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LEARNING FROM OUR BUILDINGS
AState-of-the-PracticeSummaryof
Post-OccupancyEvaluation
Federal Facilities Council Technical Report No. 145
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE
The Federal Facilities Council (FFC) is a continuing activity of the Board on Infrastructure and the
Constructed Environment of the National Research Council (NRC). The purpose of the FFC is to
promote continuing cooperation among the sponsoring federal agencies and between the agencies
and other elements of the building community in order to advance building science and technol-
ogy—particularly with regard to the design, construction, acquisition, evaluation, and operation of
federal facilities. The following agencies sponsor the FFC:
Department of the Air Force, Office of the Civil Engineer
Department of the Air Force, Air National Guard
Department of the Army, Assistant Chief of Staff for Installation Management
Department of Defense, Federal Facilities Directorate
Department of Energy
Department of the Interior, Office of Managing Risk and Public Safety
Department of the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command
Department of State, Office of Overseas Buildings Operations
Department of Transportation, U.S. Coast Guard
Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration
Department of Veterans Affairs, Office of Facilities Management
Food and Drug Administration
General Services Administration, Public Buildings Service
Indian Health Service
International Broadcasting Bureau
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Facilities Engineering Division
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Building and Fire Research Laboratory
National Institutes of Health
National Science Foundation
Smithsonian Institution, Facilities Engineering and Operations
U.S. Postal Service, Engineering Division
As part of its activities, the FFC periodically publishes reports that have been prepared by committees
of government employees. Because these committees are not appointed by the NRC, they do not
make recommendations, and their reports are considered FFC publications rather than NRC publi-
cations.
For additional information on the FFC program and its reports, visit the Web site at <http://
www4.nationalacademies.org/cets/ffc.nsf> or write to Director, Federal Facilities Council, 2101
Constitution Avenue, N.W., HA-274, Washington, DC 20418 or call 202-334-3374.
Printed in the United States of America
2001

iii
FEDERAL FACILITIES COUNCIL
Chair
Henry J. Hatch, U.S. Army (Retired)
Vice Chair
William Brubaker, Director, Facilities Engineering and Operations, Smithsonian Institution
Members
Walter Borys, Operations and Maintenance Division, International Broadcasting Bureau
John Bower, MILCON Program Manager, U.S. Air Force
Peter Chang, Division of Civil and Mechanical Systems, National Science Foundation
Tony Clifford, Director, Division of Engineering Services, National Institutes of Health
Jose Cuzmé, Director, Division of Facilities Planning and Construction, Indian Health Service
David Eakin, Chief Engineer, Office of the Chief Architect, Public Buildings Service, General Services
Administration
James Hill, Deputy Director, Building and Fire Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology
John Irby, Director, Federal Facilities Directorate, U.S. Department of Defense
L. Michael Kaas, Director, Office of Managing Risk and Public Safety, U.S. Department of the Interior
Joe McCarty, Engineering Team Leader, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
William Miner, Acting Director, Building Design and Engineering, Office of Overseas Buildings Operations,
U.S. Department of State
William Morrison, Chief, Structures Branch, Facilities Division, Air National Guard
Get Moy, Chief Engineer and Director, Planning and Engineering Support, Naval Facilities Engineering
Command, U.S. Navy
Robert Neary, Jr., Associate Facilities Management Officer, Office of Facilities Management, U.S.
Department of Veterans Affairs
Juaida Norell, Airways Support Division, Federal Aviation Administration
Wade Raines, Maintenance and Policies Programs, Engineering Division, U.S. Postal Service
James Rispoli, Director, Engineering and Construction Management Office, U.S. Department of Energy
William Stamper, Senior Program Manager, Facilities Engineering Division, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
Stan Walker, Division Chief, Shore Facilities Capital Asset Management, U.S. Coast Guard
Staff
Richard Little, Director, Board on Infrastructure and the Constructed Environment (BICE)
Lynda Stanley, Director, Federal Facilities Council
Michael Cohn, Program Officer, BICE
Kimberly Goldberg, Administrative Associate, BICE
Nicole Longshore, Project Assistant, BICE

v
At the most fundamental level, the purpose of a
building is to provide shelter for activities that could
not be carried out as effectively, or carried out at all, in
the natural environment. Buildings are designed and
constructed to (1) protect people and equipment from
elements such as wind, rain, snow, and heat; (2) pro-
vide interior space whose configuration, furnishings,
and environment (temperature, humidity, noise, light,
air quality, materials) are suited to the activities that
take place within; and (3) provide the infrastructure—
water, electricity, waste disposal systems, fire suppres-
sion—necessary to carry out activities in a safe envi-
ronment.
Today, people and organizations have even higher
expectations for buildings. Owners expect that their
investments will result in buildings that support their
business lines or missions by enhancing worker pro-
ductivity, profits, and image; that are sustainable,
accessible, adaptable to new uses, energy efficient, and
cost-effective to build and to maintain; and that meet
the needs of their clients. Users expect that buildings
will be functional, comfortable, and safe and will not
impair their health. A building’s performance is its
capacity to meet any or all of these expectations.
Post-occupancy evaluation (POE) is a process for
evaluating a building’s performance once it is occu-
pied. It is based on the idea that finding out about users’
needs by systematically assessing human response to
buildings and other designed spaces is a legitimate aim
of building research. Early efforts at POE focused on
housing needs of disadvantaged groups to improve
environmental quality in government-subsidized hous-
ing. The process was later applied to other government
facilities such as military housing, hospitals, prisons,
Preface
and courthouses. POE began to be used for office build-
ings and other commercial real estate in the mid-1980s
and continues to be used for a variety of facility types
today.
As POE has been applied to a larger range of build-
ing types and as expectations for buildings have
evolved, POE has come to mean any and all activities
that originate out of an interest in learning how a build-
ing performs once it is built, including whether and
how well it has met expectations and how satisfied
building users are with the environment that has been
created. Although POEs are still focused on determin-
ing user comfort and satisfaction, organizations are
attempting to find ways to use the information gathered
to support more informed decision-making about space
and building investments during the programming,
design, construction, and operation phases of a
facility’s life cycle. To do this, organizations need to
establish design criteria, databases or other methods
for compiling lessons from POEs and for disseminat-
ing those lessons throughout the organization, from
senior executives to midlevel managers, project man-
agers, consultants, and clients.
The federal government is the United States’ largest
owner of facilities, with approximately 500,000 facili-
ties worldwide. Federal agencies that own, use, or pro-
vide facilities have a significant interest in optimizing
their performance. The General Services Administra-
tion, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command, U.S. Postal Service, State
Department, and Administrative Office of the U.S.
Courts have been leaders in the development and prac-
tice of POEs. They and other federal agencies are try-
ing to find ways to share information about effective

vi PREFACE
processes for conducting POEs, to capture and dissemi-
nate lessons learned, and to increase the value that
POEs add to the facility acquisition process.
The Federal Facilities Council (FFC) is a coopera-
tive association of 21 federal agencies with interests
and responsibilities for large inventories of buildings.
The FFC is a continuing activity of the Board on Infra-
structure and the Constructed Environment of the
National Research Council (NRC), the principal oper-
ating agency of the National Academy of Sciences and
the National Academy of Engineering. In 1986, the
FFC requested that the NRC appoint a committee to
examine the field and propose ways by which the POE
process could be improved to better serve public and
private sector organizations. The resulting report, Post-
Occupancy Evaluation Practices in the Building
Process: Opportunities for Improvement, proposed a
broader view of POEs—from being simply the end
phase of a building project to being an integral part of
the entire building process. The authoring committee
recommended a series of actions related to policy, pro-
cedures, and innovative technologies and techniques to
achieve that broader view.
In 2000, the FFC funded a second study to look at
the state of the practice of POEs and lessons-learned
programs among federal agencies and in private, pub-
lic, and academic organizations both here and abroad.
The sponsor agencies specifically wanted to determine
whether and how information gathered during POE
processes could be used to help inform decisions made
in the programming, budgeting, design, construction,
and operation phases of facility acquisition in a useful
and timely way. To complete this study, the FFC com-
missioned a set of papers by recognized experts in this
field, conducted a survey of selected federal agencies
with POE programs, and held a forum at the National
Academy of Sciences on March 13, 2001, to address
these issues. This report is the result of those efforts.
Within the context of a rapidly changing building
industry and the introduction of new specialty fields
and technologies into the building process and new
design objectives for buildings that are sustainable,
healthy, and productivity enhancing, and with ever-
greater demands on limited resources, POE constitutes
a potentially vital contribution in the effort to maintain
quality assurance. Within the federal government, the
downsizing of in-house facilities engineering organi-
zations, the increased outsourcing of design and con-
struction functions, and the loss of in-house technical
expertise, all underscore the need for a strong capabil-
ity to capture and disseminate lessons learned as part of
a dynamic project delivery process. We hope this report
will help federal agencies and other organizations to
enhance those capabilities.
Lynda Stanley
Director, Federal Facilities Council

vii
Contents
1 OVERVIEW: A SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 1
Introduction, 1
Organization of This Report, 1
Summary of Findings, 2
References, 8
2 THE EVOLUTION OF POST-OCCUPANCY EVALUATION: TOWARD BUILDING
PERFORMANCE AND UNIVERSAL DESIGN EVALUATION 9
Wolfgang Preiser, Ph.D., University of Cincinnati
Post-Occupancy Evaluation: An Overview, 9
Types of Evaluation for Building Projects, 10
Purposes of POEs, 11
Types of POEs, 11
Benefits, Uses, and Costs of POEs, 12
An Integrative Framework for Building Performance Evaluations, 13
Universal Design Evaluation, 15
Universal Design Performance, 15
Performance Levels, 16
Toward Universal Design Evaluation, 19
Possible Strategies for Universal Design Evaluation, 20
Education and Training in Universal Design Evaluation Techniques, 21
Conclusions, 21
About the Author, 21
References, 22
3 POST-OCCUPANCY EVALUATION: A MULTIFACETED TOOL FOR BUILDING
IMPROVEMENT 23
Jacqueline Vischer, Ph.D., University of Montreal
What Is Post-Occupancy Evaluation?, 23
The Pros and Cons of POE, 23
Current Status of POE, 24
Best Practices, 29
Managing POE Information, 30
The Future of POE: Recommendations for an Unobtrusive POE Process , 32

viii CONTENTS
References, 34
4 POST-OCCUPANCY EVALUATION PROCESSES IN SIX FEDERAL AGENCIES 35
Survey Questions, 35
Summary of Findings, 36
Descriptions of POE Programs, 37
5 POST-OCCUPANCY EVALUATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING 42
Craig Zimring, Ph.D., Georgia Institute of Technology, and
Thierry Rosenheck, Office of Overseas Buildings Operations, U.S. Department of State
Brief Introduction to Post-Occupancy Evaluation, 44
Do Organizations Do POE-Enabled Organizational Learning?, 45
Ways to Create the Appropriate Conditions for Learning Through POE, 46
Creating a Knowledge Base for Building Delivery and Management, 49
Building on Existing Evaluations, 50
Lessons from POE Programs: Enhancing Organizational Learning, 51
About the Authors, 52
References, 52
6 THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY FOR BUILDING PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS 54
Audrey Kaplan, Workplace Diagnostics Ltd.
Introduction, 54
Cybersurveys, 55
Response Rate, 56
Sampling, 56
Lessons Learned, 56
Conclusions and Discussion, 58
References, 59
APPENDIXES
A FUNCTIONALITY AND SERVICEABILITY STANDARDS: TOOLS FOR STATING
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND FOR EVALUATING FACILITIES 63
Francoise Szigeti and Gerald Davis, International Centre for Facilities
B A BALANCED SCORECARD APPROACH TO POST-OCCUPANCY EVALUATION: USING
THE TOOLS OF BUSINESS TO EVALUATE FACILITIES 79
Judith Heerwagen, Ph.D., J.H. Heerwagen and Associates
C Supplemental Information to Chapter 3 88
D Supplemental Information to Chapter 4 95
E Supplemental Information to Chapter 6 116
F Chapter 5 from Post-Occupancy Evaluation Practices in the Building Process:
Opportunities for Improvement 119
BIBLIOGRAPHY 126

1
1
Overview: A Summary of Findings
INTRODUCTION
Post-occupancy evaluation (POE) is a process of
systematically evaluating the performance of buildings
after they have been built and occupied for some time.
POE differs from other evaluations of building perfor-
mance in that it focuses on the requirements of building
occupants, including health, safety, security, function-
ality and efficiency, psychological comfort, aesthetic
quality, and satisfaction. “Lessons learned” refers to
programs aimed at collecting, archiving, and sharing
information about successes and failures in processes,
products, and other building-related areas for the pur-
pose of improving the quality and life-cycle cost of
future buildings. Ideally, the information gained
through POEs is captured in lessons-learned programs
and used in the planning, programming, and design
processes for new facilities to build on successes and
avoid repeating mistakes.
In 2000 the Federal Facilities Council, a cooperative
association of 21 federal agencies with interests and
responsibilities for large inventories of buildings,
funded a study to look at the state of the practice of
POEs and lessons-learned programs in federal agen-
cies and in private, public, and academic organizations
both in the United States and abroad. The primary pur-
pose was to produce a report that identified successful
post-occupancy evaluation programs (those that have
worked well in terms of impact, longevity, and user
satisfaction) and lessons-learned programs in federal
agencies and the private sector. Specific objectives
were to identify:
• an industry-accepted definition of POEs;
• methods and technologies used for data collection;
• the costs of POE surveys;
• the benefits of conducting POEs and capturing
lessons;
• organizational barriers to conducting POEs;
• a standardized methodology that could be used
within agencies to assure consistency in data gath-
ering and allow for cooperative development of
benchmarks and best practices; and
• performance measures for POE programs.
To produce this report the Federal Facilities Council
commissioned a set of papers by recognized subject
matter experts, conducted a survey of six federal agen-
cies with POE programs, and held a forum at the
National Academy of Sciences on March 13, 2001.
ORGANIZATION OF THIS REPORT
` The next sections of Chapter 1 summarize the find-
ings contained in the authored papers, the survey ques-
tionnaires, and the forum presentations as they relate to
the study objectives. In Chapter 2, “The Evolution of
Post-Occupancy Evaluation: Toward Building Perfor-
mance and Universal Design Evaluation,” Wolfgang
Preiser reviews the historical development of POE
programs, their uses, costs, and benefits; describes an
integrative framework for building performance; and
outlines a new paradigm for universal design evalua-
tion. Chapter 3, “Post-Occupancy Evaluation: A Multi-
faceted Tool for Building Improvement,” written by
Jacqueline Vischer, discusses the historical basis for
POE programs; identifies the discrepancy that exists
between reasons for doing POEs and the difficulties of
implementing them; describes successful POE pro-

2 LEARNING FROM OUR BUILDINGS
grams employing the building-in-use assessment sys-
tem; and makes recommendations for an unobtrusive
POE process. Chapter 4, “Post-Occupancy Evaluation
Programs in Six Federal Agencies,” summarizes the
survey questionnaire findings and describes current and
emerging POE practices in those agencies. In Chap-
ter 5, “Post-Occupancy Evaluations and Organizational
Learning,” Craig Zimring and Thierry Rosenheck iden-
tify the elements necessary for organizational learning;
explore how 18 organizations have used POEs success-
fully for organizational learning; and discuss the
lessons-learned role of POEs. Chapter 6, “The Role of
Technology for Building Performance Assessments,”
authored by Audrey Kaplan, identifies technologies
that have been used for POE processes; explores the
possibilities of cybersurveys for improving the response
rate and lowering the costs of POE data collection and
analysis; and discusses Web survey design consider-
ations, sampling techniques, publicity, data collection,
and responses.
In Appendix A, “Functionality and Standards: Tools
for Stating Functional Requirements and for Evaluat-
ing Facilities,” Francoise Szigeti and Gerald Davis dis-
cuss how the ASTM Standards on Whole Building
Functionality and Serviceability (ASTM, 2000) can be
used to evaluate the quality of the performance deliv-
ered by a facility in relation to the original expecta-
tions. Appendix B, “A Balanced Scorecard Approach
for Post-Occupancy Evaluation: Using the Tools of
Business to Evaluate Facilities,” written by Judith
Heerwagen, outlines a performance-based approach
that could provide an analytical structure to the entire
process, from original concept through lessons learned.
Appendixes C-F contain supporting materials. The
bibliography is a compilation of references cited in the
text and additional references submitted by the authors.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Post-occupancy evaluation is based on the idea that
better living space can be designed by asking users
about their needs. POE efforts in Britain, France,
Canada, and the United States in the 1960s and 1970s
involved individual case studies focusing on buildings
accessible to academic researchers, such as public
housing and college dormitories. Information from
occupants about their response to buildings was
gathered through questionnaires, interviews, site visits,
and observation; sometimes the information was linked
to the physical assessment of a building. The lessons
from these studies were intended to convey what design
elements work well, what works best, and what should
not be repeated in future buildings.
POE efforts in the United States and abroad were
primarily focused on government and other public
buildings from the 1960s to the mid-1980s. Private sec-
tor organizations in the United States became more
actively involved with POE after the release of Using
Office Design to Increase Productivity (Brill et al.,
1985), which linked features of the office environment
with worker productivity. As corporations downsized
and reengineered their business processes to focus on
core competencies, chief executive officers began to
think of their buildings as ways to achieve such strate-
gic goals as customer satisfaction, decreased time to
market, increased innovation, attraction and retention
of high-quality workers, and enhanced productivity of
work groups. A number of organizations have since
used POE as a tool for improving, innovating, or other-
wise initiating strategic workspace changes.
Industry-Accepted Definition
As POEs have become broader in scope and purpose,
POE has come to mean any activity that originates out
of an interest in learning how a building performs once
it is built (if and how well it has met expectations) and
how satisfied building users are with the environment
that has been created. POE has been seen as one of a
number of practices aimed at understanding design
criteria, predicting the effectiveness of emerging
designs, reviewing completed designs, supporting
building activation and facilities management, and
linking user response to the performance of buildings.
POE is also evolving toward more process-oriented
evaluations for planning, programming, and capital
asset management.
As a consequence, there is no industry-accepted
definition for POE; nor is there a standardized method
for conducting a POE. Even the term POE has come
under scrutiny. Academics and others working in the
field have proposed new terms, including environ-
mental design evaluations, environmental audits, build-
ing-in-use assessments, building evaluation, facility
assessment, post-construction evaluation, and building
performance evaluations in an effort to better reflect
the objectives and goals of POEs as they are practiced.

OVERVIEW: A SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 3
Methods and Technologies for Data Collection
Traditionally, POEs are conducted using question-
naires, interviews, site visits, and observation of build-
ing users. Over time, more specific processes, levels of
surveys, and new technologies have been developed to
better fit stakeholders’ objectives and budgets. Shortcut
methods have been devised that allow the researcher or
evaluator to obtain valid and useful information in less
time than previously.
Use of the Web and other technologies could sub-
stantially change the methods for conducting POEs and
for analyzing the data generated. Web-based cyber-
surveys may become the primary survey instrument,
owing to their convenience, low cost of distribution
and return, ability to check for errors and receive data—
including rich-text replies—in electronic format, and
ease with which respondents can receive feedback.
Two U.S. federal agencies have already begun moving
in this direction. The Public Buildings Service of the
General Services Administration is working with the
Center for the Built Environment at the University of
California, Berkeley, to develop a set of POE surveys
that can be administered over the Web. Different sur-
veys are directed to different key personnel to help
determine if GSA is meeting a number of key manage-
ment indicators. The Naval Facilities Engineering
Command is modifying its database to integrate corpo-
rate management systems and to Web-enable its POE
survey. The POE survey will draw information from
the management system and alert individuals when the
surveys should be administered.
For organizations seeking to link facility design and
business goals, a POE approach could be used that
combines assessment of the physical condition of the
building and its systems with assessment of user com-
fort on such topics as indoor air quality and ventilation
rates, lighting levels and contrast conditions, building
(not occupant) noise levels, and indoor temperature
(thermal comfort). Results from subjective or instru-
ment measures could be plotted on floor plans using
geographical information systems. The data could then
be analyzed individually or as overlays showing the
spatial distribution of a range of factors. For example,
ratings of thermal comfort could be assessed with tem-
perature data and spatial location. Occupants’ percep-
tions of interior environments could also be linked with
data from building control systems, local weather con-
ditions, or facility usage as recorded by building-access
smart cards. The Disney Corporation and the World
Bank both have linked POE data to their geographic
information systems for future planning and design
purposes.
Costs of Post-Occupancy Evaluation Surveys
Depending on the type of survey conducted and the
level of analysis used, the cost for a POE survey can
range from a few thousand dollars per facility to U.S.
$2.50 or more per square foot of space evaluated. Fed-
eral agencies have reported costs ranging from $1,800
for a simple standard questionnaire that could be com-
pleted in one hour to $90,000 for an in-depth analysis,
including several days of interviews, the use of multi-
disciplinary teams, site visits, and report writing. Today
the range of methods for conducting POEs allows an
organization to tailor the technique to its objectives and
available resources (time, staff, and money). Web-
enabled surveys are emerging, and these may provide
another technique that can be used at a relatively low
cost.
Benefits of Conducting Post-Occupancy Evaluations
and Capturing Lessons
Stakeholders in buildings include investors, owners,
operators, designers, contractors, maintenance person-
nel, and users or occupants. A POE process that cap-
tures lessons can serve many purposes and provide
many benefits, depending on a stakeholder’s goals and
objectives. These include the following:
• support of policy development as reflected in
design and planning guides. The validity of
underlying premises used in recurrent designs can
be tested and evolutionary improvements to pro-
gramming and design criteria can be identified
and incorporated into standards and guidance
literature.
• provision to the building industry of information
about buildings in use by improving the measure-
ment of building performance by quantifying
occupant perceptions and physical environmental
factors.
• testing of new concepts to determine how well
they work in occupied buildings.
• generation of information needed to justify major
expenditures and inform future decisions. Infor-
mation generated by POEs can be used for
decision-making in the pre-design phase of a new

4 LEARNING FROM OUR BUILDINGS
project to avoid repeating past mistakes. It can
also be used to educate decision makers about the
performance implications of design changes dic-
tated by budget cuts and to improve the way space
is used as determined by stakeholders or docu-
mented standards.
• improvement of building performance through-
out the life cycle. POEs can be used to identify
and remediate such problems associated with new
buildings as uncontrolled leakage, deficient air
circulation, poor signage, and lack of storage. For
facilities that incorporate the concept of adapt-
ability, where changes are frequently necessary,
regularly conducted POEs can contribute to an
ongoing process of adapting the facility to chang-
ing organizational needs.
• making design professionals and owners account-
able for building performance. POEs can be used
to measure the functionality and appropriateness
of a design and establish conformance with
explicit and comprehensive performance require-
ments as stated in the functional program. They
can also serve as a mechanism to monitor a
building’s quality and to notify decision makers
when the performance of a building does not
reach an agreed standard.
• aiding communications among stakeholders such
as designers, clients, facility managers, and end
users. Through active involvement in the evalua-
tion process, the attitude of building occupants
can be improved and proactive facility manage-
ment that responds to building users’ values can
be facilitated.
Barriers to Conducting Post-Occupancy Evaluations
Despite these benefits, only a limited number of
large organizations and institutions have active POE
programs. Relatively few organizations have fully
incorporated lessons from POE programs into their
building delivery processes, job descriptions, or report-
ing arrangements. One reason for this limited use is the
nature of POE itself, which identifies both successes
and failures. Most organizations do not reward staff or
programs for exposing shortcomings. In addition, rela-
tively few organizations have created appropriate con-
ditions for learning (i.e., conditions that allow the
organization to constantly improve the way it operates
under routine conditions and to respond to change
quickly and effectively when the need arises).
Additional barriers to more effective use of POE and
lessons-learned programs include the following:
• the difficulty of establishing a clear causal link
between positive outcomes and the physical envi-
ronment. This lack of a clear link can make it dif-
ficult for POE proponents to convince decision
makers that the benefits received will justify the
expenditure of time and money on the evalua-
tions.
• reluctance by organizations and building profes-
sionals to participate in a process that may expose
problems or failures or may be used as a method
to focus (or deflect) blame. For federal agencies,
senior executives may be concerned that identify-
ing problems may be considered a weakness by
Congress or the inspector general.
• fear of soliciting feedback from occupants on the
grounds that both seeking and receiving this type
of information may obligate an organization to
make costly changes to its services or to the build-
ing itself.
• lack of participation by building users. In some
cases the reluctance to participate can be attrib-
uted directly to uncertainty about senior manage-
ment’s commitment to the program, which may
be manifested by lack of resources or visible
endorsement of the program.
• failure to distribute information resulting from
POEs to decision makers and other stakeholders.
• pressure to meet design and construction dead-
lines, which can create a time barrier to sustained
POE activity. Staffs may be so focused on future
projects and ongoing construction that POEs for
completed and occupied projects are given lower
priority.
• lack of in-house staff having the wide range of
skills and technical expertise needed to direct and
manage the results of evaluations and to commu-
nicate the information so that it is useful and non-
threatening. Organizations may be reluctant to
hire consultants to conduct and analyze POEs if
resources are limited and there is a lack of
executive-level commitment to such programs.
For federal agencies it may be difficult to obtain
or earmark the funding needed to conduct POEs
regardless of whether they are using consultants
or in-house staff.
• organizational structures can create barriers when
responsibilities for POE administration and

OVERVIEW: A SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 5
lessons-learned database development are assigned
to different offices, thereby creating a need for
interoffice collaboration and blurring the lines of
accountability.
Successful Post-Occupancy Evaluation and Lessons-
Learned Programs
Despite the barriers mentioned above, POE has con-
tinued to grow as a practice. Some organizations have
been able to effectively integrate the lessons of POEs
into strategic planning and decision-making processes
for facility delivery and acquisition. Notable examples
include the following:
• the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers program of
participatory programming and evaluation during
the 1970s: The effort, undertaken after research
indicated that aging facilities were an impediment
to recruiting and retaining soldiers for the all-
volunteer Army, resulted in design guides for
facilities ranging from drama and music centers
to barracks and military police stations.
• the U.S. Postal Service program: In the 1980s the
newly reorganized U.S. Postal Service made
extensive use of POEs to gather information about
buildings to develop retail-focused postal stores
to better compete with private sector companies.
The program proved successful in meeting its
objectives. Over time the survey methodologies
have been modified to support new objectives,
but the Postal Service program remains active.
• the Disney Corporation, which uses three evalua-
tion programs and corresponding databases to
explore optimal conditions and develop predic-
tors of its key business driver, intention of the
customer to return: The databases are used exten-
sively in the design and renovation of buildings
because they allow Disney to make direct links
between inputs, such as proposed number of
people entering gates, and outputs, such as the
width of Main Street.
• the Massachusetts Division of Capital Planning
and Operations, which links POE with pre-design
programming of public buildings: POEs have
been used to develop and test prototype concepts
for state police stations, child care centers, and
vehicle maintenance and repair stations, resulting
in savings of cost and time in the programming,
design, and construction of new facilities.
• Bell Canada and the World Bank: Both organiza-
tions have attempted to use POE as an asset man-
agement tool for space planning. Both companies
collected large amounts of data from occupants
and calculated baseline scores on seven comfort
factors across all buildings. Real estate staff could
then identify which spaces exceeded baseline
scores and which fell below. These factors are
considered in budgeting for maintenance and
repair, space planning, and the reconfiguration of
space. The World Bank also made an effort to
link its database with computer-aided design
drawings so that baseline scores of buildings, or
floors of buildings, could be used as indexes of
quality in its space-planning process.
Elements for Post-Occupancy Evaluation Success
One objective of this study was to identify a stan-
dardized methodology that could be used by federal
agencies to assure consistency in data gathering and
allow for cooperative development of benchmarks and
best practices. As outlined above, POEs can serve a
variety of purposes and the methods used for POE sur-
veys can be tailored to the specific purpose and avail-
able resources. It is not clear that a standardized meth-
odology for POEs that could be used for benchmarking
across federal agencies would be effective or even
desirable. However, based on the information in the
following chapters, it is evident that organizations seek-
ing to establish or restructure POE programs need to
make a number of key decisions in the early planning
stages and develop and incorporate several key com-
ponents in their program if they are to be successful,
regardless of the POE purpose or methodology. These
decisions and components are identified below.
• Develop a clear statement about what the organi-
zation wants to achieve by conducting and apply-
ing POEs. The links between evaluations and
stated requirements have to be explicit and easy
to trace.
• Identify the resources available to carry out the
POE, matching data collection and analysis
activities to the available time and budget.
• Identify the likely users of POE results and deter-
mine how they need the results communicated.
• Garner support from high levels of the organiza-
tion to signal the importance of the project or pro-
gram to people throughout the organization.

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"Yes, yes. You have thoroughly studied human passions, and nothing
escapes your infallible glance; but, perhaps, you have let yourself be
carried too far."
"¿Quién sabe?" Don Pelagio said gently; then he suddenly changed
the conversation. "You have received no news from Barrio?"
"None; which leads me to hope that all is well; were it otherwise,
Don Melchior or Sotavento would have come to warn me."
"You know, my friend, that I have several times remarked to you
that you place too great confidence in that man."
"I have ever found him faithful and devoted."
"You think so; but take care. You know that I am rarely deceived in
my appreciations. Now, I am convinced this man deceives, and is
playing a long studied part."
"My dear friend, several persons have said to me what you are now
stating. I have watched the man with the greatest care, and never
has anything suspicious in his conduct justified the unjust doubts
entertained about him."
"Heaven grant that he may always be so, my friend; and that you
may not be aroused, at the moment when you least expect it, from
your imprudent slumber by a thunderclap."
At the same instant a dazzling flash shot athwart the sky, and the
thunder burst forth furiously. The two men, involuntarily struck by
this strange coincidence, remained for a moment dumb and amazed,
listening to the alarm cries of the sentries as they challenged each
other in the darkness, and feeling their hearts contracted by an
undefinable sadness.
"It is, perchance, a warning from heaven," Don Pelagio muttered in
a low voice.
"Oh! I cannot believe it," the hacendero replied, as he passed his
hand over his damp forehead.
The general rose.

"Come," he said, as he looked out, "that thunderclap is the last
effort of the tempest, and the sky seems growing clearer. We shall
have a splendid day tomorrow."
"At what hour do you intend starting, General?" the hacendero asked
him.
Don Pelagio looked at his watch.
"It is half past ten," he said; "the camp will not be completely
evacuated till midnight. We will set out at two o'clock, with the few
men I have selected."
"In that case, with your permission, I will retire and sleep till the
hour for departure."
"Do so, my friend; but mind and be here again at half past one."
"That is settled, General."
The two gentlemen shook hands affectionately, and Don Aníbal
walked towards the door of the jacal. Just as he was going, the
noise of several horses could be heard.
"¿Quién vive?" the sentry challenged.
"Méjico e independencia," a voice replied, which Don Aníbal fancied
he recognized.
"¿Qué gente?" the soldier continued.
"El Coronel Don Aurelio Gutiérrez."
"Let him come in, let him come in," the general shouted.
"Pase Vd: adelante," the sentry said.
"Stay here," Don Pelagio said to the hacendero. "This unexpected
visitor doubtless brings us valuable news."
The horsemen dismounted; their heavy spurs could be heard
clanking on the saturated ground, and five men entered the jacal.
Four remained at the door, half hidden by the darkness, and the fifth
alone walked up to the general. It was Don Aurelio.

"How comes it, Colonel," the general asked him quickly, without
leaving him time to speak, "that you are here, instead of remaining
at the post I assigned you?"
Don Aurelio bowed respectfully to his chief.
"General," he replied, "I have strictly obeyed the orders you were
pleased to give me. The division you placed under my command is
at its post; but I thought it my duty myself to lead to you these four
persons, who came to my main guard, and requested to be
immediately brought into your presence."
"Ah!" the general continued, taking an inquiring glance at the
strangers, whom the darkness prevented him from recognizing.
"Who are they?"
"They will tell you themselves, General. Now that my task is
accomplished, permit me to retire and return to my post."
"Go, señor. Perhaps it would have been better had you not left it."
The colonel made no reply, but bowed and went out. Almost
immediately after he could be heard riding away at a gallop. There
was a momentary silence, during which Don Pelagio carefully
examined the four persons still standing motionless. At length he
decided on addressing them.
"Come hither, señores," he said, "and be good enough to tell me
who you are."
Only two advanced. When they reached the lighted portion of the
jacal, they dropped the corner of the zarapé which covered the
lower part of their faces, and at the same moment doffed their
vicuña hats, the broad brims of which fell over their eyes.
"The Canadian!" Don Aníbal exclaimed, with a start of surprise.
"Count de Melgosa?" Don Pelagio said, no less astonished.
The newcomers were really Oliver Clary and the count.

"It seems as if you did not expect us, General," the Canadian said
gaily.
"On my word I did not," Don Pelagio replied, as he held out his hand
to both. "I did not expect either of you; but you are not the less
welcome."
"Thanks," said the count.
"Why, I thought you were dead, Señor Clary," the priest continued.
"Well," the Canadian said, "it was touch and go. You simply sent me
to a wild beast. But, no matter; I managed to get out of his
clutches."
"All the better. But you must require rest. Who are the persons
accompanying you?"
"One is a confidential peon of mine; the other a prisoner whom
Señor Don Olivero took," the count answered.
"Yes, yes," said the hunter; "we will talk about that scamp
presently."
"To what fortunate accident may I attribute your presence here,
Señor Conde?"
"A wish to see you, caballero."
"Ah, ah!" the general said, with a piercing glance, "Has grace fallen
on you at last?—will you at length consent to join us? It would be a
great pleasure to us, Señor Conde."
"You are nearer the truth than you suppose, Señor Padre," the count
replied with a smile. "I am not on your side, as you pretend to
suppose; but, on the other hand, I am no longer opposed to you; I
have sent in my resignation, and, in one word, am neutral for the
present."
"That is a bad position, Conde."
"Perhaps so, señor; but, for the present, I wish to keep it. Moreover,
to be frank, I will confess that I have come more especially to see

Don Aníbal."
"Me?" the hacendero exclaimed, as he stepped forward.
"Yes, my friend; but before I explain to you the cause of my coming,
allow Señor Don Olivero to report to your chief the way in which he
carried out the mission confided to him."
"Very good," the hacendero answered, as he fell back a step.
"Come, speak, Colonel," Father Sandoval said.
"Am I still a colonel?" the hunter asked.
"Hang it, as you are not dead, I see no reason why you should not
be, especially as I am extremely pleased with your lieutenant,
Moonshine, and your cuadrilla has done me eminent services."
"In that case, all is well," the hunter said joyfully, as he snapped his
fingers, and coquettishly twisted his light moustache.
After this outburst of joy, the hunter began his narrative, to which
the general listened with the deepest attention. When he came to
the carrying off the papers, Don Pelagio interrupted him.
"Have you those papers with you?" he asked eagerly.
"Here they are," the hunter answered, as he drew them from the
pocket into which he had stuffed them, and laid them on the table.
The general seized them, and going up to the candle, carefully
perused them.
"Oh!" he exclaimed, with a sudden outburst, "I was not mistaken; all
is really as I foresaw; now I have him, and he will not escape me.
Colonel, you performed your mission as a man of heart and intellect.
I shall remember it at the first opportunity. Now go on," he added,
as he carefully placed the papers in his bosom.
"Well," the hunter gaily remarked, "it seems that I made a better
haul than I supposed."
"You could not be more lucky."

"All the better then. What you say to me, General, causes me the
greater pleasure, because I shall probably have to ask a favour of
you ere long."
"It is granted beforehand, if it depends on me."
"On you absolutely, General; moreover, it is a service I wish to
render Don Aníbal de Saldibar, your friend."
"Render me?" the hacendero exclaimed, in surprise.
"Yes, you, señor."
The count laid a finger on his lip, to recommend silence to Don
Aníbal. The latter, surprised at his friend's gesture, was silent, as if
involuntarily; but he suffered from a secret anxiety caused by this
mystery, an explanation of which he racked his brains in vain to find.
The hunter continued his narrative.
"As I had the honour of telling you, General, we left the Hacienda
del Río in the morning. Our horses, fatigued by a long ride, only
advanced with difficulty, and we were ourselves exhausted by the
heat; moreover, it was already late, and the hour for the halt had
arrived. At this moment I noticed a cave close by, and proposed to
the count that we should rest in it, to which he assented. I entered
this grotto, and after exploring it thoroughly, made my comrades a
sign to join me. This cave, which was very large, formed several
galleries. Forgive me, General, for entering into these details, which
may appear to you prolix, but they are indispensable."
"Go on, Colonel; I am listening with the most lively interest," the
general answered, though in his heart he wished the Canadian at
the deuce.
"We consequently established ourselves as best we could, with our
horses, in one of the most retired galleries. My comrades and the
Señor Conde himself yielded to sleep, and I confess that I was about
to follow their example, when suddenly the sound of footsteps very
near the spot where we were cachéed, made me prick up my ears,
and drove away my sleep. I lay down on the ground, and crawled

cautiously in the direction of the noise I had heard. I was not
mistaken; we were no longer alone in the cavern; a man had
entered it, and that man was an Indian. I recognized this fact by his
dress, for he had his back turned to me. After placing on the ground
a rather large bundle, this Indian looked cautiously around him. I
held my breath for fear of being discovered, so greatly did this man
puzzle me. At length, feeling convinced that he was quite alone, and
no one could see him, he took all his clothes off, and darted out of
the cavern like a startled deer. I could not comprehend it at all, and
was not far from taking the man for a lunatic; but, when I saw him
return, his paint had disappeared; he had merely plunged into the
river to wash himself. When he was dry, he dressed himself again,
but not in the same clothes, but in others he took out of the bundle
he had laid on the ground when he came in. But then a singular
thing occurred—my Indian of just now was metamorphosed into a
Mexican!"
"What?" the general and the hacendero exclaimed in surprise, "A
Mexican?"
"A Mexican," the hunter continued calmly; "and more extraordinary
still, this Mexican I recognized so well that I could not restrain a cry
of surprise. He heard me, and turned round with a start. Doubt was
no longer possible. This Indian was Señor Don Aníbal's majordomo."
"Sotavento!" the hacendero exclaimed.
"Ah, ah!" said the general, "Go on, my friend. What did you do
then?"
"On my word, General, seeing that I was discovered, I bounded
upon him. I am free to confess that he did not seem at all anxious to
be taken, for he offered a desperate resistance; but, thank
goodness, I am tolerably strong, and in spite of all his efforts, I
succeeded in mastering him, and brought him here, because his
conduct appeared to me extremely suspicious, and the Señor Conde
and myself wished to clear up certain suspicions which had occurred

to us with reference to him. That is all I have to say to you,
General."
The hunter ceased, apparently very pleased at having got so well
through so long and difficult a narrative.
CHAPTER XXXII.
THE PRISONER.
When the hunter finished his narrative a gloomy silence prevailed for
some minutes in the jacal. Outside the wind blew fiercely, and the
rain fell in torrents. The smoky flame of the candle, flickering in the
gusts, only spread an uncertain gleam over the pale faces of these
men, who felt their hearts contracted by a sinister presentiment. The
hacendero was the first to overcome the emotion he felt. With head
erect, frowning brows, and features contracted by a supreme
resolution, he walked rapidly up to the prisoner, and, pulling down
roughly the zarapé that covered the lower part of his face, he gazed
at him for a moment with an expression of grief and passion
impossible to render.
"It is true, then," he at length muttered, in a dull voice, "this man I
believed so devoted to me is a traitor. I alone was blind when
everybody around me accused him. Speak, villain, what have you
done?"
"It is my place to answer that question," the count said, as he
walked forward and laid his hand on Don Aníbal's arm.
The hacendero looked at him in amazement.
"You, Señor Conde?" he said.

"Yes, I, Don Aníbal. I, who have only come here to tell you a
frightful secret, and am compelled to bring a terrible accusation
against this man."
Don Aníbal felt as if his heart would break.
"Oh!" he exclaimed, "What are you going to tell me, great God?"
Don Pelagio, who had hitherto leant his elbow on the table, and
remained motionless and thoughtful, placed himself between the
two gentlemen, and looked at them, in turn, with an expression of
sorrowful compassion.
"Stay," he said, in a loud voice. "In the name of heaven—in the
name of our country—I command it! However terrible the revelation
you have to make, Señor Conde, may be; however great your
impatience, Don Aníbal, to know the full extent of your misfortunes,
this is neither the place nor the hour for such an explanation;
honour bids you both defer it for some hours. We must start
immediately, for the hour has arrived. If we delayed for a few
moments the fruit of all our labour and efforts would be lost. What
do you apprehend? This man is in your power, and will not escape.
You will soon be able to inflict on him the punishment which he
doubtless deserves."
"Oh!" the hacendero exclaimed, sorrowfully, "Suppose this villain
escaped our vengeance, my friend; I feel a foreboding of some
frightful misfortune."
The count and the hunter looked down sadly. Father Sandoval gently
laid his hand on the shoulder of the hacendero, who had fallen into
an equipal, and buried his face in his hands.
"Courage, friend," he said to him, softly. "God is watching. His
justice never sleeps. Remember the precept written on the heart of
every man of honour, 'Do your duty, no matter what may happen.'"
The hacendero replied with a choking sob.
"You no longer belong to yourself," the priest continued, more
warmly; "your head and your arm are claimed by your country. Be a

man, however great the sorrow that awaits you; draw yourself up,
and become strong for the coming contest. Every man in the world
has his cup which he drains to the dregs. Go, my friend, go where
duty calls you; tomorrow you can think of yourself, but today
belongs to your country."
The hacendero, overpowered by this manly appeal, rose
mechanically, pulled his hat over his eyes, and went off without
uttering a word. The priest looked after him, tenderly.
"Oh!" he muttered, "How that man of iron must suffer to be thus
crushed!"
Then he turned to the count.
"Señor Conde," he added, laughingly, "you are my prisoner for four
and twenty hours."
"I shall not leave you till the business for which I have come is
ended," the count replied with a polite bow.
"Hilloh, my worthy lad," the priest continued, addressing Diego
López, who throughout the interview had remained motionless in his
corner, with his eyes constantly fixed on the prisoner, "my provost
marshal will save you the trouble of guarding that man."
"That will be a great relief for me, Excellency."
"Good. Go and tell him to come here immediately. The prisoner is
securely bound, I presume?"
"Señor Clary himself made the knot, Excellency."
"In that case, my mind is at rest. Go."
"The more so, because I undertake to watch the villain in the
meanwhile," Oliver said, as he cocked a pistol.
"Good," Diego López remarked, and went out.
"Are your horses fit for a long ride, caballeros?"
"Well, hardly," the Canadian answered.

"Very well; you will choose among mine. Colonel Clary, your
regiment, which you will find complete, is on escort tonight."
"Are we going away?" the count asked.
"This very instant."
The Mexican general clapped his hands, and an officer came in.
"Order your men to mount noiselessly, Captain. Are the horses shod
with felt, as I ordered?"
"Yes, Excellency."
"Good; we shall start in ten minutes. You can go."
"Are we bound on an expedition?" the Canadian asked.
"Yes," the general replied, laconically.
"¡Caray!" the hunter exclaimed, as he rubbed his hands merrily,
"That is what I call being in luck's way, arriving just in time for an
expedition."
"Which will probably be serious," the general resumed.
"All the better; there will be something to gain in that case."
At this moment the provost marshal appeared at the door of the
jacal, accompanied by a dozen soldiers.
"Caballero," the general said to him, "I confide this prisoner to you,
for whom I hold you responsible. Do you understand?"
"Perfectly, General," the provost answered respectfully. "Come, my
men, seize the fellow."
The majordomo was led away by the soldiers. During the whole time
the Indian had remained in the jacal, he had been cold and stoical,
as if what was going on around him did not affect him in the least.
As he went out he gave a sarcastic glance at the company and
smiled contemptuously.
"I must watch that villain," the hunter said to himself, "he is surely
meditating some Indian devilry."

A noise of men and horses, followed by the clang of arms, informed
the general that his orders had been carried out.
"Let us be off, señores," he said.
They left the jacal. When the general and his escort had mounted,
Father Sandoval placed himself at the head of the column.
"Forward, caballeros," he said, in a loud, firm voice, "and may
heaven be gracious to us!"
The horsemen started a gallop, passing silently and rapidly through
the darkness, like the wild horseman in the German ballad. While
they were crossing the camp, one thing greatly surprised the hunter,
though he did not dare ask for an explanation. On all sides burnt
bivouac fires, sending myriads of sparks up into the air, but he could
not notice a single sentry. The most perfect silence reigned; men,
horses, guns and baggage had become invisible; the camp was or
seemed to be entirely deserted. The entrenchments were
abandoned; no sentry shouted, "Who goes there?" no vidette
arrested the detachment. In a word, the entire Mexican army
seemed to have faded away in smoke.
The escort left the camp, and then the pace, already rapid,
increased in velocity. They proceeded toward the mountains which
rose gloomy and frowning on the horizon in the first gleams of
daylight. A little in the rear of the regiment of lancers, of which it
formed as it were a second rearguard, came a detachment of fifty
soldiers. They were the provost marshal's guard. In the midst of
them was the majordomo, fastened with a strap upon a horse
behind its rider. Sotavento, or the Stag, whichever the reader likes to
call him, appeared to have lost none of his assurance or courage; his
face was calm, and his eyes alone flashed at intervals, like those of a
wild beast. On his right and left two troopers, carbine on thigh,
carefully watched him.
They galloped on thus for nearly three hours; the sky grew less
gloomy, and the outlines of the hills began to stand out upon the
horizon. The detachment halted for a short time, on reaching one of

those countless streams which intersect the desert, and which it was
necessary to ford. On the other bank could be seen the last
squadrons of lancers, entering at a gallop a canyon whose scarped
and almost perpendicular sides were only covered with a stunted
and sparse vegetation. With his arms fastened down on his chest,
and his body attached by a strap, it seemed an impossibility for
Sotavento to escape; hence his guardians who, as we said, did not
let him out of sight, considered it unnecessary to tie his legs under
the horse's belly.
The majordomo, however, far from yielding to a despair unworthy of
him, seriously thought of escaping, and coolly calculated in his mind
all the chances of success left him. We must confess that they were
very small. Still, the Indian was determined to fly at all risks; he
knew very well that the grave suspicions would soon be converted
into a certainty, and that when this certainty was once acquired, his
death would immediately ensue. Death did not terrify the Indian; he
had seen it too often and under too many shapes to fear it; but, if
he died, what would become of his vengeance, which he had
followed up for so many years with feline patience, and which he
was now on the point of seeing satiated?
Hence, ever since the moment he was led into the jacal, all his
thoughts were directed to one object—flight. Crouched up like a
tiger on the watch, his eyes incessantly sounded the darkness,
seeking the opportunity which did not offer itself, and which he did
not mean to lose when it presented itself. This long expected
opportunity he believed had at length arrived, and he made all his
preparations to take advantage of it.
Although night was passing away and the first gleams of dawn were
already beginning to spread across the horizon large pearly bands,
which gradually assumed all the colours of the rainbow, the darkness
was still so great that it was difficult to make objects out distinctly,
even at a short distance. During the whole of the journey Sotavento
had remained gloomy and silent, with his head hanging over his
chest, and careful not to give the soldiers who watched him the

slightest pretext to redouble their vigilance; but for all that he was
not idle, and his pretended immobility had an incessant and
obstinate labour. The Indian was quietly nibbling with his teeth,
which were as sharp as those of a wild beast, the leathern straps
which bound his hands. When the detachment reached the riverbank
the thongs were bitten through, although his hands were still
secured.
The provost, after sending a trooper to examine the ford, went
across with one half of his men. Excepting at the spot where the
soldiers traversed the stream, the banks were scarped and abrupt,
and consisted of rocks piled irregularly on each other, and rising to a
considerable height above the water. The order was given to bring
the prisoner across, and the soldier, behind whom he was fastened,
trotted up to the riverbank. The ford was too narrow for three riders
to pass abreast, and hence only one of the guards accompanied the
prisoner. The latter prepared for action. He understood that, if he did
not profit by the opportunity chance now afforded him, he would not
find another.
The horses entered the river, and were soon up to their girths in
water. The soldier behind whom Sotavento was fastened, had quite
enough to do in keeping his horse in the line of the ford, and, at the
same time, raising his weapons, so that they should not be wetted;
hence he paid but slight attention to his prisoner. All at once, at the
moment he reached the middle of the stream, the soldier received a
terrible shock, and was unsaddled and hurled into the river before
he had time even to utter a cry. Sotavento had boldly leapt into the
water, dragging the trooper after him. A terrible struggle went on for
a few seconds between the two men; but the soldier, feeling himself
lost, and clinging eagerly to life, undid the strap that attached him to
the prisoner, and rose to the surface in order to breathe.
"Look out! Look out!" the other trooper exclaimed as he halted; "The
prisoner is escaping."
This shout produced disorder among the party, who at once galloped
in all directions with their eyes fixed on the stream in the hope of

pursuing the prisoner. But then a terrible thing occurred. The soldier
who had been the first to give the alarm, felt himself suddenly
dragged off his horse into the water, struggling vainly in the furious
clutch of the majordomo, who had seized him by the throat and was
pitilessly strangling him. With the rapidity of a wild beast, the Indian
seized the knife which the soldier wore in his boot, brandished it
over his enemy's head and scalped him; then, casting the dying man
from him, he bestrode his horse, waved the scalp with a triumphant
cry, and making the animal quit the ford, in which the couple had
struggled up to their waist in water, he went down the current amid
a shower of bullets which dashed up the spray all around him.
The horse, held by a firm hand, swam vigorously down with the
current, still keeping to the centre of the stream. On both banks
horsemen were galloping, shouting to each other, and trying in vain
to approach the river, which was defended by impassable masses of
rock. Still, if the scarped banks offered an obstacle to his pursuers,
they equally prevented the majordomo from reaching land. His horse
was beginning to pant, its strength was nearly exhausted, and it
swam feebly. The Indian looked round him anxiously, caring little for
the soldiers, but seeing with terror that the further he went the more
difficult it became to land on either side.
In spite of the provost's repeated orders, the soldiers, despairing to
catch up the fugitive, and perceiving the futility of their efforts, gave
up the pursuit. The Indian was consequently alone; still, in spite of
the certainty of having thrown out his foes, he feared that he had
but changed his manner of death. At the moment when his horse
was beginning to sink and beat the water with its forelegs, the chief
uttered a shout of joy. In the very centre of the river was an islet
easy of approach, and not more than sixty yards from him.
The Indian did not hesitate; removing his horse's bit, which was
troublesome to it, he dived and swam vigorously toward the islet.
The animal, freed from its rider's weight, seemed to regain its old
strength, and, impelled by instinct, also proceeded in the same

direction. A quarter of an hour after, man and horse walked together
up the sandy bank of the island. They were saved!
CHAPTER XXXIII.

MOONSHINE.
It was about four in the morning; the night storm had completely
swept the sky, which was of a deep azure; day would speedily
appear. General Cárdenas, leaning sadly over the battlements of the
town wall, was reflecting, while his eye wandered over the plain and
the camp of the Mexicans, whose bivouac fires were beginning to die
out. A little distance behind him, aides-de-camp and orderly officers
carelessly leaning on their sabres were waiting with ill-disguised
impatience till their chief thought proper to leave the ramparts and
return to the cabildo.
The general, we said, was reflecting. His thoughts were sad and
gloomy. Provisions and ammunition, squandered by the officers
ordered to serve them out, were running short; the garrison, tired of
being shut up within the walls, were beginning to mutter, and would
ere long complain loudly. Coahuila had been so completely invested
by the Mexican army that, from the day the siege began, no one had
been able to enter or leave the town. The general, consequently,
was as much deprived of news as if he were five hundred leagues
away from Mexico. The soldiers, accustomed since the beginning of
the insurrection to live at the expense of the country people,
plunder, and ill-treat them, did not like the confined diet to which
they were constrained. Unpleasant rumours circulated among them,
although it was impossible to trace them to their source. The officers
themselves were discouraged, and desired the end of this state of
things, which every day that passed rendered worse. The general,
therefore, saw with terror the moment at hand when all would fail
him at once, and he would be forced to throw himself on the mercy
of enemies whom he had supposed so contemptible, and whom he
had taken a delight in exasperating by unlooked-for and objectless
cruelty. Hurled thus from his high estate into a bottomless abyss, the
general was suffering from one of those cold and concentrated

attacks of fury which are the more terrible because they can find no
outlet.
All at once the general fancied he could distinguished the shadowy
outline of a man, who was approaching the ramparts with the
utmost caution. Still this man appeared to care very little about
being seen from the town, and only tried to conceal himself from the
sentries, who might have noticed him in the camp. Some
considerable time elapsed ere this man, who advanced looking back
anxiously every moment, arrived within pistol shot of the ramparts.
The general rose, and, making an officer a sign to approach,
whispered a few words in his ear. The officer went off, and the
general returned to his post of observation.
The stranger still advanced, apparently growing bolder the nearer he
drew to the ramparts. All at once several men dashed out of a
postern gate, and ere the stranger had time to attempt a useless
resistance, he was thrown down, bound, and carried into the town
by the men who had so cleverly seized him. Still, we are bound to
mention that the soldiers experienced no difficulty in dragging their
prisoner along; on the contrary, he affected to follow them with the
most perfect readiness. The general, while waiting for the prisoner,
walked up and down the ramparts; when he was brought up to him,
he looked at him for a moment in silence. The stranger was a young
man, with an intelligent and sarcastic face, tall and powerfully built.
"Who are you, scamp?" the general asked him roughly, "And how is
it that you dare to prowl so near the walls of a besieged town?"
"Hang it all," the stranger replied, in excellent Spanish, though with
a marked foreign accent, "I was not prowling round the walls."
"What were you doing, then?"
"I was merely trying to get into the town."
"This is an impudent scoundrel," the general said to himself, "but at
least he is frank. And, why, pray, did you want to enter Coahuila?"

"If you do not mind, General, giving orders that I should be freed
from these cords, which annoy me, I shall answer you with greater
ease."
"Very good; but I warn you that, at the slightest suspicious
movement, I shall have your brains blown out."
"That is your business, General," the stranger replied carelessly.
At a signal from the general the stranger was unfastened; he gave a
sigh of relief on feeling himself at liberty.
"There," he said, "now a man can talk."
"Are you disposed to answer me?"
"Ask me a question."
"What is your name?"
"Moonshine."
"A capital name for a night bird."
"It is mine."
"What are you?"
"Canadian, and wood ranger; but, look ye, General, if we go on this
way we shall never come to an end. I prefer coming straight to
facts. I have come to offer you a bargain."
"What is it?"
"Oh, oh, General, do not go on too fast; in the first place how much
will you give me?"
"Why in the first place I must know—"
"The amount, that is true; well, I will tell you,—four hundred
ounces."[1]
"What! Four hundred ounces!" the general exclaimed, "You seem to
me to be an amusing scoundrel; but take care I do not hang you, in
order to teach you not to play the mountebank with me."

"That is the reward for doing people a service," the Canadian said
with a philosophic shrug of his shoulders.
"But, animal," the general continued impatiently, "what service are
you doing me?"
"An immense one, General."
"Come, explain yourself."
"I am most anxious to do so, but you will not let me speak."
The general had a knowledge, or fancied he had, of his fellow men;
he remembered his interview with Oliver, and understood that if this
man, knowing his reputation, ventured to speak in this way to him,
he must have very powerful incentives, and feel very sure of
impunity; besides, his own serious position made it a bounden duty
for him to obtain information by all possible means. He therefore
restrained himself, resolved if the Canadian was really laughing at
him to have him hung at once.
"Well, speak, and the plague smother you!" he said to him.
"In that case, General, the matter is this. But pledge me first your
word of honour that if what I am going to tell you is really as
important to you as I fancy, you will at once pay me the sum I ask."
"Very good; but if you deceive me you will be hung or shot—the
choice being left you."
"Very good; it is a bargain. Where is the money?"
"Do you suppose that I carry four hundred ounces about me?"
"Hang it, what is to be done?" the Canadian said, scratching his
head.
"Stay," the general said, as he showed him two diamond rings,
"these are worth nearly double the sum you ask. Are you satisfied?"
"On your word, now? Well, I will risk it. Well, listen. This night I had
sheltered myself as well as I could about three or four leagues from

here, for the purpose of camping. Unfortunately for me, the storm
came on, and compelled me to seek a safer shelter."
"Cut it short."
"I will, General. The night was so dark that, not knowing the
country, I lost my way, and got into the very centre of the Mexican
camp."
"Ah, ah! And I suppose they gave you a warm reception?"
"They gave me no reception at all, General."
"What? Did they turn you out?"
"Who turn me out?"
"Hang it, how do I know? The sentries, perhaps."
"Why, General, that is the very point; the camp is deserted; the
Mexican army has disappeared."
The general gave a bound of surprise.
"Are you mocking me, scoundrel?" he shouted violently; "Are you
aware whom you are speaking to when you come to tell me such
falsehoods?"
"Hang it, General, it is easy to assure yourself whether I speak the
truth, by going to see. However, it appears that the Mexicans were
in a hurry to be off, for they left behind them cannon, forage—
everything, in a word."
"That is strange," the general muttered, as he fixed on the Canadian
a glance that seemed trying to read his very heart's secrets, which
the hunter sustained without evincing the slightest confusion, "that
is strange," he repeated; "and do you not know the cause of this
precipitate departure?"
"How should I know it? I am a stranger. Perhaps, though—but no,
they cannot know it yet, as I expected to obtain a good reception
from them by telling them of it."

The hunter spoke with such simple frankness, his face displayed
such candour, that the general had not for a moment a thought of
suspecting him; on the contrary, he listened to him with the most
earnest attention.
"What more?" he asked eagerly.
"What, do you not know it?"
"It seems not."
"And yet it has caused a regular disturbance. It is reported that
General Iturbide has been surprised by the Viceroy's troops and
taken prisoner, after an obstinate resistance, so that the insurrection
is once again subdued."
At this moment an officer, who had gone off with several others to
obtain information about the Canadian's statement, ran up
breathless.
"General," he said, "what this man has told you is true; the Mexican
army has abandoned its camp with such haste that hardly anything
has been removed."
"Then," said the hunter, "I have earned my money, General?"
"Yes," he answered, as he handed the Canadian the rings, which he
carefully placed in his bosom. "But," he added, as he looked at him
fixedly, and laid a stress on every word, "as you might, after all, be a
traitor and clever spy, you will remain here till we obtain more
thorough information. You appear to me to be much sharper than
you pretend, and your head shall answer for your sincerity."
"I shall be very glad to remain here," the hunter replied carelessly;
"here or elsewhere makes little difference to me. Still I do not quite
understand how I can be a traitor, since you recognize the truth of
what I have told you."
Moonshine allowed himself to be led away without the slightest
emotion, and the general mounted his horse, in order to assure
himself of the certainty of the facts announced to him. The camp

was most thoroughly deserted, not a man or horse remained in it.
Everything testified to the precipitation with which the Mexicans had
retired. They had attempted to carry off a few guns and baggage
waggons; but, doubtless discouraged by the difficulties they had to
overcome, and probably demoralized by some crushing news, they
had left guns and train scattered in all directions. Tumbrils filled with
ammunition, arms, stores, even provisions, were thrown about in
disorder, as if they had at first intended to remove them, but,
pressed by time, had been forced to leave them behind.
The road followed by the Mexican army was perfectly visible, not
only by the deep marks on the saturated ground, but also by the
utensils of every description, uniforms, and arms scattered on the
road. It was no longer a retreat, but a flight. The general tried in
vain to seek the clue to this insoluble enigma. The chief of the
Mexican army could not have had the idea of laying a trap for him.
Everything contradicted this supposition; it was not admissible that
an experienced soldier, for the purpose of deceiving his enemy,
would consent to abandon to him his guns, ammunition, and even
provisions; such a trick would have been most clumsy, since it would
provide the Spaniards with all they wanted, as the Mexicans must be
perfectly aware.
It was more simple to believe that what the hunter said was true;
that General Iturbide has been defeated and made a prisoner by the
Spanish troops, and that the Mexicans, terrified by this disastrous
news, had been assailed by a panic and disbanded, seeking their
safety in flight, as had happened several times already during the
course of the war. Still, the general in chief, as a prudent and
experienced man, would not risk anything till he had heard the
opinions of his officers. After giving the requisite orders for a guard
to be placed in the camp, he galloped back to the town and
summoned a council of war. Moonshine was summoned before the
council, and was heard again. The hunter repeated, without the
variation of a syllable, what he had already told the general.

This deposition produced a marked effect on the members of the
council. Each was of opinion that they must at once start in pursuit
of the fugitives, in order not to allow them time to recover from their
terror and reassemble. This was the general's opinion too; still,
under circumstances of such gravity, he had desired to avoid
responsibility, and appear constrained to yield to the wishes of his
officers. As generally happens in such cases, the Spaniards passed
from a state of the utmost dejection to the greatest braggadocio.
The Mexicans, who had so long caused them to tremble, were only
scoundrels, unworthy to contend with brave men, and they could be
brought to order with the flat of the sabre.
The general, considering it useless to leave a strong garrison in the
town, as the enemy had retired, and not wishing, in the case of the
Mexicans making a stand, to advance without an imposing force,
ordered two regiments of cavalry to mount, each trooper having an
infantry man on his crupper, and took two field guns with him. This
small army amounted to about five thousand men, more than
sufficient to pursue and destroy demoralized bands, who would
probably attempt no defence and be easily cut up. When all was
ready for the start, General Cárdenas gave orders to bring up the
Canadian, who had first brought him the happy news of the enemy's
flight. The latter arrived, accompanied by the officer to whom he
had been given in charge. The general smiled on the hunter.
"Listen to me," he said to him, "you appear a man of sense. You will
come with us."
"What to do, General?" the hunter answered coldly; "I suppose you
do not want me anymore?"
"I should like to have you near me."
"In order to blow out my brains, if you think proper to do so, eh?"
"That is possible; but come, notwithstanding."
"That would not be fair, General; I have honestly kept to my bargain.
It is not my fault if, instead of quietly remaining here, you think

proper to roam about the country at the risk of something
happening."
"Then your advice would be that I should remain here?" the general
said to him, with a searching glance.
"I have no advice to give you, General; I am neither a soldier nor an
officer, and your affairs do not concern me. I tell you my opinion,
that is all."
"But you are a wood ranger?" he continued, after a moment's
reflection.
"Yes, General, and nothing else."
"In that case, you will make a famous scout."
"You want to make a second bargain with me, I think."
"Perhaps so. Do you refuse?"
"I am not at liberty either to accept or decline. You have the power
on your side, and I am forced to obey."
"I like to hear you talk in that way. Perhaps you can find the enemy
for me?"
The hunter detected the snare.
"Hang it!" he said simply, "As a wood ranger I can easily follow a
trail. Put me on the traces of the Mexicans, and if they have not run
to earth like prairie dogs, or flown away like eagles, there are heavy
odds in favour of my bringing you up with them."
The general reflected.
"Listen to me," he said directly after, "I trust to you. If you serve me
faithfully, you shall be nobly rewarded; if you deceive me, you will
die."
"I do not understand you; I will try to bring you up with the people
you are looking for; but I cannot pledge myself to more, as the rest
concerns you."

"That is all I ask."
"On those conditions I am your man."
"Come along, then," the general continued; "but," he added, looking
fixedly at him, "remember that you risk your head; at the slightest
suspicion I will have you strung up without the least hesitation."
The Canadian merely shrugged his shoulders in answer to this
threat, smiled craftily, mounted a horse that was brought him, coolly
placed himself on the general's right hand, and at the word of
command the small corps left the town in good order. So soon as it
reached the plain, it proceeded towards the Mexican camp, curiously
watched by all the inhabitants of Coahuila, who had flocked to the
ramparts to witness the departure of the Spaniards, and who, in all
probability, formed internal vows never to see them again.
[1] About £1600 of our currency.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
THE TEOCALI.
Sotavento was completely exhausted by the efforts he had been
compelled to make in reaching the islet on which he had so luckily
found a refuge. For nearly an hour he lay with his eyes closed and in
a half fainting state. When his strength had gradually returned,
when his blood began to circulate more freely and his ideas regained
their equilibrium, he thought of the horse, which, in his present
situation, became the more precious to him, as the animal alone
could save him.
The poor brute had halted a few paces from its master with hanging
head and piteous look. The Indian rose, picked up a pebble, went to
the horse coaxingly, and began vigorously rubbing all parts of its

body, after which operation he dried it with a wisp of grass. The
horse perceiving the comfort this produced, whinnied with pleasure
as it rubbed its intelligent head against the Indian's shoulder, and
then began eagerly browsing the grass which grew profusely in this
sequestered spot.
"Come," Sotavento muttered with visible satisfaction, "this poor
brute has had a luckier escape than I expected; it has bottom, and
will be all right after a few hours' rest."
Certain of finding his steed again when he wanted it, he let it browse
in peace, and went off to examine the islet and find out the exact
nature of his position, whether good or bad. He could not think of
eating, for he was utterly without provisions, but that troubled him
very slightly. The Indians, like all nomadic races, are accustomed to
endure without complaint, and almost without noticing them,
privations which would render a European desperate and incapable
of getting out of the scrape. The only weapon the Stag possessed
was the knife he took from the soldier whom he had scalped; and
hence he must display the greatest prudence, and carefully avoid a
meeting with either men or wild beasts.
The islet on which he found himself was rather large and completely
covered with wood. The Indian walked its entire length; but on
reaching the end he uttered a cry of disappointment, for he noticed
a portage, that is to say, a line of rocks crossed the whole width of
the river, and formed an impassable crest of breakers; hence he
could not dream of gaining the mainland on that side. Had he been
alone he would have probably tried, and by his skill and strength
have succeeded in reaching land by leaping from one rock to
another; but he would not abandon his horse.
On the American savannahs a man unarmed and without a horse is
hopelessly lost. Sotavento was aware of this, hence the thought did
not occur to him of going away alone. He had crossed the whole
length of the isle, and now resolved to go round it. It was a rough
job to be undertaken by a man who had not taken any food for
twenty-four hours, and whose strength was exhausted by long moral

and physical fatigue; still his salvation depended on his resolution,
and he did not hesitate. His search was protracted, and for a lengthy
period sterile; he walked slowly along the sand with his eyes fixed
on the opposite bank, seeking, without desponding, a spot where his
horse could stand and climb the scarp with no excessive difficulty. At
last he noticed at about the centre of the isle a place where the
water was much clearer than elsewhere; it was a shallow ford, for
the sand forming the riverbed was visible. He boldly entered the
water and walked forward; he was not mistaken; he had really found
a wide ford whose depth did not exceed two feet.
This discovery was most lucky; but this was not enough; he must
assure himself whether the slope of the opposite bank was not too
steep for his horse's hoofs. The Indian continued his march and
crossed the river. Then he saw what he had been unable to discover
from the isle—a mass of rock projected some distance into the
stream and formed an elbow, behind which opened a species of
haven, ascending to the top of the cliff by an almost insensible
incline. The deeply formed marks in the sand indicated that this was
a watering place to which wild beasts proceeded to drink at night.
People say that a slice of luck never comes alone; Sotavento had a
proof of this on the present occasion, for the ford and road were on
the side of the stream to which he would have to cross in order to
join his tribe. Henceforth at his ease, and certain of rejoining his
friends, the Stag returned to the isle.
The sun had risen a long time, and the heat was beginning to grow
intolerable. The Indian, who was in no hurry, resolved to let the
great heat pass and not start till toward evening; moreover, the
violent exercise he had taken in seeking a passage had greatly
fatigued him, and he needed rest. When he rubbed down his horse,
he had unbuckled the girths and removed the saddle, which he
threw on the grass without looking at it. On his return, at the
moment when he sought a convenient spot for sleeping, his eyes fell
accidentally on this saddle, and he noticed an alforja, or a species of
double canvas pocket, which every Mexican carries with him when
travelling, which he had not observed, for the simple reason that

these bags, fastened behind the saddle, were concealed by a blanket
and sheepskin, which almost entirely covered them.
The poor soldier whom the Indian had killed carried in these alforjas
all his wretched property, flint and steel, and tobacco, precious
things for the fugitive; but what caused him greater pleasure still,
there was nearly a yard of tasajo, meat dried in the sun, as well as a
dozen biscuits, and a large lump of goat's cheese. All this was wet
though, it is true; but what did the Indian care for this, when he was
half dead of hunger.
Instead of sleeping, as he had originally intended, Sotavento spread
out all the provisions on the ground to let them dry in the sun, which
was effected in less than ten minutes, collected dry leaves, lit a fire,
roasted his tasajo, and began eating as Indians eat when they have
long gone without food, that is to say, with no thought of the
morrow. He devoured all his provisions at one meal; then, his
hunger appeased, he filled his pipe, and began smoking with the
beatitude and satisfaction of a man whose life has hung by a thread,
and who has only been saved by a miracle.
Sotavento thus spent the greater part of the day in a gentle far
niente, smoking, sleeping, and ruminating plans of vengeance, for
he constantly thought of the two hapless prisoners he had left at the
teocali, whom he was most anxious to rejoin now that he had
escaped such imminent danger. When the sun began to elongate
enormously the shadows of the trees, and its oblique beams had lost
nearly all their heat, the Indian considered it time to start; horse and
rider, well fed and rested, were in a condition to ride a long distance.
Sotavento got up, saddled his horse, and leading it by the bridle to
save it unnecessary fatigue, waded through the ford; when he
reached the other bank, he took a parting glance of gratitude at this
isle, which had offered him such pleasant shelter. Then he mounted,
and whispering to his horse the word "Santiago," he set out, as if
borne on the wings of the wind, in the direction of the desert.
It was not till nine o'clock of the next evening that he reached the
ford of the Río del Norte. He crossed, let his horse breathe for a

while, and henceforth certain that the enemy could not catch him
up, he continued his desperate ride across the savannah. Still, in
spite of his diligence, the Indian did not reach the teocali until the
third evening after his flight. During his absence the number of his
comrades had greatly increased. The messenger he had sent to the
village after the capture of Doña Emilia had returned, bringing with
him all the male and female members of the tribe whom pressing
business did not detain at the atepetl. The Indians were curious to
witness the punishment of the prisoners. With them it was an act of
justice they were about to perform, for the vengeance they had
pursued for so many years was on the point of being consummated.
Sotavento's first care, on reaching the teocali, was to inquire after
his prisoners; they were still calm and resigned. The chief, in his
heart, was vexed at seeing so many warriors assembled; he,
however, concealed his dissatisfaction, and, on the contrary, feigned
great joy, intending, if circumstances demanded it, to act vigorously;
but wishing temporarily to remain neutral, lest he should arouse the
suspicious susceptibility of his comrades, and make them distrustful
about the plans he was meditating. The Stag knew that, in case of
necessity, he could claim the support and assistance of the young
warriors of the tribe, and that he would only have to contend with
the old sachems, in whose hearts no feeling but that of revenge any
longer existed.
The council of the chiefs was assembled at the moment when he
arrived, and he at once proceeded to it. The sachems received him
with great marks of distinction, and congratulated him on the
fortunate result of his expedition; then they informed him of the
measures decided on with respect to the prisoners. These were
simple and terrible; the two ladies would be fastened to the stake on
the next day, tortured for four hours, and then flayed alive and
burnt. The Stag did not wince, he listened to these fearful details
without manifesting the slightest emotion; but when the president of
the council, who was no other than his father, had imparted to him
these resolutions, he asked leave to speak, which was granted him.
Then, in an artful harangue, perfectly suited to the intellect of the

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