L02 datacentres observables
- 1. Data in seismology: networks, instruments, current problems Seismic networks, data centres, instruments Seismic Observables and their interrelations Seismic data acquisition parameters (sampling rates, dynamic range) Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 1
- 2. Global seismic networks Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 2
- 3. Regional seismic networks Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 3
- 4. Local seismic networks Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 4
- 5. Temporary (campaign) networks Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 5
- 6. Arrays What could be the advantages of array recordings? Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 6
- 7. Seismic arrays Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 7
- 8. Seismic arrays Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 8
- 9. Seismic data centres: NEIC Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 9
- 10. Seismic data centres: ORFEUS Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 10
- 11. Seismic data centres: IRIS Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 11
- 12. Seismic data centres: ISC Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 12
- 13. Seismic data centres: GEOFON Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 13
- 14. EMSC Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 14
- 15. Seismic data centres: EarthScope Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 15
- 16. Use Google Earth! Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 16
- 17. Seismic observables: Period ranges (order of magnitudes) • Sound 0.001 – 0.01 s • Earthquakes 0.01 – 100 s (surface waves, body waves) • Eigenmodes of the Earth 1000 s • Coseismic deformation 1 s – 1000 s • Postseismic deformation +10000s • Seismic exploration 0.001 - 0.1 s • Laboratory signals 0.001 s – 0.000001 s -> What are the consequences for sampling intervals, data volumes, etc.? Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 17
- 18. Seismic observables: translations Translational motions are deformations in the direction of three orthogonal axes. Deformations are usually denoted by u with the appropriate connection to the strain tensor (explained below). Each of the orthogonal motion components can be measured as displacement u, velocity v, or acceleration a. The use of these three variations of the same motion type will be explained below. Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 18
- 19. Seismic observables: translations - displacements Displacements are measured as „differential“ motion around a reference point (e.g., a pendulum). The first seismometers were pure (mostly horizontal) displacement sensors. Measureable co-seismic displacements range from microns to dozens of meters (e.g.,Great Andaman earthquake). Horiztonal displacement sensor (ca. 1905). Amplitude of ground deformation is mechanically amplified by a factor of 200. Today displacements are measured using GPS sensors. Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 19
- 20. Seismic observables: translations - displacements Data example: the San Francisco earthquake 1906, recorded in Munich Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 20
- 21. Seismic observables: translations - velocities Most seismometers today record ground velocity. The reason is that seismometers are based on an electro-mechanic principle. An electric current is generated when a coil moves in a magetic field. The electric current is proportional to ground velocity v. Velocity is the time derivative of displacement. They are in the range of µm/s to m/s. v ( x , t ) = ∂ t u ( x, t ) = u ( x, t ) Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 21
- 22. Seismic observables: translations - accelerations Strong motions (those getting close to or exceeding Earth‘s gravitational acceleration) can only be measured with accelerometers. Accelerometers are used in earthquake engineering, near earthquake studies, airplanes, laptops, ipods, etc. The largest acceleration ever measured for an earthquake induced ground motion was 40 m/s2 (four times gravity, see Science 31 October 2008: Vol. 322. no. 5902, pp. 727 – 730) a ( x, t ) = ∂ t2u ( x, t ) = u ( x, t ) Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 22
- 23. Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 23
- 24. Seismic observables: strain Strain is a tensor that contains 1 ∂u ∂u 6 independent linear combinations ij ε = ( i + ) j of the spatial derivatives of the 2 ∂x j ∂x i displacement field. Strain is a purely geometrical quantity and has no dimensions. Measurement of differential deformations involves a spatial scale (the length of the measurement tube). What is the meaning of the various elements of the strain tensor? Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 24
- 25. Seismic observables: strain Strain components (2-D) ∂u x 1 ∂u x ∂u y ( + ) ∂x 2 ∂y ∂x ε ij = 1 ( ∂u x + ∂u y ) ∂u y 2 ∂y ∂x ∂y Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 25
- 26. Seismic observables: rotations ωx ∂ y vz − ∂ z v y 1 1 ω y = ∇ × v = ∂ z vx − ∂ x vz ω 2 2 ∂ x v y − ∂ y vx z ωz vz ωy v ωx y vx Rotation rate Ground velocity Rotation sensor Seismometer Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 26
- 27. Seismic observables: rotations • Rotation is a vectorial quantity with three independent components • At the Earth‘s surface rotation and tilt are the same • Rotational motion amplitudes are expected in the range of 10-12 – 10-3 rad/s • Rotations are only now being recorded • Rotations are likely to contribute to structural damage Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 27
- 28. Seismic observables: tilt Tilt is the angle of the surface normal to the local vertical. In other words, it is rotation around two horizontal axes. Any P, SV or Rayleigh wave type in layered isotropic media leads to tilt at the Earth‘s free surface. In 3-D anisotropic media all parts of the seismic wave field may produce tilts. Other causes of tilt: Θ( x, t ) = ∂ x u z – Earth tides – Atmospheric pressure changes – Soil deformation (water content) – Temperature effects – Mass movements (lawn mower, trucks, land slides) Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 28
- 29. Summary: Observables • Translations are the most fundamental and most widely observed quantity (standard seismometers) • Translation sensors are sensitive to rotations! • Tilt measurements are sensitive to translations! • Really we should be measuring all 12 quantities at each point (cool things can be done with collocated observations of translation, strains and rotations) Data centres and observables Modern Seismology – Data processing and inversion 29