, megatons CO2 eq.)

% of Total
Annual Abatement
Abatement Needed in 2030 to
Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy
Potential by Stabilize Climate
2030 by 20501

ZERO WASTE PATH
Reducing waste through prevention, reuse, recycling and composting 406 7.0%

ABATEMENT STRATEGIES CONSIDERED BY McKINSEY REPORT
Increasing fuel efficiency in cars and reducing fuel carbon intensity 340 5.9%
Improved fuel efficiency and dieselization in various vehicle classes 195 3.4%
Lower carbon fuels (cellulosic biofuels) 100 1.7%
Hybridization of cars and light trucks 70 1.2%
Expanding & enhancing carbon sinks 440 7.6%
Afforestation of pastureland and cropland 210 3.6%
Forest management 110 1.9%
Conservation tillage 80 1.4%
Targeting energy-intensive portions of the industrial sector 620 10.7%
Recovery and destruction of non-CO 2 GHGs 255 4.4%
Carbon capture and storage 95 1.6%
Landfill abatement (focused on methane capture) 65 1.1%
New processes and product innovation (includes recycling) 70 1.2%
Improving energy efficiency in buildings and appliances 710 12.2%
Lighting retrofits 240 4.1%
Residential lighting retrofits 130 2.2%
Commercial lighting retrofits 110 1.9%
Electronic equipment improvements 120 2.1%
Reducing the carbon intensity of electric power production 800 13.8%
Wind 120 2.1%
Nuclear 70 1.2%

The McKinsey Report analyzed more than 250 opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. While the authors evaluated
options for three levels of effort—low-, mid-, and high-range—they only reported greenhouse gas reduction potential for the mid-
range case opportunities. The mid-range case involves concerted action across the economy. Values for select mid-range
abatement strategies are listed above. The zero waste path abatement potential also represents a mid-range case, due to
shortcomings in EPA’s WARM model, which underestimates the reduction in greenhouse gases from source reduction and
composting as compared to landfilling and incineration. A high-range zero waste path would also provide a more accelerated
approach to reducing waste generation and disposal.

The authors of this report, Stop Trashing the Climate, do not support all of the abatement strategies evaluated in the McKinsey
Report. We do not, for instance, support nuclear energy production.

1. In order to stabilize the climate, U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2050 need to be at least 80% below 1990 levels. Based on a
straight linear calculation, this means 2030 emissions levels should be 37% lower than the 1990 level, or equal to 3.9 gigatons CO2
eq. Thus, based on increases in U.S. greenhouse gases predicted by experts, 5.8 gigatons CO2 eq. in annual abatement is needed
in 2030 to put the U.S. on the path to help stabilize the climate by 2050.

Source: Jon Creyts et al, Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How Much and at What Cost? U.S. Greenhouse Gas
Abatement Mapping Initiative, Executive Report, McKinsey & Company, December 2007. Available online at:
http://www.mckinsey.com/clientservice/ccsi/greenhousegas.asp. Abatement potential for waste reduction is calculated by the
Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Washington, DC, June 2008, based on the EPA’s WAste Reduction Model (WARM) to estimate
GHGs and based on extrapolating U.S. EPA waste generation and characterization data to 2030, assuming 1% per year source
reduction, and achieving a 90% waste diversion by 2030.


coal-fired power plant

To achieve the remarkable climate protection in 2006. Figure ES-1, Business As Usual, visually
potential of waste reduction, we must stem the flow represents the future projection of this trend based
of materials to landfills and halt the building and use on our current wasting patterns. Figure ES-2, Zero
of incinerator facilities. Landfills and incinerators Waste Approach, illustrates an alternate path based
destroy rather than conserve materials. For every on rising recycling and composting rates and the
item that is landfilled or incinerated, a new one must source reduction of 1% of waste per year between
be extracted, processed, and manufactured from raw 2008 and 2030. Under this zero waste approach,
or virgin resources. Americans destroy nearly 170 90% of the municipal solid waste generated in the
million tons of paper, metals, plastics, food scraps, U.S. could be diverted from disposal facilities by
and other valuable materials in landfills and 2030. Using the U.S. EPA’s WAste Reduction Model
incinerators each year. More than two thirds of the (WARM) to estimate greenhouse gas reduction, the
materials we use are still burned or buried,10 despite zero waste approach — as compared to the business-
the fact that we have the technical capacity to cost- as-usual approach — would reduce greenhouse gases
effectively recycle, reuse or compost 90% of what we by an estimated 406 megatons CO2 eq. per year by
waste.11 Millions of tons of valuable resources are also 2030. This reduction of 406 megatons CO2 eq. per
needlessly wasted each year because products are year is equivalent to closing 21% of the nation’s 417
increasingly designed to be used only once.12 coal-fired power plants.

If we continue on the same wasting path with rising
per capita waste generation rates and stagnating
recycling and composting rates, by the year 2030
Americans could generate 301 million tons per year
of municipal solid waste, up from 251 million tons


Current assessments of greenhouse gas
Figure ES-1: Business As Usual Recycling, emissions from waste take an overly narrow
Composting, Disposal
view of the potential for the “waste sector”
to mitigate climate change. This is largely a
result of inventory methodologies used to
account for greenhouse gases from waste.
Conventional greenhouse gas inventory
data indicate that the waste sector in the
U.S. is solely responsible for 2.6% of all
greenhouse gas emissions in 2005. This
assessment, however, does not include the
most significant climate change impact of
waste disposal: We must continually extract
new resources to replace those buried or
burned. For every ton of discarded
Source: Brenda Platt and Heeral Bhalala, Institute for Local Self-Reliance,
Washington, DC, June 2008, using and extrapolating from U.S. EPA
products and materials destroyed by
municipal solid waste characterization data. Waste composition in future incinerators and landfills, about 71 tons of
assumed the same as 2006. The diversion level through recycling and
composting flattens out at 32.5%. Takes into account U.S. Census manufacturing, mining, oil and gas
estimated population growth.
exploration, agricultural, coal combustion,
and other discards are produced.13 More
trees must be cut down to make paper.
More ore must be mined for metal
Figure ES-2: Zero Waste Approach
production. More petroleum must be
processed into plastics.

By reusing instead of disposing of
materials, we can keep more forests and
other ecosystems intact, store or sequester
large amounts of carbon, and significantly
reduce our global warming footprint. For
example, cutting deforestation rates in half
globally over the next century would
provide 12% of the global emissions
reductions needed to prevent significant
increases in global temperatures.14

Reusing materials and reducing waste
Source: Brenda Platt and Heeral Bhalala, Institute for Local Self- provide measurable environmental and
Reliance, Washington, DC, June 2008. Past tonnage based on U.S. EPA
municipal solid waste characterization data. Future tonnage based on climate benefits. According to a recent
reaching 90% diversion by 2030, and 1% source reduction per year
between 2008 and 2030. Waste composition in future assumed the same report to the California Air Resources
as 2006. Takes into account U.S. Census estimated population growth. Board, Recommendations of the Economic
and Technology Advancement Advisory
Committee (ETAAC) Final Report on
Technologies and Policies to Consider for
Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions in
California:


“Recycling offers the opportunity to cost-effectively burned or buried in communities. The impact of this
decrease GHG emissions from the mining, wasteful system extends far beyond local landfills and
manufacturing, forestry, transportation, and incinerators, causing greenhouse gas emissions up to
electricity sectors while simultaneously diminishing thousands of miles away from these sources. In this
methane emissions from landfills. Recycling is way, U.S. related consumption and disposal are
widely accepted. It has a proven economic track closely tied to greenhouse gas emissions from
record of spurring more economic growth than any extractive and manufacturing industries in countries
other option for the management of waste and other such as China.
recyclable materials. Increasing the flow through
California’s existing recycling or materials recovery Thus, reducing the amount of materials consumed
infrastructures will generate significant climate in the first place is vital for combating climate
response and economic benefits.”15 change. In addition, when recovered materials are
reused, recycled, and composted within local and
In short, unsustainable consumption and waste regional economies, the climate protection benefits
disposal drive a climate-changing cycle in which are even greater because significant greenhouse gas
resources are continually pulled out of the Earth, emissions associated with the transportation of
processed in factories, shipped around the world, and products and materials are avoided.

Figure ES-3: Wasting Is Linked to 36.7% of Total U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 2005

All Other
63.3%
Industrial Fossil Fuel
Combustion
11.6%

Industrial
Electricity
Consumption
10.5%

Industrial Non-
Energy Processes
Manure 4.4%
Management
0.7% Industrial Coal
Mining
Synthetic Fertilizers
Truck 0.3%
1.4%
Waste Disposal Transportation
2.6% 5.3%

Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Based on data presented in the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and Sinks, 1990-2005, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, April 15, 2007. Industrial Electricity Consumption is estimated using Energy
Information Administration 2004 data on electricity sales to customers. See Table ES-1, Electric Power Annual Summary Statistics for
the United States, released October 22, 2007, and available online at: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epates.html. Waste
disposal includes landfilling, wastewater treatment, and combustion. Synthetic fertilizers include urea production. All data reflect a
100-year time frame for comparing greenhouse gas emissions.

Emission Source 100 Yr Horizon 20 Yr Horizo
6 Emissions Stopof Total The Climate
% Trashing Emissions
5 %
Fossil Fuel Combustion (CO 2) 5,751.2 79.2% 5,751.2
2 365.1 5.0% 340.4
Agricultural Soil Mgt (N2 O)

Key findings of this report 3. A zero waste approach is essential. Through the
Urban Environmental Accords, 103 city mayors
worldwide have committed to sending zero waste to
1. A zero waste approach is one of the fastest, landfills and incinerators by the year 2040 or
cheapest, and most effective strategies we can use earlier.19 More than two dozen U.S. communities
to protect the climate and environment. By and the state of California have also now embraced
significantly reducing the amount of waste landfilled zero waste as a goal. These zero waste programs are
and incinerated, the U.S can conservatively reduce based on (1) reducing consumption and discards, (2)
greenhouse gas emissions by 406 megatons CO2 eq. reusing discards, (3) extended producer
per year by 2030, which is the equivalent of taking responsibility and other measures to ensure that
21% of the existing 417 coal-fired power plants off products can safely be recycled into the economy and
the grid.16 A zero waste approach has comparable environment,* (4) comprehensive recycling, (5)
(and sometimes complementary) benefits to leading comprehensive composting of clean segregated
proposals to protect the climate such as significantly organics, and (6) effective policies, regulations,
improving vehicle fuel efficiency and hybridizing incentives, and financing structures to support these
vehicles, expanding and enhancing carbon sinks systems. The existing 8,659 curbside collection
(such as forests), or retrofitting lighting and programs in the U.S. can serve as the foundation for
improving electronic equipment (see Table ES-1.) It expanded materials recovery.
also has greater potential for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions than environmentally harmful strategies 4. Existing waste incinerators should be retired,
proposed such as the expansion of nuclear energy. and no new incinerators or landfills should be
Indeed, a zero waste approach would achieve 7% of constructed. Incinerators are significant sources of
the cuts in U.S. emissions needed to put us on the CO2 and also emit nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent
path to climate stability by 2050. greenhouse gas that is approximately 300 times more
effective than carbon dioxide at trapping heat in the
2. Wasting directly impacts climate change atmosphere.20 By destroying resources rather than
because it is directly linked to resource extraction, conserving them, all incinerators — including mass-
transportation, processing, and manufacturing. burn, pyrolysis, plasma, and gasification21 — cause
Since 1970, we have used up one-third of global significant and unnecessary lifecycle greenhouse gas
natural resources.17 Virgin raw materials industries emissions. Pyrolysis, plasma, and gasification
are among the world’s largest consumers of energy incinerators may have an even larger climate
and are thus significant contributors to climate footprint than conventional mass-burn incinerators
change because energy use is directly correlated with because they can require inputs of additional fossil
greenhouse gas emissions. Our linear system of fuels or electricity to operate. Incineration is also
extraction, processing, transportation, consumption, pollution-ridden and cost prohibitive, and is a direct
and disposal is intimately tied to core contributors of obstacle to reducing waste and increasing recycling.
global climate change such as industrial energy use, Further, sources of industrial pollution such as
transportation, and deforestation. When we incineration also disproportionately impact people of
minimize waste, we reduce greenhouse gas emissions color and low-income and indigenous
in these and other sectors, which together represent communities.22
36.7% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.18 See
Figure ES-3. It is this number that more accurately
reflects the impact of the whole system of extraction
to disposal on climate change.

* Extended producer responsibility requires firms, which manufacture, import or sell products and packaging, to be financially or physically responsible for such products over the entire lifecycle of the product,
including after its useful life.

6 Stop Trashing The Climate

5. Landfills are the largest source of “Scientifically speaking, using the 20-year
anthropogenic methane emissions in the U.S., time horizon to assess methane emissions
and the impact of landfill emissions in the short is as equally valid as using the 100-year
term is grossly underestimated — methane is 72 time horizon. Since the global warming
times more potent than CO2 over a 20-year time potential of methane over 20 years is 72,
frame. National data on landfill greenhouse gas
reductions in methane emissions will have
emissions are based on international accounting
a larger short-term effect on temperature
protocols that use a 100-year time frame for
calculating methane’s global warming potential.‡
— 72 times the impact — than equal
Because methane only stays in the atmosphere for reductions of CO2. Added benefits of
around 12 years, its impacts are far greater in the reducing methane emissions are that many
short term. Over a 100-year time frame, methane is reductions come with little or no cost,
25 times more potent than CO2. However, methane reductions lower ozone concentrations near
is 72 times more potent than CO2 over 20 years.23 Earth’s surface, and methane emissions can
(See Table ES-2.) The Intergovernmental Panel on be reduced immediately while it will take
Climate Change assesses greenhouse gas emissions time before the world’s carbon-based
over three time frames — 20, 100, and 500 years. energy infrastructure can make meaningful
The choice of which time frame to use is a policy- reductions in net carbon emissions.”
based decision, not one based on science.24 On a 20-
year time frame, landfill methane emissions alone – Dr. Ed J. Dlugokencky, Global Methane Expert, NOAA
represent 5.2% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. Earth System Research Laboratory, March 2008
(See Table ES-3.) Furthermore, landfill gas capture
systems are not an effective strategy for preventing Source: “Beyond Kyoto: Why Climate Policy Needs to Adopt the 20-year Impact of
Methane,” Eco-Cycle Position Memo, Eco-Cycle, www.ecocycle.org, March 2008.
methane emissions to the atmosphere. The portion
of methane captured over a landfill’s lifetime may be
as low as 20% of total methane emitted.25

6. The practice of landfilling and incinerating
biodegradable materials such as food scraps,
paper products, and yard trimmings should be
phased out immediately. Non-recyclable organic
materials should be segregated at the source and
composted or anaerobically digested under
controlled conditions.** Composting avoids
significant methane emissions from landfills,
increases carbon storage in soils and improves plant
growth, which in turn expands carbon sequestration.
Composting is thus vital to restoring the climate and
our soils. In addition, compost is a value-added
product, while landfills and incinerators present
long-term environmental liabilities. Consequently,
composting should be front and center in a national
strategy to protect the climate in the short term.

‡ The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) developed the concept of global warming potential (GWP) as an index to help policymakers evaluate the impacts of greenhouse gases with different
atmospheric lifetimes and infrared absorption properties, relative to the chosen baseline of carbon dioxide (CO2).

** Anaerobic digestion systems can complement composting. After energy extraction, nutrient rich materials from digesters make excellent compost feedstocks.

Stop Trashing The Climate 7

Table ES-2: Potent Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming Potential (GWP)
All Other Table ES-2: Potent Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming Potential (GWP)
63.3%
Industrial Fossil Fuel Time Horizon
Chemical GWP for Given
Common Name
Formula Combustion20 yr
SAR1 100 yr 500 yr
11.6%
Carbon Dioxide CO2 1 1 1 1
Methane CH4 21 72 25 8
Industrial
Nitrous Oxide N20 310 Electricity 289 298 153
Hydrofluorocarbons Consumption
HFC-134a CH2FCF3 1,300 10.5%3,830 1,430 435
HFC-125 CHF2CF3 2,800 6,350 3,500 1,100
Perfluorinated compounds Industrial Non-
Sulfur Hexafluoride SF6 23,900Energy Processes
16,300 22,800 32,600
Manure 4.4%
PFC-14 2 CF4 6,500 5,210 7,390 11,200
Management
0.7% PFC-116 2 C2F6 9,200 8,630 12,200 18,200
Industrial Coal
Mining
1. IPCC Second Assessment Report (1996). Represents 100-year time horizon. These GWPs are used by the U.S. EPA in its
Synthetic Fertilizers Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks.
Inventory of U.S. Truck 0.3%
1.4%
2. Released during aluminum production.Transportation expected lifetime of 1,000 years.
Waste Disposal PFC-116 has an
2.6% 5.3%
Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Table 2.14,” p. 212, Forster, P., et al, 2007: Changes in Atmospheric
Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis.

Table ES-3: Major Sources of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions (Tg CO2 Eq.), 2005,
100 Year vs. 20 Year Time Horizon

Emission Source 100 Yr Horizon 20 Yr Horizon 1
Emissions % of Total Emissions % of Total
Fossil Fuel Combustion (CO 2) 5,751.2 79.2% 5,751.2 65.7%
Agricultural Soil Mgt 2 (N2 O) 365.1 5.0% 340.4 3.9%
Non-Energy Use of Fuels 3 (CO2) 142.4 2.0% 142.4 1.6%
Natural Gas Systems (CO 2 & CH4) 139.3 1.9% 409.1 4.7%
Landfills (CH 4) 132.0 1.8% 452.6 5.2%
Substitution of ODS (HFCs, PFCs, SF 6) 123.3 1.7% 305.7 3.5%
Enteric Fermentation (CH 4) 112.1 1.5% 384.3 4.4%
Coal Mining (CH 4) 52.4 0.7% 179.7 2.1%
Manure Mgt (CH 4 & N2O) 50.8 0.7% 150.5 1.7%
Iron & Steel Production (CO 2 & CH4) 46.2 0.6% 48.6 0.6%
Cement Manufacture (CO 2) 45.9 0.6% 45.9 0.5%
Mobile Combustion (N 2O & CH 4) 40.6 0.6% 44.3 0.5%
Wastewater Treatment (CH 4 & N2O) 33.4 0.5% 94.5 1.1%
Petroleum Systems (CH 4) 28.5 0.4% 97.7 1.1%
Municipal Solid Waste Combustion (CO 2 & N2O)4 21.3 0.3% 21.3 0.2%
Other (28 gas source categories combined) 175.9 2.4% 286.0 3.3%
Total 7,260.4 100.0% 8,754.2 100.0%

ODS = Ozone Depleting Substances Tg = Teragram = million metric tons

1. Methane emissions converted to 20-year time frame. Methane’s global warming potential is 72 over a 20-year time horizon, compared to 21 used for the 100-
year time frame. N2O emissions along with ODS, perfluorinated compounds, and hydrofluorocarbons have also been converted to the 20-year time horizon.
2. Such as fertilizer application and other cropping practices.
3. Such as for manufacturing plastics, lubricants, waxes, and asphalt.
4. CO2 emissions released from the combustion of biomass materials such as wood, paper, food discards, and yard trimmings are not accounted for under
Municipal Solid Waste Combustion in the EPA inventory. Biomass emissions represent 72% of all CO2 emitted from waste incinerators.

Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Data for 100-year time horizon is from “Table ES-2: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and
Sinks,” Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, April 15, 2007, p. ES-5 and p. 3-19.


Figure ES-4: Comparison of Total CO2 Emissions Between Incinerators
and Fossil-Fuel-Based Power Plants (lbs CO2/megawatt-hour)

Ta

Source: U.S. EPA Clean Energy web page, “How Does Electricity Affect the Environment,”
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/air-emissions.html, browsed March 13, 2008.

7. Incinerators emit more CO2 per megawatt-hour and composting feedstocks. This ultimately leads to
than coal-fired, natural-gas-fired, or oil-fired a net increase of CO2 concentrations in the
power plants (see Figure ES-4). Incinerating atmosphere and contributes to climate change. The
materials such as wood, paper, yard debris, and bottom line is that tremendous opportunities for
food discards is far from “climate neutral”; rather, greenhouse gas reductions are lost when a material is
incinerating these and other materials is incinerated. It is not appropriate to ignore the
detrimental to the climate. However, when opportunities for CO2 or other emissions to be
comparing incineration with other energy options avoided, sequestered or stored through non-
such as coal, natural gas, and oil power plants, the combustion uses of a given material. More climate-
Solid Waste Association of North America friendly alternatives to incinerating materials include
(SWANA) and the Integrated Waste Services options such as waste avoidance, reuse, recycling and
Association (an incinerator industry group), treat the composting. Any climate model comparing the
incineration of “biomass” materials such as wood, climate impact of energy generation or waste
paper, and food discards as “carbon neutral.” As a management options should take into account
result, they ignore CO2 emissions from these lifecycle emissions incurred (or not avoided) by not
materials. This is inaccurate. Wood, paper, and utilizing a material for its “highest and best” use.
agricultural materials are often produced from These emissions are the opportunity costs of
unsustainable forestry and land practices that are incineration.
causing the amount of carbon stored in forests and
soil to decrease over time. Incinerating these 8. Incinerators, landfill gas capture systems, and
materials not only emits CO2 in the process, but also landfill “bioreactors” should not be subsidized
destroys their potential for reuse as manufacturing under state and federal renewable energy and


green power incentive programs or carbon trading are built to last, constructed so that they can be
schemes. Far from benefiting the climate, subsidies readily repaired, and are safe and cost-effective to
to these systems reinforce a one-way flow of resources recycle back into the economy and environment.
on a finite planet and make the task of conserving (See the list of priority policies, page 14.) Taxpayer
resources more difficult, not easier. Incineration money should be redirected from supporting costly
technologies include mass-burn, pyrolysis, plasma, and polluting disposal technologies to funding zero
gasification, and other systems that generate waste strategies.
electricity or fuels. All of these are contributors to
climate change. Environment America, the Sierra 10. Improved tools are needed for assessing the
Club, the Natural Resources Defense Council, true climate implications of the wasting sector.
Friends of the Earth, and 130 other organizations The U.S. EPA’s WAste Reduction Model (WARM),
recognize the inappropriateness of public a tool for assessing greenhouse gases from solid waste
subsidization of these technologies and have signed management options, should be revised to more
onto a statement calling for no incentives for accurately account for the following: lifetime landfill
incinerators.26 Incinerators are not the only problem gas capture rates; avoided synthetic fertilizer,
though; planned landfill “bioreactors,” which are pesticide, and fungicide impacts from compost use;
being promoted to speed up methane generation, are reduced water irrigation energy needs from compost
likely to simply result in increased methane application; increased plant growth from compost
emissions in the short term and to directly compete use; and the timing of emissions and sinks. (For
with more effective methane mitigation systems such more detail, see the discussion of WARM, page 61.)
as composting and anaerobic digestion technologies. New models are also needed to accurately take into
Preventing potent methane emissions altogether account the myriad ways that the lifecycle impact of
should be prioritized over strategies that offer only local activities contributes to global greenhouse gas
limited emissions mitigation. Indeed, all landfill emissions. This would lead to better-informed
operators should be required to collect landfill municipal actions to reduce overall greenhouse gas
gases; they should not be subsidized to do this. emissions. In addition, lifecycle models are needed to
In addition, subsidies to extractive industries such as accurately compare the climate impact of different
mining, logging, and drilling should be eliminated. energy generation options. Models that compare
These subsidies encourage wasting and economically incineration with other electricity generation options
disadvantage resource conservation and reuse should be developed to account for lifecycle
industries. greenhouse gas emissions incurred (or not avoided)
by not utilizing a material for its “highest and
9. New policies are needed to fund and expand best” use.
climate change mitigation strategies such as waste
reduction, reuse, recycling, composting, and
extended producer responsibility. Policy
incentives are also needed to create locally-based
materials recovery jobs and industries. Programs
should be developed with the democratic
participation of those individuals and communities
most adversely impacted by climate change and
waste pollution. Regulatory, permitting, financing,
market development, and economic incentive
policies (such as landfill, incinerator, and waste
hauling surcharges) should be implemented to divert
biodegradable organic materials from disposal. Policy
mechanisms are also needed to ensure that products


There will always be “discards” in our
society, but how much of that becomes
“waste” is a matter of choice.

Rapid action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, options should consider costs, human health
with immediate attention to those gases that pose a impacts, job and business impacts, and other
more potent risk over the short term, is nothing environmental effects in addition to climate change.
short of essential. Methane is one of only a few gases Published data addressing these other areas indicate
with a powerful short-term impact, and methane and that aiming for zero waste is not only good for the
carbon dioxide emissions from landfills and climate but also good for the economy, job creation,
incinerators are at the top of a short list of sources of the environment, and public health.27
greenhouse gas emissions that may be quickly and
cost-effectively reduced or avoided. Resource conservation, reduced consumption,
product redesign, careful materials selection, new
Stop Trashing the Climate answers important rules and incentives, democratic participation,
questions surrounding wasting and climate change, internalizing costs,* and materials reuse, recycling,
and recommends key steps to reduce waste that and composting have never been such a necessity as
would result in the equivalent of taking 21% of the they are today. Indeed, aiming for a zero waste
417 U.S. coal-fired power plants off the grid by economy by preventing waste and recovering
2030. One strategy highlighted for its critical materials is essential for mitigating climate change.
importance is composting. This report explains the The time to act is now. We have to redesign our
unique benefits of composting to mitigate production, consumption, and resource
greenhouse gases in the short term and calls for management systems so that they can be sustained
composting as a core climate and soil revitalization for generations to come.
strategy moving forward.

It should be noted that Stop Trashing the Climate does
not assess human health impacts or environmental
impacts that do not have a direct bearing on climate
change. A full assessment of solid waste management

* For example, where the price of a product reflects its true environmental and social costs including the cost of disposal.


A Call To Action — 12 Priority Policies Needed Now
In order for a zero waste strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 406
megatons CO2 eq. per year by 2030, the following priority policies are needed:

1. Establish and implement national, incentives, penalties, or bans to prevent
statewide, and municipal zero waste organic materials, particularly food
targets and plans: Any zero waste discards and yard trimmings, from
target or plan must be accompanied by a ending up in landfills and incinerators.
shift in funding from supporting waste
5. End state and federal “renewable
disposal to supporting zero waste jobs,
energy” subsidies to landfills and
infrastructure, and local strategies.
incinerators: Incentives such as the
2. Retire existing incinerators and halt Renewable Electricity Production Tax
construction of new incinerators and Credit and Renewable Portfolio
landfills: The use of incinerators and Standards should only benefit truly
investments in new disposal facilities — renewable energy and resource
including mass-burn, pyrolysis, plasma, conservation strategies such as energy
gasification, other incineration efficiency, and the use of wind, solar, and
technologies, and landfill “bioreactors” ocean power. Resource conservation
— obstruct efforts to reduce waste and should be incentivized as a key strategy
increase materials recovery. Eliminating for reducing energy use. In addition,
investments in incineration and subsidies to extractive industries such as
landfilling is an important step to free up mining, logging, and drilling should be
taxpayer money for resource eliminated. Instead, subsidies should
conservation, efficiency, and renewable support industries that conserve and
energy solutions. safely reuse materials.

3. Levy a per-ton surcharge on 6. Provide policy incentives that
landfilled and incinerated materials: create and sustain locally-based
Many European nations have adopted reuse, recycling, and composting
significant landfilling fees of $20 to $40 jobs: Incentives should be directed to
per ton that are used to fund recycling revitalize local economies by supporting
programs and decrease greenhouse environmentally just, community-based,
gases. Surcharges on both landfills and and green materials recovery jobs and
incinerators are an important businesses.
counterbalance to the negative
7. Expand adoption of per-volume or
environmental and human health costs
per-weight fees for the collection of
of disposal that are borne by the public.
trash: Pay-as-you-throw fees have been
4. Stop organic materials from being proven to increase recycling and reduce
sent to landfills and incinerators: the amount of waste disposed.1
Implement local, state, and national


8. Make manufacturers and brand 11. Decision-makers and environ-
owners responsible for the products mental leaders should reject climate
and packaging they produce: protection agreements and strategies
Manufactured products and packaging that embrace landfill and incinerator
represent 72.5% of all municipal solid disposal: Rather than embrace
waste.2 When manufacturers are agreements and blueprints that call for
responsible for recycling their products, supporting waste incineration as a
they use less toxic materials, consume strategy to combat climate change, such
fewer materials, design their products to as the U.S. Conference of Mayors Climate San Francisco’s “Fantastic Three” Program.
last longer, create better recycling Protection Agreement, decision-makers
systems, are motivated to minimize waste and environmental organizations should
costs, and no longer pass the cost of adopt climate blueprints that support zero
disposal to the government and the waste. One example of an agreement that
taxpayer.3 will move cities in the right direction for
zero waste is the Urban Environmental
9. Regulate single-use plastic products
Accords signed by 103 city mayors
and packaging that have low or non-
worldwide.
existent recycling levels: In less than
one generation, the use and disposal of 12. Better assess the true climate
single-use plastic packaging has grown implications of the wasting sector:
from 120,000 tons in 1960 to 12,720,000 Measuring greenhouse gases over the
tons per year today.4 Policies such as 20-year time horizon, as published by the
bottle deposit laws, polystyrene food IPCC, is essential to reveal the impact of
takeout packaging bans, and regulations methane on the short-term climate
targeting single-use water bottles and tipping point. Also needed are updates to
shopping bags have successfully been the U.S. EPA’s WAste Reduction Model
implemented in several jurisdictions (WARM) as well as new models to
around the world and should be replicated accurately account for the impact of local
everywhere.5 activities on total global emissions and to
compare lifecycle climate impact of
10. Regulate paper packaging and junk
different energy generation options.
mail and pass policies to significantly
increase paper recycling: Of the 170
million tons of municipal solid waste
disposed each year in the U.S., 24.3% is
paper and paperboard. Reducing and
recycling paper will decrease releases of
numerous air and water pollutants to the 1 See the U.S. EPA’s “Pay As You Throw” web site at Packaging),” 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables. Available
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/payt/index.htm. online at: http://www.epa.gov/garbage/msw99.htm.
environment, and will also conserve
2 See “Table 3: Materials Discarded in Municipal Solid Waste, 5 See, for instance, Californians Against Waste web site,
energy and forest resources, thereby 1960-2006,” U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables. “Polystyrene & Fast Food Packaging Waste,”
http://www.cawrecycles.org/issues/polystyrene_main.
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.6 3 Beverly Thorpe, Iza Kruszewska, Alexandra McPherson,
Extended Producer Responsibility: A waste management 6 U.S. EPA, “Table 3: Materials Discarded in the Municipal Waste
strategy that cuts waste, creates a cleaner environment, and Stream, 1960 to 2006,” and “Table 4: Paper and Paperboard
saves taxpayer money, Clean Production Action, Boston, 2004. Products in MSW, 2006,” 2006 MSW Characterization Data
Available online at http://www.cleanproductionaction.org. Tables. For catalog data, see Forest Ethics, Catalog Campaign
web page at http://www.catalogcutdown.org/.
4 U.S. EPA, “Table 22: Products Discarded in the Municipal Waste
Stream, 1960 to 2006 (with Detail on Containers and


Greenhouse Gases and Global
Introduction Warming Potential
Gases in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect
The Earth’s climate is changing at an unprecedented both directly and indirectly. Direct effects occur when the gas
itself absorbs radiation. Indirect radiative forcing occurs when
rate, impacting both physical and biological systems.
chemical transformations of the substance produce other
Temperature increases have been linked to rising greenhouse gases, when a gas influences the atmospheric
tropical hurricane activity and intensity, more lifetimes of other gases, or when a gas affects atmospheric
frequent heat waves, drought, and changes in processes that alter the radiative balance of the Earth. The
infectious disease vectors. Damage from coastal Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) developed
the Global Warming Potential concept to compare the ability of
flooding is on the rise. Fires and pests are causing each greenhouse gas to trap heat in the atmosphere relative to
more damage to forests. The allergenic pollen season carbon dioxide.
starts earlier and lasts longer than before. Plant and
Direct greenhouse gases include the following:
animal species’ ranges are shifting, and we may be on
the brink of the largest mass extinction in history.28 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) — CO2 is the primary greenhouse gas,
Those who are most impacted by climate change, representing 83.9% of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in
2005. Fossil fuel combustion is the largest source of CO2.
both globally and within the U.S., are people of color
and low-income and indigenous communities – the Methane (CH4) — The largest U.S. sources of CH4 emissions
same people who are least responsible for climate- are decomposition of waste in landfills, natural gas systems,
and enteric fermentation associated with domestic livestock.
changing greenhouse gas emissions.29 CH4 traps more heat in the atmosphere than CO2. The latest
IPCC assessment report revised the Global Warming Potential of
Human activities such as transportation, CH4 to 25 times that of CO2 on a 100-year time horizon, and 72
deforestation, industrial processing, agriculture, and times that of CO2 on a 20-year time horizon.
electricity use are now directly linked to climate Nitrous Oxide (N2O) — N2O is produced by biological
change. These activities are tied to the production processes that occur in soil and water and by a variety of
and consumption of materials, which are increasingly human activities such as fertilizer application, waste
incineration, animal manure management, and wastewater
designed to be used once and thrown away. The
treatment. While total N2O emissions are much lower than CO2
United States in particular contributes a emissions, N2O is 298 times more powerful than CO2 at trapping
disproportionate share of the world’s greenhouse heat in the atmosphere (on a 100-year time horizon).
gases. While we represent only 4.6% of the global
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), Sulfur
population, we generate 22% of its carbon dioxide Hexafluoride (SF6) — HFCs and PFCs are families of synthetic
emissions.30 chemicals that are used as alternatives to ozone-depleting
substances. These compounds, along with SF6, can be
Carbon dioxide emissions are closely related to thousands of times more potent than CO2. SF6 and PFCs have
extremely long atmospheric lifetimes, resulting in their
energy and resource consumption. Americans are essentially irreversible accumulation in the atmosphere once
responsible for 24% of global petroleum emitted.
consumption and 22% of world primary energy
Indirect greenhouse gases include carbon monoxide (CO),
consumption.31 We use one-third of the Earth’s nitrogen oxide (NOx), non-methane volatile organic
timber and paper.32 Meanwhile, we throw away 170 compounds (NMVOCs), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Fuel
million tons of paper, glass, metals, plastics, textiles, combustion accounts for the majority of these emissions. Other
and other materials each year. sources are municipal waste combustion and industrial
processes (such as the manufacture of chemical and allied
products, metals processing, and industrial uses of solvents).
A short window of opportunity exists to radically
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and stabilize
atmospheric CO2 concentrations before our climate Source: U.S. EPA, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
reaches a “tipping point.” This tipping point is tied to and Sinks: 1990-2005, (Washington, DC, April 15, 2007), pp.
the level of greenhouse gas concentrations in the ES-2-4, ES-8-10, ES-16-17. For GWP, see IPCC, “Table 2.14,” p.
212, Forster, P., et al, 2007: Changes in Atmospheric
atmosphere that could lead to widespread and rapid
Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In: Climate Change 2007:
climate change. More than two hundred scientists at The Physical Science Basis.


the 2007 United Nations Climate Change
Conference in Bali declared that global emissions
must peak and decline over the next 10 to 15 years
in order to limit global warming to 2.0°C above pre-
industrial levels.33 Amplified or uncontrolled climate
change will lead to widespread devastation, both
economically and environmentally.34

This report, Stop Trashing the Climate, makes the case
that working to prevent waste and expand reuse,
recycling, and composting — that is, aiming for zero
waste — is one of the fastest, cheapest, and most
effective strategies for reducing climate change in the
short term.

Stop Trashing the Climate documents the link
between climate change and unsustainable human Finished compost. Biodegradable materials are a liability
patterns of consumption and wasting. It argues that when landfilled or burned, but an asset when composted.
the disposal of everyday materials such as paper,
plastics, and food scraps in landfills and incinerators Accords have been signed by 103 city mayors
is a core contributor to the climate crisis. In addition worldwide.35 By reducing waste generation 1% each
to documenting the significant greenhouse gas year and diverting 90% of our waste from landfills
emissions released directly by landfills and and incinerators by the year 2030, Stop Trashing the
incinerators, the report details how waste disposal Climate shows that we could dramatically reduce
drives a lifecycle climate-changing system that is greenhouse gas emissions within the U.S. and
steeped in unsustainable patterns of consumption, beyond. The report provides key recommendations
transportation, energy use, and resource extraction. for attaining this waste reduction scenario that
This report does not assess human health impacts or would, in turn, avoid 406 megatons* CO2 eq. per
environmental impacts from wasting that do not year of greenhouse gas emissions, the equivalent of
have a direct bearing on climate change. A full taking 21% of the 417 coal-fired power plants in the
assessment of solid waste management options U.S. off the grid by 2030.36 Reducing waste also has
would consider economic benefits and costs, human comparable (and sometimes complementary) climate
health impacts, and impacts on the environment protection benefits to leading strategies identified to
such as resource depletion, loss of biodiversity, reduce greenhouse emissions such as significantly
eutrophication, and air pollution. improving vehicle fuel efficiency and hybridizing
vehicles, expanding and enhancing carbon sinks (for
Stop Trashing the Climate answers important example, enhancing forests), or retrofitting lighting
questions surrounding wasting and climate change, and improving the energy efficiency of electronic
debunks common myths that perpetuate our linear equipment (see Table 11, p. 52). One strategy
cycle of wasting, outlines policies needed to effect highlighted in this report for its critical importance is
change, and offers a roadmap for how to significantly composting. Stop Trashing the Climate explains the
reduce greenhouse gas emissions within a short unique benefits of composting as a tool to mitigate
period. The report provides an alternative scenario to greenhouse gas emissions in the short term and calls
business-as-usual wasting in the U.S. that would put for composting as a core climate and soil
us solidly on track to achieve the goal of sending zero revitalization strategy moving forward.
waste to landfills and incinerators by the year 2040,
the target established by the Urban Environmental
Accords. Originally drafted as part of the United
Nations World Environment Day in 2005, these * 1 megaton = 1 million metric tons = 1 Tg (teragram)


Resource conservation, product redesign, thoughtful Global emissions must peak and decline over
materials selection, new rules and incentives, the next 10 to 15 years in order to limit global
democratic participation, cost internalization,* and
warming to 2.0ºC above pre-industrial levels.
materials reuse, recycling, and composting have
never been such a necessity as they are today. Indeed,
aiming for a zero waste economy by preventing waste
and recycling our resources is essential for mitigating
climate change. The time to act is now. There will
always be “discards” in our society, but how much of
those become “waste” is a matter of choice.

There will always be
“discards” in our society,
but how much of those
become “waste” is a
matter of choice.

Zero waste station at Boulder’s Farmers Market. Courtesy of Eco-Cycle.

* For example, where the price of a product reflects its true environmental and social costs including the cost of disposal.


Wasting = Climate Change

We waste an awful lot, and the amount we waste has
been steadily increasing. Recycling levels have not
been able to keep pace with our consumption habits.
From 1960 to 2006, the amount of municipal solid
waste generated in the U.S. more than doubled,
increasing from 88.1 million to 251.3 million tons
per year.37 In 1960, single-use plastic packaging was
0.14% of the waste stream (120,000 tons). In less
than one generation, it has grown to 5.7% and 14.2
million tons per year. Today we landfill or incinerate
3.6 million tons of junk mail, 1.2 million tons of
paper plates and cups, 870,000 tons of aluminum
cans, 870,000 tons of polystyrene plates and cups,
4.3 million tons of plastic bags and wraps, and 12.7
million tons of plastics in containers and other
packaging.38 The whole lifecycle of these products
(from choice of materials to mining, manufacturing,
transportation, consumption, and handling after
intended use) impacts energy consumption and the indirect mitigation benefits through the conservation
release of major greenhouse gases – carbon dioxide, of energy and materials.
methane, and nitrous oxide – into the atmosphere.
Despite these findings, the IPCC report concludes
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that “greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) from post-
(IPCC) recognizes that changing the types and consumer waste and wastewater are a small
amounts of products we consume, along with contributor (about 3%) to total global
preventing waste and recycling and composting anthropogenic GHG emissions.”40 Similarly, in its
more, will reduce the upstream lifecycle greenhouse U.S. inventory report (2007) on greenhouse gas
gas impact of materials processing and production. emissions, the U.S. EPA listed the waste sector —
In its Fourth Assessment Report, the IPCC landfills and wastewater treatment — as emitting
acknowledged “changes in lifestyle and behaviour 165.4 Tg CO2 eq.,* only 2.3% of overall greenhouse
patterns can contribute to climate change mitigation gas emissions in 2005 (or 2.6% including emissions
across all sectors (high agreement, medium evidence).” from municipal waste combustors).41 (See Figure 1.)
Its summary document for policymakers states that Unfortunately, these assessments are based on an
“changes in lifestyles and consumption patterns that overly narrow and flawed view of the waste sector’s
emphasize resource conservation can contribute to contribution to climate change. Not only do they
developing a low-carbon economy that is both grossly underestimate landfill gas emissions, but even
equitable and sustainable.”39 The report also states more importantly, the international and national
that “the waste sector can positively contribute to assessments do not account for the connection
greenhouse gas mitigation at low cost and promote between wasting and energy consumption, industrial
sustainable development (high agreement, much processing, deforestation, industrial agriculture, and
evidence).” By way of example, it notes that waste other core contributors to climate change.
minimization and recycling provide important

* A teragram is Tg = 109 kg = 106 metric tons = 1 million metric tons = 1 megaton


Figure 1: C onv ention al View – U.S. EPA Dat a on Gr een hous e G as Em issions b y
Figure 1: Conventional View – U.S. EPA Data on Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector, 2005

Industrial
Processes
4.6% Solvent and Other
Product Use
0.1%
Agriculture
7.4%
Land Use, Land-
use Change,
and Forestry
0.3%
Waste
2.3%

Energy
85.4%

Source: Table ES-4: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks by Chapter/IPCC Sector, Inventory of U.S.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, -4 : RecentEPA,end s in U .S April 15, 2007, p. ES-11. as Em ission s
Sourc e: Table ES 1990-2005, U.S. Tr Washington, DC, . Gr ee nhou se G and Sink s by Ch apter /
Inventory of U .S . Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 19 9 0-2005 , U. S . EPA , W as hington , DC
ES -11.

Wasting directly impacts climate change in three greenhouse gas emissions despite being grossly
core areas: underestimated in the short term.
1. Lifecycle impacts: Materials in products and 3. Waste incineration impacts: We burn 31.4 million
packaging represent 72.5% of all municipal solid tons of municipal solid waste annually.45 These
waste disposed. In the U.S., we burn and bury 123 incinerators emit more carbon dioxide per megawatt-
million tons per year of manufactured commodities hour than coal-fired and other fossil-fuel-fired power
such as paper, metals, plastics, and glass.42 This forces plants. Pyrolysis, plasma, and gasification incinerators
us to mine and harvest virgin materials in order to may have a larger climate footprint than conventional
manufacture new products to take the place of those mass-burn incinerators because they can require
we discard. These “lifecycle” activities consume inputs of additional fossil fuels or electricity to
All Other
tremendous amounts of energy, and energy operate. In addition, incinerators, as well as landfills,
63.3%
consumption is the leading source of U.S. encourage a throwaway culture and an unsustainable
greenhouse gas emissions, contributing 85% of total one-way linear system from mine to manufacturer to Fossil Fue
Industrial
emissions. In addition, wasting is intricately linked Combustion
transport to disposal. Incinerators rely on minimum
to deforestation, which accounts for as much as 30% tonnage guarantees through “put or pay” contracts
11.6%
of global greenhouse gas emissions.43 that require communities to pay fees whether their
waste is burned or not. These contracts remove any
2. Landfill impacts: Each year we landfill 42.9
incentive to reduce overall consumption levels, avoid Industrial
million tons per year of biodegradable food scraps and
single-use disposable products or minimize waste.
yard trimmings. We also landfill 41.3 million tons of Electricity
paper products.44 These materials are directly Consumption
The following sections discuss each of these
responsible for methane emissions from landfills, impacts in detail.
which is one of the leading contributors to U.S.
10.5%

Industrial Non
Energy Proces

out of the nation's second largest port at Long Beach,
Lifecycle Impacts of Wasting: California, is “waste products” such as petroleum
Virgin Material Mining, Processing, byproducts, scrap paper, and scrap iron.50 This fact
and Manufacturing highlights the reality that America's consumption-
driven economy is intimately linked to greenhouse
The lifecycle impact of waste disposal is its most gas emissions from extractive, manufacturing,
significant effect on climate change. Landfills and transportation, and waste handling industries in
incinerators destroy rather than conserve resources. countries around the world.
Consequently, for every item that is landfilled or
incinerated, a new one must be extracted, processed, The current state of wasting is based on a linear
and manufactured from virgin resources. Thus, the system: virgin materials are extracted and made into
amount of municipal materials wasted represents products that are increasingly used only once before
only the tip of a very big iceberg. We bury or burn being destroyed. This system developed at a time
close to 170 million tons of municipal discards every when natural resources seemed limitless, but we now
year, but we extract from the environment billions of know that this is not the case. Since 1970, we have
tons of raw materials to make these products. For consumed one-third of our global natural resources.51
every ton of municipal discards This alarming trend is clearly
wasted, about 71 tons of waste not sustainable, even in the
are produced during short term.
manufacturing, mining, oil and
gas exploration, agriculture, Industry consumes more
and coal combustion.46 This energy than any other sector,
requires a constant flow of representing more than 50% of
resources to be pulled out of the worldwide energy consumption
Earth, processed in factories, in 2004. Forecasts indicate that
shipped around the world, and it will grow 1.8% per year.52
burned or buried in our Within that sector, virgin raw
communities. The destructive materials industries are among
impact of this wasteful cycle reaches far beyond local the world's largest consumers of energy. The mining
disposal projects. industry alone accounts for 7 to 10 percent of world
energy use.53 In the U.S., four primary materials
Mining activities alone in the U.S. (excluding coal) industries — paper, metals, plastics, and glass —
produce between 1 and 2 billion tons of mine waste consume 30.2% of the energy used for all U.S.
annually. More than 130,000 of these non-coal manufacturing.54 This high energy demand is a
mines are responsible for polluting over 3,400 miles major contributor to global warming.
of streams and over 440,000 acres of land. About
seventy of these sites are on the National Priority List Let us take the case of paper as an example. Table 1
for Superfund remediation.47 compares the greenhouse gas emissions related to
harvesting and transporting virgin trees to make
In addition, many of the materials that we use and paper that is landfilled or burned with the emissions
discard are increasingly extracted and manufactured related to making paper from recycled fiber. It shows
in other countries with expanding climate footprints. that at every step of papermaking, from harvest to
China is now the leading exporter of goods to the mill to end-of-life management, greenhouse gases are
U.S., and just recently it surpassed the U.S. to emitted. Making and burning a ton of office paper,
become the country with the largest CO2 for instance, releases almost 12,000 pounds of CO2.
emissions.48 In the past four years alone, the value of Of this, 89% is emitted upstream during harvesting
paper, wood, plastics, and metals imported into the and making the paper, and the remainder is
U.S. from China has increased by $10.8 billion.49 produced downstream when the paper is thrown
Meanwhile, some of our biggest national exports are away and then burned.55
scrap materials. For example, the number one export


Total 7,260.4 100.0% 8,754.2 100.0%

Table 1: Impact of Paper Recycling on Greenhouse Gas Emissions (lbs of CO2 eq./ton of paper)
Table 1: Impact of Paper Recycling on Greenhouse Gas Emissions
(lbs of CO 2 eq./ton of paper)
Table 2:
Office Corrugated CUK SBS
Newsprint (kg of CO 2
Paper Boxes Paperboard Paperboard
Virgin Production & Landfilling
Tree Harvesting/Transport 183.8 305.0 262.5 290.1 305.0 Process
Virgin Mfg Energy 5,946.0 10,163.0 6,918.2 7,757.0 10,799.0 Electricit
Collection Vehicle & Landfill 84.1 84.1 84.1 84.1 84.1 Fossil Fu
MSW Landfill 1 9,301.4 9,301.4 9,301.4 9,301.4 9,301.4 Transpo
Ancilliary
Total 15,515.3 19,853.5 16,566.2 17,432.6 20,489.5
PFC
Virgin Production & Incineration Total
Tree Harvesting/Transport 183.8 305.0 262.5 290.1 305.0
Virgin Mfg Energy 5,946.0 10,163.0 6,918.2 7,757.0 10,799.0 PFC = perf
MSW Collection 47.3 47.3 47.3 47.3 47.3 Source: "Ap
Combustion Process 2,207.1 2,207.1 2,207.1 2,207.1 2,207.1 for the World
Avoided Utility Energy (1,024.8) (896.7) (896.7) (977.2) (977.2) Available on
Total 7,359.4 11,825.7 8,538.4 9,324.3 12,381.2
Recycled Production & Recycling
Recycled Paper Collection 157.7 157.7 157.7 157.7 157.7 Table 3:
Recycling Paper Processing/Sorting 31.7 31.7 31.7 31.7 31.7
Residue Landfill Disposal 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 Constitu
Transportation to Market 33.0 33.0 33.0 33.0 33.0
Recycled Mfg Energy 3,232.0 3,345.0 2,951.0 2,605.0 2,605.0 Methane
Total 3,461.1 3,574.1 3,180.1 2,834.1 2,834.1 Carbon D
Nitrogen
CUK = coated unbleached kraft SBS = solidsolid bleached sulfate
CUK = coated unbleached kraft SBS = bleached sulfate Mfg = Mfg = manufacturing
manufacturing MSW =MSW = municipal solid waste
municipal solid waste Oxygen (
1. Based on 20% landfill gas captured. Hydrogen
1. Based on 20% landfill gas captured. Halides
Source: Based on data presented in Paper Task Force Recommendations for Purchasing and Using Environmentally Friendly Paper,
Water Va
Environmental Defense Fund, 1995, pp. Paper Task Force at www.edf.org. MSW Landfill greenhouse gas emissions reduced to reflect
Source: Based on data presented in 108-112. Available Recommendations for Purchasing and Using Environmentally Friendly Paper, Nonmeth
20% gas capture (up from 0%). 1995, pp. 108-112. Available at www.edf.org. MSW Landfill greenhouse gas emissions reduced to
Environmental Defense Fund,
reflect 20% gas capture (up from 0%).
Source: Ene
gas industry
http://www.e
Table 8: U.S. EPA WARM GHG Emissions by Solid Waste Management Option
(MTCE per ton)
For the five grades of paper shown in Table 1, chemical pulp papers. Papers made from mechanical Table 6:
Material Landfilled
recycling reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 4.5 to 7 Combusted Recycled Composted
pulp include newspaper, telephone books, magazines, SR Gas Emis
Incinerat
times more than disposal. In addition, recycling a ton 0.017 junk -3.701 papers made from chemical pulp
Aluminum Cans 0.010 and mail; NA -2.245
Carpet 0.010 0.106 -1.959 NA -1.090 Direct Gre
of virgin paperMetals between 12 and 24 trees, which -0.290
Mixed saves 0.010 include office paper, corrugated cardboard, and
-1.434 NA NA CO2
can then continue to absorb carbon dioxide from the 0.015
Copper Wire 0.010 textbooks. -1.342 When paper is source reduced,* the
NA -2.001
N2O
Mixed Paper, Broad 0.095 -0.178 -0.965 NA NA
atmosphere. (This only reflects recycling 0.069 paper -0.177
Mixed Paper, Resid. that impacts on -0.965 sequestration are even greater. The
carbon NA NA Indirect G
once; theMixed Paper, Office paper, for instance, can be -0.162
fibers in fine 0.127 EPA found the incremental forest carbon
-0.932 NA NA NOx
Corrugated Cardboard 0.109 56 -0.177 -0.849 NA -1.525 CO
recycled a dozen times, multiplying the 0.530
Textbooks benefits. ) -0.170
sequestration is 1.04 MTCE for each ton of
-0.848 NA -2.500 NMVOC
The amount of CO2 absorbed by each tree varies, but -0.128
Magazines/third-class mail -0.082 mechanical-0.837 paper avoided and 1.98 MTCE for
pulp NA -2.360 SO2
Mixed Recyclables 0.038 -0.166 -0.795 NA NA
is consistentlyPaper
Office significant over the life 0.530a tree. -0.170 ton of-0.778
of each chemical pulp paper avoided when inputs
NA -2.182 Tg = teragra
RecyclingNewspaper of paper saves trees -0.237 could -0.202 considered to be 100% NA
one ton that are -0.761 virgin,-1.329 from 0.8 to
and Gg = gigagra
Phonebooks -0.237 -0.202 -0.724 NA -1.724
continue absorbing 600 to 1,200 pounds -0.133 2 per -0.212 MTCE per ton for various paper grades and a
Medium Density Fiberboard of CO 1.90 -0.674 NA -0.604 NMVOCs = n
year. TheDimensional Lumber of conserving trees that -0.212 of virgin and recycled inputs.58 -0.551
recycling benefits -0.133 mix -0.670 NA Furthermore, the
Personal Computers 0.010 -0.054 -0.616 NA -15.129 Note: CO2 e
can continue to absorb carbon dioxide are not taken 0.049 found-0.498 effect of paper recycling on carbon
Tires 0.010 EPA the NA -1.086 exclude emis
into account in Table 1.57
Steel Cans 0.010 sequestration appears to be persistent — that is, it lasts
-0.418 -0.489 NA -0.866
LDPE 0.010 0.253 -0.462 NA -0.618 Source: Tab
for several decades.59
The U.S.PET Plastics increased recycling of paper 0.295
EPA found
Mixed
0.010
0.010 0.270
-0.419
-0.407
NA
NA
-0.571
NA
NMVOCs, an
and Sinks, 1
products HDPE
resulted in incremental forest carbon 0.253
0.010 -0.380 NA -0.487 p. ES-17.
Fly Ash 0.010 NA -0.237 NA NA
sequestration of about 0.55 metric tons carbon 0.014
Glass 0.010 -0.076 NA -0.156
equivalent (MTCE) per ton of paper recovered for
Concrete 0.010 NA -0.002 NA NA
mechanical pulp papers and 0.83 MTCE-0.060ton for -0.048 reduction meansNA
Food Scraps 0.197
per * Source NA -0.054 NA
preventing the extraction, processing, and consumption of a given Table 7: Se
Yard Trimmings -0.060material or product. -0.054 NA
Grass -0.002 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA Practice
Leaves -0.048 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA
Branches -0.133 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA Divert 1 ton o
20 Stop Trashing TheMixed Organics
Climate 0.064 -0.054 NA -0.054 NA Every acre of
Mixed MSW 0.116 -0.033 NA NA NA Reuse 1 ton o
Clay Bricks 0.010 NA NA NA -0.077 Recycle 1 ton
Recycle 1 ton
MTCE = metric tons of carbon equivalent SR = Source Reduction

For every ton of municipal discards wasted, about 71 tons of waste are produced during
manufacturing, mining, oil and gas exploration, agriculture, and coal combustion.

Other commodities have similar high-energy inputs pound of post-consumer waste avoided or reclaimed,
and thus high greenhouse gas impacts upstream. many more pounds of upstream industrial waste are
Aluminum production is one of the most energy- reduced — the result of less mining, less
intensive of these, with many upstream impacts transportation of raw materials to manufacturing
involved in bauxite mining, alumina refining, and facilities, less energy consumption and fewer
smelting. (See sidebar, Upstream Impacts of greenhouse gas emissions at production plants, less
Aluminum Can Production, page 23.) Table 2 shows shipping of products to consumers, and less waste
the greenhouse gas emissions resulting from primary collected and transported to often distant disposal
aluminum production. For every ton of aluminum facilities. A recent report for the California Air
produced, 97% of greenhouse gas emissions take place Resources Board, Recommendations of the Economic
before aluminum ingot casting, which is the point at and Technology Advancement Advisory Committee
which scrap aluminum would enter the process.60 In (ETAAC): Final Report on Technologies and Policies to
addition, for every ton of virgin aluminum recycled, Consider for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions in
2.7 tons of solid waste related to mining, extraction, California, recognized the lifecycle climate benefits of
and virgin material manufacturing are avoided.61 Yet in recycling:
the U.S., only 21.2% of the 3.26 million tons of
aluminum discarded each year is recycled.62 “Recycling offers the opportunity to cost-
Clearly, the impact of waste on global warming is effectively decrease GHG emissions from
hardly confined to the small slice of pie shown in the mining, manufacturing, forestry,
Figure 1. The industrial sector alone, which makes transportation, and electricity sectors
many of the products that we discard, contributes while simultaneously diminishing
28% of all greenhouse gases produced in the U.S.63 methane emissions from landfills.
Our ability to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by Recycling is widely accepted. It has a
stemming wasting is significant, and certainly much proven economic track record of spurring
larger than the 2.3% reflected in the U.S. EPA more economic growth than any other
inventory. option for the management of waste and
other recyclable materials. Increasing the
Reducing post-consumer waste* is one of the most flow through California’s existing recycling
important tactics for combating global warming or materials recovery infrastructures will
quickly, and not just in the U.S. It is worth noting generate significant climate response and
here that U.S. consumer products that eventually economic benefits.”66
become municipal solid waste increasingly come from
overseas. Because China relies heavily on coal and
Figure 2 shows the greenhouse gas emissions from the
generally uses energy less efficiently than the U.S.,64
wasting sector as well as emissions from other sectors
the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the
that are integrally linked to wasting: truck
manufacture of a material in China may well be higher
transportation, industrial consumption of fossil fuels
than for the same material made in this country.65
and electricity, non-energy industrial processes,
Source reduction, reuse, and recycling can avoid wastewater treatment, livestock manure management,
significant greenhouse gas emissions in many parts of and the production and application of synthetic
the energy sector, such as in industrial electricity fertilizers.
consumption and truck transportation. For every

* Post-consumer waste refers to materials that have been used by consumers and then discarded.


7%
9%
6%
7%
2% All in all, these sectors linked to wasting represent “Composting offers an environmentally
5% 36.7% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. These are superior alternative to landfilling these
4% the sectors that would be impacted if more post- same organics. Composting avoids
consumer materials were reused, recycled, and these landfill emissions, offers greater
1%
composted. According to the ETAAC final report, carbon sequestration in crop biomass
7% “Development of the appropriate protocols for the and soil, a decrease in the need for
6% recycling sector will result in GHG emission GHG emission-releasing fertilizers and
5% reductions far beyond the limited success available pesticides, and a decline in energy-
5% through minimizing fugitive methane emissions from intensive irrigation. Compost has been
landfills. Recycling itself can truly act as mitigation proven to provide effective erosion
1%
measure to reduce GHG emissions across all sectors of control and to drastically improve the
1% the economy.”67 In addition, wastewater and livestock quality of ground water aquifers, both
2% manure could be biologically managed in anaerobic of which could be crucial elements of
3% digesters with post-consumer organic materials. mitigating the impacts of climate
0% Compost could also replace synthetic fertilizers, change.”68
thereby reducing their impact on climate change. The
ETAAC final report noted:

Table 2: Primary Aluminum Production, Greenhouse Gas Emissions
TableCO2 Primary Aluminumoutput)
(kg of 2: eq. per 1000 kg of aluminum Production, Greenhouse Gas Emissions
BS
(kg of CO 2 eq. per 1000 kg of aluminum output)
rd
Bauxite Refining Anode Smelting Casting Total
.0 Process - - 388 1,625 - 2,013
.0 Electricity - 58 63 5,801 77 5,999
.1 Fossil Fuel 16 789 135 133 155 1,228
.4 Transport 32 61 8 4 136 241
Ancilliary - 84 255 - - 339
.5
PFC - - - 2,226 - 2,226
Total 48 992 849 9,789 368 12,046
.0
.0 PFC = perfluorocarbons
PFC = perfluorocarbons
.3 Source: “Appendix C: CO2CO 2 Emission Data," Assessment of Aluminum: Inventory Data for the Worldwide Data Aluminum
Source: "Appendix C: Emission Data,” Life Cycle Life Cycle Assessment of Aluminum: Inventory Primary
.1 forIndustry, International Aluminum Institute, March 2003, p. International Aluminum Institute, March 2003, p. 43.
the Worldwide Primary Aluminum Industry , 43. Available online at
http://www.world-aluminum.org/environment/lifecycle/lifecycle3.html.
7.2) Available online at http://www.world-aluminum.org/environment/lifecycle/lifecycle3.html.
.2

.7 Table 3: Landfill Gas Constituent Gases, % by volume
.7
Concentration in Landfill Gas
.7 Constituent Gas
.0 Range Average
.0 Since Methane (CH 4) consumed one-third of our global - 60% resources.
1970, we have 35 natural 50%
.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) 35 - 55% 45%
Nitrogen (N 2) 0 - 20% 5%
Oxygen (O 2) 0 - 2.5% <1%
Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S) 1 - 0.017% 0.0021%
Halides NA 0.0132%
Water Vapor (H 2O) 1 - 10% NA
Nonmethane Organic Compounds (NMOCs) 0.0237 - 1.43% 0.27%

Source: Energy Information Administration. US Department of Energy. Growth of landfill
22 Stop Trashing The Climate 1996. Available online at:
gas industry;
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/renewable.energy.annual/chap10.html.

Upstream Impacts of Aluminum Can Production
Step 1 - Bauxite Mining: Most bauxite “ore” is mined from open
pit or strip mines in Australia, Jamaica, and Brazil (99% of U.S. needs
are imported). Bauxite mining results in land clearance, acid mine
drainage, pollution of streams, and erosion. Significant fossil fuel
energy is consumed in mining and transporting bauxite ore. For
each ton of useful ore extracted, many tons of “over-burden” have
to be removed in the process. Five tons of mine “tailings” (waste)
are produced per ton of bauxite ore removed.

Step 2 - Alumina Refining: Bauxite ore is mixed with caustic soda,
lime, and steam to produce a sodium aluminate slurry. “Alumina” is
extracted from this slurry, purified, and shipped to smelters. Leftover
“slag” waste contains a variety of toxic minerals and chemical
compounds. The alumina refining process is also fossil fuel energy-
intensive.

Step 3 - Smelting: Powdered alumina is heated (smelted) in order
to form aluminum alloy ingots. Aluminum smelting uses massive
amounts of electricity (usually from coal). One ton of aluminum
production requires the energy equivalent of 5 barrels of oil (210
gallons of gasoline). Aluminum smelting also produces 7.4 tons of
air pollutants (particulate matter, sulfur oxides, VOCs) for every 1 ton
of aluminum produced.

Step 4 - Tertiary Processing: Aluminum ingots are smelted
(requiring more energy) and are extruded as sheets. The finishing
process for rolled sheets involves several chemicals (strong acids
and bases) that are toxic.

Step 5 - Finishing/Assembly: Aluminum sheet is fed into extrusion
tubes and cut into shallow cups. Cups are fed into an ironing press
where successive rings redraw and iron the cup. This reduces
sidewall thickness, making a full-length can. The bottom is “domed”
for strength. Cans are necked in at the top and flanged to accept the
end. There is little chemical pollution at this stage, just electricity
use.

Step 6 - Filling/Distribution: Cans are shipped without the end
portion to the beverage company. The end is attached. The
beverage is then injected under pressure; outward force strengthens
the can. After filling, the can is labeled and packaged. Cardboard
and plastic are used, and some toxic waste is generated from
making paint and ink that are used for labels. Finally, the product in
the can is trucked (using diesel fuel) to a wholesaler/distributor and Source: Allegheny College, Dept. of Environmental Science,
then to the retailer (this requires multiple trips). “Environmental Costs of Linear Societies,” PowerPoint, October 9,
2006, reading course material for Introduction to Environmental
All of these stages use significant amounts of fossil fuel energy.
Science, ES110, Spring 2007, available online at:
Most of these stages generate large quantities of hazardous
webpub.allegheny.edu/dept/envisci/ESInfo/ES110sp2007/ppts/ES1
and toxic waste products.
10_S07_AlumCan.ppt


Sectors linked to wasting represent 36.7% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.

o
Figure 2: Wasting Is Linked to 36.7% of Total U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 2005

All Other
63.3%
Industrial Fossil Fuel
Combustion
11.6%

Industrial
Electricity
Consumption
10.5%

Industrial Non-
Energy Processes
Manure 4.4%
Management
0.7% Industrial Coal
Mining
Truck 0.3%
1.4%
2.6% 5.3%

Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Based on data presented in the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and Sinks, 1990-2005, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, April 15, 2007. Industrial Electricity Consumption is estimated using Energy
Information Administration 2004 data on electricity sales to customers. See Table ES-1, Electric Power Annual Summary Statistics for
the United States, released October 22, 2007, and available online at: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epates.html. Waste
disposal includes landfilling, wastewater treatment, and combustion. Synthetic fertilizers include urea production. All data reflect a
100-year time frame for comparing greenhouse gas emissions.

Emission Source 100 Yr Horizon 20 Yr Horizo
24 Stop Trashing The Climate Emissions % of Total Emissions %
Fossil Fuel Combustion (CO 2) 5,751.2 79.2% 5,751.2
2 365.1 5.0% 340.4

Landfills Are Huge Methane Producers

Landfills are the number one source of and yard trimmings. When oxygen is depleted,
anthropogenic* methane emissions in the U.S., anaerobic bacteria start to thrive on the remaining
accounting for approximately 24% of total U.S. waste, breaking it down first into cellulose, amino
anthropogenic methane emissions.69 Figure 3 acids, and sugars, and then through fermentation into
compares landfill emissions to other major gases and short-chain organic compounds.71 These
anthropogenic methane emissions in 2005. Landfills anaerobic bacteria produce a biogas that consists on
are also a large source of overall greenhouse gas average of approximately 45% carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions, contributing at least 1.8% to the U.S. total and 50% methane (CH4) by volume. The remaining
in 2005. In its 2005 inventory of U.S. greenhouse 5% is mostly nitrogen but also consists of non-
gases, the U.S. EPA listed landfills as the fifth largest methane organic compounds such as benzene,
source of all greenhouse gases.70 (See Table 5, page 28.) toluene, carbon tetrachloride, and chloroform. These
compounds are dangerous enough to be regulated by
According to the U.S. EPA, landfills begin producing
the Clean Air Act; they interact with nitrous oxides to
significant amounts of methane one or two years after
form ozone, a primary cause of smog, and they are
waste disposal and continue methane production for
indirect greenhouse gases.72 Table 3 details the
10 to 60 years. Aerobic bacteria initially decompose
variability of landfill gas constituents.
biodegradable materials such as paper, food scraps,

Figure 3: U.S. Methane Emissions by Source, 2005
U.S. Methane Emissions by Source, 2005

Field Burning of Agricultural Residues 0.9
Iron and Steel Production 1.0
Petrochemical Production 1.1
Mobile Combustion 2.6
Abandoned Underground Coal Mines 5.5
Source of Methane

Rice Cultivation 6.9
Source of Methane

Stationary Combustion 6.9
Forest Land Remaining Forest Land 11.6
Wastewater Treatment 25.4
Petroleum Systems 28.5
Manure Management 41.3
Coal Mining 52.4
Natural Gas Systems 111.1
Enteric Fermentation 112.1
Landfills 132.0

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0
Teragrams Carbon Dioxide Dioxide Equivalent (Tg CO2 Eq.)
Teragrams Carbon Equivalent (Tg CO2 Eq.)

Source: U.S. EPA, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2005 (Washington, DC: April 15, 2007), p. ES-9.

250
* In this report, “anthropogenic” refers to greenhouse gas emissions and removals that are a direct result of human activities or are the result of natural processes that have been affected by human activities.

Additional Energy Usage for Virgin-
Content Products
200
Energy Usage Recycled-Content
Products

150

84.1 84.1
01.4 9,301.4 Transport 32 61 8 4 136 241
Ancilliary - 84 255 - - 339
32.6 20,489.5
PFC - - - 2,226 - 2,226
Total 48 992 849 9,789 368 12,046
90.1 305.0
57.0 10,799.0 PFC = perfluorocarbons
47.3 47.3 Source: "Appendix C: CO 2 Emission Data," Life Cycle Assessment of Aluminum: Inventory Data
07.1 2,207.1 for the Worldwide Primary Aluminum Industry , International Aluminum Institute, March 2003, p. 43.
7.2) (977.2) Available online at http://www.world-aluminum.org/environment/lifecycle/lifecycle3.html.
Table 3: Landfill Gas Constituent Gases, % by volume
24.3 12,381.2

57.7 157.7 Table 3: Landfill Gas Constituent Gases, % by volume
31.7 31.7
Concentration in Landfill Gas
6.7 6.7 Constituent Gas
33.0 33.0 Range Average
05.0 2,605.0 Methane (CH 4) 35 - 60% 50%
34.1 2,834.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) 35 - 55% 45%
Nitrogen (N 2) 0 - 20% 5%
waste Oxygen (O2) 0 - 2.5% <1%
Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S) 1 - 0.017% 0.0021%
Halides NA 0.0132%
Friendly Paper,
Water Vapor (H 2O) 1 - 10% NA
reduced to reflect
Nonmethane Organic Compounds (NMOCs) 0.0237 - 1.43% 0.27%

Source: Energy Information Administration. US Department of Energy. Growth of landfill
gas industry; 1996. Available online at:
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/renewable.energy.annual/chap10.html.
Source: Energy Information Administration. US Department of Energy. Growth of landfill gas industry; 1996. Available online at:
tion http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/renewable.energy.annual/chap10.html.

Table 6: Direct and Indirect U.S. Greenhouse
SR Gas Emissions from Municipal Waste
-2.245 Incinerators, 2005
-1.090 Direct Greenhouse Gases
NA CO2 20.9 Tg CO2 eq.
-2.001
Table 4: Potent2Greenhouse Gases andCO 2 eq. Warming Potential (GWP)
NO 0.4 Tg Global
NA
NA Indirect Greenhouse Gases
NA Table ES-2: Potent Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming Potential (GWP)
NOx 98 Gg
-1.525 CO 1,493 Gg
-2.500 245Chemical GWP for Given Time Horizon
Common Name
NMVOCs Gg
-2.360 SO2 Formula
23 Gg SAR1 20 yr 100 yr 500 yr
NA
-2.182 Carbon Dioxide CO 1 1 1 1
Tg = teragram = 1 million metric tons 2
-1.329 Methanegigagram = 1,000 metric tons CH4
Gg = 21 72 25 8
-1.724 Nitrous Oxide N20 310 289 298 153
-0.604 NMVOCs = nonmethane volatile organic compounds
Hydrofluorocarbons
-0.551
-15.129 Note: CO2
HFC-134a emissions represent U.S. EPA reported data, which 3,830
CH2FCF3 1,300 1,430 435
-1.086 exclude emissions from biomass materials.
HFC-125 CHF2CF3 2,800 6,350 3,500 1,100
-0.866 Perfluorinated compounds
-0.618 Source: Table ES-2 and Table ES-10: Emissions of NOx, CO,
-0.571 Sulfur Hexafluoride SF6 23,900 16,300 22,800 32,600
NMVOCs, and SO 2, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
NA 2 CF4 6,500
PFC-14 1990-2005 , U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, April 15, 2007,
and Sinks, 5,210 7,390 11,200
-0.487 p. ES-17.
PFC-116 2 C2F6 9,200 8,630 12,200 18,200
NA
-0.156
NA
NA Table 7: Select Resource Conservation Practices Quantified
1. IPCC Second Assessment Report (1996). Represents 100-year time horizon. These GWPs are used by the U.S. EPA in its
NA Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks.
2. Released during aluminum production. PFC-116 has an expected lifetime Reduced
Emissions of 1,000 years.
NA Practice
NA (Tons CO eq.)
2
Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Table 2.14,” p. 212, Forster, P., et al, 2007: Changes in Atmospheric
NA Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In: Climatelandfill 2007: The Physical Science Basis.
Divert 1 ton of food scraps from Change 0.25
NA Every acre of Bay-Friendly landscape 1 4
NA Reuse 1 ton of cardboard boxes 1.8
-0.077 Recycle 1 ton of plastic film 2.5
Recycle 1 ton of mixed paper 1

1. Bay-Friendly landscaping is a holistic approach to gardening and landscaping that
includes compost use.
ssions and
Source: Debra Kaufman, “Climate Change and Composting: Lessons Learned from the
Alameda County Climate Action Project,” StopWaste.Org, presented at the Northern
California Recycling Association’s Recycling Update ’07 Conference, March 27, 2007,
available online at: http://www.ncrarecycles.org/ru/ru07.html.

However, for two main reasons, these figures greatly “Scientifically speaking, using the 20-year
understate the impact of landfilling on climate time horizon to assess methane emissions
change, especially in the short term. First,
is as equally valid as using the 100-year
international greenhouse gas accounting protocols rely
on a 100-year time horizon to calculate the global
time horizon. Since the global warming
warming potential of methane. This timeline masks potential of methane over 20 years is 72
methane’s short-term potency. Over a 100-year time [times greater than that of CO2], reductions
frame, methane is a greenhouse gas that is 25 times in methane emissions will have a larger
more potent than CO2; on a 20-year time horizon, short-term effect on temperature — 72
however, methane is 72 times more potent than times the impact — than equal reductions
CO2.73 Table 4 compares the global warming potential of CO2. Added benefits of reducing methane
of greenhouse gases over different time horizons.
emissions are that many reductions come
When we convert greenhouse gas emissions to a 20-
year analytical time frame, then landfills account for a with little or no cost, reductions lower ozone
full 5.2% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. (See concentrations near Earth’s surface, and
Table 5.) Second, overall landfill gas capture efficiency methane emissions can be reduced
rates may be grossly overestimated. Of the 1,767 immediately while it will take time before
landfills in the U.S., only approximately 425 have the world’s carbon-based energy
installed systems to recover and utilize landfill gas.74 infrastructure can make meaningful
The U.S. EPA assumes that those landfills with gas
reductions in net carbon emissions.”
capture systems are able to trap 75% of gas emissions
over the life of the landfill. However, this is likely a
gross overestimation for the reasons explained below. – Dr. Ed J. Dlugokencky, Global Methane Expert, NOAA
Earth System Research Laboratory, March 2008
1. Landfill methane emissions on a 20-year time
horizon are almost three times greater than on a Source: “Beyond Kyoto: Why Climate Policy Needs to Adopt the 20-year Impact of
Methane,” Eco-Cycle Position Memo, Eco-Cycle, www.ecocycle.org, Boulder,
100-year time horizon. Landfills emit methane, Colorado, March 2008.
which is a greenhouse gas with an average lifetime of
12 years. Because different greenhouse gases have Although methane is more damaging in the short
different efficiencies in heat adsorption and different term, the U.S. greenhouse gas inventory also uses the
lifetimes in the atmosphere, the Intergovernmental 100-year time horizon to calculate the global warming
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) developed the potential of methane and other gases. When viewed
concept of global warming potential as a standard from a 20-year time horizon, the global warming
methodology to compare greenhouse gases. Carbon potential of methane almost triples to 72 (compared
dioxide is used as a baseline and all gases are adjusted to CO2 over the same period of time).76 On a 100-year
to values of CO2. One of the assumptions embedded time horizon, U.S. landfill methane emissions are 132
in the calculated value of a gas’s global warming Tg CO2 eq.; on a 20-year time period, they jump to
potential is the choice of time frame. The IPCC 452.6 Tg CO2 eq.77 As a result, as shown in Table 5,
publishes global warming potential values over three when viewed from a 20-year time horizon, landfill
time horizons, as seen in Table 4. The decision to use methane emissions represent 5.2% of all U.S.
a particular time horizon is a matter of policy, not a greenhouse gases emitted in 2005.
matter of science.75 Kyoto Protocol policymakers
The use of similar timeline variations in an Israeli
chose to evaluate greenhouse gases over the 100-year
study resulted in similarly significant differences in
time horizon based on their assessments of the short
emissions numbers. Using the 100-year time frame,
and long-term impacts of climate change. This
this study found Israeli landfills and wastewater
decision diluted the short-term impact of methane on
treatment contributed 13% of the nation’s total CO2
climate change and put less emphasis on its relative
eq. emissions. When these waste sector emissions
contribution.
were calculated on a 20-year time period, however,


Mining
Truck 0.3%
1.4%
2.6% 5.3%

Table 5: Major Sources of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions (Tg CO2 Eq.), 2005,
100 Year vs. 20 Year Time Horizon

Emission Source 100 Yr Horizon 20 Yr Horizon 1
Emissions % of Total Emissions % of Total
Fossil Fuel Combustion (CO 2) 5,751.2 79.2% 5,751.2 65.7%
2 365.1 5.0% 340.4 3.9%
3 142.4 2.0% 142.4 1.6%
Non-Energy Use of Fuels (CO2)
Natural Gas Systems (CO 2 & CH4) 139.3 1.9% 409.1 4.7%
Landfills (CH 4) 132.0 1.8% 452.6 5.2%
Substitution of ODS (HFCs, PFCs, SF 6) 123.3 1.7% 305.7 3.5%
Enteric Fermentation (CH 4) 112.1 1.5% 384.3 4.4%
Coal Mining (CH 4) 52.4 0.7% 179.7 2.1%
Manure Mgt (CH 4 & N2O) 50.8 0.7% 150.5 1.7%
Iron & Steel Production (CO 2 & CH4) 46.2 0.6% 48.6 0.6%
Cement Manufacture (CO 2) 45.9 0.6% 45.9 0.5%
Mobile Combustion (N 2O & CH 4) 40.6 0.6% 44.3 0.5%
Total 7,260.4 100.0% 8,754.2 100.0%

ODS = Ozone Depleting Substances Tg = Teragram = million metric tons

1. Methane emissions converted to 20-year time frame. Methane’s global warming potential is 72 over a 20-year time horizon, compared to 21 used for the 100-
year time frame. N2O emissions along with Recycling oncompounds, and hydrofluorocarbons have also been converted to the 20-year time horizon.
Table 1: Impact of Paper ODS, perfluorinated Greenhouse Gas Emissions
2. Such as fertilizer application and other cropping practices.
3. Such as for manufacturing paper)
(lbs of CO 2 eq./ton of plastics, lubricants, waxes, and asphalt.
4. CO2 emissions released from the combustion of biomass materials such as wood, paper, food discards, and yard trimmings are not accounted for under Table 2:
Municipal Solid Waste Combustion in the EPA inventory. Biomass emissions represent 72% of all CO2 Corrugated
Office CUK SBS
Newsprint
emitted from waste incinerators.
(kg of CO
Paper Boxes Paperboard Paperboard
Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Data for 100-year time horizon is from “Table ES-2: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and
Virgin Production & Landfilling
Sinks,” Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, April 15, 2007, p. ES-5 and p. 3-19.
Tree Harvesting/Transport 183.8 305.0 262.5 290.1 305.0 Process
Virgin Mfg Energy 5,946.0 10,163.0 6,918.2 7,757.0 10,799.0 Electric
Collection Vehicle & Landfill 84.1 84.1 84.1 84.1 84.1 Fossil F
MSW Landfill 1 9,301.4 9,301.4 9,301.4 9,301.4 9,301.4 Transpo
Ancillia
Total 15,515.3 19,853.5 16,566.2 17,432.6 20,489.5
PFC
Virgin Production & Incineration Total
Tree Harvesting/Transport 183.8 305.0 262.5 290.1 305.0
Virgin Mfg Energy 5,946.0 10,163.0 6,918.2 7,757.0 10,799.0 PFC = pe
MSW Collection 47.3 47.3 47.3 47.3 47.3 Source: "A
With the rapid state of climate change and the need for immediate, substantial reductions to
Combustion Process 2,207.1 2,207.1 2,207.1 2,207.1 2,207.1 for the Wor
greenhouse gas emissions in the short term, the 20-year time horizon for greenhouse gas
Avoided Utility Energy (1,024.8) (896.7) (896.7) (977.2) (977.2) Available o
Total 7,359.4 11,825.7 8,538.4 9,324.3 12,381.2
emissions should be considered in all greenhouse gas inventories.
Recycled Production & Recycling
Recycled Paper Collection 157.7 157.7 157.7 157.7 157.7 Table 3:
Recycling Paper Processing/Sorting 31.7 31.7 31.7 31.7 31.7
Residue Landfill Disposal 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 Constitu
Transportation to Market 33.0 33.0 33.0 33.0 33.0
Recycled Mfg Energy 3,232.0 3,345.0 2,951.0 2,605.0 2,605.0 Methane
Total 3,461.1 3,574.1 3,180.1 2,834.1 2,834.1 Carbon D
Nitrogen
WhenCUK = coated from a kraft SBS = time horizon, landfill methane MSW = municipal solid waste
viewed unbleached 20-year solid bleached sulfate Mfg = manufacturing emissions represent 5.2% of all Oxygen
Hydroge
U.S. greenhouse gases emitted in 2005.
1. Based on 20% landfill gas captured.
Halides
Water Va
Environmental Defense Fund, 1995, pp. 108-112. Available at www.edf.org. MSW Landfill greenhouse gas emissions reduced to reflect
Nonmeth
20% gas capture (up from 0%).

Source: En
gas industr
http://www.
Table 8: U.S. EPA WARM GHG Emissions by Solid Waste Management Option
(MTCE per ton)
28 Stop Trashing The Climate Table 6:
Material Landfilled Combusted Recycled Composted SR Gas Em
Aluminum Cans 0.010 0.017 -3.701 NA -2.245 Incinera
Carpet 0.010 0.106 -1.959 NA -1.090 Direct Gr

the waste sector’s contribution to overall greenhouse the-art” landfills will eventually leak and pollute
emissions jumped to more than 25%.78 nearby groundwater.81 Compounding this problem is
the fact that regulations protecting groundwater
With the rapid state of climate change and the need
quality do not adequately or reliably address the wide
for immediate, substantial reductions to greenhouse
variety of constituents in municipal solid waste
gas emissions in the short term, the 20-year time
leachate, the liquid that results when moisture enters
horizon for greenhouse gas emissions should be
landfills. Another important reason is landfill air
considered in all greenhouse gas inventories.
emissions are toxic and can increase the risk of certain
Prioritizing the reduction of methane in the next few
types of cancer. Escaping gases will typically carry
years will have a substantial effect upon climate change
toxic chemicals such as paint thinner, solvents,
over the coming decade. Removing one ton of
pesticides, and other hazardous volatile organic
methane will have the same effect as removing 72 tons
compounds. Unsurprisingly, then, studies link living
of CO2 in the short term. The immediacy of our
near landfills with cancer.82 Women living near solid
situation demands we consider both the short- and
waste landfills where gas is escaping, for example, have
long-term climate impacts of wasting.
been found to have a four-fold increased chance of
2. Landfill methane gas capture rates are bladder cancer and leukemia. The negative
overestimated, resulting in underreported methane environmental and social impacts of landfill use are
emissions released to the atmosphere. In its WAste minimized when a zero waste path is chosen.
Reduction Model (WARM), the U.S. EPA assumes
landfills with gas recovery systems capture 75% or
more of the methane gas generated. According to one
expert, though, this capture rate has no factual basis Waste Incinerators Emit Greenhouse
and typical lifetime capture rates for landfills that have
gas recovery systems are closer to 16%, but no greater
Gases and Waste Energy
than 20%.79 For an explanation of why capture rates
are low, see the Myth and Fact on this issue, page 34. In terms of their impact on greenhouse gas
concentrations, incinerators are worse than
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has alternatives such as waste avoidance, reuse, recycling,
now recognized extremely low lifetime landfill gas composting, and anaerobic digestion. The Integrated
capture rates: Waste Services Association, an incineration trade
group, falsely claims that waste incineration “does the
“Some sites may have less efficient or only
most to reduce greenhouse gas releases into the
partial gas extraction systems, and there are
atmosphere” when compared to other waste
fugitive emissions from landfilled waste prior
management options, and that incineration “plants are
to and after the implementation of active gas
tremendously valuable contributors in the fight
extraction; therefore estimates of ‘lifetime’
against global warming.”83 These statements are based
recovery efficiencies may be as low as 20%.”80
on the narrow view that incinerators recycle some
Average landfill lifetime capture efficiency rates as low metals, avoid coal combustion, and reduce the
as 20% raise questions about the effectiveness of methane released from landfills. They ignore the fact
focusing on end-of-pipe solutions to collect landfill that the materials that incinerators destroy could
gas as compared to preventing methane emissions otherwise be reduced at the source, reused, recycled, or
completely by keeping biodegradable materials from composted, with resulting far superior benefits to the
entering landfills in the first place. The increased climate.
potency of methane over the short term offers further
1. Incinerators emit significant quantities of direct
impetus for preventing, rather than partially
greenhouse gases. Not only do incinerators emit toxic
mitigating, emissions.
chemicals, but the U.S. EPA’s most recent inventory of
In addition to preventing methane emissions, there are U.S. greenhouse gas emissions also lists U.S.
other important reasons to reduce landfill use. One is incinerators among the top 15 major sources of direct
the protection of our water supplies; even “state-of- greenhouse gases to the environment, contributing


Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S) 1 - 0.017%
Halides NA
Recommendations for Purchasing and Using Environmentally Friendly Paper,
Water Vapor (H 2O) 1 - 10%
able at www.edf.org. MSW Landfill greenhouse gas emissions reduced to reflect
Nonmethane Organic Compounds (NMOCs) 0.0237 - 1.43%

Source: Energy Information Administration. US Department of Energy. Grow
gas industry; 1996. Available online at:
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/renewable.energy.annual/ch
missions by Solid Waste Management Of this, CO2 emissions
21.3 Tg CO2 eq. in 2005. Option
represented 20.9 Tg CO2 eq. and N2O emissions, 0.4 Table 6: Direct and Indirect U.S. Greenhouse

Tg CO2 eq.84 (See Table 5, page 28.) In the 15-year Table 6: Direct and Indirect U.S. Greenhouse
Gas Emissions from Municipal Waste
Gas Emissions from Municipal Waste
Incinerators, 2005
d Combusted
period Recycled Composted SR
from 1990 to 2005, the EPA reported that
0 0.017 -3.701 emissions rose by 10 Tg CO2 eq.
NA -2.245 Incinerators, 2005
incinerator CO2
0 0.106 -1.959 NA -1.090 Direct Greenhouse Gases
0 (91%), as the amount of plastics and other fossil-fuel-
-0.290 -1.434 NA NA CO2 20.9 Tg CO 2 eq.
0 based materials in municipal solid waste has grown.85
0.015 -1.342 NA -2.001
N2O 0.4 Tg CO 2 eq.
5 -0.178 -0.965 NA NA
9 -0.177 Comparisons of waste and energy options often
2. -0.965 NA NA Indirect Greenhouse Gases
7 -0.162 -0.932 NA NA NOx 98 Gg
wrongly ignore the majority of CO2 emissions
9 -0.177 -0.849 NA -1.525 CO 1,493 Gg
0 released by incinerators. In the U.S. EPA greenhouse
-0.170 -0.848 NA -2.500 NMVOCs 245 Gg
2 gas inventory mentioned above, CO2 emissions
-0.128 -0.837 NA -2.360 SO2 23 Gg
8 -0.166 -0.795 NA NA
released from the combustion of biomass materials
0 -0.170 -0.778 NA -2.182 Tg = teragram = 1 million metric tons
Tg = teragram = 1 million metric tons
7 such as wood, paper, food scraps, and -1.329
-0.202 -0.761 NA yard trimmings Gg = gigagram = 1,000= 1,000 metric tons
Gg = gigagram metric tons
7 are not included under “municipal solid waste
-0.202 -0.724 NA -1.724
3 -0.212 -0.674 NA -0.604 NMVOCs = nonmethane volatile organic compounds
combustion.” In fact, of the total amount of NMVOCs = nonmethane volatile organic compounds
3 -0.212 -0.670 NA -0.551
0 incinerator-0.616
-0.054 emissions, only the fossil-based carbon
NA -15.129
Note: CO2 emissions represent U.S. EPA reported data,
Note: CO2 emissions represent U.S. EPA reported data, which
which exclude emissions from biomass materials.
0 emissions -0.498
0.049 — those created NA burning plastics,
by -1.086 exclude emissions from biomass materials.
0 -0.418 -0.489 NA -0.866
synthetic rubber/leather, and synthetic textiles — are Source: Table ES-2 and Table ES-10: Emissions of NOx, CO,
0 0.253 -0.462 NA -0.618 NMVOCs, and SO2, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas
Source: Table ES-2 and Table ES-10: Emissions of NOx, CO,
0 included under “municipal solid waste -0.571
0.295 -0.419 NA combustion” in Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, U.S. EPA, Washington,
NMVOCs, and SO 2, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
DC, April 15, 2007, p. ES-17.
0 the inventory. These emissions account for less than
0.270 -0.407 NA NA and Sinks, 1990-2005 , U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, April 15, 2007,
0 0.253 -0.380
one-third of the overall CO NA 2 emissions from
-0.487 p. ES-17.
0 NA -0.237 NA NA
0
incinerators.
0.014 -0.076 NA -0.156
0 NA -0.002 NA NA account emissions that are avoided and carbon
7 When all emissions are correctly taken into account, it
-0.048 NA -0.054 NA sequestered when materials are reused, recycled orPractices Quan
Table 7: Select Resource Conservation
0 becomes clear that on a -0.054
-0.060 NA per megawatt-hour basis,
NA composted as compared to incinerated. Emissions Reduced
2 -0.060
incinerators emitNA more CO2 than any fossil-fuel-based
-0.054 NA Practice
8 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA
electricity source. (See Figure 4 on page 40.) Coal-fired 4. Incinerators are large sources of indirect CO2 eq.) (Tons
3 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA
4 power plants, NA example, emit 2,249 pounds of CO2
-0.054 for -0.054 NA greenhouse gases. of food scraps from landfill emitted 0.25
Divert 1 ton Indirect greenhouse gases
Every acre of Bay-Friendly landscape 1 4
6 -0.033
per megawatt-hour, comparedNA the 2,899 pounds
NA to NA by incineratorston of cardboard boxes
Reuse 1 include carbon monoxide (CO), 1.8
0 NA NA NA
86 -0.077 nitrogen oxide 1 ton of plastic film
Recycle (NOx), non-methane volatile organic 2.5
emitted by waste incinerators. Clearly, as discussed in
further detail in the Myth and Fact on this issue, page
SR = Source Reduction
compounds (NMVOCs), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). 1
Recycle 1 ton of mixed paper

41, simply ignoring CO2 emissions from incinerating (See Table 6.) According to the U.S. EPA, “theseto gardening and landscaping
1. Bay-Friendly landscaping is a holistic approach gases
biomass materials is inappropriate and leads to flawed do notincludes compost use.global warming effect, but
have a direct
nd Greenhouse Gases: A Life-Cycle Assessment of Emissions and
climate impact comparisons with other waste indirectly affect terrestrial absorption by and Composting: Lessons Learned f
Source: Debra Kaufman, “Climate Change
influencing
ES-14.
management and energy generation options. the formation Countydestruction of tropospheric and presented at the Nort
Alameda and Climate Action Project,” StopWaste.Org,
California Recycling Association’s Recycling Update ’07 Conference, March 27,
stratospheric ozone, or, in the case of SO2, by affecting
3. Tremendous opportunities for greenhouse gas available online at: http://www.ncrarecycles.org/ru/ru07.html.
the absorptive characteristics of the atmosphere. In
reductions are lost when a material is incinerated.
Diversion Tonnages and Rates addition, some of these gases may react with other
It is wrong to ignore the opportunities for CO2 or chemical compounds in the atmosphere to form
ed Recycled other emissions to be avoided, sequestered or stored
Composted %
% Recycled % Diverted compounds that are greenhouse gases.”87 These
ns) (tons) through(tons) Composted
non-incineration uses of a given material. indirect greenhouse gases are not quantifiable as CO2
86 47,186,280 More climate-friendly alternatives to incinerating
15,626,398 67.6% 22.4% 90.0%
41 9,721,272 materials often include source reduction, reuse,
90.0% 90.0%
eq. and are not included in CO2 eq. emissions totals
87 14,088,481 90.0% 90.0% in inventories.
34 16,349,602 recycling, and composting. When 22.2%
5,368,605 67.8% calculating90.0%
the true
77 10,258,889 climate impact of incineration as compared 90.0%
90.0% to other 5. Incinerators waste energy by destroying
53 23,014,376 90.0% 90.0%
waste management and energy generation options, it materials. The energy sector is the single largest
56 23,861,306 90.0% 90.0% contributor to greenhouse gases, representing 85% of
40 19,626,660
is essential that models account for the emissions
90.0% 90.0%
74 117,231,184 avoided when a given material is 33.0%for its highest
67,870,685 58.0% used 90.0% U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2005.88 Incinerators
and best use. This means, for instance, taking into destroy highly recyclable and compostable materials,
astics composted represent compostable plastics, which have already been
w.


thus also destroying the energy-saving potential of
recycling or composting those materials. Incinerators
also recover few resources (with the exception of
ferrous metals) and are net energy losers when the
embodied energy of the materials incinerated is taken
into account.
Recycling is far better for the climate as it saves 3 to 5
times the energy that waste incinerator power plants
generate.89 In other words, incinerating trash is akin to
spending 3 to 5 units of energy to make 1 unit. When
a ton of office paper is incinerated, for example, it
generates about 8,200 megajoules; when this same ton
is recycled, it saves about 35,200 megajoules. Thus
recycling office paper saves four times more energy
than the amount generated by burning it.90 Recycling
other materials offers similar energy savings. The U.S.
EPA found recycling to be more effective at reducing
greenhouse gas emissions than incineration across all
18 product categories it evaluated.91 While incinerator
advocates describe their installations as “resource Bridgeport, CT, trash incinerator. Courtesy of Timothy J. Pisacich.
recovery,” “waste-to-energy” (WTE) facilities, or
“conversion technologies,” these facts indicate that
incinerators are more aptly labeled “wasted energy”
plants or “waste of energy” (WOE) facilities.92
6. Incinerators exacerbate global warming by
competing with more climate-friendly systems for
public financing. Federal and state public financing
programs, such as the Federal Renewable Energy
Production Tax Credit and several state renewable
energy portfolio standards, reward incinerators and
landfills for generating electricity. As a result, these
programs encourage increased levels of waste disposal,
pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. They also
have the negative effect of subsidizing these dirty waste
management systems, thereby giving them a distinct
competitive advantage over more climate-friendly
options such as recycling and composting programs.
State renewable portfolio standards provide eligible Incinerating trash is akin to spending 3 to 5
industries with access to favorable markets in which to units of energy to make 1 unit.
sell their electricity at competitive prices. These laws
thus provide electricity generators with tangible
economic rewards, favorable electricity contracts, and
the long-term stability necessary to attract capital
investment. Qualifying incinerators for renewable
energy incentives contributes to greenhouse gas
emissions and ensures that less funding is available for
real solutions to climate change such as conservation,
efficiency, and wind, solar and ocean power.


Sample Renewable Energy Standards and Tax Credits That Favor Disposal Over
Resource Conservation
Federal Renewable Energy Production Tax Credit: Originally enacted as part of the Energy Policy Act of 1992, the Production Tax Credit (PTC)
provides a highly sought-after tax reward for so-called “renewable” energy generation. The PTC — which originally supported only wind and
select bioenergy resources — is now available to several dirty electricity generators including incinerators, landfills, refined coal, “Indian coal,”*
and others. Eligible electricity generators receive a tax credit of 1.9 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity that they generate. The PTC is
set to expire on January 1, 2009, and should be extended to support only truly renewable electricity sources such as wind, solar, and ocean
power — not incinerators, landfills, and other dirty electricity generators.

Renewable Portfolio Standard: A renewable portfolio standard (RPS) — also called a renewable electricity standard (RES) — is a law that
requires a certain amount of electricity to be generated by what are deemed to be “renewable” resources by a particular year. For example, the
state of New Jersey requires that 22.5% of its electricity comes from electricity sources such as solar, wind, landfills, biomass, and tidal by the
year 2020. To date, twenty-seven states have passed some version of an RPS law. These laws vary greatly in terms of how much electricity is
required and what qualifies as a “renewable” source of electricity. While some states such as Oregon have passed relatively strict requirements
for what qualifies as a renewable resource, other states, such as Pennsylvania, have passed RPS laws that qualify electricity sources including
coal, incinerators, and landfills as “renewable.” All state RPS laws (including Oregon’s) qualify landfills as sources of renewable electricity.
Approximately half of state RPS laws qualify municipal solid waste incinerators as a source of renewable electricity.

Alternative Fuels Mandate: This measure was included as part of the Renewable Fuels, Consumer Protection, and Energy Efficiency Act of
2007 (H.R. 6). It mandates the generation of 36 billion gallons of fuel from so-called “renewable” biomass by the year 2022. As part of this
mandate, several dirty fuel sources may qualify as “advanced renewable biofuels” and “biomass-based diesel,” including municipal solid waste
incineration, wastewater sludge incineration, and landfill gas.

* “Indian coal” is coal produced from coal reserves owned by an Indian tribe, or held in trust by the United States for the benefit of an Indian tribe or its members.
Source: Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency, available online at http://www.dsireusa.org/; and David Ciplet, Global Anti-Incinerator Alliance/Global Alliance for
Incinerator Alternatives, March 2008.

GrassRoots Recycling Network, Garbage is NOT Renewable Energy, www.grrn.org


In addition to its negative impact on the climate, the
use of incinerators has several other negative
environmental, social, and health consequences. For
one, incinerators are disproportionately cited in
communities of color, tribal communities, and poor
or rural communities, which are often areas of least
political resistance. Incinerators are also prohibitively
expensive, compete with recycling and composting for
financing and materials, sustain only 1 job for every
10 at a recycling facility,93 produce toxic solid and
liquid discharges, and cause significant emissions of
dioxin and other chlorinated organic compounds that
have well known toxic impacts on human health and
the environment. Emissions from incinerators are
transported long distances and have been positively
identified to cause cancer.94
Moreover, incinerators are inadequately regulated. For
example, the U.S. EPA does not effectively regulate
toxins in solid and liquid discharges from incinerators.
Emissions of nanoparticles, for instance, are
completely unregulated. Nanoparticles are particles
that range in size between 1 and 100 nanometers (a
nanometer is one billionth of a meter). Nanoparticles
emitted by incinerators include dioxins and other
toxins. They are too small to measure, and are difficult
to capture in pollution control devices. Studies of
nanoparticles or ultra-fines reveal increased cause for
concern about incinerator emissions of dioxin, heavy
metals, and other toxins.95 Due to their small size,
nanoparticles from incinerators and other sources may
be able to enter the body through inhalation,
consumption or skin contact, and can penetrate cells
and tissues causing biochemical damage in humans or
animals. Toxic pollutants in nanoparticle size can be
lethal to humans in many ways, causing cancer, heart
attacks, strokes, asthma, and pulmonary disease,
among others.96 (For additional information on the
public health impacts of incinerators, see Incineration
and Public Health: State of Knowledge of the Impacts of
Waste Incineration on Human Health.97)


least 25 times more effective in reducing greenhouse
Debunking Common Myths gas emissions than landfill gas-to-energy schemes.99
These uncontrolled emissions are even more
important when evaluating the global warming
Despite claims to the contrary, waste incinerators, impact of methane over the short term, rather than
landfill gas recovery systems, and wet landfill designs diluting it over 100 years, as is current practice.
(labeled as “bioreactors” by their proponents) will not
solve the problem of greenhouse gas emissions from The U.S. EPA overestimates the capture rates from
wasting. The following eight common myths stand in landfill gas recovery systems due to the following
the way of effective solutions to address our factors:
unsustainable rate of resource consumption and rising There are no field measurements of the efficiency
greenhouse gas emissions. of landfill gas collection systems over the lifetime of
MYTH: Landfill gas capture recovery systems are an the landfill.100 In order to do this, a giant “bubble,”
effective way to address methane emissions from similar to an indoor tennis court bubble, would
landfills. have to be installed over the entire landfill to
capture and measure all of the gas created over an
FACT: Landfill gas capture systems do a poor job of indefinite period of time. In addition, such a
recovering methane emissions. system would have to account for emissions
released before the gas collection system is installed.
It would also have to account for fugitive emissions
The best way to mitigate landfill methane emissions is that escape through cracks in the landfill liner and
to prevent biodegradable materials such as food other pathways. Such an installation is not
discards, yard trimmings, and paper products from technically or economically feasible.
entering landfills, as methane gas recovery systems
actually do a poor job of capturing landfill gas. In fact, The U.S. EPA’s estimated 75% capture rate is an
most gases generated in landfills escape uncontrolled. assumption based on what the best gas collection
Lifetime landfill capture efficiency rates may be closer systems might achieve rather than what the average
to 20% than the 75% rate assumed by the U.S. EPA systems actually experience.101 One study estimated
in its WAste Reduction Model (WARM).98 One study that the average capture rate for 25 landfills in
indicates that keeping organics out of landfills is at California was 35%.102


The best way to mitigate landfill methane emissions is to prevent biodegradable materials
such as food discards, yard trimmings, and paper products from entering landfills. Most gases
generated in landfills escape uncontrolled.

The U.S. EPA’s estimated 75% capture rate is based Landfill gas recovery systems are not generally
on instantaneous collection efficiency estimates of a operational during peak methane releases.
system running at peak efficiency rather than on Theoretically, at least 50% of the “latent” methane
the system’s performance over the entire lifetime in municipal solid waste can be generated within
that the landfill generates gas. One expert reports one year of residence time in a landfill.107 However,
that correcting this alone would lower the regulations in EPA’s landfill air rule do not require
estimated capture rate from 75% to 27%.103 gas collection for the first five years of a landfill’s
life.108 This means that any food discards and other
New landfill gas recovery systems currently space
biodegradable materials that decompose within
collection wells 350 feet apart, instead of the
those five years will have emitted methane directly
previous industry practice of 150 feet between
into the atmosphere.
wells. This practice results in fewer wells and less
landfill gas collected.104 EPA landfill rules allow the removal of gas
collection systems from service approximately 20
Gas generated inside landfills escapes all day, every
years after the landfill closes. Landfill barriers will
day from every landfill in America. No one actually
ultimately fail at some point during the post-
knows how much is escaping since landfills are not
closure period when the landfill is no longer
fully contained or monitored systems. We do know
actively managed. Once the barriers fail,
that gas escapes through a variety of routes, and
precipitation will re-enter the landfill, and, in time,
that it is not stored but instead seeks the path of
accumulating moisture will cause a second wave of
least resistance to release into the atmosphere.
decomposition and gas generation without any
Through ruptures in the final cover, or before the
controls.109
cap is installed, gas escapes directly into the
atmosphere from the top and sides of a landfill. Gas
also escapes indirectly through subsurface routes,
including via the landfills’ own leachate collection
system and through ruptures in the bottom liner
and its seals, sometimes reaching into adjoining
structures through underground utility lines.105
Landfill gas managers often “throttle back” on the
wells where low methane concentrations are
recorded in order to give that surrounding field
time to recharge.‡ When this happens, more
landfill gases escape uncontrolled into the
atmosphere. While there is no reporting of how
often throttling is utilized, anecdotal evidence
suggests that about 15% of the fields at a landfill
with a gas recovery system will be throttled back or
turned down at any point in time. This may reduce
lifetime capture rates further to 16%.106

* Throttle back = The operator controls how much negative pressure to apply to each gas well. If there is more than 5% oxygen in the gas collected in a well, he or she will reduce the vacuum forces in order to
avoid sucking in so much air.

‡ Recharge = When a gas field has its wells throttled back for the related purpose of recharging moisture levels, the landfill operator is reacting to the fact that 50% of the gas withdrawn is moisture, and
methanogenic microbes need more than 40% moisture levels to optimize methane production. The vacuum forces are reduced or the well is completely turned off for a while to provide time for new rainfall to
infiltrate cells that have not had final covers installed and thereby recoup sufficient moisture to keep the future gas methane rich above 50% and as close to 60% as feasible.


MYTH: Wet landfills or “bioreactor” designs will improve
landfill gas capture rates and help reduce methane
emissions from landfills.
FACT: Wet landfills are schemes to speed methane
generation, but because lifetime gas capture efficiency
rates may approximate 20%, actual methane emissions
may be greater with the reactor design than without.
The idea behind wet landfill designs, called
“bioreactors” by their proponents, is to compress the
time period during which gas is actively produced in
the landfill and to thereby implement early gas
extraction.110 Instead of preventing water from
entering landfills, these systems re-circulate and
redistribute liquids — called leachate — throughout
the landfill.111 This moisture aids decomposition,
which then leads to methane generation. Landfill
operators prefer these systems because they encourage
materials to settle and thus boost landfill capacity,
which in turn raises profits.
By adding and circulating liquid to speed anaerobic
conditions, however, these systems may actually
increase rather than decrease overall methane MYTH: Landfills and incinerators are sources of
emissions. The U.S. EPA acknowledges that renewable energy.
bioreactors in the early years may increase methane
FACT: Landfills and incinerators waste valuable
generation 2 to 10 times.112 And because gas recovery
resources and are not generators of “renewable” energy.
systems do a poor job of recovering methane, these
They inefficiently capture a small amount of energy by
increased emissions will largely escape uncontrolled.
destroying a large number of the Earth’s diminishing
See previous myth for more on the flaws of landfill gas
resources that could be conserved, reused, or recycled.
recovery systems. Wet landfill systems will likely
further reduce the efficiency of landfill gas capture Some federal renewable energy rules and many state
because the pipes used for re-circulating leachate are green energy programs qualify municipal solid waste
the same as those used for extracting gas. This makes as a source of renewable energy, thus allowing landfills
gas collection challenging. Furthermore, in order to let and often waste incinerators to receive public
in more precipitation, bioreactor systems involve financing and tax credits. However, waste is not a
delaying the installation of a final cover on the landfill source of renewable energy. It is created using
for years — yet it is the cover, the impermeable cap, exhaustible resources such as fossil fuels and
that is essential for the proper functioning of gas diminishing forests. Since 1970, one-third of global
collection systems.113 natural resources have been depleted.114 This pattern of
production, consumption, and wasting is hardly part
Investing millions of dollars in systems that add to
of a sustainable or “renewable” system. The fact is that
methane generation in the short term is thus ill-
incinerators and landfills promote wasteful behavior
advised and counterproductive to climate protection
and the continued depletion of finite material
efforts, as such technologies will only hasten the onset
resources. This is entirely contrary to any conception
of climate change by releasing potent emissions over a
of renewable energy.
short time period.


MYTH: Subsidizing landfill gas capture recovery systems generation without any pollution controls.120 The
through renewable portfolio standards, alternative fuels bottom line is that no landfill design is effective in
mandates, and green power incentives is good for the preventing greenhouse gas emissions or eliminating
climate. the other health and environmental risks of
landfilling. This is one principal reason that the
FACT: Subsidies to landfills encourage waste disposal at
European Union committed to reducing the amount
the expense of waste reduction and materials recovery
of biodegradable waste sent to landfills in its Landfill
options that are far better for the climate.
Directive, and why the German government outlawed
Renewable energy or tax credits for landfill gas capture the landfilling of untreated mixed waste. In the U.S.,
systems represent subsidies that distort the the current trend to weaken landfill bans on yard
marketplace and force recycling, composting, and trimmings is the complete opposite of what is needed
anaerobic digestion programs to compete with landfill to reverse climate change, and is contrary to growing
disposal systems on an uneven economic playing field. international sentiment.121
The same holds true for financial incentives offered to
It is extremely important to our climate protection
waste incinerators.
efforts that we dramatically reduce methane emissions
The critical point to remember when evaluating the from landfills. However, the current strategy in the
eligibility of these systems for “green” incentives is that U.S. of providing subsidies to landfills for gas capture
it is our use of landfills that creates the methane and energy generation leads to increased, not
problem in the first place. There is no methane in the decreased, greenhouse gas emissions. This is because
materials we discard. It is the decision to landfill these subsidies provide perverse incentives to landfill
biodegradable materials that causes methane, because more organic materials and to mismanage landfills for
lined landfills create the unique oxygen-starved increased gas production. This means we are providing
conditions that lead to anaerobic decomposition and incentives to create the potent greenhouse gases we so
its resulting methane production. Normally, critically need to eliminate. These subsidies also
decomposition of organic matter would occur unfairly disadvantage far more climate-friendly
aerobically through a process that does not produce solutions, such as source separation and the
significant methane.115 Landfill operators should composting and anaerobic digestion of organic
indeed be required to capture methane, but these gas materials. Rather than providing subsidies for landfill
recovery systems should not qualify as renewable gas capture and energy production, we should, at a
energy in portfolios, renewable tax credits, emission minimum, undertake the following: (1) immediately
offset trading programs, or other renewable energy phase out the landfilling and incinerating of organic
incentives. This is akin to giving oil companies tax materials; (2) strengthen landfill gas capture rules and
credits for agreeing to partially clean up their oil spills. regulations; and (3) provide incentives to expand and
strengthen our organics collection infrastructure,
In addition, gas capture systems are highly ineffective including support for the creation of composting and
and poorly regulated. Current landfill regulations anaerobic digestion facility jobs.
requiring gas recovery only apply to 5% of landfills,
and for those to which the regulations do apply,
collection systems only need to be in place beginning The bottom line is that no landfill design is
five years after waste is disposed.116 The rules also allow effective in preventing greenhouse gas
the removal of collection systems approximately 20 emissions or eliminating the other health
years after the site’s closure.117 Yet, according to the and environmental risks of landfilling.
U.S. EPA, methane emissions can continue for up to
60 years.118 At some point, all landfill liners and
barriers will ultimately fail and leak; EPA has
acknowledged this fact.119 Once barriers fail,
precipitation will re-enter the landfill. In time,
accumulating moisture during the post-closure period
when landfills are no longer actively managed may
cause a second wave of decomposition and gas


MYTH: Subsidizing waste incinerators through minimum tonnage guarantees through “put or pay”
renewable electricity portfolio standards, alternative contracts, which require communities to pay fees
fuels mandates, and other green power incentives is whether their waste is burned or not. This directly
good for the climate. hinders waste prevention, reuse, composting,
recycling, and their associated community economic
FACT: Subsidies to incinerators encourage waste
development benefits.
disposal at the expense of waste reduction and materials
recovery options that are far better for the climate. The undermining of recycling by incineration has also
been noted in countries with more reliance on
Subsidies to incinerators — including mass-burn,
incineration than the U.S. Germany’s top
pyrolysis, plasma, gasification, and other incineration
environmental and waste official acknowledged in
technologies that generate electricity or fuels —
2007 that paper recycling is threatened because of
squander taxpayer money intended for truly
incinerators’ “thirst” for combustible materials, and he
renewable energy, waste reduction, and climate
called for policies to ensure that paper recycling is a
solutions. Environment America, the Sierra Club, the
priority.123
Natural Resources Defense Council, Friends of the
Earth, and 130 other organizations have recognized Subsidies for incineration also encourage the
this fact and endorsed a statement calling for no expansion of existing incinerators and the
incentives to be awarded to incinerators.122 Subsidies construction of a new generation of disposal projects
to incinerators at the local and national level are that are harmful to the climate. These subsidies erode
encouraging proposals for the construction and community efforts to protect health, reduce waste,
expansion of expensive, pollution-ridden, and and stop global warming, and reverse decades of
greenhouse-gas-intensive disposal projects. With progress achieved by the environmental justice and
limited resources available to fix the colossal climate health movements. By investing public money in
problem, not a dime of taxpayer money should be recycling and composting infrastructure, jobs, and
misused to subsidize incinerators. other zero waste strategies — rather than incineration
— we could reuse a far greater percentage of discarded
Because of the capital-intensive nature of incinerators,
materials and significantly reduce our climate
their construction locks communities into long-term
footprint.
energy and waste contracts that obstruct efforts to
conserve resources, as recyclers and incinerators
compete for the same materials. Incinerator operators
covet high-Btu materials such as cardboard, other
paper, and plastics for generating electricity. For every
ton of paper or plastics incinerated, one less ton can be
recycled, and the far greater energy saving benefits of
recycling are squandered. Waste incinerators rely on

Environment America, the Sierra Club, the Natural Resources Defense Council, Friends of the
Earth, and 130 other organizations have recognized this fact and endorsed a statement calling
for no incentives to be awarded to incinerators.


MYTH: Incinerating “biomass” materials such as wood, The rationale for ignoring CO2 emissions from
paper, yard trimmings, and food discards is “climate biomass materials when comparing waste
neutral.” CO2 emissions from these materials should be management and energy generation options often
ignored when comparing energy generation options. derives from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) methodology recommended for
FACT: Incinerating materials such as wood, paper, yard
accounting for national CO2 emissions. In 2006, the
trimmings, and food discards is far from “climate
IPCC wrote:
neutral.” Rather, incinerating these and other materials
is detrimental to the climate. Any model comparing the
climate impacts of energy generation options should “Consistent with the 1996 Guidelines (IPCC,
take into account additional lifecycle emissions incurred 1997), only CO2 emissions resulting from
(or not avoided) by not utilizing a material for its “highest oxidation, during incineration and open
and best” use. In addition, calculations should take into burning of carbon in waste of fossil origin
account the timing of releases of CO2. (e.g., plastics, certain textiles, rubber, liquid
solvents, and waste oil) are considered net
Incinerators emit more CO2 per megawatt-hour than emissions and should be included in the
coal-fired, natural-gas-fired, or oil-fired power plants national CO2 emissions estimate. The
(see Figure 4, page 40). However, when comparing CO2emissions from combustion of biomass
incineration with other energy options such as coal, materials (e.g., paper, food, and wood waste)
natural gas, and oil power plants, the Solid Waste contained in the waste are biogenic
Association of North America (SWANA) and the emissions and should not be included in
Integrated Waste Services Association (an incinerator national total emission estimates. However, if
industry group) treat the incineration of materials incineration of waste is used for energy
such as wood, paper, yard trimmings, and food purposes, both fossil and biogenic CO2
discards as “carbon neutral.” SWANA ignores CO2 emissions should be estimated. Only fossil CO2
emissions from these materials, concluding that should be included in national emissions under
“WTE power plants [incinerators] emit significantly Energy Sector while biogenic CO2 should be
less carbon dioxide than any of the fossil fuel power reported as an information item also in the
plants.”124 This is simply inaccurate. Energy Sector. Moreover, if combustion, or
Wood, paper, and agricultural materials are often any other factor, is causing long term decline
produced from unsustainable forestry and land in the total carbon embodied in living
management practices that are causing the amount of biomass (e.g., forests), this net release of
carbon stored in forests and soil to decrease over time. carbon should be evident in the calculation
Incinerating these materials not only emits CO2 in the of CO2 emissions described in the
process, but also destroys their potential for reuse or Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use
use as manufacturing and composting feedstocks. This (AFOLU) Volume of the 2006
ultimately leads to a net increase of CO2 Guidelines.”127 [emphasis added]
concentrations in the atmosphere and contributes to
climate change. The U.S. is the largest global importer
of paper and wood products,125 and these products are There is no indication that the IPCC ever intended for
often imported from regions around the world that its national inventory accounting protocols to be used as
have unsustainable resource management practices a rationale to ignore emissions from biomass materials
resulting in deforestation, forest degradation, and soil when comparing energy or waste management options
erosion. Deforestation alone accounts for as much as outside of a comprehensive greenhouse gas inventory.
30% of global carbon emissions.126 A comprehensive Rather, the guidelines state “…if incineration of waste is
lifecycle analysis is necessary to assess the overall used for energy purposes both fossil and biogenic CO2
climate impact of any material used as a fuel source, emissions should be estimated.”
and would include CO2 emissions from wood, paper,
food discards, and other “biomass materials.”


The bottom line is that tremendous opportunities for Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases, “… forest
greenhouse gas reductions are lost when a material is carbon sequestration increases as a result of source
incinerated. When calculating the true climate impact reduction or recycling of paper products because both
of incineration as compared to other waste source reduction and recycling cause annual tree
management and energy generation options, it is harvests to drop below otherwise anticipated levels
essential that models account for the emissions (resulting in additional accumulation of carbon in
avoided when a given material is used for its highest forests).”128
and best use. This means, for instance, taking into
When wood, paper or food materials are reused,
account emissions that are avoided and carbon
recycled or composted rather than incinerated, the
sequestered when materials are reused, recycled or
release of the CO2 from these materials into the
composted as compared to incinerated. More climate-
atmosphere can be delayed by many years. Materials
friendly alternatives to incinerating materials often
such as paper and wood can be recycled several times,
include options such as source reduction, waste
dramatically increasing the climate protection
avoidance, reuse, recycling, and composting.
benefits.
When wood and paper are recycled or source reduced,
Storing CO2 in materials over time does not have the
rather than incinerated, forests sequester more carbon.
same impact on climate change as releasing CO2 into
In other words, when we reduce the amount of
the atmosphere instantaneously through incineration.
materials made from trees, or when we reuse or recycle
those materials, fewer trees are cut down to create new A recent editorial in the International Journal of
products. This leads to increased amounts of carbon LifeCycle Assessment emphasizes the importance of
stored in trees and soil rather than released to the timing in “How to Account for CO2 Emissions from
atmosphere. As the EPA writes in its 2006 report Solid Biomass in an LCA”:

Figure 4: Comparison of Total CO2 Emissions Between Incinerators and
Fossil-Fuel-Based Power Plants (lbs CO2/megawatt-hour)

Ta

Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Based on data reported on the U.S. EPA Clean Energy web page,
“How Does Electricity Affect the Environment,” http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/air-emissions.html,
browsed March 13, 2008.


“The time dimension is crucial for systems with every megawatt of electricity generated through the
a long delay between removal and emission of combustion of solid waste, a megawatt of electricity
CO2, for example, the use of wood for from coal-fired or oil-fired power plants is avoided,
buildings, furniture and wood-based materials. creating a net savings of emissions of carbon dioxide
Such CO2 is sequestered for decades or and other greenhouse gases.131
centuries, but eventually much or all of it will
FACT: Incinerators increase — not reduce —
be re-emitted to the atmosphere. Different
greenhouse gas emissions. Municipal solid waste
processes for the re-emission may have very
incinerators produce more carbon dioxide per unit of
different time scales. It is not appropriate to
electricity generated than either coal-fired or oil-fired
neglect such delays…”129
power plants.132
Similarly, in their paper, “The Potential Role of
The Integrated Waste Services Association, an
Compost in Reducing Greenhouse Gases,” researchers
incinerator industry group, makes the above claim
Enzo Favoino and Dominic Hogg argue that one
that waste incinerators that produce electricity reduce
shortcoming of some lifecycle assessments is the
greenhouse gases. The reality is quite different. First of
following:
all, incinerators emit significant quantities of CO2 and
“their failure to take into account the dynamics N2O, which are direct greenhouse gases. Second, the
— or dimension of time — in the assessment majority of CO2 emissions from incinerators are often
of environmental outcomes. In waste ignored when incineration is compared with other
management systems, this is of particular energy generation options. As discussed above, often
significance when comparing biological only CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel-based plastics,
processes with thermal ones. This is because tires, synthetic rubber/leather, and synthetic textiles
the degradation of biomass tends to occur over are counted. These materials represent only one-
an extended period of time (over 100 years), quarter of all waste combusted133 and only 28% of
whereas thermal processes effectively lead to CO2 emitted by incinerators in the U.S.
emissions of carbon dioxide instantaneously.”130
Figure 4 shows all CO2 emissions from incinerators,
Any model comparing the climate impacts of energy not just fossil-based carbon. Third, incinerators also
generation options should take into account emit substantial quantities of indirect greenhouse
additional lifecycle emissions incurred (or not gases: carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx),
avoided) by failing to recover a material for its “highest non-methane volatile organic compounds
and best” use. These emissions are the opportunity (NMVOCs), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). These indirect
cost of incineration. greenhouse gases are not quantifiable as CO2 eq. and
are not included in CO2 eq. emission totals in
MYTH: Incinerators are tremendously valuable
inventories. Fourth, incinerators waste energy by
contributors in the fight against global warming. For


burning discarded products with high-embodied animal manures. “Anaerobic” literally means “in the
energy, thus preventing recycling and the extensive absence of oxygen.” Anaerobic digesters are contained
greenhouse gas reduction benefits associated with systems, commonly used at wastewater treatment
remanufacturing and avoided resource extraction. The plants, that use bacteria to decompose organic
bottom line is that by destroying resources rather than materials into smaller molecule chains. The biogas
conserving or recycling them, incinerators cause that results is about 60% methane and 40% CO2.135
significant and unnecessary lifecycle greenhouse gas After the main period of gas generation is over, the
emissions. remaining digestate can be composted and used as soil
amendment. One benefit of anaerobic digestion is
Thus, because incinerators emit direct and indirect
that it can operate alongside and prior to composting;
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, and because they
in this way, organic materials that cannot be easily
burn materials that could be reused or recycled in ways
digested can exit the system for composting.
that conserve far more energy and realize far greater
greenhouse gas reduction benefits, incinerators should While these enclosed systems are generally more
never be considered “valuable contributors in the fight expensive than composting, they are far cheaper than
against global warming.” In fact, the opposite is true. landfill gas capture systems and incinerators. In fact,
thousands of inexpensive small-scale systems have
MYTH: Anaerobic digestion technologies have less
been successfully operating in China, Thailand, and
potential than landfill methane recovery and incineration
India for decades,136 and anaerobic digestion is widely
systems to mitigate greenhouse gases and offset fossil-
used across Europe. Denmark, for example, has farm
fuel-generated energy sources.134
cooperatives that utilize anaerobic digesters to produce
FACT: Anaerobic digestion systems that process electricity and district heating for local villages. In
segregated and clean biodegradable materials produce Sweden, biogas plants produce vehicle fuel for fleets of
a biogas under controlled conditions. Due to highly town buses. Germany and Austria have several
efficient capture rates, these systems can offset fossil- thousand on-farm digesters treating mixtures of
fuel-generated energy. The “digestate” byproduct can be manure, energy crops, and restaurant scraps; the
composted, further sequestering carbon. Anaerobic biogas is used to produce electricity. In England, a new
digestion is much better for protecting the climate than Waste Strategy strongly supports using anaerobic
landfill gas recovery projects or waste incineration. digestion to treat food discards and recommends
separate weekly food scrap collection service for
Anaerobic digestion is an effective treatment for households.137 Many other countries can benefit from
managing source-separated biodegradable materials similar projects.
such as food scraps, grass clippings, other garden
trimmings, food-contaminated paper, sewage, and

The bottom line is that by destroying resources rather than conserving or recycling them,
incinerators cause significant and unnecessary lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions.


A Zero Waste Approach is One of the Fastest, Cheapest, and Most Effective
Strategies for Mitigating Climate Change in the Short and Long-Term

Zero waste goals or plans have now been adopted by
dozens of communities and businesses in the U.S. and
by the entire state of California.138 In addition, in
2005, mayors representing 103 cities worldwide
signed onto the Urban Environmental Accords, which
call for sending zero waste to landfills and incinerators
by the year 2040, and for reducing per capita solid
waste disposed in landfills and incinerators by 20%
within seven years.139
According to the California state government’s web
page, Zero Waste California, “Zero waste is based on
the concept that wasting resources is inefficient and
that efficient use of our natural resources is what we
should work to achieve. It requires that we maximize
our existing recycling and reuse efforts, while ensuring
that products are designed for the environment and
have the potential to be repaired, reused, or recycled.
The success of zero waste requires that we redefine the
concept of ‘waste’ in our society. In the past, waste was
considered a natural by-product of our culture. Now, Workers for Second Chance, a building material
it is time to recognize that proper resource reuse and deconstruction company
management, not waste management, is at the heart
of reducing waste…”140
Indeed, embracing a zero waste goal means investing “Zero waste is based on the concept that
in the workforce, infrastructure, and local strategies wasting resources is inefficient and that
needed to significantly reduce the amount of materials
efficient use of our natural resources is what
that we waste in incinerators and landfills. It means
ending taxpayer subsidization of waste projects that we should work to achieve.”
contaminate environments and the people who live
within them. It means investing public money in – California State Government Zero Waste California
proven waste reduction, reuse, and recycling web page, www.zerowaste.ca.gov
programs, and requiring that products be made and
handled in ways that are healthy for people and the
environment. In short, zero waste reduces costs,
creates healthy jobs and businesses, and improves the
environment and public health in myriad ways.
When a pound of municipal discards is recycled, it
eliminates the need to produce many more pounds of
mining and manufacturing wastes that are the
byproducts of the extraction and processing of virgin
materials into finished goods.


Using recycled materials to make new products saves Communities Embracing Zero Waste
energy and resources, which in turn has the ripple
effects of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and California
industrial pollution, and stemming deforestation and Del Norte County
ecosystem damage. San Luis Obispo County
Santa Cruz County
Similarly, when organic discards — such as food
City of Oakland
scraps, leaves, grass clippings, and brush — are
San Francisco City and County
composted, landfill methane emissions are avoided.
Berkeley
By using the resulting product to substitute for
Palo Alto
synthetic fertilizers, compost can reduce some of the
State of California
energy and greenhouse gas emissions associated with
Marin County, CA Joint Powers Authority
producing synthetic fertilizers. Moreover, compost
Fairfax
sequesters carbon in soil, and by adding carbon and
Novato
organic matter to agricultural soils, their quality can be
Fresno
improved and restored. Anaerobic digestion
El Cajon
complements composting and offers the added benefit
Culver City (in Sustainable Community Plan)
of generating energy.
Ocean Beach
In summary, a zero waste approach — based on waste Rancho Cucamonga
prevention, reuse, recycling, composting, and San Jose
anaerobic digestion — reduces greenhouse gas Apple Valley
emissions in all of the following ways: San Juan Capistrano

reducing energy consumption associated with
Other USA
manufacturing, transporting, and using the
Boulder County, CO
product or material;
City of Boulder, CO
reducing non-energy-related manufacturing Central Vermont Solid Waste Management District
emissions, such as the CO2 released when King County, WA
limestone is converted to the lime that is needed for Seattle, WA
aluminum and steel production; Summit County, CO
Matanuska-Susitna Borough, AK
reducing methane emissions from landfills;
Logan County, OH
reducing CO2 and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions
from incinerators; Other North America
Halifax, Nova Scotia
increasing carbon uptake by forests, which absorb
Regional District Nelson, British Columbia
CO2 from the atmosphere and store it as carbon for
Regional District Kootenay Boundary, British Columbia
long periods (thus rendering the carbon
Regional District Central Kootenay, British Columbia
unavailable to contribute to greenhouse gases);
Smithers, British Columbia
increasing carbon storage in products and Regional District Cowichan Valley, British Columbia
materials; and Nanaimo, British Columbia
Toronto, Ontario
increasing carbon storage in soils by restoring
Sunshine Coast Regional District, British Columbia
depleted stocks of organic matter.141

Source: “List of Zero Waste Communities,” Zero Waste International web site at
http://www.zwia.org/zwc.html, updated May 14, 2008.


Within the zero waste approach, the most beneficial four to five times lower when materials are produced
strategy for combating climate change is reducing the from recycled steel, copper, glass, and paper. For
overall amount of materials consumed and discarded, aluminum, they are 40 times lower.145
followed by materials reuse, then materials recycling.
It should be noted that none of these figures account
Energy consumption represents 85.4% of all
for the significant greenhouse gas emissions that result
greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. (2005 data).
from transporting materials from mine to
Fossil fuel consumption alone represents 79.2%, and
manufacturer to distributor to consumer and then to
of this, almost one-third is associated with industrial
disposal facility. Truck transportation alone, for
material processing and manufacturing.142 Reducing
instance, accounts for 5.3% of total annual U.S.
consumption avoids energy use and emissions, while
greenhouse gas emissions. Accordingly, there are
extensive lifecycle analyses show that using recycled
significant climate benefits to be realized by ensuring
materials to make new products decreases energy use,
that reuse and recycling industries become more
and subsequently greenhouse gases.
locally based, thereby reducing greenhouse gas
Mining and smelting aluminum into cans is an emissions associated with the transportation of
especially energy-intensive process that demonstrates products and materials.
the energy-savings potential of using recycled
Thus, the real greenhouse gas reduction potential is
materials. Manufacturing a ton of aluminum cans
reached when we reduce materials consumption in the
from its virgin source, bauxite, uses 229 million Btus.
first place, and when we replace the use of virgin
In contrast, producing cans from recycled aluminum
materials with reused and recycled materials in the
uses only 8 million Btus per ton, resulting in an energy
production process. This is the heart of a zero waste
savings of 96%.143 Likewise, extracting and processing
approach. Aiming for zero waste entails minimizing
petroleum into common plastic containers
waste, reducing consumption, maximizing recycling
(polyethylene terephthalate, PET (#1), and high-
and composting, keeping industries local, and
density polyethylene, HDPE (#2)) takes four to eight
ensuring that products are made to be reused, repaired
times more energy than making plastics from recycled
or recycled back into nature or the marketplace.
plastics.144 (See Figure 5.) Net carbon emissions are

Copyright, Eco-Cycle, www.ecocycle.org


Teragrams Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (Tg CO2 Eq.)

Figure 5: Energy Usage for Virgin vs. Recycled-Content Products (million Btus/ton)

250

Content Products
200
Energy Usage Recycled-Content
Products

150

100

50

0
Alum PET HDPE Newsprint Crdbrd Tin Cans Glass
Cans Bottles Bottles Boxes Contrs

Source: Jeff Morris, Sound Resource Management, Seattle, Washington, personal communication, January 8, 2008,
available online at www.zerowaste.com; and Jeff Morris, “Comparative LCAs for Curbside Recycling Versus Either
Landfilling or Incineration with Energy Recovery,” InternationalRec ycled-Content P roduct s (m illio n Btus /ton)
Figure 5: En ergy Us age for Virgin vs. Journal of LifeCycle Assessment (June 2004).

250

We need better tools, studies, policies, and funding Usage Recycled-Content Alameda County, California, for example,
200
to
Content Products
Energy
void.
adequately assess and understand the climate Products
worked closely with the International Council for
protection benefits of reducing waste, recycling, and
150 Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) to formulate
composting. A 32-page 2008 article, “Mitigation of values for greenhouse gas reductions from select reuse,
global greenhouse gas 100emissions from waste: recycling, and composting practices. (See Table 7.) In
conclusions and strategies,” by the Intergovernmental addition, as mentioned previously, the California
50
Panel on Climate Change devotes little ink to this ETAAC final report makes specific recommendations
subject: 0
to the California Air Resources Board for waste
Alum PET reduction, reuse, recycling, and composting
HDPE Newsprint Crdbrd Tin Cans Glass

“In general, existing studies on Bottles mitigation Boxes
Cans
the Bottles Contrs

technologies and policies to consider for reducing
potential for recycling yield Mo rris, Sound Res ourc e M anagement, Seat tle,
Sourc e: Jeff variable results
greenhouse gas emissions in California and beyond
because of differinghington , person al commun ication, Janu ary arative LCA s for on line
W as
assumptions and 8, 2008, available
at www. ze row as te .com ; and Jeff Mo rris, “Comp (see pages 21-22).
methodologies applied; R ecycling Versus E ither Landf illing o r Inc inera tion wi th En erg y
Curb side however, recent

studies are beginningvery,” Int e rnational Journa l of LifeCycle Assess ment (J u ne 2004).
Reco
to quantitatively On the national level, the U.S. EPA’s WAste
examine the environmental benefits of Reduction Model (WARM) is a popular tool designed
alternative waste strategies, including for waste managers to weigh the greenhouse gas and
recycling.”146 energy impacts of their waste management practices.
WARM focuses exclusively on waste sector greenhouse
In the absence of international and national leadership
gas emissions.
on this issue, local governments are now filling the


0.530 -0.170 -0.778 NA -2.182 Tg = teragram = 1 million metric tons
-0.237 -0.202 -0.761 NA -1.329 Gg = gigagram = 1,000 metric tons
-0.237 -0.202 -0.724 NA -1.724
-0.133 -0.212 -0.674 NA -0.604 NMVOCs = nonmethane volatile organic compounds
-0.133 -0.212 -0.670 NA -0.551
0.010 -0.054 -0.616 NA -15.129 Note: CO2 emissions represent U.S. EPA reported data, which
0.010 0.049 -0.498 NA -1.086 exclude emissions from biomass materials.
0.010 -0.418 -0.489 NA -0.866
0.010 0.253 -0.462 NA -0.618 Source: Table ES-2 and Table ES-10: Emissions of NOx, CO,
0.010 Unfortunately, the model falls short of -0.571 to allow
0.295 -0.419 NA its NA
goal NMVOCs, and SO 2, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
0.010 0.270 -0.407 NA and Sinks, 1990-2005 , U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, April 15, 2007,
0.010 adequate comparison among NA
0.253 -0.380 available solid waste
-0.487 Table 7: Select Resource Conservation
p. ES-17.
0.010 NA -0.237 NA Practices Quantified
0.010 0.014 -0.076 NA
ofNA
management options. For a list -0.156the tool’s
0.010 shortcomings, -0.002 sidebar, p. 61. Despite these
NA see NA NA
0.197 -0.048 NA -0.054 NA Table 7: Select Resource Conservation Practices Quantified
-0.060 weaknesses, the data on which WARM is based
-0.060 NA -0.054 NA
Emissions Reduced
-0.002 indicate recycling NA
-0.060 -0.054 NA
better protects the climate than the Practice
-0.048 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA (Tons CO 2 eq.)
-0.133 use of landfills and incinerators for NA materials
-0.060 NA -0.054 all Divert 1 ton of food scraps from landfill 0.25
0.064 -0.054 NA -0.054 NA
0.116
examined. (See Table 8.) For composting, however,
-0.033 NA NA NA
Every acre of Bay-Friendly landscape 1 4
Reuse 1 ton of cardboard boxes 1.8
0.010 the model falsely shows that composting yard
NA NA NA -0.077 Recycle 1 ton of plastic film 2.5
trimmings, grass or branches produces a smaller Recycle 1 ton of mixed paper 1
ivalent SR = Source Reduction
greenhouse gas reduction than incinerating these 1. Bay-Friendly landscaping is a holistic approach to gardening and landscaping that
includes compost use.
anagement and Greenhouse Gases: A This flawed comparison and
materials. Life-Cycle Assessment of Emissions leads to the 1. Bay-Friendly landscaping is a holistic approach to
mber 2006, p. ES-14. inaccurate conclusion that incineration fares better gardening and landscaping that includes compost use.
Source: Debra Kaufman, “Climate Change and Composting: Lessons Learned from the
Alameda County Climate Action Project,” StopWaste.Org, presented at the Northern
than composting in managing organic materials. One California RecyclingKaufman, “Climate Change and
Source: Debra Association’s Recycling Update ’07 Conference, March 27, 2007,
available online at: http://www.ncrarecycles.org/ru/ru07.html. County
Composting: Lessons Learned from the Alameda
reason for this error is the model does not fully take
Climate Action Project,” StopWaste.Org, presented at
Materials Diversion Tonnages and Rates
into account the benefits associated with compost use. the Northern California Recycling Association’s Recycling
Disposed Recycled Composted data that use %
WARM relies on very low compost Update ‘07 Conference, March 27, 2007, available online
% Recycled % Diverted
(tons) (tons) (tons) unrealisticComposted for instance,
application rates in scenarios, at: http://www.ncrarecycles.org/ru/ru07.html.
6,979,186 47,186,280
in applications to field corn rather 22.4% to high-value
15,626,398 67.6% than 90.0%
1,080,141 9,721,272 90.0% 90.0%
1,565,387 14,088,481 or to home gardens and lawns, which
crops 90.0% 90.0%
2,413,134 16,349,602 5,368,605 67.8% 22.2% 90.0%
1,139,877
undervalue the climate protection benefits of
10,258,889 90.0% 90.0%
2,557,153 composting.147
23,014,376 90.0% 90.0%
2,651,256 23,861,306 90.0% 90.0%
2,180,740 19,626,660
20,566,874
The following section 90.0%
117,231,184 67,870,685 58.0% 33.0%
90.0%
compares the greenhouse
90.0%
gas
impact of a business-as-usual wasting scenario with a
zero waste approach. Despite its shortcomings, the
June 2008. Plastics composted represent compostable plastics, which have already been
xpected to grow.
authors of this report used the WARM tool to
estimate the difference in emissions of greenhouse
gases between the two scenarios because it is the best
model available to date. Accordingly, the comparative
results should be considered to be a conservative
estimate of the greenhouse gas reduction potential of
a national zero waste strategy.

We need better tools, studies, policies, and funding to adequately assess and understand the
climate protection benefits of reducing waste, recycling, and composting.


Recycled Mfg Energy 3,232.0 3,345.0 2,951.0 2,605.0 2,605.0 Methane (CH 4)
Total 3,461.1 3,574.1 3,180.1 2,834.1 2,834.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2)
Nitrogen (N 2)
CUK = coated unbleached kraft SBS = solid bleached sulfate Mfg = manufacturing MSW = municipal solid waste Oxygen (O2)
1. Based on 20% landfill gas captured. Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S
Halides
Water Vapor (H 2O)
kaging, single- Environmental Defense Fund, 1995, pp. 108-112. Available at www.edf.org. MSW Landfill greenhouse gas emissions reduced to reflect
Nonmethane Organic
20% gas capture (up from 0%).

Source: Energy Informatio
liances gas industry; 1996. Availa
s, retail bags http://www.eia.doe.gov/cn
Table 8: U.S. EPA WARM GHG Emissions by Solid Waste Management Option (MTCE per ton)
struction Table 8: U.S. EPA WARM GHG Emissions by Solid Waste Management Option
ency
(MTCE per ton)
Table 6: Direct and
Material Landfilled Combusted Recycled Composted SR Gas Emissions fro
Aluminum Cans 0.010 0.017 -3.701 NA -2.245 Incinerators, 2005
Carpet 0.010 0.106 -1.959 NA -1.090 Direct Greenhouse G
Mixed Metals 0.010 -0.290 -1.434 NA NA CO2 20
Copper Wire 0.010 0.015 -1.342 NA -2.001
N2O 0
Mixed Paper, Broad 0.095 -0.178 -0.965 NA NA
Mixed Paper, Resid. 0.069 -0.177 -0.965 NA NA Indirect Greenhouse
Mixed Paper, Office 0.127 -0.162 -0.932 NA NA NOx 9
Corrugated Cardboard 0.109 -0.177 -0.849 NA -1.525 CO 1,49
Textbooks 0.530 -0.170 -0.848 NA -2.500 NMVOCs 24
Magazines/third-class mail -0.082 -0.128 -0.837 NA -2.360 SO2 2
Mixed Recyclables 0.038 -0.166 -0.795 NA NA
Office Paper 0.530 -0.170 -0.778 NA -2.182 Tg = teragram = 1 million m
Newspaper -0.237 -0.202 -0.761 NA -1.329 Gg = gigagram = 1,000 me
Phonebooks -0.237 -0.202 -0.724 NA -1.724
Medium Density Fiberboard -0.133 -0.212 -0.674 NA -0.604 NMVOCs = nonmethane v
Dimensional Lumber -0.133 -0.212 -0.670 NA -0.551
Personal Computers 0.010 -0.054 -0.616 NA -15.129 Note: CO2 emissions repre
Tires 0.010 0.049 -0.498 NA -1.086 exclude emissions from bio
Steel Cans 0.010 -0.418 -0.489 NA -0.866
LDPE 0.010 0.253 -0.462 NA -0.618 Source: Table ES-2 and Ta
PET 0.010 0.295 -0.419 NA -0.571 NMVOCs, and SO 2, Invent
Mixed Plastics 0.010 0.270 -0.407 NA NA and Sinks, 1990-2005 , U.S
HDPE 0.010 0.253 -0.380 NA -0.487 p. ES-17.
Fly Ash 0.010 NA -0.237 NA NA
Glass 0.010 0.014 -0.076 NA -0.156
Concrete 0.010 NA -0.002 NA NA
Food Scraps 0.197 -0.048 NA -0.054 NA Table 7: Select Reso
Yard Trimmings -0.060 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA
Grass -0.002 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA Practice
Leaves -0.048 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA
Branches -0.133 -0.060 NA -0.054 NA Divert 1 ton of food scraps
Mixed Organics 0.064 -0.054 NA -0.054 NA Every acre of Bay-Friendly
Mixed MSW 0.116 -0.033 NA NA NA Reuse 1 ton of cardboard
Clay Bricks 0.010 NA NA NA -0.077 Recycle 1 ton of plastic film
Recycle 1 ton of mixed pa
MTCE = metric tons of carbon equivalent SR = = Source Reduction
MTCE = metric tons of carbon equivalent SR Source Reduction
1. Bay-Friendly landscaping is
Source: U.S. EPA, Solid Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases: A Life-Cycle Assessment of Emissions and Sinks, includes compost use.
EPA 530-R-06-004,U.S. EPA, Solid2006, Management and Greenhouse Gases: A Life-Cycle Assessment of Emissions and
Source: September Waste p. ES-14.
Sinks, EPA 530-R-06-004, September 2006, p. ES-14. Source: Debra Kaufman, “Clim
Alameda County Climate Actio
California Recycling Associatio
available online at: http://www

Table 9: Zero Waste by 2030, Materials Diversion Tonnages and Rates

Generated Disposed Recycled Composted %
(tons) (tons) (tons) (tons) Composted
Paper 69,791,864 6,979,186 47,186,280 15,626,398 67.6% 22.4% 90.0%
Glass 10,801,414 1,080,141 9,721,272 90.0% 90.0%
Metals 15,653,868 1,565,387 14,088,481 90.0% 90.0%
Plastics 24,131,341 2,413,134 16,349,602 5,368,605 67.8% 22.2% 90.0%
Wood 11,398,765 1,139,877 10,258,889 The real greenhouse gas reduction potential
90.0% 90.0%
Food Discards 25,571,530 2,557,153 23,014,376 90.0% 90.0%
Yard Trimmings 26,512,562 2,651,256 is reached when we reduce materials
23,861,306 90.0% 90.0%
Other
Totals
21,807,400
205,668,744
2,180,740
20,566,874
consumption in58.0% first33.0%
19,626,660
117,231,184 67,870,685
the
90.0%
place, and when we
90.0%
90.0%
replace the use of virgin materials with
Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Plastics composted represent compostable plastics, which have already been
introduced into the marketplace and are expected to grow. reused and recycled materials in the
production process. This is the heart of a zero
waste approach.


Zero Waste Approach Figure 6: Business As Usual Recycling,
Composting, Disposal
Versus Business As Usual

If we continue on the same wasting
path, with rising per capita waste
generation rates and stagnating
recycling and composting rates, by the
year 2030 Americans could generate
301 million tons per year of
municipal solid waste — up from 251
million tons in 2006. Figure 6,
Business As Usual, visually
demonstrates the results of our
current wasting patterns on the future.
Source: Brenda Platt and Heeral Bhalala, Institute for Local Self-Reliance,
Washington, DC, June 2008, using and extrapolating from U.S. EPA
Figure 7 illustrates the impact of one municipal solid waste characterization data. Waste composition in future
zero waste approach that is based on assumed the same as 2006. The diversion level through recycling and
composting flattens out at 32.5%. Takes into account U.S. Census
rising reuse, recycling and composting estimated population growth.
rates, and source reducing waste by
1% per year between now and 2030.
In addition to expanded curbside
collection programs and processing
infrastructure, product redesign and Figure 7: Zero Waste Approach
policies spurring such design will be
needed. Under the zero waste
approach, by 2030, 90% of the
municipal solid waste generated
would be diverted from disposal
facilities. To achieve this target, cities
and states should set interim diversion
goals, such as 75% by 2020. This
scenario is in line with the Urban
Environmental Accords, which call
for sending zero waste to landfills and
incinerators by the year 2040, and for
reducing per capita solid waste
disposed in landfills and incinerators
by 20% within seven years. San
Source: Brenda Platt and Heeral Bhalala, Institute for Local Self-
Francisco is one large city that has Reliance, Washington, DC, June 2008. Past tonnage based on U.S. EPA
embraced a zero waste goal by 2020 municipal solid waste characterization data. Future tonnage based on
reaching 90% diversion by 2030, and 1% source reduction per year
and an interim 75% diversion goal by between 2008 and 2030. Waste composition in future assumed the same
as 2006. Takes into account U.S. Census estimated population growth.
2010. Its zero waste manager
estimates that 90% of the city’s
municipal solid waste could be
recycled and composted today under
its existing infrastructure and
programs.148


Mixed Organics 0.064 -0.054 NA -0.054 NA Every acre o
Mixed MSW 0.116 -0.033 NA NA NA M
Reuse 1 ton
Clay Bricks 0.010 NA NA NA -0.077 Recycle 1 W
to
Recycle 1 Pe
to
MTCE = metric tons of carbon equivalent SR = Source Reduction
M
1. Bay-Friendl
O
includes comp
Source: U.S. EPA, Solid Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases: A Life-Cycle Assessment of Emissions and To
Sinks, EPA 530-R-06-004, September 2006, p. ES-14. Source: Debra
Alameda Coun
California Rec
Table 9: Zero Waste by 2030, Materials Diversion Tonnages and Rates available onlin

Table 9: Zero Waste by 2030, Materials Diversion Tonnages and Rates T
(lb
Generated Disposed Recycled Composted %
(tons) (tons) (tons) (tons) Composted
Paper 69,791,864 6,979,186 47,186,280 15,626,398 67.6% 22.4% 90.0%
Glass 10,801,414 1,080,141 9,721,272 90.0% 90.0%
Metals 15,653,868 1,565,387 14,088,481 90.0% 90.0%
Plastics 24,131,341 2,413,134 16,349,602 5,368,605 67.8% 22.2% 90.0%
Wood 11,398,765 1,139,877 10,258,889 90.0% 90.0%
Food Discards 25,571,530 2,557,153 23,014,376 90.0% 90.0%
Yard Trimmings 26,512,562 2,651,256 23,861,306 90.0% 90.0%
Other 21,807,400 2,180,740 19,626,660 90.0% 90.0%
Totals 205,668,744 20,566,874 117,231,184 67,870,685 58.0% 33.0% 90.0%

Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Plastics composted represent compostable plastics, which have already been
Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Junegrow. Plastics composted represent compostable plastics, which have
introduced into the marketplace and are expected to
2008.
already been introduced into the marketplace and are expected to grow.

Table 10: Source Reduction by Material, Total Over 23-Year Period (2008-2030)

CU
Tons Source
Material Sample Target Strategies 1.
Reduced
So
3rd class mail, single-sided copying, cardboard & other packaging, single- En
Paper 32,375,971 use plates & cups, paper napkins & towels, tissues 20
Glass 5,010,703 single-use bottles replaced with refillables
Metals 7,261,723 single-use containers, packaging, downguage metals in appliances
Plastics 11,194,365 packaging, single-use water bottles, take-out food containers, retail bags
Wood 5,287,810 reusable pallets, more building deconstruction to supply construction
Food Discards 11,862,459 more efficient buying, increased restaurant/foodservice efficiency
Yard Trimmings 12,298,997 more backyard composting, xeriscaping, grasscycling
Other 10,116,305 high mileage tires, purchase of more durable products
Totals 95,408,332

Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008.

Table 9 summarizes the materials recovered and the for Greenhouse Gas
Table 12: Investment Cost Estimates EPA’s WARM model, the zero waste approach would
Mitigation from Municipal Solid Waste
recovery rates needed to reach this 90% diversion level reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an estimated
by the year 2030. (Waste composition is based on costs of reduction 1 2 eq. over this 23-year period. By the
Investment 5,083 Tg CO
(US$/ton CO 2 eq.)
2006 data.) year 2030, annual greenhouse abatement would reach
Landfilling with landfill gas flare 6
406 Tg CO2 eq. This translates to the equivalent of
Table 10 summarizes thewith energy recovery
Landfilling
materials and tonnages that 16
Incineration 67 taking 21% of the 417 coal-fired power plants
are source reduced — that is, avoided in the first place
Aerobic composting 3
operating in the U.S. completely off the grid.149 This
— over the 23-year period 2008-2030. It also lists 13
Anaerobic composting
would also achieve 7% of the cuts in U.S. greenhouse
some suggested 1. Calculated for a representative Israeli citysource 3,000 tons of MSW per day for 20 years;
techniques for achieving this producing
gas emissions needed to put us on the path to
reduction. global warming potential of methane of 56 was used. Note: compostables comprise a higher
portion of waste in Israel than in the U.S. achieving what many leading scientists say is necessary
According to calculationsAyalon, Yoram Avnimelechthe U.S.Israel Institute of Technology)climate by 2050.150, 151, 152 See Table 11.
Source: Ofira
performed using (Technion, to stabilize the
and
Mordechai Shechter (Department of Economics and Natural Resources & Environmental
Research Center, University of Haifa, Israel), “Solid Waste Treatment as a High-Priority and
Low-Cost Alternative for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation,” Environmental Management Vol. 27, No.
5, 2001, p. 700.


Table 11: Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategies: Zero Waste Path Compared to Commonly
Considered Options (annual reductions in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, megatons CO2 eq.)

% of Total
Annual Abatement
Abatement Needed in 2030 to
Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy
Potential by Stabilize Climate
2030 by 20501

ZERO WASTE PATH
Reducing waste through prevention, reuse, recycling and composting 406 7.0%

ABATEMENT STRATEGIES CONSIDERED BY McKINSEY REPORT
Increasing fuel efficiency in cars and reducing fuel carbon intensity 340 5.9%
Improved fuel efficiency and dieselization in various vehicle classes 195 3.4%
Lower carbon fuels (cellulosic biofuels) 100 1.7%
Hybridization of cars and light trucks 70 1.2%
Expanding & enhancing carbon sinks 440 7.6%
Afforestation of pastureland and cropland 210 3.6%
Forest management 110 1.9%
Conservation tillage 80 1.4%
Targeting energy-intensive portions of the industrial sector 620 10.7%
Recovery and destruction of non-CO 2 GHGs 255 4.4%
Landfill abatement (focused on methane capture) 65 1.1%
New processes and product innovation (includes recycling) 70 1.2%
Improving energy efficiency in buildings and appliances 710 12.2%
Lighting retrofits 240 4.1%
Residential lighting retrofits 130 2.2%
Commercial lighting retrofits 110 1.9%
Electronic equipment improvements 120 2.1%
Reducing the carbon intensity of electric power production 800 13.8%
Wind 120 2.1%
Nuclear 70 1.2%

The McKinsey Report analyzed more than 250 opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. While the authors evaluated
options for three levels of effort—low-, mid-, and high-range—they only reported greenhouse gas reduction potential for the mid-
range case opportunities. The mid-range case involves concerted action across the economy. Values for select mid-range
abatement strategies are listed above. The zero waste path abatement potential also represents a mid-range case, due to
shortcomings in EPA’s WARM model, which underestimates the reduction in greenhouse gases from source reduction and
composting as compared to landfilling and incineration. A high-range zero waste path would also provide a more accelerated
approach to reducing waste generation and disposal.

The authors of this report, Stop Trashing the Climate, do not support all of the abatement strategies evaluated in the McKinsey
Report. We do not, for instance, support nuclear energy production.

1. In order to stabilize the climate, U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2050 need to be at least 80% below 1990 levels. Based on a
straight linear calculation, this means 2030 emissions levels should be 37% lower than the 1990 level, or equal to 3.9 gigatons CO2
eq. Thus, based on increases in U.S. greenhouse gases predicted by experts, 5.8 gigatons CO2 eq. in annual abatement is needed
in 2030 to put the U.S. on the path to help stabilize the climate by 2050.

Source: Jon Creyts et al, Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How Much and at What Cost? U.S. Greenhouse Gas
Abatement Mapping Initiative, Executive Report, McKinsey & Company, December 2007. Available online at:
http://www.mckinsey.com/clientservice/ccsi/greenhousegas.asp. Abatement potential for waste reduction is calculated by the
Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Washington, DC, June 2008, based on the EPA’s WAste Reduction Model (WARM) to estimate
GHGs and based on extrapolating U.S. EPA waste generation and characterization data to 2030, assuming 1% per year source
reduction, and achieving a 90% waste diversion by 2030.


Scientific experts are now in general agreement that developed nations such as the U.S. need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
80% below 1990 levels by 2050 in order to stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. However, it is important to note
that emissions cuts by developed nations such as the U.S. may have to be even greater than this target. Achieving this target may
leave us vulnerable to a 17-36% chance of exceeding a 2°C increase in average global temperatures. In addition, there is ample
evidence that climate change is already negatively impacting the lives of many individuals and communities throughout the world.
To prevent climate-related disasters, the U.S. should and must take immediate and comprehensive action relative to its full
contribution to climate change.150, 152

Zero waste strategies also mitigate other negative The emerging trend of zero waste community
effects of landfilling and incinerating materials. For planning involves the process of creating local
landfills, these effects include groundwater pollution, strategies for achieving high recycling and composting
hazardous air pollutants, and monitoring and rates. Many communities across America are actively
remediation costs that will likely span centuries. The seeking ways to increase their discard recovery rates,
use of incinerators may even be worse, as pollution is and a growing number of groups across the country
borne directly to the air through smokestacks as well and around the world are turning to the strategic
as to the land as ash, and the amount of energy wasted planning option of zero waste as the most cost-
by failing to recycle the materials that are burned is far effective and financially sustainable waste
greater than the amount of energy produced via management system. In fact, after achieving high
incineration. Polluting industries such as landfills and recycling and composting rates, it is difficult to keep
incinerators are also disproportionately sited in low- using the term “waste” to describe the materials that
income communities of color, a practice that Americans routinely throw away. There is a market for
perpetuates environmental injustice. 90% of these materials, and their associated economic
value can lead to a significant local economic
Zero waste is much bigger than merely a set of policies
development addition to any community.
or technologies; it is a model that is integrally tied to
democratic participation in fostering sustainable The short timeline needed for moving away from
community-based economic development that is both landfills and incinerators is one of the most attractive
just and healthy. Zero waste requires that those who elements that make the zero waste approach one of the
are most adversely impacted by waste disposal and best near-term programs for reducing greenhouse gas
climate change — often people of color and tribal and emissions. A ten-year “bridge strategy” toward
low-income communities both at home and abroad achieving zero waste involves several essential
— have decision-making power in determining what components. The first is democratic public
is best for their communities. Zero waste strategies are participation in the development of policies and the
less capital-intensive and harmful than waste disposal, adoption of technologies that support communities in
and they provide critical opportunities for the getting to a 70% landfill and incinerator diversion rate
development of green jobs, businesses, and industries within five years. Many communities are well on their
that benefit all community members. Further, because way to reaching this goal, and the largest obstacle in
zero waste necessitates the elimination of polluting other areas is the political will to implement the
disposal industries that disproportionately have a necessary changes.
negative impact on marginalized communities, it can
be an important strategy toward achieving economic
and environmental justice.

There is a market for 90% of discarded materials, and their associated economic value can
lead to a significant local economic development addition to any community.


Further reducing waste by another 20% will require Once we have established a 70% landfill and
new regulations and the full participation of industry incinerator diversion rate and a system of extended
and business through what is known as “extended producer responsibility that will further reduce the
producer responsibility” (EPR). The EPR approach, amount we collectively waste by an estimated 20%,
which has been embraced in several ways in the the opportunities to solve the last 10% of the waste
European Union and Canada, requires the redesign of stream may present themselves in the future in ways
products and packaging to be non-toxic and either that we may not imagine today. However, one likely
reusable, recyclable or compostable. EPR also includes result of achieving 90% diversion is that America may
“take-back” laws that require industries to take back or never need to build another new landfill or incinerator
be financially responsible for hard-to-recycle products again.
— such as electronics, batteries, and even entire
One serious issue to address in this “bridge strategy”
vehicles — at the end of their useful lives, rather than
concerns the question of what to do with all the mixed
placing this burden on taxpayers. When industry,
waste that is not being source-separated for recycling
rather than the public, is held accountable for the costs
or composting along the ten-year journey to 90% or
of dealing with these products at the end of their life,
beyond. The answer is to process this material in as
industry will design products that are more cost-
safe, inexpensive, and flexible of a manner as possible,
effective to recycle.153 These take-back laws can also
so that, as recovery rates rise above 70%, the mixed
benefit industries by providing them with
waste system can be shut down in favor of more
opportunities to recover valuable materials.
sustainable solutions. Incineration of any kind is never
Regulations and oversight are then needed to ensure
the most safe, inexpensive or flexible way to process
that industries reuse or recycle these materials in ways
this material.
that are safe for the public and planet.

Zero Waste Planning Resources
Community groups, consultants, government planners, and many others who are working on zero waste issues are active
around the world. The following links provide additional information about their efforts:

The GrassRoots Recycling Network (www.grrn.org) is the nation’s leading voice for a zero waste future;

Eco-Cycle Inc. (www.ecocycle.org) is the nation’s largest comprehensive zero waste non-profit corporation, located in Boulder,
Colorado, with a staff of 60 and annual revenues over $4 million;

Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives (www.no-burn.org) is a global network with members in 81 countries that are working for
a just and toxic-free world without incinerators. Information about GAIA’s Zero Waste for Zero Warming campaign is at
www.zerowarming.org;

Zero Waste International Alliance (www.zwia.org) is a global networking hub for practitioners around the world;

Zero Waste California (www.zerowaste.ca.gov) is the largest state agency with a policy and goal of zero waste;

Oakland Public Works (www.zerowasteoakland.com) is a large city department at the cutting edge of creating the zero waste
systems of the future;

Sound Resource Management (www.zerowaste.com) offers economic and lifecycle assessments to track environmental impacts; and

Institute for Local Self-Reliance (www.ilsr.org/recycling) provides research, technical assistance, and information on zero waste
planning, recycling-related economic development, and model recycling and composting practices and policies.


much attention is paid to the carbon sequestration
Composting Is Key to Restoring the benefits of trees and other biomass, soil is actually
Climate and Our Soils the biggest carbon store in the world, holding an
estimated 1,500 gigatons.156 However, reserves of
carbon in agricultural and nonagricultural soils
have been depleted over time; one European study
Composting may be one of the most vital strategies for indicated that most agricultural soils will have lost
curbing greenhouse gas emissions. It is an age-old about half of their organic content after 20 years of
process whose success has been well demonstrated in tillage.157 On over half of America’s best cropland,
the U.S. and elsewhere. Composting facilities are far the erosion rate is more than 27 times the natural
cheaper than landfills and incinerators, and also take rate.158 In fact, a large portion of the CO2 currently
far less time to site and build; widespread found in the atmosphere originated from the
implementation could take place within 2 to 8 years. mineralization of soil organic carbon. Factors
Adopting this approach would provide a rapid and responsible for this include urbanization, land use
cost-effective means to reduce methane and other changes, conventional agricultural practices, open
greenhouse gas emissions, increase carbon storage in pit mining, and other activities that degrade soils.
soils, and could have a substantial short-term impact As a result of these factors, more carbon entered the
on global warming. atmosphere from soils than from fossil fuel
combustion from the 1860s until the 1970s.159
Organic discards — food scraps, leaves, brush, grass
clippings, and other yard trimmings — comprise one- Storing carbon in soils: Proper soil management, in
quarter of all municipal solid waste generated. Of this combination with the addition of organic matter,
amount, 38% of yard trimmings end up in landfills increases the carbon inputs into the soil while
and incinerators; for food scraps, the wasting rate is reducing the amount of carbon that is mineralized
97.8%.154 Paper products comprise one-third of all into the atmosphere. Approximately half of the
municipal solid waste generated. While 52% of paper carbon in composted organic materials is initially
products are recovered, paper is still the number one stored in the humus product, making it unavailable
material sent to landfills and incinerators. This waste to the atmosphere for a period of time.160 This helps
represents a tremendous opportunity to prevent reduce atmospheric emissions of CO2. The
methane emissions from landfills through expanded European Commission’s Working Group on
recycling, composting, and anaerobic digestion Organic Matter has in part concluded: “Applying
programs. At the same time, compost can also restore composted EOM [exogeneous organic matter] to
depleted soils with nutrient-rich humus and organic soils should be recommended because it is one of
matter, providing ancillary benefits that are not the effective ways to divert carbon dioxide from the
realized when systems of incineration and landfilling atmosphere and convert it to organic carbon in
are used. soils, contributing to combating greenhouse gas
effect.”161 The addition of compost to soil also
Composting reduces our impact on climate change in improves soil health, which increases plant yield
all of the following ways: and decreases our dependence on synthetic
fertilizers. One study found that organic matter
Avoiding landfill methane emissions: While the
content in a loam soil continued to increase even
composting process produces CO2, just like natural
after 50 years of compost application; for sandy
decomposition, this gas is far less potent than the
soils, organic matter levels reached equilibrium
methane that is emitted from landfills. Methane is
after about 25 years. This increase in soil organic
72 times more potent than CO2 over the short
carbon represents stored carbon that is not
term. The amount of avoided landfill methane
contributing to greenhouse gases in the
emissions provides the greatest climate protection
atmosphere.162 While that original molecule of
benefit of composting, greatly outweighing any of
carbon contained in the first compost application
the following benefits.155
may not persist for 100 years, it will foster soil
Decreasing emissions of carbon from soils: While retention of many more molecules of carbon over
that time frame.163


Displacing chemical fertilizers and other chemical not accounting for either the displacement of
plant/soil additives: Compost can have similar phosphorus and potassium or the CO2 eq. related
benefits to soil properties as those provided by to other emissions such as N2O.169
fertilizers, herbicides, some pesticides, lime, and
Improving soil properties and related plant growth:
gypsum. Its use in agricultural applications
Plants remove CO2 from the atmosphere during
decreases the need to produce and apply these
photosynthesis. If plants are healthier, the amount
chemicals to the land, resulting in the avoidance of
of CO2 removed increases. One study indicated
greenhouse gas emissions related to those activities.
that applying 10 tons of compost to each hectare of
Synthetic fertilizers, for instance, are huge emitters
farmland raised soil fertility and increased crop
of N2O emissions; in the U.S., these emissions
yield 10-20%. These figures translate to an
represented 88.6 Tg CO2 eq. or 1.2% of all
increased carbon fixation on the order of 2 tons
greenhouse gas emissions in 2005.164 As a recent
CO2/ton of dry compost.170
report to the California Air Resources Board stated,
“Greater agricultural use of compost has been Rehabilitating marginal land and mitigating land
proven to reduce the demand for irrigation and degradation and erosion: Compost applications
fertilizers and pesticides, while increasing crop increase soil organic matter, thereby reducing soil
yields. This is a cost-effective way to reduce erosion, water logging, nutrient loss, surface
agricultural GHG emissions while sustaining crusting, siltation of waterways, and more.
California’s agricultural industry by returning Mitigating these environmental problems by other
organic nutrients to the soil.”165 methods requires the use of machinery. Avoiding
these problems reduces the need for engineering
Energy savings from displaced chemical additives:
work, infrastructure development and
In addition to direct greenhouse gas avoidance,
maintenance, and equipment use, and avoids their
using compost instead of chemical fertilizers
associated greenhouse gas emissions.171
reduces energy consumption. Synthetic chemical
fertilizers consume large amounts of energy; in fact, Using compost as a peat substitute in horticulture:
the energy used to manufacture fertilizer represents The use of peat results in the mineralization of the
28% of the energy used in U.S. agriculture.166 For carbon kept in peat bogs. Peatlands are estimated to
example, the production of ammonia and urea, a contain between 329 and 528 billion metric tons of
nitrogenous fertilizer containing carbon and carbon (more than 160 to 260 times annual U.S.
nitrogen, is highly energy-intensive. As a result, emissions). Much of this carbon can remain
these processes are also significant emitters of CO2; sequestered for near-geological timescales as long as
in 2005 these processes added an additional 16.3 these bogs are left undisturbed. Increased use of
Tg CO2 eq. to the atmosphere.167 According to soil compost as a peat substitute will help conserve and
scientist Dr. Sally Brown of the University of preserve peat bogs.172
Washington, “With nitrogen fertilizer production,
atmospheric N is fixed and processed into
commercial fertilizers using the Haber-Bosch Better and more comprehensive data documenting
process — an energy-intensive process that these and other greenhouse gas benefits of composting
consumes a great deal of fossil fuel. In fact, are lacking. Models used to compare composting to
producing the chemical equivalent of one unit of other resource management strategies commonly fail
nitrogen requires 1.4 units of carbon. Expressed on to quantify these benefits. This should be a priority for
the same basis as nitrogen and taking into account investigation by the U.S. EPA and state agencies.
transportation costs, about 3 units of carbon are
required to manufacture, transport and apply 1 In addition to the benefits of reduced greenhouse gas
unit of phosphorus as P2O5 fertilizer.”168 Another emissions related to composting, applying compost to
study estimated that a single application of 10 soils can improve the soils’ ability to retain water,
metric tons of dry compost per hectare, which has thereby cutting water use related to irrigation as well
a potential displacing power of some 190 kg of as storm water runoff (depending on where the
nitrogen, might save 160 to 1,590 kWh of energy, compost is applied). For example, compost can reduce


The Benefits of Compost Are Many
Composting reduces greenhouse gases by preventing
methane generation in landfills, storing carbon in the
compost product, reducing energy use for water pumping,
substituting for energy-intensive chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, improving the soil's ability to store carbon, and
improving plant growth and thus carbon sequestration.

Compost encourages the production of beneficial micro-
organisms, which break down organic matter to create a
rich nutrient-filled material called humus.

Compost is a value-added product with many markets,
including land reclamation, silviculture, horticulture,
landscaping, and soil erosion control.

Cedar Grove, a compost facility, in Everett, WA, Compost increases the nutrient content in soils.
demonstrates the benefits of compost in soil products.
Compost helps soils retain moisture.

Compost reduces the need for chemical fertilizers,
the water used for growing corn by 10%. 173 pesticides, and fungicides.

Compost has another important and related benefit as Compost suppresses plant diseases and pests.
well, aside from its climate mitigation benefits. Compost promotes higher yields of agricultural crops.
Adding carbon and organic matter to agricultural soils
can improve and restore soil quality. Organic matter Compost helps regenerate poor soils.
improves soil fertility, stability and structure, as well as Compost has the ability to clean up (remediate)
the capacity of soils to retain moisture. The European contaminated soil.
Commission, as part of its strategy to protect soil,
recently established a goal to promote the use of high- Compost can help prevent pollution and manage erosion
quality composted products for such purposes as problems.
fighting desertification and erosion, avoiding floods, Composting extends municipal landfill life by diverting
and promoting the build-up of carbon in soil.174 organic materials from landfills.
The Commission has highlighted compost’s unique Composting sustains at least four times more jobs than
ability to increase soil carbon levels: “Concerning landfill or incinerator disposal on a per-ton basis.
measures for combating the decline in soil organic
matter, not all types of organic matter have the Composting is a proven technology.
potential to address this threat. Stable organic matter
Composting is far cheaper than waste incineration.
is present in compost and manure and, to a much
lesser extent, in sewage sludge and animal slurry, and
it is this stable fraction which contributes to the
humus pool in the soil, thereby improving soil
properties.”175
In all of these ways, composting represents a win-win
opportunity to protect soils and mitigate climate
change, while providing a cost-effective discard
management system. Composting systems also benefit
from relatively short set-up-to-implementation time
periods.


Perhaps most importantly, though, composting can diverting source-separated organics that include food
significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions quickly scraps. Half of these are in California; Washington,
and at a low cost. An Israeli study evaluated the Minnesota, and Michigan also have programs,180 and
investment cost required to abate 1 ton of CO2 eq. Canada has many more. Approximately 120 compost
from landfills. (See Table 12, in which calculations are facilities in the U.S. accept food discards.181 Although
based on a time horizon of 20 years.) The study compost can be used in many ways and markets are
concluded that constructing composting plants was growing,182 regulatory, financing, and institutional
the lowest-cost option for mitigating the greenhouse hurdles still exist for siting and building additional
gas emissions from Israel’s waste sector. According to composting facilities. New rules are needed to
the study’s authors, “The composting option does not facilitate expanded infrastructure development.
require high investments, produces a product that can
be readily utilized by the agricultural sector, and seems
to be an available interim solution to mitigate
greenhouse gas emissions by most countries . . . The
time needed for implementation is short and the effect
is significant.”176 Tons Source
Material Sample Target Strategies
Reduced
Current programs and facilities can serve as the
foundation for expanding collection beyond yard 3rd class mail, single-sided copying, cardboard & other packaging, single-
trimmings toPaper organic materials such as food use plates & cups, paper napkins & towels, tissues
other 32,375,971
discards and soiled paper. In the U.S., 8,659 single-use bottles replaced with refillables
Glass 5,010,703
Metals 7,261,723 single-use containers, packaging, downguage metals in appliances
communities Plastics
have curbside recycling programs, and packaging, single-use water bottles, take-out food containers, retail bags
11,194,365
many of these include the collection5,287,810 reusable pallets, more building deconstruction to supply construction
Wood of yard
trimmings.177 Food Discards3,474 compost facilities more efficient buying, increased restaurant/foodservice efficiency
There are 11,862,459
handling yardYard Trimmings the U.S.,178 and in 2006, more backyard composting, xeriscaping, grasscycling
trimmings in 12,298,997
Other 10,116,305 high mileage tires, purchase of more durable products
62% of the Totals million tons of yard95,408,332
32.4 trimmings
generated was composted.179 In addition, more than
30 communities have already instituted programs June 2008.
Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, for

Table 12: Investment Cost Estimates for Greenhouse Gas
Table 12: Investment Cost Estimates for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation from Municipal Solid Waste
Mitigation from Municipal Solid Waste

Investment costs of reduction 1
(US$/ton CO 2 eq.)
Landfilling with landfill gas flare 6
Landfilling with energy recovery 16
Incineration 67
Aerobic composting 3
Anaerobic composting 13

1. Calculated for a representative Israeli city producing 3,000 tons of MSW per day for 20 years; global warming potential
1. Calculated for a representative Israeli city producing 3,000 tons of MSW per day for 20 years;
of methane of 56 was used. Note: compostables comprise a higher portion of waste in Israel than in the U.S.
global warming potential of methane of 56 was used. Note: compostables comprise a higher
portion of waste in Israel than in the U.S.
Source: Ofira Ayalon, Yoram Avnimelech (Technion, Israel Institute of Technology) and Mordechai Shechter (Department of
Economics and Natural ResourcesAyalon, Yoram Avnimelech (Technion, Israel Institute of Technology) and
Source: Ofira & Environmental Research Center, University of Haifa, Israel), “Solid Waste Treatment
as a High-Priority and Low-CostShechter (Department of Economics and Natural Resources Management Vol. 27, No. 5,
Mordechai Alternative for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation,” Environmental & Environmental
2001, p. 700. Research Center, University of Haifa, Israel), “Solid Waste Treatment as a High-Priority and
Low-Cost Alternative for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation,” Environmental Management Vol. 27, No.
5, 2001, p. 700.


Green bins filled with organics await collection for composting on a San Francisco street.

“The composting option does not require
high investments, produces a product that
can be readily utilized by the agricultural
sector, and seems to be an available
interim solution to mitigate greenhouse
gas emissions by most countries . . . The
time needed for implementation is short
and the effect is significant.”

Source: Ofira Ayalon, et al, “Solid Waste Treatment as a High-Priority and Low-Cost
Alternative for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation,” Environmental Management Vol. 27, No.
5, 2001, p. 701. Organic materials collected for composting in Boulder.


Only when policies and funding are redirected
New Policies and Tools Are Needed toward reducing waste rather than managing
and disposing of it, will greenhouse gas
Wasting and resource extraction are so firmly emissions related to the waste sector begin
entrenched in our economy and lifestyle that they to decline.
receive unfair competitive advantage over
Other governments are acting, however. Nova Scotia
conservation and waste minimization in myriad ways.
banned organics from landfill disposal in 1995. The
The most critical of these is that wasting and resource
European Union has also taken a firm approach to
extraction receive billions of dollars in taxpayer
reducing the amount of organics destined for landfills.
subsidies, which create perverse economic incentives
Its Landfill Directive calls for reducing biodegradable
that encourage the extraction and destruction of
waste disposed in landfills to 50% of 1995 levels by
natural resources.183 As a result of these subsidies, reuse
2009 and 35% by 2016. (Biodegradable waste is
businesses, recyclers, and composters can find it
defined as “any waste that is capable of undergoing
challenging to compete economically with disposal
aerobic or anaerobic decomposition, such as food and
and extractive industries.
garden waste, and paper and paperboard.”) The
The amount of greenhouse gas emissions produced by Directive also requires improvements in the
the waste sector is driven upward by the numerous environmental standards of landfills, in particular by
policy and regulatory strategies that encourage gas requiring greater use of landfill gas collection and
recovery from landfills and burning waste for its Btu energy recovery systems for the methane emitted, in
value, as well as the policies that wrongly promote order to reduce the greenhouse gas impact of this
these disposal systems as renewable. In contrast, few waste management option.186 For the EU-15, landfill
national policies and fewer research and development methane emissions decreased by almost 30% between
dollars are invested in promoting waste minimization, 1990 and 2002 due to their early implementation of
reuse, recycling, composting, and extended producer the Directive. By 2010, waste-related greenhouse gas
responsibility. Only when policies and funding are emissions in the EU are projected to be more than
redirected toward reducing waste rather than 50% below 1990 levels.187 It is crucial that similar state
managing and disposing of it, will greenhouse gas and federal rules put into place in the U.S. also keep
emissions related to the waste sector begin to decline. organic materials out of incinerators and direct these
materials toward composting and anaerobic digestion
In addition, local and national policymakers tend to facilities.
narrowly focus on continued landfilling and
incineration as the only viable waste management In the U.S., subsidies that qualify waste disposal as a
options. For example, to address significant methane renewable energy source, such as renewable portfolio
emissions from landfills, policy efforts and subsidies standards, the alternative fuels mandate, and the
are centered on landfill gas capture systems. Because renewable energy production tax credits, skew the
these systems may only capture about 20% of emitted economics to unfairly favor disposal over the
methane and because methane is such a powerful conservation of resources. Qualifying waste
greenhouse gas, these policies only serve to barely limit incinerators of any kind for renewable power subsidies
the damage, not fix the problem.184 Yet there are no makes even less sense, as incinerators represent the
plans to tighten federal landfill gas emissions most expensive and polluting solid waste management
regulations. A cheaper, faster, and more-effective option available, and require huge amounts of waste in
method for reducing landfill methane emissions is to order to operate. Environment America, the Sierra
stop the disposal of organic materials, particularly Club, the Natural Resources Defense Council, Friends
putrescibles such as food discards. There are currently of the Earth, and 130 other organizations have
no federal rules in place to keep organic materials out endorsed a statement calling for no financial
of landfills, and only 22 states ban yard trimmings incentives to be built into legislation for incinerators.
from landfills.185 These groups concur that policies qualifying mass-
burn, gasification, pyrolysis, plasma, refuse-derived


fuel, and other incinerator technologies for renewable emissions that relate to municipal activities. This
energy credits, tax credits, subsidies, and other would lead to better-informed actions to reduce
incentives present a renewed threat to environmental overall greenhouse gas emissions on a global scale.
and economic justice in U.S. communities.188 Indeed,
Deep flaws in both current modes of thinking and
incineration is a direct obstacle to reducing waste,
analytical tools are driving policymakers to publicly
which is far from renewable or inevitable; rather, waste
finance disposal projects to the detriment of resource
is a clear sign of inefficiency.
conservation, energy efficiency, and successful
The purported benefits of waste disposal rest heavily renewable energy strategies. When examining
on the idea that waste is inevitable. For example, when strategies to combat greenhouse gas emissions from
incinerators and landfills generate electricity, we are waste, it is imperative that we look beyond waste
told that this electricity is displacing power that would disposal for answers.
otherwise need to be generated from coal-burning
power plants. This argument overlooks the significant
and avoidable lifecycle global warming impacts of our We must realize waste is a sign of a systemic
one-way flow of materials from manufacturer to user failure and adopt solutions to address the
to landfill/incinerator. (More on this fallacy is entire lifecycle impacts of our wasting in
discussed under the Myths section.) This one-way order to reach sustainable resource
linear system is clearly unsustainable over the long management.
term on a planet with a finite supply of both space and
natural resources. We must realize waste is a sign of a
systemic failure and adopt solutions to address the Fortunately, within reach are more cost-effective and
entire lifecycle impacts of our wasting in order to reach environmentally-friendly zero waste solutions. These
sustainable resource management. include: substituting durable for single-use products,
redesigning products, reducing product toxicity,
A further challenge to implementing sustainable
setting up material exchanges, expanding recycling
solutions and policies is the inability of our current
and composting programs, banning unsustainable
models to fairly and accurately assess greenhouse gas
products, purchasing environmentally preferable
emissions from waste management options. See the
products, instituting per-volume or per-weight trash
sidebar on the U.S. EPA’s WAste Reduction Model
fees, developing recycling-based markets, building
(WARM) for a further discussion of this topic.
resource recovery parks and industrial composting
Municipalities looking to reduce their overall climate
facilities, hiring and training a national zero waste
footprint often base their actions on inventories that
workforce, implementing policies and programs
only take into account greenhouse gas emissions
promoting extended producer responsibility, and
directly released within their geographical territory.
establishing innovative collection systems. Rather than
Ignored are the myriad ways that local activities
continuing to pour taxpayer money into expensive
contribute to global greenhouse gas emissions. In the
and harmful disposal projects or into exporting our
case of waste, these inventories only conservatively
discards to other countries, lawmakers should enact
account for some of the emissions released directly
responsible and forward-thinking public policies that
from landfills and incinerators within the
provide incentives to create and sustain locally-based
municipality; ignored are the lifecycle emissions that
reuse, recycling, and composting jobs.
are incurred prior to the disposal of these materials.
These are directly linked to greenhouse gases from The success of many of these strategies is well
industrial energy use, land use, and transportation. As documented across the U.S.; San Francisco provides
a result, cities can underestimate the positive impacts an excellent example. This city declared a 75% landfill
of reducing waste and increasing recycling and diversion goal by the year 2010, and a zero waste goal
composting on the climate, while hiding the negative by 2020. This diverse metropolis of 800,000 residents
impact that waste disposal has on the climate. New reported a 69% recycling/composting level in 2006.
models are needed for municipalities to more
accurately account for lifecycle greenhouse gas


EPA WAste Reduction Model (WARM) — Room for Improvement
Ten years ago, the U.S. EPA released the first version of a tool to help solid waste managers weigh the greenhouse gas and
energy impacts of waste management practices — its WAste Reduction Model, or WARM. Since then, EPA has improved and
updated WARM numerous times. WARM focuses exclusively on the waste sector and allows users to calculate and compare
greenhouse gas emissions for 26 categories of materials landfilled, incinerated, composted or recycled. The model takes into
account upstream benefits of recycling, the carbon sequestration benefits from composting, and the energy grid offsets from
combusting landfill gases and municipal solid waste materials. The methodology used to estimate emissions is largely
consistent with international and domestic accounting guidelines. The latest version, Version 8, was released in 2006, but
may already be outdated based on new information learned in recent years. As a result, the model now falls short of its goal
to allow for an adequate comparison among available solid waste management options. Serious shortcomings that could be
addressed in future releases include the following:

Incorrect assumptions related to the capture rate of landfill No reporting of biogenic emissions from incinerators as
gas recovery systems that are installed to control methane recommended by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
emissions. The model relies on instantaneous landfill gas guidelines: “if incineration of waste is used for energy purposes,
collection efficiency rates of 75% and uses a 44% capture rate as both fossil and biogenic should be estimated… biogenic CO2
the national average for all landfills. However, capture rates over should be reported as an information item…”2 For incinerators,
the lifetime of a landfill may be as low as 20%.1 biogenic materials represent three-quarters of all waste
combusted and 72% of all CO2 being emitted.3
Lack of credit for the ability of compost to displace synthetic
fertilizers, fungicides, and pesticides, which collectively have A failure to adequately take into account the timing of CO2
an enormous greenhouse gas profile. Composting also has emissions and sinks. Incinerators, for instance, release CO2
additional benefits that are not considered, such as its ability to instantaneously, while composting may store carbon for decades.
increase soil water retention that could lead to reduced energy Paper reuse and recycling also store carbon for many years. It is
use related to irrigation practices, or its ability to increase plant not appropriate to neglect such delays in the release of CO2 into
growth, which leads to improved carbon sequestration. the atmosphere.4 The EPA acknowledges that its model treats the
(Recognized as a shortcoming in EPA’s 2006 report, Solid Waste timing of these releases the same: “Note that this approach does
Management and Greenhouse Gases.) not distinguish between the timing of CO2 emissions, provided
that they occur in a reasonably short time scale relative to the
A failure to consider the full range of soil conservation and
speed of the processes that affect global climate change. In other
management practices that could be used in combination with
words, as long as the biogenic carbon would eventually be
compost application and the impacts of those practices on carbon
released as CO2, whether it is released virtually instantaneously
storage. (Recognized as a shortcoming in EPA’s 2006 report, Solid
(e.g., from combustion) or over a period of a few decades (e.g.,
Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases.)
decomposition on the forest floor), it is treated the same.”5 We
Lack of data on materials in the waste stream that are now know that the timing of such releases is especially critical
noncompostable or recycled at a paltry level such as given the 10-15 year climate tipping point agreed upon by leading
polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride. global scientists.6 The U.K. Atropos© model is one example of a
new modeling approach for evaluating solid waste management
Inability to calculate the benefits of product or material options that includes all biogenic emissions of carbon dioxide and
reuse. also accounts for the timing of these emissions.7

1 Bogner, J., et al, Waste Management, In Climate Change 2007: based on data reported on the U.S. EPA Clean Energy web page, 5 U.S. EPA, Solid Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases: A
Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth “How Does Electricity Affect the Environment,” Life-Cycle Assessment of Emissions and Sinks, EPA 530-R-06-
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/air- 004, September 2006, p. 13.
Change (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United emissions.html, browsed March 13, 2008; and in Jeremy K.
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA), p. 600. O’Brien, P.E., SWANA, “Comparison of Air Emissions from 6 Climate Change Research Centre, 2007. “2007 Bali Climate
Waste-to-Energy Facilities to Fossil Fuel Power Plants” Declaration by Scientists.” Available online at
2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2006, “Chapter 5: (undated), available online at: http://www.wte.org/environment, http://www.climate.unsw.edu.au/bali/ on December 19, 2007.
Incineration and Open Burning of Waste,” 2006 IPCC Guidelines browsed March 13, 2008.
for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, p. 5.5. 7 Dominic Hogg et al, Eunomia, Greenhouse Gas Balances of
4 Ari Rabl, Anthony Benoist, Dominque Dron, Bruno Peuportier, Waste Management Scenarios, Report to the Greater London
3 Based on U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables, Joseph V. Spadaro and Assad Zoughaib, Ecole des Minesm Authority, Bristol, United Kingdom, January 2008, pp. i-ii.
“Table 3, Materials Discarded in the Municipal Waste Stream, Paris, France, “Editorials: How to Account for CO2 Emissions
1960 to 2006,” and “Table 29, Generation, Materials Recovery, from Biomass in an LCA,” The International Journal of LifeCycle
Composting, Combustion, and Discards of Municipal Solid Assessment 12 (5) 281 (2007), p. 281.
Waste, 1960 to 2006.” The 72% biogenic emission figure is


Key elements of its zero waste program include the zero waste jobs, infrastructure, and local strategies.
following: providing green bins for mixed food Zero waste programs should be developed with the
discards and yard trimmings and blue bins for mixed full democratic participation of individuals and
recyclables; instituting volume-based trash fees; communities that are most adversely impacted by
targeting both the commercial and residential sectors; climate change and waste pollution.
enacting bans on polystyrene take-out containers,
2. Retire existing incinerators and halt construction of
plastic bags, and the use of water bottles at publicly-
new incinerators or landfills: The use of incinerators
sponsored events; and working in partnership with a
and investments in new disposal facilities — including
waste hauler that is committed to the city’s zero waste
mass-burn, pyrolysis, plasma, gasification, other
goal. This city’s example provides a practical blueprint
incineration technologies, and landfill “bioreactors”
for reducing its negative impact on the global climate
— obstruct efforts to reduce waste and increase
and environment that others can and should follow.
materials recovery. Eliminating investments in
Twenty years ago, many solid waste professionals incineration and landfilling is an important step to
believed that communities could recycle and compost free up taxpayer money for resource conservation,
no more than 15 to 20% of their waste. Today, the efficiency, and renewable energy solutions.
national recycling/composting level is 32.5% and
3. Levy a per-ton surcharge on landfilled and
hundreds of cities and businesses have reached 50%
incinerated materials: Many European nations have
and higher diversion levels. These “record-setters” are
adopted significant fees on landfills of $20 to $40 per
demonstrating that waste reduction levels much
ton that are used to fund recycling programs and
higher than the national average can be achieved.
decrease greenhouse gases. Surcharges on both
Indeed, at least two dozen U.S. communities have
landfills and incinerators are an important
embraced zero waste planning or goals. The
counterbalance to the negative environmental and
experience of and lessons learned from these early
human health costs of disposal that are borne by the
adopters can readily be adapted to other communities
public. Instead of pouring money into incinerator and
throughout the country. (See the list of communities
landfill disposal, public money should be used to
on page 44.)
strengthen resource conservation, efficiency, reuse,
There are numerous strategies for moving toward a recycling, and composting strategies. Public funding
zero waste economy, such as shifting back to the use of should support the infrastructure, jobs, and research
refillable containers or using compostable plastics needed for effective resource recovery and clean
made from crops and plants.189 The guiding principles production. It should also support initiatives to reduce
of these strategies are to conserve resources, reduce waste generation and implement extended producer
consumption, minimize pollution and greenhouse gas responsibility.
emissions, transform the byproducts of one process
into the feedstocks for another, maximize employment
opportunities, and provide the greatest degree of local
economic self-reliance.
If we are to mitigate climate change, the following
priority policies need serious and immediate
consideration:
1. Establish and implement national, statewide, and
municipal zero waste targets and plans: Taking
immediate action to establish zero waste targets and
plans is one of the most important strategies that can
be adopted to address climate change. Any zero waste
target or plan must be accompanied by a shift in San Francisco collection vehicle for organics.
funding from supporting waste disposal to supporting


Based on 2006 disposal levels, a $20 to $40 per ton expensive and harmful disposal projects or export our
surcharge would generate $3.4 billion to $6.8 billion discards to other countries, public policies should
in the U.S. to advance these initiatives. revitalize local economies by supporting
environmentally just, community-based, and green
4. Stop organic materials from being sent to landfills
jobs and businesses in materials recovery. This
and incinerators: Local, state, and national incentives,
investment would result in the creation of more local
penalties or bans are needed to prevent organic
jobs, since incinerators and landfills sustain only 1 job
materials, particularly food discards and yard
for every 10 positions at a recycling facility.192
trimmings, from being sent to landfills and
incinerators. All organic materials should instead be 7. Expand adoption of per-volume or per-weight fees
source-reduced, followed by source-segregation for for the collection of trash: Pay-as-you-throw fees have
reuse, composting, or anaerobic digestion in been proven to increase recycling levels and reduce the
controlled facilities. If the landfilling of biodegradable amount of waste disposed.
materials were ceased, the problem of methane
8. Make manufacturers and brand owners responsible
generation from waste would be largely eliminated.
for the products and packaging they produce:
Because methane is so potent over the short term —
Manufactured products and packaging represent
72 times more potent than CO2 — eliminating
72.5% of all municipal solid waste disposed. When
landfill methane should be an immediate priority.
manufacturers accept responsibility for recycling their
The European community has made progress toward
products, they have been shown to use less toxic
achieving this goal since 1999 when its Landfill
materials, consume fewer materials, design their
Directive required the phase-out of landfilling
products to last longer, create better recycling systems,
organics.190 Several countries — Germany, Austria,
be motivated to minimize waste costs, and no longer
Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden — have
pass the cost of disposal to the government and the
accelerated the EU schedule through more stringent
taxpayer.193 Effective extended producer responsibility
national bans on landfilling organic materials.191
(EPR) programs include robust regulations, individual
Furthermore, composting, the preferred alternative
responsibility, government-mandated participation,
treatment method for these materials, has the added
reuse and recycling requirements, and financing
benefit of protecting and revitalizing soils and
elements. With its German Packaging Ordinance
agricultural farmland. As such, compost represents a
passed in 1990, Germany has one of the longest track
value-added product while landfilling and incinerators
records for a broad-based EPR program for packaging.
represent long-term liabilities.
This ordinance has increased the use of reusable
5. End state and federal “renewable energy” subsidies packaging, reduced the use of composite and plastic
to landfills and incinerators: Incentives such as the packaging, facilitated significant design changes in
federal Renewable Energy Production Tax Credit and packaging, fostered the development of new
state Renewable Portfolio Standards should only technologies for recycling packaging materials, and
benefit truly renewable energy and resource reduced the burden of waste management on
conservation strategies, such as energy efficiency and municipalities.194
the use of wind, solar, and ocean power. Resource
9. Regulate single-use plastic products and packaging
conservation should be incentivized as a key strategy
that have low or non-existent recycling levels: Plastic is
for reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions.
the fastest-growing part of the waste stream and is
In addition, the billions of dollars in subsidies to
among the most expensive discarded materials to
extractive industries such as mining, logging, and
manage. Its recycling rate of 6.9% is the lowest of all
drilling should be eliminated. Instead, subsidies
major material commodities. In less than one
should support industries that conserve and safely
generation, the use and disposal of single-use plastic
reuse materials.
packaging, which is largely unrecyclable (despite the
6. Provide policy incentives that create and sustain deceptive use of recycling arrow emblems), has grown
locally-based reuse, recycling, and composting jobs: from 120,000 tons in 1960 to 12,720,000 tons per
Rather than continue to pour taxpayer money into year today.195 Many communities are considering or


have already passed policies to reverse this trend. State only 6 out of 42 catalog makers use any significant
beverage container deposit laws are effective tools for recycled content.200 Reducing and recycling paper
recovering beverage bottles. These deposit laws should decrease releases of numerous air and water pollutants
be expanded to other states and to cover all beverage to the environment and conserve energy and forest
drinks. More than two dozen jurisdictions have passed resources. When paper mills increase their use of
some form of ban on nonrecyclable foamed recovered paper fiber, they lower their requirements
polystyrene takeout food containers as well.196 In for pulpwood, which extends the fiber base and
addition, San Francisco and New York City have conserves forest resources. Moreover, the reduced
banned the use of single-use water bottles for publicly demand for virgin paper fiber will generally reduce the
sponsored events; other cities may follow suit.197 San overall intensity of forest management required to
Francisco also recently banned single-use plastic meet the current level of demand for paper. This helps
shopping bags that are not compostable. In 2002, to foster environmentally beneficial changes in forest
Ireland enacted the most effective policy to address management practices. For example, pressure may be
single-use shopping bags, whether plastic or paper. Its reduced to convert natural forests and sensitive
steep per-bag fee, the equivalent of 33¢, reduced the ecological areas such as wetlands into intensively
consumption of single-use bags by 94% within a managed pine plantations, and more trees may be
matter of weeks.198 These sorts of policies have proven managed on longer rotations to meet the demand for
to be successful and can be replicated elsewhere. solid wood products rather than paper fiber.201
10. Regulate paper packaging and junk mail and pass
policies to significantly increase paper recycling: Of
the 170 million tons of municipal solid waste disposed
each year in the U.S., 24.3% is paper and paperboard.
The largest contributors include paper plates and cups
(1.18 million tons), telephone directories (550,000
tons), and junk mail (3.61 million tons).199 An
estimated 20 billion catalogs are mailed each year, but

San Francisco’s organics are composted at the Jepson Prairie Organics facility near Vacaville, CA


11. Decision makers and environmental leaders
should reject climate protection agreements and
strategies that embrace landfill or incinerator disposal:
Rather than embrace agreements and blueprints like
the U.S. Conference of Mayors Climate Protection
Agreement that call for supporting “waste to energy”
as a strategy to combat climate change, decision
makers and environmental organizations should adopt
climate blueprints that support zero waste. One
example of an agreement that will move cities in the
right direction for zero waste is the Urban
Environmental Accords. Signed by 103 major in cities
around the world, the accords call for achieving zero
waste to landfills and incinerators by 2040 and
reducing per capita solid waste disposal by 20%
within seven years.202
12. Better assess the true climate implications of the
wasting sector: Measuring greenhouse gases over the
20-year time horizon is essential to reveal the impact
of methane on the short-term climate tipping point.
The IPCC publishes global warming potential figures
for methane and other greenhouse gases over the 20-
year time frame. Also needed are updates to the U.S.
EPA’s WAste Reduction Model (WARM), a tool for
assessing the greenhouse gases emitted by solid waste
management options. WARM should be updated to
better account for lifetime landfill gas capture rates,
and to report carbon emissions from both fossil-based
and biogenic materials. In addition, municipalities
need better tools to accurately account for lifecycle Products that could be source reduced include junk mail.
greenhouse gas emissions that relate to all municipal
activities, including those that impact emissions
outside of a municipality’s geographical territory. New
models that accurately take into account the myriad
ways that local activities contribute to lifecycle
greenhouse gas emissions globally would allow
municipalities to take better-informed actions to
reduce overall greenhouse gas emissions.


Conclusions

Key findings of this report: system of extraction to disposal on climate change.
(See Figure 2 on page 24.)
1. A zero waste approach is one of the fastest,
cheapest, and most effective strategies we can use to 3. A zero waste approach is essential. Through the
protect the climate and environment. By reducing Urban Environmental Accords, 103 city mayors
waste generation 1% each year and diverting 90% of worldwide have committed to sending zero waste to
our waste from landfills and incinerators by the year landfills and incinerators by the year 2040 or earlier.206
2030, we could dramatically reduce greenhouse gas More than two dozen U.S. communities and the state
emissions within the United States and elsewhere. of California have also now embraced zero waste as a
Achieving this waste reduction would conservatively goal. These zero waste programs are based on (1)
reduce U.S. greenhouse gas emissions by 406 reducing consumption and discards, (2) reusing
megatons CO2 eq. per year by 2030. This is the materials, (3) extended producer responsibility and
equivalent of taking 21% of the existing 417 coal-fired other measures to ensure that products can be safely
power plants off the grid.203 A zero waste approach has recycled into the economy and environment,* (4)
comparable (and sometimes complementary) benefits comprehensive recycling, (5) comprehensive
to leading proposals to protect the climate, such as composting of clean segregated organics, and (6)
significantly improving vehicle fuel efficiency and effective policies, regulations, incentives, and
hybridizing vehicles, expanding and enhancing carbon financing structures to support these systems. The
sinks (such as forests), or retrofitting lighting and existing 8,659 curbside collection programs in the
improving electronic equipment. It also has greater U.S. can serve as the foundation for expanded
potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions than materials recovery.
environmentally harmful strategies proposed such as
4. Existing waste incinerators should be retired,
the expansion of nuclear energy. (See Table 11 on page
and no new incinerators or landfills should be
52.) Indeed, a zero waste approach is essential to put
constructed. Incinerators are significant sources of
us on the path to climate stability by 2050.
CO2 and also emit nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent
2. Wasting directly impacts climate change because greenhouse gas that is approximately 300 times more
it is directly linked to resource extraction, effective than carbon dioxide at trapping heat in the
transportation, processing, and manufacturing. atmosphere.207 By destroying resources rather than
Since 1970, we have used up one-third of global conserving them, all incinerators — including mass-
natural resources.204 Virgin raw materials industries are burn, pyrolysis, plasma, and gasification208 — cause
among the world’s largest consumers of energy and are significant and unnecessary lifecycle greenhouse gas
thus significant contributors to climate change emissions. Pyrolysis, plasma, and gasification
because energy use is directly correlated with incinerators may have an even larger climate footprint
greenhouse gas emissions. Our linear system of than conventional mass-burn incinerators because
extraction, processing, transportation, consumption, they can require inputs of additional fossil fuels or
and disposal is intimately tied to core contributors of electricity to operate. Incineration is also pollution-
global climate change, such as industrial energy use, ridden and cost prohibitive, and is a direct obstacle to
transportation, and deforestation. When we minimize reducing waste and increasing recycling. Further,
waste, we reduce greenhouse gas emissions in these sources of industrial pollution such as incineration
and other sectors, which together represent 36.7% of also disproportionately impact people of color and
all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.205 It is this number low-income and indigenous communities.209
that more accurately reflects the impact of the whole

* Extended producer responsibility requires firms that manufacture, import or sell products and packaging, to be financially or physically responsible for such products over the entire lifecycle of the product,
including after its useful life.


5. Landfills are the largest source of anthropogenic Composting avoids significant methane
methane emissions in the U.S., and the impact of emissions from landfills, increases carbon
landfill emissions in the short term is grossly storage in soils and improves plant growth,
underestimated — methane is 72 times more
which in turn expands carbon sequestration.
potent than CO2 over a 20-year time frame.
National data on landfill greenhouse gas emissions are Composting is thus vital to restoring the
based on international accounting protocols that use a climate and our soils.
100-year time frame for calculating methane’s global 7. Incinerators emit more CO2 per megawatt-hour
warming potential.* Because methane only stays in than coal-fired, natural-gas-fired, or oil-fired power
the atmosphere for around 12 years, its impacts are far plants. Incinerating materials such as wood, paper,
greater in the short term. Over a 100-year time frame, yard debris, and food discards is far from “climate
methane is 25 times more potent than CO2. neutral”; rather, incinerating these and other
However, methane is 72 times more potent than CO2 materials is detrimental to the climate. However,
over 20 years.210 The Intergovernmental Panel on when comparing incineration with other energy
Climate Change assesses greenhouse gas emissions options such as coal, natural gas, and oil power plants,
over three time frames — 20, 100, and 500 years. The the Solid Waste Association of North America
choice of which time frame to use is a policy-based (SWANA) and the Integrated Waste Services
decision, not one based on science.211 On a 20-year Association (an incinerator industry group), treat the
time frame, landfill methane emissions alone represent incineration of “biomass” materials such as wood,
5.2% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. Figures 8 paper, and food discards as “carbon neutral.”
and 9 illustrate the difference in the impact of landfill
methane emissions on the national inventory when a As a result, they ignore CO2 emissions from these
20-year time horizon is used. With the urgent need to materials. This is inaccurate. Wood, paper, and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the correct new agricultural materials are often produced from
policy is to measure greenhouse gases over the 20-year unsustainable forestry and land practices that are
time horizon. This policy change will reveal the causing the amount of carbon stored in forests and soil
significant greenhouse gas reduction potential to decrease over time. Incinerating these materials not
available from keeping organics out of the landfill and only emits CO2 in the process, but also destroys their
preventing methane generation. Furthermore, landfill potential for reuse as manufacturing and composting
gas capture systems are not an effective strategy for feedstocks. This ultimately leads to a net increase of
preventing methane emissions to the atmosphere. The CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere and
portion of methane captured over a landfill’s lifetime contributes to climate change. The bottom line is that
may be as low as 20% of total methane emitted.212 tremendous opportunities for greenhouse gas
reductions are lost when a material is incinerated. It is
6. The practice of landfilling and incinerating not appropriate to ignore the opportunities for CO2 or
biodegradable materials such as food scraps, paper other emissions to be avoided, sequestered or stored
products, and yard trimmings should be phased through non-combustion uses of a given material.
out immediately. Non-recyclable organic materials More climate-friendly alternatives to incinerating
should be segregated at the source and composted or materials include options such as waste avoidance,
anaerobically digested under controlled conditions.‡ reuse, recycling, and composting.
Composting avoids significant methane emissions
from landfills, increases carbon storage in soils and
improves plant growth, which in turn expands carbon
sequestration. Composting is thus vital to restoring
the climate and our soils. In addition, compost is a
* The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) developed the concept of
value-added product, while landfills and incinerators global warming potential (GWP) as an index to help policymakers evaluate the impacts
are long-term environmental liabilities. Consequently, of greenhouse gases with different atmospheric lifetimes and infrared absorption
properties, relative to the chosen baseline of carbon dioxide (CO2).
composting should be front and center in a national
‡ Anaerobic digestion systems can complement composting. After energy extraction,
strategy to protect the climate. nutrient rich materials from digesters make excellent compost feedstocks.


Figure 8: 100-Year T im e Fr ame, La ndfill Meth ane Em issions
05
(% of total U. S. emission s in 200 5, C O 2 eq.)
Figure 8: 100-Year Time Frame, Landfill Methane Emissions (% of total U.S. emissions in 2005, CO2 eq.)

All Other
Landfill Methane
98.2%
Emissions
1.8%

Source: Table 8-1: Emissions from Waste, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, U.S. EPA,
Sourc e: Table 8-1: Em ission s fro m W as te, Inventory o f U .S.
Washington, DC, April 15, 2007, p. 8-1.

Greenhouse Gas E missions and Sinks, 1990 -2005 , U. S . EP A ,
, W as hington, DC , Ap ril 15 , 2007, p. 8-1.
007, p.
sions Figure 9: 20 -Ye ar T ime Frame, La ndfill Meth ane Em iss ions
(% of total U. S. emission s in 200 5, C O 2 eq.)
Figure 9: 20-Year Time Frame, Landfill Methane Emissions (% of total U.S. emissions in 2005, CO2 eq.)

All Other
94.8%
ethane
ons Landfill Methane
% Emissions
5.2%

Source: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Based on converting U.S. EPA data on landfill methane emissions to a 20-year
time frame.
Sourc e: Institut e for Loc al S elf-Relia nc e, Jun e 2008. Base d on
con verting U.S . EPA data on landf ill methane emission s to a 20 -yea r
time frame .


Any climate model comparing the impact of energy by climate change and waste pollution. Regulatory,
generation or waste management options should take permitting, financing, market development, and
into account lifecycle emissions incurred (or not economic incentive policies (such as landfill,
avoided) by not utilizing a material for its “highest and incinerator, and waste hauling surcharges) should be
best” use. These emissions are the opportunity costs of implemented to divert biodegradable organic
incineration. materials from disposal. Policy mechanisms are also
needed to ensure that products are built to last,
8. Incinerators, landfill gas capture systems, and
constructed so that they can be readily repaired, and
landfill “bioreactors” should not be subsidized
are safe and cost-effective to recycle back into the
under state and federal renewable energy and green
economy and environment. Taxpayer money should
power incentive programs or carbon trading
be redirected from supporting costly and polluting
schemes. Far from benefiting the climate, subsidies to
disposal technologies to funding zero waste strategies.
these systems reinforce a one-way flow of resources on
a finite planet and make the task of conserving 10. Improved tools are needed to assess the true
resources more difficult, not easier. Incineration climate implications of the wasting sector. With the
technologies include mass-burn, pyrolysis, plasma, urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the
gasification, and other systems that generate electricity correct new policy is to measure greenhouse gases over
or fuels. All of these technologies contribute to, not the 20-year time horizon. This policy change will
protect against, climate change. Environment reveal the significant greenhouse gas reduction
America, the Sierra Club, the Natural Resources potential available from preventing methane
Defense Council, Friends of the Earth, and 130 other generation by keeping organics out of landfills. The
organizations recognize the inappropriateness of U.S. EPA’s WAste Reduction Model (WARM), a tool
public subsidization of these technologies and have for assessing greenhouse gas emissions from solid
signed onto a statement calling for no incentives for waste management options, should be revised to more
incinerators.213 Incinerators are not the only problem accurately account for the following: lifetime landfill
though; planned landfill “bioreactors,” which are gas capture rates; avoided synthetic fertilizer, pesticide,
being promoted to speed up methane generation, are and fungicide impacts from compost use; reduced
likely to simply result in increased methane emissions water irrigation energy needs from compost
in the short term and to directly compete with more application; the benefits of product and material reuse;
effective climate protection systems such as increased plant growth from compost use; and the
composting and anaerobic digestion technologies. timing of emissions and sinks. (For more detail, see
Preventing potent methane emissions altogether the discussion of WARM, page 61.) New models are
should be prioritized over strategies that offer only also needed to accurately take into account the myriad
limited emissions mitigation. Indeed, all landfill ways that the lifecycle impact of local activities
operators should be required to collect landfill gases; contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions. This
they should not be subsidized to do this. In addition, would lead to better-informed municipal actions to
subsidies to extractive industries such as mining, reduce overall greenhouse gas emissions. In addition,
logging, and drilling should be eliminated. These lifecycle models are needed to accurately compare the
subsidies encourage wasting and economically climate impact of different energy generation options.
disadvantage resource conservation and reuse Models that compare incineration with other
industries. electricity generation options should be developed to
account for lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions
9. New policies are needed to fund and expand
incurred (or not avoided) by not utilizing a material
climate change mitigation strategies such as waste
for its “highest and best” use.
reduction, reuse, recycling, composting, and
extended producer responsibility. Policy incentives
are also needed to create locally-based materials
recovery jobs and industries. Programs should be
developed with the democratic participation of those
individuals and communities most adversely impacted


Rapid action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with
immediate attention to those gases that pose a more
potent risk over the short term, is nothing short of
essential. Methane is one of only a few gases with a
powerful short-term impact, and methane and carbon
dioxide emissions from landfills and incinerators are at
the top of a short list of sources of greenhouse gas
emissions that may be quickly and cost-effectively
reduced or avoided altogether.
Today we need a paradigm shift in how we approach
waste. We need to redesign products and packaging to
minimize and more efficiently utilize materials. We
need to begin using the least amount of packaging and
materials to deliver a product or service. We need to
significantly decrease the volume of resources that we
By adopting a zero waste approach to
consume and dispose in landfills and incinerators. We
need to develop just and sustainable solutions with the manage our resources, we would not only
democratic participation of individuals and better protect the planet’s climate — we
communities most adversely impacted by climate would also double or triple the life of existing
change and waste pollution. In sum, we need to aim landfills, eliminate the need to build new
for a zero-waste economy. Now is the time to integrate incinerators and landfills, create jobs, build
the best features of the best programs, technologies, healthier and more equitable communities,
policies, and other practices that are currently in place
restore the country’s topsoil, conserve
around the country and around the world. It is time
to remove antiquated incentives for wasting, such as valuable resources, and reduce our reliance
government subsidies, untaxed and under-regulated on imported goods and fuels. The time to act
pollution, and the system in which producers lack is now.
cradle-to-grave responsibility for their products and
packaging. We need fundamental economic reforms
that make products’ prices reflect their true long-term
costs, including production and end-of-life recovery,
so that waste prevention, reuse, recycling, and
composting can out-compete wasting every time.
Stop Trashing the Climate clearly establishes that in the
face of climate change, waste disposal is neither
inevitable nor sustainable. The playing field must be
leveled to increase resource conservation, efficiency
and sustainability. By adopting a zero waste approach
to manage our resources, we would not only better
protect the planet’s climate — we would also double
or triple the life of existing landfills, eliminate the need
to build new incinerators and landfills, create jobs,
build healthier and more equitable communities,
restore the country’s topsoil, conserve valuable
resources, and reduce our reliance on imported goods
and fuels. The time to act is now.


ENDNOTES:

1 Chris Hails et al., Living Planet Report 2006 (Gland, Switzerland: World Wildlife Fund International, 2006), available online at
http://assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report.pdf; Energy Information Administration, Emission of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2006 (Washington, DC,
November 2007), available online at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/index.html; U.S. Census Bureau International Data Base, available online at
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/; and John L. Seitz: Global Issues: An Introduction, (2001). “The U.S. produced approximately 33% of the world’s waste with 4.6% of the
world’s population” (Miller 1998) quoted in Global Environmental Issues by Francis Harris (2004).

2 Jon Creyts, Anton Derkach, Scott Nyquist, Ken Ostrowski, Jack Stephenson, Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How Much and at What Cost? U.S. Greenhouse Gas
Abatement Mapping Initiative, Executive Report (McKinsey & Company, December 2007). Available online at: http://www.mckinsey.com/clientservice/ccsi/greenhousegas.asp.

3 Dr. Rajendra Pachauri, Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, quoted in “UN Climate Change Impact Report: Poor Will Suffer Most,” Environmental News
Service, April 6, 2007 (available online at: http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/apr2007/2007-04-06-01.asp); Office of the Attorney General, State of California, “Global Warming’s
Unequal Impact” (available online at http://ag.ca.gov/globalwarming/unequal.php#notes_1); and African Americans and Climate Change: An Unequal Burden, July 1, 2004,
Congressional Black Caucus Foundation and Redefining Progress, p. 2 (available online at www.rprogress.org/publications/2004/CBCF_REPORT_F.pdf).

4 The Urban Environmental Accords were drafted as part of the United Nations World Environment Day in 2005.

5 Each coal-fired power plant emits 4.644 megatons CO2 equivalent. In 2005, there were 417 coal-fired power plants in the U.S. See U.S. EPA’s web page on Climate Change at
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/refs.html#coalplant. Removing 87 plants from the grid in 2030, represents 21% of the coal-fired plants operating in 2005.

6 Scientific experts are now in general agreement that developed nations such as the U.S. need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 80% below 1990 levels by 2050 in order to
stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations between 450 and 550 ppm of CO2 eq. See for instance, Susan Joy Hassol, “Questions and Answers Emissions Reductions
Needed to Stabilize Climate,” for the Presidential Climate Action Project (2007). Available online at climatecommunication.org/PDFs/HassolPCAP.pdf.

7 In order to reduce the 1990 U.S. greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050, greenhouse gas levels in 2030 should decrease to 3.9 gigatons CO2 eq., which is approximately
37% of the 1990 level. This is based on a straight linear calculation. Emissions in 2005 were 7.2 gigatons CO2 eq. Emissions in 2050 would need to drop to 1.24 gigatons CO2
eq. to reflect an 80% reduction of the 1990 level of 6.2 gigatons. Between 2005 and 2050, this represents an annual reduction of 132.44 megatons CO2 eq., resulting in a 3.9
gigaton CO2 eq. emission level for 2030. U.S. greenhouse gas emissions are on a trajectory to increase to 9.7 gigatons CO2 eq. by 2030. See Jon Creyts et al, Reducing U.S.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How Much and at What Cost? p. 9. This means that annual greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 need to be reduced by 5.8 gigatons CO2 eq. to put
the U.S. on the path to help stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. A zero waste approach could achieve an estimated 406 megatons CO2 eq., or 7% of the
annual abatement needed in 2030.

8 It is important to note that emissions cuts by developed nations such as the U.S. may have to be even greater than the target of 80% below 1990 levels by 2050. Achieving this
target may leave us vulnerable to a 17-36% chance of exceeding a 2°C increase in average global temperatures. See Paul Baer, et. al, The Right to Development in a Climate
Constrained World, p. 20 (2007). In addition, there is ample evidence that climate change is already negatively impacting the lives of many individuals and communities
throughout the world. To prevent climate-related disasters, the U.S. should and must take immediate and comprehensive action relative to its full contribution to climate change.
As Al Gore has pointed out, countries (including the U.S.), will have to meet different requirements based on their historical share or contribution to the climate problem and their
relative ability to carry the burden of change. He concludes that there is no other way. See Al Gore, “Moving Beyond Kyoto,” The New York Times (July 1, 2007). Available online
at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/01/opinion/01gore.html?pagewanted=all

9 Jon Creyts et al, Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How Much and at What Cost?, pp. xvii, 60-62, 71.

10 U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables, “Table 29, Generation, Materials Recovery, Composting, Combustion, and Discards of Municipal Solid Waste, 1960 to 2006,”
Franklin Associates, A Division of ERG. Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/garbage/msw99.htm.

11 Gary Liss, Gary Liss & Associations, personal communication, March 2008; and Robert Haley, Zero Waste Manager, City and County of San Francisco, Department of the
Environment, personal communication, May 1, 2008.

12 In 1960, for example, single-use plastic packaging was 0.14% of the waste stream (120,000 tons). In less than one generation, it has grown to 5.7% and 14.2 million tons per
year. See U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables, “Table 18, Products Generated in the Municipal Solid Waste Stream, 1960 to 2006 (with Detail on Containers and
Packaging).”

13 Brenda Platt and Neil Seldman, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Wasting and Recycling in the U.S. 2000, GrassRoots Recycling Network, 2000, p. 13. Based on data reported in
Office of Technology Assessment, Managing Industrial Solid Wastes from manufacturing, mining, oil, and gas production, and utility coal combustion (OTA-BP-O-82), February
1992, pp. 7, 10.

14 Toni Johnson, Council on Foreign Relations, “Deforestation and Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” web site at www.cfr.org/publication/14919/ (updated January 7, 2008).

15 Recommendations of the Economic and Technology Advancement Advisory Committee (ETAAC): Final Report on Technologies and Policies to Consider for Reducing Greenhouse
Gas Emissions in California, A Report to the California Air Resources Board (February 14, 2008), pp. 4-15, 4-16. Available online at
www.arb.ca.gov/cc/etaac/ETAACFinalReport2-11-08.pdf.

16 Each coal-fired power plant emits 4.644 megatons CO2 equivalent. In 2005, there were 417 coal-fired power plants in the US. See U.S. EPA’s web page on Climate Change at

17 Paul Hawken, Amory Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins, Natural Capitalism, Little Brown and Company, (1999), p. 4; and Worldwide Fund for Nature (Europe), “A third of world’s
natural resources consumed since 1970: Report,” Agence-France Presse (October 1998).


18 Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Industrial emissions alone represent 26.8%. Truck transportation is another 5.3%. Manure management is 0.7% and waste disposal
of 2.6% includes landfilling, wastewater treatment, and combustion. Synthetic fertilizers represent 1.4% and include urea production. Figures have not been adjusted to 20-year
time frame. Based on data presented in the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, April 15, 2007. Industrial Electricity
Consumption is estimated using Energy Information Administration 2004 data on electricity sales to customers. See Table ES-1, Electric Power Annual Summary Statistics for
the United States, released October 22, 2007, and available online at: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epates.html.

19 See City of San Francisco web site, Urban Environmental Accords, at http://www.sfenvironment.org/our_policies/overview.html?ssi=15. Browsed May 1, 2008.

20 On a 20-year time horizon, N2O has a 289 global warming potential. On a 100-year time horizon, its global warming potential is 310.

21 The EPA defines incineration as the following: “Incinerator means any enclosed device that: (1) Uses controlled flame combustion and neither meets the criteria for classification
as a boiler, sludge dryer, or carbon regeneration unit, nor is listed as an industrial furnace; or (2) Meets the definition of infrared incinerator or plasma arc incinerator. Infrared
incinerator means any enclosed device that uses electric powered resistance heaters as a source of radiant heat followed by an afterburner using controlled flame combustion
and which is not listed as an industrial furnace. Plasma arc incinerator means any enclosed device using a high intensity electrical discharge or arc as a source of heat
followed by an afterburner using controlled flame combustion and which is not listed as an industrial furnace.” See U.S. EPA, Title 40: Protection of Environment, Hazardous
Waste Management System: General, subpart B-definitions, 260.10, current as of February 5, 2008.

22 Pace, David, “More Blacks Live with Pollution,” Associated Press (2005), available online at: http://hosted.ap.org/specials/interactives/archive/pollution/part1.html; and Bullard,
Robert D., Paul Mohai, Robin Saha, Beverly Wright, Toxic Waste and Race at 20: 1987-2007 (March 2007).

23 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has revised the global warming potential of methane compared to carbon dioxide several times. For the 100 year planning
horizon, methane was previously calculated to have 21 times the global warming potential of CO2. In 2007, the IPCC revised the figure to 25 times over 100 years and to 72
times over 20 years. See IPCC, “Table 2.14,” p. 212, Forster, P., et al, 2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In: Climate Change 2007: The
Physical Science Basis.

24 “Beyond Kyoto: Why Climate Policy Needs to Adopt the 20-year Impact of Methane,” Eco-Cycle Position Memo, Eco-Cycle, www.ecocycle.org, March 2008.

25 Bogner, J., M. Abdelrafie Ahmed, C. Diaz, A. Faaij, Q. Gao, S. Hashimoto, K. Mareckova, R. Pipatti, T. Zhang, Waste Management, In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution
of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)],
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, p. 600. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg3.htm.

26 No Incentives for Incinerators Sign-on Statement, 2007. Available online at http://www.zerowarming.org/campaign_signon.html.

27 See for instance Clarissa Morawski, Measuring the Benefits of Composting Source Separated Organics in the Region of Niagara, CM Consulting for The Region of Niagara,
Canada (December 2007); Jeffrey Morris, Sound Resource Management Group, Comparison of Environmental Burdens: Recycling, Disposal with Energy Recovery from Landfill
Gases, and Disposal via Hypothetical Waste-to-Energy Incineration, prepared for San Luis Obispo County Integrated Waste Management Authority, San Luis Obispo, California
(February 2004); Jeffrey Morris, “Comparative LCAs for Curbside Recycling Versus Either Landfilling or Incineration with Energy Recovery, International Journal of LCA (2004);
Brenda Platt and David Morris, The Economic Benefits of Recycling, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Washington, DC (1993); and Michael Lewis, Recycling Economic
Development through Scrap-Based Manufacturing, Institute for Local Self-Reliance (1994)

28 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Topic 1 - Observed Changes in Climate and Their Effects, pp.
1-4. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-syr.htm. Also see Janet Larson, “The Sixth Great Extinction: A Status Report,” Earth Policy Institute, March 2, 2004,
available online at http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/Update35.htm.

29 Dr. Rajendra Pachauri, Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, quoted in “UN Climate Change Impact Report: Poor Will Suffer Most,” Environmental News
Service, April 6, 2007 (available online at: http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/apr2007/2007-04-06-01.asp); Office of the Attorney General, State of California, “Global
Warming’s Unequal Impact” (available online at http://ag.ca.gov/globalwarming/unequal.php#notes_1); and African Americans and Climate Change: An Unequal Burden, July 1,
2004, Congressional Black Caucus Foundation and Redefining Progress, p. 2 (available online at www.rprogress.org/publications/2004/CBCF_REPORT_F.pdf).

30 Chris Hails et al., Living Planet Report 2006 (Gland, Switzerland: World Wildlife Fund International, 2006), available online at
http://assets.panda.org/downloads/living_planet_report.pdf; Energy Information Administration, Emission of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 2006 (Washington, DC,
November 2007), available online at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/index.html; U.S. Census Bureau International Data Base, available online at
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/.

31 2005 data. Energy Information Administration, “International Energy Annual 2005” (Washington, DC, September 2007). Available online at http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea.

32 Chris Hails et al., Living Planet Report 2006.

33 Climate Change Research Centre, 2007. “2007 Bali Climate Declaration by Scientists.” Available online at http://www.climate.unsw.edu.au/bali/ on December 19, 2007. Also at
http://www.climatesciencewatch.org/index.php/csw/details/bali_climate_declaration/

34 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, “Research Finds That Earth’s Climate Is Approaching a ‘Dangerous’ Point,” 2007. Available online at
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2007/danger_point.html.


36 Each coal-fired power plant emits 4.644 megatons CO2 eq. In 2005, there were 417 coal-fired power plants in the U.S. See U.S. EPA’s web page on Climate Change at

37 U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables, “Table 29, Generation, Materials Recovery, Composting, Combustion, and Discards of Municipal Solid Waste, 1960 to 2006,”
Franklin Associates, A Division of ERG. Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/garbage/msw99.htm.


38 Ibid. See “Table 4: Paper and Paperboard Products in MSW, 2006,” “Table 6: Metals in MSW, 2006,” “Table 7: Plastics in Products in MSW, 2006.”

39 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Topic 1 — Observed Changes in Climate and Their Effects, pp.
17. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-syr.htm.

40 Jean Bogner et al, “Mitigation of global greenhouse gas emissions from waste: conclusions and strategies from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth
Assessment Report. Working Group III (Mitigation). Waste Management Research 2008; 26l 11, p. 11, available online at http://wmr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/26/1/11.

41 See Table ES-4: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks by Chapter/IPCC Sector, U.S. EPA, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-
2005, p. ES-11, available online at: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usgginv_archive.html.

42 See “Table 3: Materials Discarded in Municipal Solid Waste, 1960-2006,” U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables.

43 Toni Johnson, Council on Foreign Relations, “Deforestation and Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” web site at www.cfr.org/publication/14919/ (updated January 7, 2008).

44 “Table 3: Materials Discarded in Municipal Solid Waste, 1960-2006,” U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables.
45 “Table 29, Generation, Materials Recovery, Composting, Combustion, and Discards of Municipal Solid Waste, 1960 to 2006,” U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables.

46 Brenda Platt and Neil Seldman, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Wasting and Recycling in the U.S. 2000, GrassRoots Recycling Network, 2000, p. 13. Based on data reported in
Office of Technology Assessment, Managing Industrial Solid Wastes from manufacturing, mining, oil, and gas production, and utility coal combustion (OTA-BP-O-82), February
1992, pp. 7, 10. The 11 billion ton figure includes wastewater.

47 Mine Waste Technology, U.S. EPA web site, http://www.epa.gov/hardrockmining, browsed March 16, 2008.

48 Mark Drajem, “China Passes Canada, Becomes Top U.S. Import Source (Update1),” Bloomberg.com news, February 14, 2008. Available online at:
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080&sid=aqWbjT7reAIE&refer=asia. In 2006, China’s total fossil CO2 emissions increased by 8.7%. See “Global fossil CO2
emissions for 2006,” Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, June 21, 2007. Available online at:
http://www.mnp.nl/en/dossiers/Climatechange/moreinfo/Chinanowno1inCO2emissionsUSAinsecondposition.html.

49 Based on data reported in “U.S. Imports from China from 2003 to 2007 by 5-digit End-Use Code,” FTDWebMaster, Foreign Trade Division, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC,
February 29, 2008. Available online at http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/product/enduse/imports/c5700.html#questions.

50 Beckie Loewenstein, “Southern California Ports Handle the Bulk of U.S.-China Trade,” U.S. China Today Web site of the University of Southern California U.S.-China Institute,
March 7, 2008. Available online at http://www.uschina.usc.edu/ShowFeature.aspx?articleID=1494.


52 See “International Energy Consumption By End-Use Sector Analysis to 2030,” Energy Information Administration, available online at:
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/energyconsumption.html.

53 “Global Mining Snapshot,” Mineral Policy Institute, Washington, DC (October 1, 2003). Available online at http://www.earthworksaction.org/publications.cfm?pubID=63.
This fact sheet cites the WorldWatch Institute, State of the World 2003 as the source for this figure.

54 Energy Information Administration, 2002 Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey (MECS) (Washington, DC, 2002), available online at
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mecs/mecs2002/data02/shelltables.html.

55 The Environmental Defense Fund, “Paper Task Force Recommendations for Purchasing and Using Environmentally Friendly Paper” (1995), p. 47.
Available online at http://www.edf.org.

56 See Conservatree web site, “Common Myths About Recycled Paper,” at http://www.conservatree.org/paper/PaperTypes/RecyMyths.shtml, browsed March 25, 2008.

57 One ton of uncoated virgin (non-recycled) printing and office paper uses 24 trees; 1 ton of 100% virgin (non-recycled) newsprint uses 12 trees. See “How much paper can be
made from a tree?” web page at http://www.conservatree.com/learn/EnviroIssues/TreeStats.shtml, Conservatree, San Francisco, browsed March 14, 2008. According to Trees
for the Future, each tree planted in the humid tropics absorbs 50 pounds (22 kg) of carbon dioxide every year for at least 40 years, translating to each tree absorbing 1 ton of
CO2 over its lifetime. See its web site, “About Us: Global Cooling™ Center,” at http://www.treesftf.org/about/cooling.htm, browsed March 14, 2008. Also see “How to calculate
the amount of CO2 sequestered in a tree per year,” Trees for the Future, available online at: http://www.plant-trees.org/resources/
Calculating%20CO2%20Sequestration%20by%20Trees.pdf, browsed March 15, 2008.

58 U.S. EPA, Solid Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases, EPA530-R-06-004 (Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, September 2006), p. 39.

59 Ibid, p. 41.

60 See Lifecycle Assessment of Aluminum: Inventory Data for the Worldwide Primary Aluminum Industry, International Aluminum Institute, March 2003, p. 23. Available online at
http://www.world-aluminum.org/environment/lifecycle/lifecycle3.html.

61 Ibid., p. 18.

62 See “Table 4: Materials Recovered in Municipal Solid Waste, 1960-2006,” and “Table 5: Materials Generated in Municipal Solid Waste,” U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization
Data Tables. In 2006, 45.1% of the 1.44 million tons of beer and soft drink cans discarded were recycled. See “Table 6: Metal Products in MSW, 2006.”


63 Industrial electricity consumption, industrial fossil fuel consumption, and non-energy industrial processes contribute 26.6% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. We also
allocated 30% of truck transportation greenhouse gases to the industrial sector to arrive at the 28.2%.


65 Ibid.

Gas Emissions in California, A Report to the California Air Resources Board, February 14, 2008, pp. 4-15, 4-16. Available online at

67 Ibid, p. 4-14.

68 Ibid, p. 4-17.

69 U.S. EPA, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2005, (Washington, DC, April 15, 2007), p. 8-1, 8-2. Available online at
http://epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.html. Emissions from municipal solid waste landfills accounted for about 89% of total landfill emissions, with
industrial landfills accounting for the remainder.

70 Table ES-2: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005.

71 U.S. EPA, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2005, p. 8-2.

72 Ibid; and p. ES-15, 17. These compounds indirectly affect terrestrial radiation absorption by influencing the formation and destruction of ozone. In addition, they may react with
other chemical compounds in the atmosphere to form new compounds that are greenhouse gases.

73 “Table 2.14, Lifetime, radiative efficiencies, and direct (except for CH4) GWPs relative to CO2,” p. 212. Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, T. Berntsen, R. Betts, D.W. Fahey, J.
Haywood, J. Lean, D.C. Lowe, G. Myhre, J. Nganga, R. Prinn, G. Raga, M. Schulz and R. Van Dorland, 2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In:
Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,
USA. Available online at http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1-report.html.

74 Nickolas J. Themelis and Priscill A. Ulloa, “Methane Generation in Landfills,” Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1243-1257, p. 1245. Available online from ScienceDirect at
http://www.sciencedirect.com; and U.S. EPA Landfill Methane Outreach Program web site at http://www.epa.gov/lmop/proj/index.htm, browsed March 12, 2008. Number of
landfill recovery projects as of December 2006.

75 “Beyond Kyoto: Why Climate Policy Needs to Adopt the 20-year Impact of Methane,” Eco-Cycle Position Memo, Eco-Cycle, www.ecocycle.org, Boulder, Colorado, March 2008.

76 “Table 2.14, Lifetime, radiative efficiencies, and direct (except for CH4) GWPs relative to CO2,” p. 212. Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo, T. Berntsen, R. Betts, D.W. Fahey, J.
Haywood, J. Lean, D.C. Lowe, G. Myhre, J. Nganga, R. Prinn, G. Raga, M. Schulz and R. Van Dorland, 2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In:
Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,
USA. Available online at http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1-report.html.

77 Brenda Platt, Institute for Local Self-Reliance calculations, based on Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, U.S. EPA,
Washington, DC, April 15, 2007.

78 Ofira Ayalon, Yoram Avnimelech (Technion, Israel Institute of Technology) and Mordechai Shechter (Department of Economics and Natural Resources & Environmental Research
Center, University of Haifa, Israel), “Solid Waste Treatment as a High-Priority and Low-Cost Alternative for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation,” Environmental Management Vol. 27, No.
5, 2001, pp. 697.

79 Peter Anderson, Center for a Competitive Waste Industry, “Comments to the California Air Resources Board on Landfills’ Responsibility for Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases and
the Appropriate Response to Those Facts,” 2007. Available online at: http://www.competitivewaste.org/publications.htm.

80 Bogner, J., M. Abdelrafie Ahmed, C. Diaz, A. Faaij, Q. Gao, S. Hashimoto, K. Mareckova, R. Pipatti, T. Zhang, Waste Management, In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution
of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)],
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, p. 600. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg3.htm.

81 U.S. EPA, “Solid Waste Disposal Facility Criteria; Proposed Rule,” Federal Register 53(168), 40 CFR Parts 257 and 258 (Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, August 30, 1988), pp. 33314-
33422; and U.S. EPA, “Criteria for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills,” U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, July 1988.

82 G. Fred Lee, PhD, PE, DEE, and Anne Jones-Lere, PhD, Three R’s Managed Garbage Protects Groundwater Quality, (El Macero, California: G. Fred & Associates, May 1997);
“Landfills are Dangerous,” Rachel’s Environment & Health Weekly #617 (September 24, 1998); Lynton Baker, Renne Capouya, Carole Cenci, Renaldo Crooks, and Roland Hwang,
The Landfill Testing Program: Data Analysis and Evaluation Guidelines (Sacramento, California: California Air Resources Board, September 1990) as cited in “Landfills are
Dangerous,” Rachel’s Environment & Health Weekly; State of New York Department of Health, Investigation of Cancer Incidence and Residence Near 38 Landfills with Soil Gas
Migration Conditions, New York State, 1980-1989 (Atlanta, Georgia: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, June 1998) as cited in “Landfills are Dangerous,”
Rachel’s Environment & Health Weekly #617 (September 24, 1998). The New York landfills were tested for VOCs in the escaping gases. Dry cleaning fluid (tetrachloroethylene or
PERC), trichloroethylene (TCE), toluene, l,l,l-trichloroethane, benzene, vinyl chloride, 1,2-dichloroethylene, and chloroform were found. M.S. Goldberg and others, “Incidence of
cancer among persons living near a municipal solid waste landfill site in Montreal, Quebec,” Archives of Environmental Health Vol. 50, No. 6 (November 1995), pp. 416-424 as
cited in “Landfills are Dangerous,” Rachel’s Environment & Health Weekly; J. Griffith and others, “Cancer mortality in U.S. counties with hazardous waste sites and ground water
pollution,” Archives of Environmental Health Vol. 48, No. 2 (March 1989), pp. 69- 74 as cited in “Landfills are Dangerous,” Rachel’s Environment & Health Weekly.


83 “Waste-to-Energy Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” Integrated Waste Services Association web site, at http://www.wte.org/environment/greenhouse_gas.html,

84 Table ES-2: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005.

85 Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, p. 2-3.

86 U.S. EPA Clean Energy web page, “How Does Electricity Affect the Environment,” http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/air-emissions.html,

87 Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, p. ES-17.

88 Table ES-4: Recent Trends in U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks by Chapter/IPCC Sector, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, p. ES-11.

89 Jeff Morris, Sound Resource Management, Seattle, Washington, personal communication, January 8, 2008.

90 Jeffrey Morris and Diana Canzoneri, Recycling Versus Incineration: An Energy Conservation Analysis (Seattle: Sound Resource Management Group, 1992).

91 U.S. EPA, Solid Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases, EPA530-R-06-004 (Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, September 2006), pp. ES-14. While the EPA presents emission data
for 31 categories, only 18 represent individual product categories for which recycling data was presented.

92 “Waste of Energy” (WOE) facilities was coined by Frederick County, Maryland, anti-incinerator citizen activist Caroline Eader to replace the industry “Waste to
Energy” (WTE) terminology.

93 See Brenda Platt and Neil Seldman, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Wasting and Recycling in the U.S. 2000, GrassRoots Recycling Network, 2000, p. 27.

94 See for instance, Ends Europe Daily (European Environmental News Service), “Study reignites French incinerator health row,” Issue 2217, December 1, 2006, available online at
http://www.endseuropedaily.com (browsed February 8, 2008); and P. Elliott, et al, “Cancer incidence near municipal solid waste incinerators in Great Britain,” British Journal of
Cancer Vol. 73 (1996), pp. 702-710.

95 Cormier, S. A., Lomnicki, S., Backes, W., and Dellinger, B. (June 2006). “Origin and Health Impacts of Emissions of Toxic By-Products and Fine Particles from Combustion and
Thermal Treatment of Hazardous Wastes and Materials.” Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(6): 810-817. Article.

96 Oberdorster, Gunter, et al. “Nanotoxicology: An Emerging Discipline Evolving from Studies of Ultrafine Particles.” Environmental Health Perspectives Vol. 113, No. 7 (July 2005),
pp. 823-839. Available online at http://tinyurl.com/2vkvbr.

97 Michelle Allsopp, Pat Costner, and Paul Johnson, Incineration & Public Health: State of Knowledge of the Impacts of Waste Incineration on Human Health (Greenpeace, Exeter,
UK: March 2001). Available online at http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/media/reports/incineration-and-human-health.

98 Peter Anderson, Center for a Competitive Waste Industry, “Comments to the California Air Resources Board on Landfills’ Responsibility for Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases and
the Appropriate Response to Those Facts,” 2007. Available online at: http://www.competitivewaste.org/publications.htm.

99 Ibid., p. 5.

100 Peter Anderson, The Center for a Competitive Waste Industry, “Memorandum on Climate Change Action Plans - Landfills Critical Role,” Madison, Wisconsin, October 18, 2007.

101 Ibid.

http://www.sciencedirect.com.

103 Peter Anderson, The Center for a Competitive Waste Industry, “Memorandum on Climate Change Action Plans - Landfills Critical Role,” Madison, Wisconsin, October 18, 2007.

104 Ibid., p. 6.

105 Peter Anderson, Center for a Competitive Waste Industry, “Comments to the California Air Resources Board on Landfills’ Responsibility for Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases
and the Appropriate Response to Those Facts,” 2007. Available online at: http://www.competitivewaste.org/publications.htm.

106 Ibid., p. 7.

http://www.sciencedirect.com.

and the Appropriate Response to Those Facts,” 2007, p. 3.

109 Ibid.

Assessment Report. Working Group III (Mitigation). Waste Management Research 2008; 26l 11, p. 19, available online at http://
wmr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/26/1/11.


111 Nickolas J. Themelis and Priscill A. Ulloa, “Methane Generation in Landfills,” Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1243-1257, p. 1246.

112 67 Federal Register 36463 (May 22, 2002).

113 Peter Anderson, The Center for a Competitive Waste Industry, “Memorandum on Climate Change Action Plans - Landfills Critical Role,” Madison, Wisconsin, October 18, 2007, p. 9.


and the Appropriate Response to Those Facts,” 2007.

116 In its final 1996 regulation under the Clean Air Act for establishing standards for new and guidelines for existing large municipal solid waste landfills, the U.S. EPA required
landfills that emit in excess of 50 Mg per year to control emissions. New and existing landfills designed to hold at least 2.5 million Mg of MSW were also required to install
gas collection systems. About 280 landfills were affected. See “Growth of the Landfill Gas Industry,” Renewable Energy Annual 1996, Energy Information Administration,
available online at http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/renewable.energy.annual/chap10.html.


118 U.S. EPA, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2005, p. 8-2.

119 U.S. EPA, “Solid Waste Disposal Facility Criteria; Proposed Rule,” Federal Register 53(168), 40 CFR Parts 257 and 258 (Washington, DC: U.S. EPA, August 30, 1988),
pp. 33314- 33422; and U.S. EPA, “Criteria for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills,” U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, July 1988.


121 The Nebraska and Missouri bills banning landfill disposal of yard trimmings were altered to exempt bioreactors or landfill gas-to-energy from the state’s bans. For more
information on EU landfill policies, visit http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21208.htm and http://www.bmu.de/english/waste_management/reports/doc/35870.php.


123 Letsrecycle.com, London, “Germany to push recycling ahead of “thirsty” EfW plants,” March 19, 2007. Available online at
http://www.letsrecycle.com/materials/paper/news.jsp?story=6638.

124 Jeremy K. O’Brien, P.E., Solid Waste Association of North America (SWANA), “Comparison of Air Emissions from Waste-to-Energy Facilities to Fossil Fuel Power Plants”
(undated), p. 7. Available online on the Integrated Waste Services Association web page at http://www.wte.org/environment/emissions.html.

125 “Wood and Paper Imports,” Map No. 74, World Mapper, available online at http://www.worldmapper.org (browsed May 5, 2008).

126 Council on Foreign Relations, Deforestation and Greenhouse Gas Emissions. www.cfr.org/publication/14919/ (browsed February 7, 2008).

127 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2006, “Chapter 5: Incineration and Open Burning of Waste,” 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, p. 5.5,
prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T. and Tanabe K. (eds). Published: IGES, Japan. Available online
at www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/pdf/5_Volume5/V5_5_Ch5_IOB.pdf.


129 Ari Rabl, Anthony Benoist, Dominque Dron, Bruno Peuportier, Joseph V. Spadaro and Assad Zoughaib, Ecole des Minesm Paris, France, “Editorials: How to Account for CO2
Emissions from Biomass in an LCA,” The International Journal of LifeCycle Assessment 12 (5) 281 (2007), p. 281.

130 Enzo Favoino (Suola Agraria del Parco di Monza, Monza, Italy) and Dominic Hogg (Eunomia Research & Consulting, Bristol, UK), “The potential role of compost in reducing
greenhouse gases,” Waste Management & Research, 2008: 26: 61-69. See pages 63-64. Also see Dr. Dominic Hogg, Eunomia Research & Consulting, “Should We Include
Biogenic Emissions of CO2?” in his report, A Changing Climate for Energy from Waste?, final report to Friends of the Earth, United Kingdom (March 2006), pp. 67-70. Available
online at: www.foe.co.uk/resource/reports/changing_climate.pdf.

131 Integrated Waste Services Association web page “Waste-to-Energy Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” http://www.wte.org/environment/greenhouse_gas.html, browsed
March 13, 2008.

132 Municipal incinerators emit 2,988 lbs of CO2 per megawatt-hr of power generated. In contrast, coal-fired power plants emit 2,249 lbs. See U.S. EPA Clean Energy web page,
“How Does Electricity Affect the Environment,” http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/air-emissions.html, browsed March 13, 2008.

133 Based on U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables, “Table 3, Materials Discarded in the Municipal Waste Stream, 1960 To 2006,” and “Table 29, Generation,
Materials Recovery, Composting, Combustion, and Discards of Municipal Solid Waste, 1960 to 2006.” Available online at: http://www.epa.gov/garbage/msw99.htm.

Assessment Report. Working Group III (Mitigation). Waste Management Research 2008; 26l 11, p. 27, available online at http://wmr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/26/1/11.

135 “Briefing: Anaerobic Digestion,” Friends of the Earth, London, September 2007, p. 2. Available online at: www.foe.co.uk/resource/briefings/anaerobic_digestion.pdf.


Assessment Report,” p. 29; and “Briefing: Anaerobic Digestion,” Friends of the Earth, p. 2.

137 “Briefing: Anaerobic Digestion,” Friends of the Earth, pp. 2-4. The May 2007 English Waste Strategy is available at: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/strategy.

138 See for instance “List of Zero Waste Communities,” Zero Waste International web site at http://www.zwia.org/zwc.html, browsed March 2008; and “Zero Waste Businesses” by
Gary Liss for the GrassRoots Recycling Network, available online at http://www.grrn.org/zerowaste/business/profiles.php. Businesses that divert 90% or better waste from
landfill and incineration disposal qualify. Zero waste is also a practical tool for industries, such as RICOH, which has adopted and reportedly met its zero waste to landfill goal.
The company now requires that its suppliers also adopt this goal. The Zero Emissions Research Institute, led by Gunther Pauli, has many corporate members who have already
reached zero waste to landfill goals. Personal communication, Neil Seldman, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, March 11, 2008.


140 “What is a Zero Waste California?” Zero Waste California Web site at http://www.zerowaste.ca.gov/WhatIs.htm, Integrated Waste Management Board, browsed March 10, 2008.

141 U.S. EPA, Solid Waste Management and Greenhouse Gases, pp. ES-4.

142 Industrial fossil fuel combustion contributes 840.1 CO2 equiv. (EPA ghg inventory figure) and industrial electricity consumption generates an estimated 759.5 CO2 equiv. (based
on EPA ghg inventory figure for electricity generation of 1958.4 CO2 equiv. and Energy Information Administration data that industrial electricity sales represents 31.9% of total
sales. Energy Information Administration, “Summary Statistics for the United States: Electric Power Annual,” Table ES1, released October 22, 2007, available at
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epates.html.

143 Jeffrey Morris, “Recycling Versus Incineration: An Energy Conservation Analysis” Journal of Hazardous Materials 47 (1996), pp. 227-293.

144 Ibid.

145 Recycling for the future... Consider the benefits, prepared by the White House Task Force on Recycling (Washington, DC: Office of the Environmental Executive, 1998).

Assessment Report. Working Group III (Mitigation). Waste Management Research 2008; 26l 11, p. 28, available online at http://wmr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/26/1/11

147 Sally Brown, Soil Scientist, University of Washington, personal communication, March 2008. Home use accounts for a significant portion of fertilizer and pesticide sales.

148 Robert Haley, Zero Waste Manager, City and County of San Francisco, Department of the Environment, personal communication, May 1, 2008.


150 Scientific experts are now in general agreement that developed nations such as the U.S. need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 80% below 1990 levels by 2050 in order
to stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations between 450 and 550 ppm of CO2 eq. See for instance, Susan Joy Hassol, “Questions and Answers Emissions
Reductions Needed to Stabilize Climate,” for the Presidential Climate Action Project (2007). Available online at climatecommunication.org/PDFs/HassolPCAP.pdf.

151 In order to reduce the 1990 U.S. greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050, greenhouse gas levels in 2030 should decrease to 3.9 gigatons CO2 eq., which is approximately
37% of the 1990 level. This is based on a straight linear calculation. Emissions in 2005 were 7.2 gigatons CO2 eq. Emissions in 2050 would need to drop to 1.24 gigatons CO2
eq. to reflect an 80% reduction of the 1990 level of 6.2 gigatons. Between 2005 and 2050, this represents an annual reduction of 132.44 megatons CO2 eq., resulting in a 3.9
gigaton CO2 eq. emission level for 2030. U.S. greenhouse gas emissions are on a trajectory to increase to 9.7 gigatons CO2 eq. by 2030. See Jon Creyts et al, Reducing U.S.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How Much and at What Cost? p. 9. This means that annual greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 need to be reduced by 5.8 gigatons CO2 eq. to put
the U.S. on the path to help stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. A zero waste approach could achieve an estimated 406 megatons CO2 eq., or 7% of the
annual abatement needed in 2030.

152 It is important to note that emissions cuts by developed nations such as the U.S. may have to be even greater than the target of 80% below 1990 levels by 2050. Achieving
this target may leave us vulnerable to a 17-36% chance of exceeding a 2∞C increase in average global temperatures. See Paul Baer, et. al, The Right to Development in a
Climate Constrained World, p. 20 (2007). In addition, there is ample evidence that climate change is already negatively impacting the lives of many individuals and
communities throughout the world. To prevent climate-related disasters, the U.S. should and must take immediate and comprehensive action relative to its full contribution to
climate change. As Al Gore has pointed out, countries (including the U.S.), will have to meet different requirements based on their historical share or contribution to the climate
problem and their relative ability to carry the burden of change. He concludes that there is no other way. See Al Gore, “Moving Beyond Kyoto,” The New York Times (July 1,
2007). Available online at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/01/opinion/01gore.html?pagewanted=all

153 Beverly Thorpe, Iza Kruszewska, Alexandra McPherson, Extended Producer Responsibility: A waste management strategy that cuts waste, creates a cleaner environment, and
saves taxpayer money, Clean Production Action, Boston, 2004. Available online at http://www.cleanproductionaction.org.

154 “2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables,” Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 2006 Facts & Figures, U.S. EPA, 2007, available online at
http://www.epa.gov/garbage/msw99.htm. See Tables 1-3.

155 Sally Brown, University of Washington, “What Compost Can Do for the World: GHG and Sustainability,” U.S. Composting Council Conference, Oakland, California, February 11, 2008.

156 Commission of the European Communities, “Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection: Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions,” Brussels, September 22, 2006, available online at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/three_en.htm.

157 European Conservation Agriculture Federation, Conservation Agriculture in Europe: Environmental, Economic and EU Policy Perspectives, Brussels (undated), as cited in Enzo
Favoino (Suola Agraria del Parco di Monza, Monza, Italy) and Dominic Hogg (Eunomia Research & Consulting, Bristol, UK), “The potential role of compost in reducing
greenhouse gases,” Waste Management & Research, 2008: 26: 61-69. See page 63.


158 NCRS 2006. Conservation Resource Brief. February 2006. Soil Erosion. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Land use.

159 Sally Brown and Peggy Leonard, “Building Carbon Credits with Biosolids Recycling,” BioCycle (September 2004), pp. 25-30. Available online at:
http://faculty.washington.edu/slb/sally/biocycle%20carbon2.pdf

160 “Estimating a precise lifetime for soil organic matter derived from compost is very difficult, because of the large number of inter-converting pools of carbon involved, each with
its own turnover rate, which is in turn determined by local factors such as soil type, temperature and moisture.” Enzo Favoino (Suola Agraria del Parco di Monza, Monza, Italy)
and Dominic Hogg (Eunomia Research & Consulting, Bristol, UK), “The potential role of compost in reducing greenhouse gases,” Waste Management & Research, 2008: 26:
61-69. See page 64. For half the carbon remaining in the compost, see Epstein, E., The Science of Composting, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1997, pp. 487.

161 Lieve Van-Camp, et al, editor, Reports of the Technical Working Groups Established under the Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection, Volume III, Organic Matter, European
Commission and European Environmental Agency, EUR 21319 EN/3, 2004. Available online at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/publications_en.htm.

162 Recycled Organic Unit, Life Cycle Inventory and Life Cycle Assessment for Windrow Composting Systems, 2nd Edition, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia (2007),
p. 88. Available online at: http://www.recycledorganics.com/publications/reports/lca/lca.htm.

163 Sally Brown, Soil Scientist, University of Washington, personal communication, March 2008.

164 See “Table 6-15: Direct N2O Emissions from Agricultural Soils by Land Use and N Input,” U.S. EPA, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2005, p. 6-18.

Gas Emissions in California, A Report to the California Air Resources Board, February 14, 2008, p. 4-19. Available online at

166 Danielle Murray, “Oil and Food: A Rising Security Challenge,” Earth Policy Institute, May 9, 2005. Available online at http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2005/Update48.htm.

167 See “Table 4-11: CO2 Emissions from Ammonia Manufacture and Urea Application,” U.S. EPA, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2005, p. 4-11
and see p. 4-10.

168 Sally Brown and Peggy Leonard, “Biosolids and Global Warming: Evaluating the Management Impacts,” BioCycle (August 2004), pp. 54-61. Available online at:
http://faculty.washington.edu/slb/sally/biocycle%20carbon1%20%20copy.pdf


170 See Ofira Ayalon, Yoram Avnimelech (Technion, Israel Institute of Technology) and Mordechai Shechter (Department of Economics and Natural Resources & Environmental
Research Center, University of Haifa, Israel), “Solid Waste Treatment as a High-Priority and Low-Cost Alternative for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation,” Environmental Management
Vol. 27, No. 5, 2001, pp. 702-703.

171 Frank Valzano, Mark Jackson, and Angus Campbell, Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Composting Facilities, The Recycled Organics Unit, The University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia, 2nd Edition, 2007, pp. 6, 22-23. Available online at http://www.recycledorganics.com.


173 Sally Brown, University of Washington, “What Compost Can Do for the World: GHG and Sustainability,” U.S. Composting Council Conference, Oakland, California, February 11, 2008.


175 Commission of the European Communities, “Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection: Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions,” Brussels, September 22, 2006, available online at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/three_en.htm.

176 Ofira Ayalon, Yoram Avnimelech (Technion, Israel Institute of Technology) and Mordechai Shechter (Department of Economics and Natural Resources & Environmental Research
Center, University of Haifa, Israel), “Solid Waste Treatment as a High-Priority and Low-Cost Alternative for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation,” Environmental Management Vol. 27, No.
5, 2001, p. 701.

177 See “Table 25, Number and Population Served by Curbside Recyclables Collection Programs,” 2006, U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables, available online at:
http://www.epa.gov/garbage/msw99.htm.

178 Nora Goldstein, BioCycle, State of Organics Recycling in the United States, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Resource Conservation Challenge, Web Academy, October 18,
2007, available online at www.epa.gov/region1/RCCedu/presentations/Oct18_2007_Organic_Recycling.pdf

179 U.S. EPA, 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables, available online at: http://www.epa.gov/garbage/msw99.htm.

180 Nora Goldstein, BioCycle, State of Organics Recycling in the United States, U.S. Environ-mental Protection Agency, Resource Conservation Challenge, Web Academy, October
18, 2007, available online at www.epa.gov/region1/RCCedu/presentations/Oct18_2007_Organic_Recycling.pdf

181 Matt Cotton, Integrated Waste Management Consulting, Nevada City, CA, “Ten organics diversion programs you can implement to help you reduce GHG’s,” presentation at the
U.S. Composting Conference, Oakland, California, February 12, 2008.


182 One growing market is the use of compost to control soil erosion (this is a potential $4 billion market).

183 A 1999 report by the GrassRoots Recycling Network and three other organizations identified more than a dozen federal taxpayer subsidies worth $2.6 billion dollars a year for
resource extractive and waste disposal industries. See Welfare for Waste: How Federal Taxpayer Subsidies Waste Resources and Discourage Recycling, GrassRoots Recycling
Network (April 1999), p. vii.

184 Bogner, J., M. Abdelrafie Ahmed, C. Diaz, A. Faaij, Q. Gao, S. Hashimoto, K. Mareckova, R. Pipatti, T. Zhang, Waste Management, In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation.
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer
(eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, p. 600. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg3.htm.

185 The Nebraska and Missouri bills were altered to exempt bioreactors or landfill gas-to-energy from these states’ bans.

186 Alison Smith et al., DG Environment, Waste Management Options and Climate Change, European Commission, Final Report ED21158R4.1, Luxembourg, 2001, p. 59, available
online at: ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/studies/pdf/climate_change.pdf.

187 Bogner, Jean, et al, “Mitigation of global greenhouse gas emissions from waste: conclusions and strategies from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth
Assessment Report. Working Group III (Mitigation). Waste Management Research 2008; 26l 11, pp. 3, 22, available online at
http://wmr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/26/1/11

188 See “Sign-On Statement: No Incentives for Incineration,” Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives/Global Anti-Incinerator Alliance web site at
http://zerowarming.org/campaign_signon.html.

189 The Sustainable Biomaterials Collaborative is one new network of organizations working to bring sustainable bioproducts to the marketplace. For more information, visit
www.sustainablebiomaterials.org.

(eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg3.htm

191 Ibid.

192 See Brenda Platt and Neil Seldman, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Wasting and Recycling in the U.S. 2000, GrassRoots Recycling Network,2000,
p. 27.

193 Beverly Thorpe, Iza Kruszewska, Alexandra McPherson, Extended Producer Responsibility: A waste management strategy that cuts waste, creates a cleaner environment, and
saves taxpayer money, Clean Production Action, Boston, 2004. Available online at http://www.cleanproductionaction.org

194 Ibid.

195 U.S. EPA, “Table 22: Products Discarded in the Municipal Waste Stream, 1960 to 2006 (with Detail on Containers and Packaging),” 2006 MSW Characterization Data Tables.

196 For a list of communities, see Californians Against Waste web site, “Polystyrene & Fast Food Packaging Waste,” http://www.cawrecycles.org/issues/polystyrene_main.

197 Salt Lake City, Chicago, Charlottesville (VA), and San Jose (CA) have considered similar bans.

198 See Derek Speirs, “Motivated by a Tax, Irish Spurn Plastic Bags,” The International Herald Tribune, February 2, 2008.

199 U.S. EPA, “Table 3: Materials Discarded in the Municipal Waste Stream, 1960 to 2006,” and “Table 4: Paper and Paperboard Products in MSW, 2006,” 2006 MSW
Characterization Data Tables.

200 See Forest Ethics, Catalog Campaign web page at http://www.catalogcutdown.org/.

201 The Environmental Defense Fund, “Paper Task Force Recommendations for Purchasing and Using Environmentally Friendly Paper” (1995), pp. 66, 80.
Available online at http://www.edf.org.


http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/refs.html#coalplant. Removing 87 plants from the grid in 2030 represents 21% of the coal-fired plants operating in 2005.


205 Institute for Local Self-Reliance, June 2008. Industrial emissions alone represent 26.8%. Truck transportation is another 5.3%. Manure management is 0.7% and waste
disposal of 2.6% includes landfilling, wastewater treatment, and combustion. Synthetic fertilizers represent 1.4% and include urea production. Figures have not been adjusted
to 20-year time frame. Based on data presented in the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990-2005, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, April 15, 2007. Industrial
Electricity Consumption is estimated using Energy Information Administration 2004 data on electricity sales to customers. See Table ES-1, Electric Power Annual Summary
Statistics for the United States, released October 22, 2007, and available online at: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epates.html.



207 On a 20-year time horizon, N2O has a 289 global warming potential. On a 100-year time horizon, its global warming potential is 310.

208 The EPA defines incineration as the following: “Incinerator means any enclosed device that: (1) Uses controlled flame combustion and neither meets the criteria for
classification as a boiler, sludge dryer, or carbon regeneration unit, nor is listed as an industrial furnace; or (2) Meets the definition of infrared incinerator or plasma arc
incinerator. Infrared incinerator means any enclosed device that uses electric powered resistance heaters as a source of radiant heat followed by an afterburner using
controlled flame combustion and which is not listed as an industrial furnace. Plasma arc incinerator means any enclosed device using a high intensity electrical discharge or
arc as a source of heat followed by an afterburner using controlled flame combustion and which is not listed as an industrial furnace.” See U.S. EPA, Title 40: Protection of
Environment, Hazardous Waste Management System: General, subpart B-definitions, 260.10, current as of February 5, 2008.

209 Pace, David, “More Blacks Live with Pollution,” Associated Press (2005), available online at: http://hosted.ap.org/specials/interactives/archive/pollution/part1.html; and Bullard,
Robert D., Paul Mohai, Robin Saha, Beverly Wright, Toxic Waste and Race at 20: 1987-2007 (March 2007).

210 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has revised the global warming potential of methane compared to carbon dioxide several times. For the 100 year planning
horizon, methane was previously calculated to have 21 times the global warming potential of CO2. In 2007, the IPCC revised the figure to 25 times over 100 years and to 72
times over 20 years. See IPCC, “Table 2.14,” p. 212, Forster, P., et al, 2007: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In: Climate Change 2007: The
Physical Science Basis.

211 “Beyond Kyoto: Why Climate Policy Needs to Adopt the 20-year Impact of Methane,” Eco-Cycle Position Memo, Eco-Cycle, www.ecocycle.org, March 2008.

(eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, p. 600. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg3.htm.



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