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Learning Java
B e g i n n i n g P r o g r a m m i n g w i t h J a v a
F o r D u m m i e s
By
John Bach

For information contact :
(alabamamond@gmail.com, memlnc)
http://www.memlnc.com
First Edition: july 2020
UNITY GAME PROGRAMMING
Copyright © 2020 by ALEXANDER ARONOWITZ

"Programming isn't about what you
know; it's about what you can figure
Chris Pine out.” -

CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
Java Program Execution
BASIC STRUCTURES OF THE JAVA LANGUAGE
A simple program to lang 's ke Java
Comments
Data types and displaced n nye
Constants
Big numbers
Methods for working with large numbers
Operations
Converting numeric types
Cast
Strings
Union with t rock
Substrings
Editing a string
Checking strings for equalit y
Some methods of the String class
Controlling program execution
Block scope

Conditional statement if - else
Multivariate branching - switch statement
While and do - while loops
cycle for
Break statement
The continue statement
Arrays
Copying arrays
Sorting arrays
Arrays Class Methods
Multidimensional array s
Command line parameters
Cantilever th input-you in odes
OBJECTS AND CLASSES
Introduction to Object Oriented Programming
OOP terminology
Differences between OOP and Traditional Procedural Programming
Classes
New operation
An example of using existing classes
Constructors
Method overloading
The this keyword in constructors
A note about data encapsulation
Static fields and methods
Static fields
Static methods
Initialization blocks
Packages
Using packages
Adding a class to a package
Specifying the path to packages
Package scope
JAR files
Class design guidelines

INHERITANCE
Extending classes
Overriding (overriding) methods
Inheritance hierarchy
Polymorphism
Dynamic linking
Preventing Inheritance: Terminal Classes and Methods
Abstract classes
Protected Access ( protected, )
How to apply inheritance
Interfaces
Interface operator
Implements statement
Constants in interfaces
EXCEPTIONAL SITUATIONS
Classification of Exceptions
Declaring Method Exceptions
How to raise an exceptional situation
Creating Exception Classes
Catching exceptions ( t ry - catch block )
Catching multiple exceptions
Re-raising an exception
Finally section
How to use exceptions
I / O STREAMS
Reading and writing bytes
Complete family of threads
Stream filters
Data streams
Direct File Streams
Text streams
Writing text to the output stream

Reading text from an input stream
Working with files on the th system
LETTER T HURRAY
Introduction
The Java language was created in the early 90's as part of a
software development project for consumer electronic devices. The
original new object-oriented programming language was named Oak
(oak) . With the development of network Internet language Oak was
used to create Internet-applications ( eg, n and this language was
written Oak-browser " WebRunner " ) . In 1995, Sun Microsystems
decided to announce a new product, renaming it Java (the only
reasonable explanation for the name is the love of coffee
programmers) , and WebRunner was renamed HotJava .
The Java language is now increasingly used to create " middleware "
that maintains communication between clients and server resources
. In addition, the Java language has taken over the leadership in
embedded systems , becoming the de facto standard for portable
devices , on-board car computers, and so on .
One of the main advantages of the Java language is independence
from the platform on which programs are executed: the same code
can be run under Windows , Solaris , Linux , Macintosh , etc.
Operating systems . Another advantage is that the syntax of the
Java language is similar to the syntax language s C ++ and C . In
addition, Java is a completely object-oriented language, even more
so than C ++. All entities in the Java language are objects, with the
exception of a few primitive types , such as numbers.
In contrast to C ++ , it is easier to develop error-free programs in
Java . The Java language provides tools to eliminate the very
possibility of creating programs that would hide the most common
errors. To do this, the Java language has done the following :

The possibility of explicit allocation and freeing of memory
has been excluded. Java memory is automatically reclaimed
by garbage collection. The programmer is guaranteed
against errors related to misuse of memory ;
Introduced true arrays and disallowed pointer arithmetic.
Now programmers, in principle, cannot erase data from
memory due to improper use of pointers ;
Eliminated the possibility of confusing the assignment
operator with the equality comparison operator . Now you
can not even compile the expression of the if ( a = 3) { ... }
(this error - the source of most confusion in the languages C
and C ++).
Multiple inheritance is excluded. It has been replaced by
the concept of interface a , borrowed from Objective C. An
interface gives the programmer almost everything a
programmer can get from multiple inheritance, while
avoiding the complexity of managing class hierarchies .
Java Program Execution
A program written in a high-level language (called a source module )
cannot be executed immediately . From the beginning it must be
compiled, that is , translated into a sequence of machine instructions
- an object module. For boot th unit I of bektny module n uzhno
build the libraries used in the module and enable the cross-
references between the object module sections
The source module written in the language of the Java , could not
avoid these procedures, but here is shown the main feature of the
technology the Java - the program is compiled directly into machine
instructions, but does not command a particular processor, and in
the team's so-called in irtualn second machine s the Java ( JVM, Java
Virtual Machi ne ). The Java Virtual Machine is a collection of
commands along with their execution system. Note that the virtual
machine Java completely stack, and therefore does not require
complex th addressing of and memory cells and a large of quantity
and registers. By A team JVM short, most of which it has a length of

1 byte, so the JVM command called a byte - code ( bytecodes ),
although there are teams of length 2 and 3 bytes. Full description of
the commands and the entire JVM architecture is contained in a
virtual machine specification the Java (the VMS, the Virtual Machine
specifica tion of ).
Another feature of Java is that all standard functions that are called
in a program are connected to it only at run time, and are not
included in the bytecode. In other words, there is dynamic linking (
dynamic binding ) , which significantly reduces the amount of the
compiled program.
Since a program written in Java is translated by the compiler into the
bytecode of the Java Virtual Machine , it is independent of the type
of processor and architecture of the computer being used .
Therefore, bytecode can be performed and be on any computer with
a system that implements the JVM. In this case, neither the type of
processor nor the architecture of the computer is important. T. e
language. The Java - machine-independent. (Obviously, the
implementation of the Java virtual machine is platform dependent.)
Bytecode interpretation and dynamic linking slow down program
execution significantly. It does not matter when the bytecode before
ae tsya on the network - network slower than any interpretation ;
however , other situations require a powerful and fast computer. To
increase the speed of interpretation p azrabotany JIT-compiler ( "
timely " compilers - the Just - with In - Time The compiler ),
memories have interpreted sections of code to machine CPU and
simply performing these areas when re-treatment, for example, in
cycles. Only a specialized processor can provide the highest speed of
bytecode execution . The company of SUN Microsystems released
the microprocessors picoJava , running on the system JVM
command, e nce and Java-processors of other companies. These
processors directly execute bytecode.
And nterpreta tori JVM commands in a specific processor instructions
designed for virtually all computing platforms. More and more
operating systems and database management systems include JVM
implementation in their core. A special JavaOS operating system has

also been created , which is used in electronic devices. Most
browsers have a built-in Java virtual machine to run applets.
The company of SUN Microsystems - the creator of technology Java
- distributes a set of software tools required for a full cycle of
software development on the language ie Java under the name of
the JDK ( Java Development Kit ). There are toolkits from other
companies .
The JDK suite of programs and classes contains:
javac - source to bytecode compiler;
java - the interpreter containing the JVM implementation;
appietviewer - browser-replacement applet viewer
jdt - debugger;
javap - disassembler;
jar - pro gram archiving and compression (using the
format zip -files);
the javadoc - prog Ranma to generate documentation
from comments ;
javah - generating program language header file C ;
javakey - a program for adding an electronic signature;
native2ascii - a program that converts binary files to text;
rmic and rmiregistry programs for working with remote
objects;
serialver - the program that determines the version
number of the class;
libraries and header files of " built-in " methods;
Library classes Java API (Application Programming
Interface) and others .
The first version of the JDK 1.0 was released in 1996 g ode . Starting
with the version the JDK 1.2, which came out in December 1998 g .,
Food technology Java Company and SUN became and nazyvat sya
Java 2 Platform of Standard Edition , abbreviated J 2 SE , a the JDK
was pereimenova n in Java 2 of Standard Edition the SDK ( Software
Development Kit ) , abbreviated as J 2 SDK . Also issue were Java 2
Enterprise Edition the SDK and Java 2 Micro Edition the SDK . (
However, the very company SUN until now has enjoyed , and the old

name - the JDK .) With the version the JDK 1.6 packages means
development began and nazyvat sya the Java Platform of Standard
Edition Development Kit ( the Java SE ) , the Java Platform
Enterprise Edition the SDK ( the Java EE ) and the Java Platform
Micro Edition SDK ( Java ME ). In addition , SUN separately
distributes a set of JRE ( Java Runtime Environment ) for working
with compiled Java programs .
Basic structures of the Java
language
A simple Java program
Consider a simple program that prints a message to the console
window :
public class FirstSample
{
public static void main (String [] args)
{
System.out.println ("Hello, World!");
}
}
The first and main point is that in the Java language , uppercase and
lowercase letters are strictly distinguished. If , for example, Dialed
amb word Main instead of main , the program will not be executed.
The keyword public is called the access modifier ( access modifier );
such modifiers control access to this code from other parts of the
program. The keyword class reminds us that all of the entities in the
language Java is inside a class , t. E. In Neki x container x , in which
the logic of the program concluded, defining the application. Classes
are the building blocks that make up all applications and applets

written in the Java language . All entities in Java programs must be
inside classes.
The class keyword is followed by the class name. The rules for
generating class names are not too strict. The name must start with
a letter, and the rest of it can be any combination of letters and
numbers. The length of the name is practically unlimited. Java
reserved words (for example, public or if ) cannot be used as a class
name .
Classes are usually called nouns starting with an uppercase letter.
The file containing the source code must be named the same as the
public class and have the extension . j ava .
Compiling the program :
java c FirstSample . java
The Java compiler will automatically name this file FirstSample .
class and will save it in the directory containing the source file.
To redirect error messages to a file ( when working on UNIX or
Windows NT / 2000 / XP platforms ) , just use the 2> operator:
javac FirstSample . java 2> errors . txt
For in the Run eniya byte code and using an interpreter Java n
uzhno dial command
java FirstSample
( no extension . class ) .
When to start from the compiled program, use the command java
ClassName , language interpreter Java always starts with the
implementation of the method main of the specified class.
Therefore, for the program to run at all, the class must contain a
main method .
In accordance with the specification of the language Java method
main must be declared public ( the public ) and static ( static ) .

With lovo void means that the method does not return any value.
The brackets in the source code of a program are used to mark parts
of the program (usually called blocks). In Java, the code of any
method must begin with an opening curly brace and end with a
closing curly brace ({…}) .
By azhdy operator must end with a semicolon. In particular, the end-
of-line character does not mean that the statement is terminated ,
so the statement can span as many lines as needed.
In this example, for a text string output using tsya object System .
out and cause t Xia its method println , in which the text string is
passed as a parameter. Note that period is used to call the method.
In the language of the Java , as well as in the language of s C / C
++ for the designation used strings double quotes.
Java methods can have one or more parameters , or none at all .
Even if the method has no parameters, you must leave empty
parentheses. For example, there is a parameterless version of the
println method that prints an empty string to the screen. Its call
looks like this: System.out.println () .
Comments
Comments in Java , as in most programming languages, are ignored
when compiling a program. Thus, you can add as many comments
to the program as required without fear of increasing its size.
The Java language has three ways to highlight comments in text.
The most common use of two forward slashes is //, whereby the
comment begins immediately after the // characters and continues
to the end of the line. In addition, the delimiters / * and * / can be
used .
T retya variety comments mozh is ispolzovat sya for automatic
generation of documentation. These comments begin with / ** and
end with * /. The javadoc utility is used to automatically generate
documentation . exe .

Data types and variables
The Java language is strongly typed. This means that the type of
each variable must be declared.
In the language of Java , there are eight basic types ( primitive types
) data. Four of them are integers, two - to the actual floating- point,
one is a character type char , used to represent characters in the
format of the Unicode , and the latter - a boolean type boolean - is
used for logical values.
There is no concept of unsigned numbers in Java .
Table 1 . Data types
A type Size in bytes Change interval
int 4 o t - 2147 483648 up to 2147483647
short 2 from -32768 up to 32767
l ong 8
o t -
9223372036854775808L
up to
922337203685477580
7 L
byte 1 o t - 12 8 up to 1 27
float 4
from - 3.4 02823 47 Е
 38 F
up to 3.4 02823 47 E
+ 38 F
double 8
from - 1.7976931348623
1 57 E + 308
D o 1.79769313486231
57 E + 308
char 2 from 0 ( ' u0000 ' )
up to 65535 ( ' uFFFF
' )
Long integers have an L suffix ( for example, 4000000000L).
Hexadecimal numbers are prefixed with 0 x ( for example, 0 xCAFE
or 0 xcafe ). Octal numbers are prefixed with 0. For example, 010 is
8 10 .
Float numbers have an F suffix, for example 3.402F. Floating point
numbers having no suffix F ( e.g., 3.402), are always treated as the
number of type double ( with double precision ) . You can (but not
necessarily) use the D suffix to represent them, for example 3.402D.

All calculations performed on floating point numbers follow the IEEE
754 standard. In particular, the Java language has three special
floating point numbers:
positive infinity (constant Double . POSITIVE _ INFINITY )
;
negative infinity (constant Double . NEGATIVE _ INFINITY
) ;
NaN (not a number) ( constant Double. NaN ) .
They are used to indicate overflow and error. For example, dividing a
positive number by 0 equals positive infinity. Evaluating 0/0 or taking
the square root of a negative number is NaN.
For constants of type char , single quotes are used. For example, ' H
' is a character. It differs from "H" , which is a single character string.
In Java to represent the characters are encoded the Unicode , so the
value of the type as char coded 2-byte of vym code. Unicode is the
union of dozens of character encodings ; it includes Latin, Greek,
Arabic alphabets, Cyrillic and many other character sets.
Unicode character codes are usually expressed as hexadecimal
values

from ' u0000' to ' uFFFF' . The u prefix means that the
character is in Unicode format , followed by four hexadecimal digits
that identify the character. For example, ' u2122 ' is a trademark
(™) symbol .
With quantities of type char mozh but handled as integers . This
makes it possible to add two characters together, or to increment the
value of a character variable :
The Java language has a simple boolean type used to store boolean
values. Variables of this type can take only two values - true (true)
and false (false). Values of type boolean return as a result of all
comparison operators .
Note that the variable name must also begin with a letter and be a
combination of letters and numbers. The terms "letters" and
"numbers" in Java have a broader meaning than in most other
programming languages. Letters are considered Sim oxen ' A' - ' the
Z', 'a' - ' the z ', '_' and any symbol encoding the Unicode . Similarly,

both ordinary decimal digits '0' - ' 9 ' and any Unicode characters
used to denote a digit in any language are considered digits. The
use of other characters in identifiers is prohibited. All characters in
the variable name are important, and the case of the keyboard also
matters. Variable name length is not limited. You cannot use
reserved words as variable names.
In the language of Java size ad is, and determining the e variables
do not differ.
After declaring a variable, you must explicitly initialize it using the
assignment operator. For example :
int vacationDays ; // This is a declaration
vacationDays = 12; // This is an assignment operator
int index = 0 xffffffff ; // -1
long number = 25 L ;
float result = 2.5 F ;
double pi = 3.14159;
char c1 = 0x f132;
char c2 = 'a';
char c3 = ' n';
char c4 = ' u2122 ' ;
boolean done = false ;
The basic form of a variable declaration is as follows:
type identifier [= value] [, identifier [= value 2 ...];
Type - is either one of the built-in types so . e . byte , short , int ,
long , char , float , double , boolean , or the name of a class or
interface.
Constants
The Java language uses the final keyword to denote constants , for
example:
public class Constants
{

{
final double CM_PER_INCH = 2.54 ;
double paperWidth = 8.5;
double PaperHeight = 11;
System . out . the println ( " The size of the page in
inches "
+ paperWidth * CM_PER_INCH + " on "
+ paper H eight * CM _ PER _ INCH );
}
}
The final keyword means that you can assign a value to a given
variable only once. It is not necessary to use only uppercase letters
in constant names .
In the Java language , you often need constants that are available to
multiple methods within the same class. They are usually called class
constants . Class constants are declared using the static final
keywords . Here's an example using a class constant :
public class Constants 2
{
public static final double CM_PER_INCH = 2.54;
{
...
}
}
Note the fact that the class constant is defined outside the main
method . Thus, it can be used in other methods of the same class.
Moreover, if (as in this example) a constant is declared public ,
methods from other classes can also access it. In our example, this
can be done using the expression Constants 2. CM _ PER _ INCH .

Big numbers
If the precision of the built-in integer and floating point types is not
sufficient , you can refer to the two classes in the Java package .
math called Big I nteger and BigDecimal . These classes are
designed to manipulate numbers consisting of an arbitrary number
of digits. The Big I nteger and BigDecimal classes implement
arbitrary precision arithmetic on integers and real numbers,
respectively.
To convert an ordinary number to “ large ”, use the method
valueOf . Big I nteger a = Big I nteger.value O f (100);
The usual mathematical operators “ + ” and “ * ” cannot be applied
to large numbers . Instead, you need to use the add and multiply
methods from the classes to work with large numbers :
Big I nteger with = a . add ( b ); // c = a + b
BigI nteger d = c .multiply (b.add (BigInteger.valueOf (2)));
// d = c * ( b + 2)
Methods for working with large numbers
java.math.Big I nteger 1.1
Big I nteger add (Big I nteger other)
Big I nteger subtract (Big I nteger othe r)
Big I nteger multiply (Big I nteger other)
Big I nteger divide (Big I nteger other)
Big I nteger mod (Big I nteger other)
These functions return the sum, difference, product, quotient, and remainder
of a given large number by the value of other .
int compa reTo (Big I nteg e r other)
Returns 0 if the given large number is equal to the value of other, a negative
number if the given large number is less than the value of other, and positive
otherwise.
static Big I nteger valueOf (long x)
Returns a large number equal to the value of x.

java.mathBigDecimal 1.1
BigDecimal add (BigDecimal other)
BigDecimal subtract (BigDecimal other)
BigDecimal multiply (BigDecimal other)
BigDecimal divide (BigDecimal other, int roundingMod e)
Returns the sum, difference, product, and quotient of a large decimal number
by the value of other . To calculate the quotient, you need to support the
rounding mode. BigDecimal ROUND_HALF_UP means normal rounding (that is
, downward if the last digit is less than 5, and upward if it is greater than 5).
This is sufficient for ordinary calculations. Other rounding modes are described
in the API documentation.
int compareTo (BigDecimal other)
Returns 0 if this number is equal to the value type variable BigDecimal other , a
negative number if this number is less than the value of the variable other ,
and a positive number otherwise.
static BigDecimal valueOf (long x)
static BigDecimal valueOf (long x, int scale)
Returns a large decimal number equal to the value of x or x / 10 sc ale
.
Operations
Any language expression consists of operands (variables, constants,
etc.), connected by operation signs. An operation sign is a symbol or
group of symbols that tells the compiler to perform certain
arithmetic, logical, or other operations.
Operations are performed in a strict sequence. The value that
determines the preemptive right to perform a particular operation is
called priority. Table Figure 2 lists the various Java language
operations . Their priorities are the same for each group (the group
is located between two adjacent horizontal lines). The more
advantage the corresponding group of operations is, the higher it is
located in the table. The order of operations can be adjusted using
parentheses.

Table 2 .
Java Operations
Operation sign Purpose of operation
! Logical negation
~ Bitwise negation
 , + Sign change
+ + Increase by one
  Decrease by one
( type) Ex ivedenie type (e.g., ( float ) a )
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Determination of the remainder of
division
+ Addition
 Subtraction
< < Shift left
>> Shift Right ( Arithmetic )
>>> Shift right ( boolean)
< Less than
< = Less or equal
> More than
> = More or equal
instanceof Checking object ( is there an object
an instance of this class )
= = Equally
! = Not equal
& Bitwise and logical " AND "
^ Bitwise and logical exclusive " OR "
| Bitwise and logical " OR "

&& Logical " AND "
|| Logical " OR "
?: Conditional (ternary) operation
= Assignment
+ =,  =, * =,
/ =, % = , <<
=, >> =, & = , |
=, ^ =
Binary operations (e.g. a * = b
(m. e. a = a * b) , etc.)
To avoid confusion in the concepts of "operation" and "operator",
note that the operator  is the smallest executable unit of the
program. There are expression operators, the action of which is to
evaluate the given expressions (for example: a = b + c ; j ++;),
declaration operators, compound operators, empty operators, label
operators, loop operators, etc. The Java language uses a semicolon
to indicate the end of a statement .
Conversion e numeric types
Solid ones with arrows and in Fig. 1 denote transformations that are
performed without loss of information. The three dashed arrows
indicate transformations that may result in loss of precision. For
example, the number of digits in the large integer 123456 789
exceeds the number of digits that can be represented by the float
type . The number converted to float has the same meaning , but
with slightly lower precision.
int n = 123456789;
float f = n ; // Number n is equal to 1.234567892Е8

Figure: 1. Allowed conversions
If the two values are combined by a binary operator ( e.g., n + f ,
where n - an integer, a f - a floating point number), before
performing the operation, both operands are converted y are in
numbers having the same type .
If at least one of the operands is of type double ,
the second too Conversion from etsya in the number of
type double .
Otherwise, if either operand is float , the second
too Conversion from etsya in the number of type float .
Otherwise, if one operand is long , then the
second, too Conversion from etsya in the number of type
long .
Otherwise, both operands are converted to int
numbers .
Reduction type s
The language Java automatic conversion ( in the case of the numeric
types ) is possible only in the case where the accuracy of number
representation receiver variable enough for storing the initial value.
Such a conversion occurs, for example, when a character constant or
the value of a variable of type byte or short is entered into a variable
of type int . The size of the int type is sufficient to store numbers in
the range allowed for the byte type , so in such situations, an explicit
cast is not required. The converse in most cases is not true, however

for entering a value of type int variable type byte must use opera
tion actuation type ( type casting ) , to the variable int fits into a
variable desired type.
To cast a value to a specific type, you need to specify this type,
enclosed in parentheses, before it. The code snippet below
demonstrates casting from a source (variable of type int ) to the
type of destination (variable of type byte ). If, during such an
operation, the integer value went out of the range allowed for the
byte type , it would be reduced by dividing by modulo by the range
allowed for byte (the result of modulo by number is the remainder of
division by this number).
int a = 100;
byte b = (byte) a;
Automatic conversion type and in expressions can sometimes be the
cause of error messages the compiler. For example, the code below,
although it looks quite correct, results in an error message during
the translation phase. It stores the value 50 * 2 , which must fit into
the byte type (that is , into a byte variable ) . But due to the
automatic conversion of the result type to the int type (since the
number 2 is of the int type by default ), a translator error message is
generated - after all, when an integer is entered into a byte variable
, a loss of precision may occur.
byte b = 50;
b = b * 2;
Corrected text:
byte b = 50;
b = ( b yte ) ( b * 2);
which causes b to enter the correct value of 100.
Strings
Line - is a sequence of characters, such as " the Hello " , submitted
encoded the Unicode . In the language of Java is no built-in type for
strings. Instead, the Java standard library contains a built-in String
class . Each quoted string represents an instance of the String class .

String e = ""; // Empty string
String greeting = "Hello";
Strings are allocated in dynamic memory, the string identifier is, in
fact, a reference to the string.
Concatenating strings
The Java language , like most programming languages, allows you
to use the “ + ” operation to concatenate (concatenate) two strings.
String a = " Hello ,";
String b = " World ! ";
String message = a + b ;
The code above assigns the string " Hello , World ! " To the message
variable . When the string concatenation with a value that is not a
string, the value is converted from etsya string. For example the
code
int age = 1 8 ;
String rating = " PG " + age ;
assigns the string " PG 1 8 " to the rating variable .
This property is widely used in inference statements :
System.out.println ("The answer is " + answer);
Substrings
You can use the substring method of the String class to extract a
substring from a given string. For example the code
String a = " Hello ";
String s = a . substring (0, 4);
forms a string consisting of the characters " Hell " . In the Java
language , characters in a string are numbered from zero (as in the
C and C ++ languages ). For example, the character 'H' in the string
" Hello " is at position zero, and the character 'o' is at position four.
The second parameter of the substring method specifies the position
to which the copy is performed (that is , the elements at index 0, 1,
2, and 3 are copied) .

Editing a string
To determine the length of a string, use the length method , for
example:
int n = greeting.length (); // String length is 5
A single character can be selected from a string . Calling greeting
.charAt (n) returns the Unicode character at position n , where n is
in the range 0 to greeting .length () - 1 , for example:
cha r last = greeting.charAt (4); // The fourth character , ie .
e . - ' o '
By Lass String do not have methods to change the character at a
given with Troc , about dnako variable of type String , you can
assign a new value (ie. E assign. Reference to the string " the Hello "
link on the next line ) :
greeting = " Hello " + ", World ! ";
In this case , new cells are allocated in memory to store the string "
Hello , World !" and the variable greeting gets the address of this
timeline . The memory unit, which stores the value of " the Hello " ,
sooner or later, will be released by a mechanism and automatic
garbage collection.
If you want to change the string , you can use the class om the
StringBuffer .
Checking strings for equalit y
To check if two strings are the same, the equals method should be
used . The Calling up method
s . equals ( t ) ;
returns true if strings s and t are equal, otherwise it returns false .
Note that strings s and t can be both variables and constants. For
example, the expression
" Hello !" equals ( c ommand String );

quite acceptable . To check the identity of strings, ignoring the
distinction between uppercase and lowercase letters, use the equals
I gnoreCase method .
" Hello ". equalsIgnoreCase (" hello "); // Returns true
You cannot use the " ! = " Operation to test strings for equality . He
and checks only if both lines are stored in the same memory area.
Obviously , if both strings are stored in the same place, they must
match. However, it is quite possible that identical strings are stored
in different places.
Some methods of the String class
Class String in the language Java contains more than 50 methods.
Below are the most useful ones. Full list of methods can be found in
the documentation for the Java the API .
Java.lang.String 1.0
char char At (int index)
Returns the character at the specified position .
int compareTo ( String other )
It returns a negative value if the row line precedes other in lexicographic order,
a positive value - if a string other preceded this string in lexicographic order,
and 0 - f If the strings are identical .
boolean endsWith ( String suffix )
Returns true if the string ends with suffix substring .
boolean equals ( Object other )
Returns true if the string is equal to the string other .
boolean equalsIgnoreCase ( String other )
Returns true if the string is equal to the string other, disregarding the
difference between uppercase and lowercase letters.
int index (String str)

Another Random Scribd Document
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water to make salt, and ferment the juice of the sugar-cane to make spirits.
They earn a living by weaving chu pu. They have a ruler. The native
products include laka-wood of middling quality, beeswax, tortoise-shell,
and pearls. These Su-lu pearls are whiter and rounder than those got at Sha-
li-pa-tan (Jurfattan of the Arabs, on Malabar coast), Tisan-kiang (gulf of
Manár), and other places. Their price is very high. The Chinese use them
for head ornaments. When they are off-color they are classed as
“unassorted.” There are some over an inch in diameter. The large pearls
from this country fetch up to seven or eight hundred ting. All below this are
little pearls. Pearls worth ten thousand taels and upwards, or worth from
three or four hundred to a thousand taels, come from the countries of the
western Ocean and from Ti-san-kiang (near Ceylon); there are none here (in
Su-lu). The goods used in trading here are dark gold, trade silver Pa tu-la
cotton cloth, blue beads Chu (choufu) china-ware, pieces of iron, and such
like things. Hsi-yang chao-kung tien-lu, 1.20 (Su-lu) says, “this country is
in the Eastern Sea. Its trade centre is the island of Shih-ch’i. In 1417 its
eastern raja Pa-tu-ko pa-ta-la, its western raja Pa-tu-ko pa-su-li, and its
village raja Pa-tu-ko pa-la-pu came with their wives, children, and headmen
to court with tribute. Again in 1420 there came a tribute mission from Su-lu.
See Rouffaer, op. sup. cit., IV., 391. He gives us the equivalents of these
names, Paduka Bohol, Paduka Suli, and Paduka Prabu. Duarte Barbosa,
203, says of the Sulu (Solor) islands that “all around this island the Moros
gather much seed pearl and fine pearls of perfect color and not round.”

Spanish Unreliability; Early Chinese Rule over
Philippines; and Reason for Indolence in Mindanao
Mr. Salmon’s “Modern History,” London, 1744, Vol. I, pp. 92–93.
The Portuguese were no sooner in possession of Malacca, but they
discovered the Moluccas or Spice islands; at which time Magallanes
returning home and not being rewarded according to his expectations, as
has been hinted above, offered his service to the Emperor Charles the Fifth,
proposing to discover a passage to these very Spice islands by sailing
westward, which he apprehended would bring them within the Emperor’s
share, according to the agreement above mentioned, that all countries which
should be discovered westward should belong to Spain, as all the
discoveries eastward were to belong to Portugal.
The Spaniards who lived to return home again, gave a very extravagant
account of the inhabitants which has since appeared to have little truth in it.
They afterwards sailed into the 50th degree of South latitude, where they
pretended to meet with a monstrous race of giants, which have never been
heard of since; and, among other improbable stories, tell us that their way of
letting blood there was by chopping a great gash in their arms and legs with
a hatchet, instead of using a lancet; and the way of vomiting their patients
was by thrusting an arrow a foot and a half long down their throats.
So little credit is to be given to some discoverers, especially where they
happen to be people of no judgment, and who have little regard for truth, as
it happened in this case where the commander, Magellan, and most of the
officers died in the voyage, and very few besides the common sailors
returned to give an account of the expedition.
Magellan was killed in a skirmish with the natives; having a little before his
death received intelligence that the Molucca islands, which he came out in
search of, were not far distant; and his ships, afterwards pursuing the

voyage, arrived at Tidore, one of the Moluccas, on the 8th day of
November, 1521. In these islands they were kindly received by the
respective Princes and suffered to build a fort and erect a factory at Tidore;
they also left one of their ships which was leaky there to be refitted, which
the Portuguese afterwards took as a prize and ruined their factory.
These islands were probably first peopled from the continent of China,
being formerly under the Emperor of China’s government; who deserted
them, it seems, on account of their being too remote from the rest of his
dominion; but their religious rights, as well as several other customs they
retained when the Spanish came thither, show that the people were of
Chinese extraction.
The Mindanayans are said to be an ingenious, witty people and active
enough when they have a mind to it; but for the most part very lazy and
thievish, and will not work unless compelled to it by hunger; but our author
attributes their want of industry chiefly to the tyranny of the government,
which will not suffer them to enjoy the wealth they acquire, and therefore
they never endeavor to lay up anything.

Bisayans in Formosa
(Dr. Terrien de Lacouperie, Formosa Notes; Hertford, 1887, p. 39.)
There are other evidences of importance, which show that the Chinese were
acquainted with the dark-skinned occupiers of Formosa as originated from
the Philippine Archipelago. The Yang tchou wen Kao (v. Geo. Kleinwachter,
The History of Formosa under the Chinese, p. 345) says that “the island of
Tai-wan (or Formosa), which was formerly called Ki-lung, was originally a
part of the Liu-Kiu state, which was founded by some descendants of the
Ha-la. The author does not say what the Ha-la are, assuming that his
readers are acquainted with that name, so that we must look elsewhere for
the wanted explanations. I find it in the Miao Man hoh tchi (k. III, ff. 6–7),
“A Description of the Miao and Man Tribes,” by Tsao Shu-K’iao of
Shanghai. The entry about that people is amongst those of the South. They
are described as “dark, with deep-set eyes,” a peculiarity which the Chinese
stated to be that of the kun-lun men, as we have seen above. The author of
the Miao Man hoh tchi says also that the Hala do not know the practice of
chewing betel and he proceeds with some details on their clothes and
customs in so far as they are peculiar to themselves, but they are
unimportant. Now these Ha-la of the Chinese are simply the Gala,
commonly Ta-gala, with the usual Ta1 prefix of the Philippine Islands and
the statements agree entirely with the inferences of ethnologists deduced
from travellers’ reports as to the parentship of several tribes of aborigines of
Formosa with the Tagal population of the Philippines.
The Chinese ethnographical notices of the Sung Dynasty on the Liu Kiu
islands, including as it does all the islands from Japan to the Philippines,
states that next to Liu-Kiu lies the country of the P’i-she-ye2 in which we
must I think recognize the Bisayas, the most diffused population of the
Philippines, and next to the Tagalas in importance.

1
2
They made a raid on the coasts of Fuhkien at Tsiuen-tchou during the
period A. D. 1174–1189 and caused a great deal of havoc. They are
described as naked savages with large eyes, greatly covetous of iron in any
shape, using bamboo rafts and a sort of javelin attached by a long string and
which they throw on their enemy (cf. Ma Tuanlin, Wen hien t’ung K’ao;
d’Hervey de St. Denis, Ethnographie de Matouanlin, Vol. 1, p. 425). These
people travelling on rafts could not have come from afar, and therefore may
be supposed to have come over to the Chinese coast from Formosa. In
which probable case, this ought to have resulted from an emigration of them
to the great island.
This prefix does not seem, however, to be genuine in the language, so that the Chinese
have mistaken the first syllable Ta for their own word (adjective preposed) ta “great”, and
dropped it with their usual contempt for foreign nations. But all this is conjectural.
apparently Sanskrit ... some such sound as ... Vaisadja.—Parker (China, London,
1901.)—C.

The Tagalog Tongue
By Jose Rizal
Tagalog belongs to the agglutinative branch of languages. For a long time it
was believed to be one of the dialects of Malay, through that language
having been the first of the family known to Europeans. But later studies,
by comparing the Malay-Polynesian idioms with one another, have
succeeded in showing how slight is the basis for this supposition. The
conjugation of the Tagalog verbs, far from being derived from the Malay
verbs, contains in itself every form of that’s and besides some from other
dialects.
Although in Tagalog as at present spoken and written (slightly different
from ancient Tagalog), there are to be found many Sanscrit, Spanish and
Chinese words, nevertheless the structure of the language still retains its
own distinctive character. These foreign words are stitched to the fabric
much as gems are set in jewels; they could come off and something else be
substituted without the framework losing its form.
Like every other language, Tagalog has its alphabet; composed of five
vowels and fourteen consonants.
The vowels are: A, E, I, O, U.
A is pronounced clear and full as in all other languages. The same may be
said of I and U.
E and O only are found in the last syllable, or in the next to the last when
that begins with the same vowel. In these cases E or O can be likewise
represented by I or U, since the sounds of these final, or penultimate,
vowels partake of both sounds. For example, in mabuti or mabute, the final
I or E sounds like the final Y of the English words pity and beauty, where Y

has a sound intermediate between E and I; leeg or liig is pronounced with a
vowel which resembles E as much as it does I.
In the same way, O in the words dulo, ubod, look, has the value of a vowel
intermediate between O and U.
The consonants are: B, D, G, G̃, H, K, L, M, N, P, R, S, T, Y.

Philippine Tribes and Languages
By Prof. Ferdinand Blumentritt.
Notwithstanding the rich literature concerning the peoples and languages of
the Philippine Archipelago, there is no book or publication in which are
catalogued the names of the tribes and the languages, and this appears the
more inexcusable, since both Spanish and Philippine writers, with few
exceptions, handle these names very carelessly, so that great confusion must
ensue. The prevailing bad form in the Philippines, of transferring the name
of one people or family (Stamm) to another, who possess similarities of any
kind with the first, either in manner of life, or even only in culture grade in
the widest sense of the term, has its counterpart in a second bad fashion of
making several peoples out of one by replacing the folk name with the tribal
names. Only with the greatest pains and thought is it possible to extricate
one’s self from this labyrinth of nomenclature. After thorough search, I am
convinced that many names reported to me must be eliminated, since they
owe their existence to mistakes in penmanship or printing, to ridicule,
misunderstanding, or error, as I have proved in single instances. However, I
have been convinced that by a closer and intelligent exploration of the
archipelago, it would not only be possible to make many corrections,
particularly in orthography, but that new names would also be added,
especially from northern Luzon and from the interior of other islands.
I have introduced into this catalogue all the variations of published names
known to me, and briefly the description of tribal locations and reports on
their culture grades, especially their religion. Besides the Negritos, I
differentiate only Malay peoples (Stamme) in general, because here regard
for different principles of grouping and subdividing of the Malay race
would appear to serve no good end and perhaps prove troublesome.
Obsolete forms of names are carefully marked with a cross. Where I, as
with the Talaos, Mardicas, and Cafres, take note of foreign peoples or castes
on the islands, it is because Spanish authors have erroneously set them

down as Philippine. On the other hand, in order to draw attention to a few
names customary in the country for races and castes, I have included the
following, not belonging here in strict accordance with the title of this
article: Castila, Cimarrones, Indios, Infieles, Insulares, Mestizos, Montaraz,
Peninsulares, Remontados, and Sangley:
Abacas.—Heathen Malay people, who lived in the dense forests of
Caraballo Sur (Luzon). Warlike, probably head-hunters. In the last century
they were Christianized, and in their territory the parish of Caranglan
(province of Nueva Ecija) was founded, where their descendants lived as
peaceful Christians. They have a language of their own, but appear now to
be thoroughly Tagalized.
Abra-Igorots, Igorots of Abra.—Collective title for the head-hunters living
in the province of Abra (Luzon). Belong for the most part to the Guinaanes.
Abulon.—The name of a group of wild peoples living in the mountain
regions of Zambales. They are perhaps identical with the Zambales and
Igorots.
Adang.—A folk with a language of their own, who dwell about a mountain
of the same name in the province of Ilocos Norte. According to the
Augustians P. Buzeta and P. Bravo, they are a mixture of Malays and
Negritos. But the first-named element is more prevalent than the second.
Their customs resemble those of the Apayaos, their next neighbors; still
they do not appear to be head-hunters.
Aeta, see Negrito. (Variants: Aheta, Eta, Aita, Aigta, Ita, Atta, Agta, Inagta,
Até, Atá, etc., from the Tagalog, ita, itim, Malay itam, Bicol, ytom, black).
Agutainos.—Name of the natives of Malay race in the island of Agutaya, in
the Cuyo archipelago (province of Calamianes). They have their own
dialect, called Agutaino; are Christianized and civilized.
Alibaon, Alibabaun.—Not the name of a people, but, it seems, a title of the
Moro chief, settled on the bay of Davao.

Alimut.—This name is cited in the form Igorots of Alimut. Supposed to be
the tribe of head-hunters who lived in June, 1889, in the lately erected
comandancia Quiangan and on the banks of the river Alimut. In this case
they should belong to the Mayoyao or Ifugao family (Luzon).
Altasanes or Altabanes.—In both forms a head-hunting people of
northwestern Nueva Vizcaya (Luzon) is known. The correct spelling of the
name should be decided. They appear to have no language of their own and
perhaps belong to the Mayoyaos and Ifugaos.
Apayaos.—Warlike head-hunters, having their own language and dwelling
in the northwestern portion of the province of Cagayan (Luzon) and the
adjoining portions of Ilocos Norte and Abra. Buzeta and Bravo report that
they are not full-blood Malays, but mixed with Negritos. It must not be
forgotten, however, that the Spanish authors have such mixtures ready
made. Dark hair is a mixture of Negrito blood; clear skin or yellowish is the
result of crossing with Chinese or Japanese. They are partly Christianized.
Some Spanish authors declare their language to be Mandaya, but this is
improbable.
Variants: Apayos, Apoyaos. (Consult also Vol. VIII, folio series of the Royal
Ethnographic Museum in Dresden, by A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg.)
Aripas.—A Malay language, spoken by a peaceable people. They live near
Nacsiping and Tubang (Luzon). They are heathen, but a portion of them
have been converted to Christianity. With these new Christians the village
of Aripa has been founded.
Atas (also Ataas, Itaas).—(1) A powerful people of unknown origin, who
occupy the head waters of the rivers Davas, Tuganay, and Libaganum, and
their country extends in the eastern portion of the province of Misamis
(Mindanao) to the home of the Bukidnones. Little is known about the Atás;
they appear to be a mixture of Negritos and Malays. They have a language
of their own. Their name means “dwellers in highlands.” Variants: Ataas,
Itaas. (2) A mixture of Bicols and Negritos in Camarines Sur. [On the

confounding of Atás with Aetas, consult A. B. Meyer, 1899, p. 18. The Atás
are not pure Negritos.—Tr.]
Até.—Name which the Tagbanuas of Palawan (Paragua) give to the
Negritos.
Atta.—Dialect spoken by the Negritos of the province of Cagayan (Luzon).
Baganis.—No people is known under this name, as Moya erroneously
asserts; it is the title conferred on every Manobo warrior who has slain
seven enemies.
Bagobos.—A heathen and bloodthirsty people of Malay derivation and with
an idiom of their own. Their home is at the foot of the volcano of Apo
(Davao, in Mindanao). There are detached Christian settlements of them.
Balugas.—(1) Collective title for dark mixed people of Malay and Negrito
race, derived from the Tagalog word baloga, “black mixed one.” Balugas
are to be found in several portions of central Luzon. (2) Some authors
identify Aetas with Balugas. Camarca calls the black, woolly savages of the
mountains in Camumusan “Negros Balugas,” so it seems that in certain
regions more or less pure-blooded Negritos were called by this name.
Banaos.—[In northern Luzon. See A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg, in
Vol. VIII, folio series of the Royal Ethnographic Museum, in Dresden.]
Bangal-Bangal.—The Dulanganes are so called by the Moros.
Bangot.—A name conferred on various bands of Manguianes in Mindoro,
for the place and mode of life. So called are (1), by the Socol and
Bulalacao, those Manguianes who inhabit the plains; and (2) those
Manguianes of Mongoloid type who have their dwelling places on the
banks of the streams south of Pinamalayan.
Banuaon.—Name of the Manobos tribe from which the Christian settlement
of Amporo, in the district of Surigao (Mindanao), was formed.

Barangan.—Name borne by those Manguian hordes who occupy the most
elevated stations in the Mangarin Mountains (Mindoro).
Batak.—Another name for the Tinitianos, especially those that dwell in the
neighborhood of Punta Tinitia and the Bubayán Creek, on the island of
Palawan.
Batan.—The inhabitants of Batanes Island were and are enumerated by
Spanish authors among the Ibanags or Cagayanes. According to Dr. T. H.
Pardo this is incorrect, for their idiom differs not only from the Ibanag but
from all others in the Philippines, having the sound of “tsch,” unknown
elsewhere in the archipelago, and a nasal sound like that of the French “en.”
They are therefore to be separated from the Cagayanes.
Bayabonan.—Name of a supposed Malay people with a language of their
own, living as neighbors to the Gamunanges on the mountain slopes
eastward from Tuao, in Cagayan (Luzon). They are heathen and little is
known of them save the name.
Beribi.—Manguianes domiciled between Socol and Bulalacao, living on the
mountains. (Compare Bangot.)
Bicol.—Autonym of those natives of Malay race who inhabit the peninsula
of Camarines in Luzon and some outlying islands. On the arrival of the
Spaniards they were somewhat civilized and had a kind of writing. They are
Christians, still a section of them live under the names Igorots, or
Cimarrones, mostly mixed with Negrito blood, in the wilds of Isarog, Iriga,
Buhi, Caramuan, etc., wild, and plunged in the deepest heathendom. The
official spelling of the name is Vicol. This is clear, since in Spanish the
letter v, especially before e or i, is sounded like German b.
Bilanes.—A Malay people occupying, according to latest accounts, a larger
area than I have attributed to them in my ethnographic chart of Mindanao,
here thoroughly penetrated also by other stocks. The Sarangani islands,
lying off the southern point of Mindanao, are inhabited by them. They are
heathen, of peaceable disposition. Their language is characterized by the
possession of the letter f. The proper form of their name ought to be Buluan,

so that they have the same title as the lake. They must then at first have
been called Tagabuluan (Taga = whence, from there). (Compare
Tagabelies.)
Variants: Buluanes, Buluan, Vilanes, Vilaanes.
Bisayas.—Officially written Visayas. A Malay people who, on the arrival of
the Spaniards, had a culture and an art of writing of their own. They inhabit
the islands named after them, besides the northern and the eastern coast of
Mindanao, with small intrusions of heathen populations that have become
Visayised since the converted tribes—Manobos, Buquidnones, Subanos,
Mandayas, etc., have been taught the Visaya language in the schools. Also
Zamboango and Cottobato show Visaya settlements. Among them are to be
counted the Mundos. At the time of the discovery they painted (or tattooed)
their bodies, on which account they received from the Spaniards the name
of Pintados, which stuck to them even till the eighteenth century. They are
Christians. Their language is divided into several dialects, of which the
Cebuano and Panayano are most important. (Compare Calamiano, Halayo,
Hiliguayna, Caraga. Blumentritt places their number at 2,500,000 and
upward. Globus, 1896, LXX, p. 213.)
Bontok-Igorots.—Collective name of the head-hunting peoples living in the
province of Bontok, to whom also the Guinaanes belong.
Bouayanan.—A heathen folk in the interior of Palawan. The name appears
to mean “crocodile men.”
Buhuanos, Bujuanos.—A heathen folk related to the Igorots (head-
hunters?), dwelling in the province of Isabela de Luzon. They are warlike in
nature.
Bulalacaunos.—A wild people of Malay race (without Negrito mixture?),
having its own (?) idiom. It is to be found in the interior of the northern part
of the island of Palawan (Paragua) and in Calamianes islands.
Buluanes, see Bilanes.

Bungananes.—A warlike, head-hunting (?) people, who live in the
provinces of Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela de Luzon. Except the name, almost
nothing is known of them, and in my view this is not certain.
Bukidnones, Buquidnones.—A heathen Malay people living in the eastern
part of the district of Misamis (Mindanao), from Ibigan to Punta Divata (the
coast is settled chiefly by Visayas), and along the Rio de Tagoloan. Lately
they have been partly Christianized. The Spaniards conferred on them the
name of Monteses, “dwellers in the mountains,” which is a translation of
their name.
Bukil, Buquil.—Name of different Manguiana tribes of Mindoro: (1) the
Manguianes mixed with Negrito blood, whose homes are in the vicinity of
Bacoo and Subaan; (2) those that dwell on the spurs of the mountains
between Socol and Bulalacao, and show a pure Malay type; (3) in
Pinamalayan they are called Manguianes of Mongoloid type, who inhabit
the plains; (4) the Manguianes who dwell on the banks of the rivers are
named Mangarin. In view of the fact that Bukil is identical with Bukid, and
can be applied only to tribes living in mountain forests, it appears to me that
the settlements given under 3 and 4 are incorrect.
Buquitnon.—A “race” by this name, on the island of Negros, until recently
unknown (used in La Oceañía Española, Manila, August 9, 1889, copied
from the Provenir de Visayas.) The Buquitnon are said to be a heathen tribe
of about 40,000 souls that has its homes on the mountains of Negros, not
massed together and not to be distinguished from the Visayas living on the
coast. Whether the Carolanos are identical with them is hard to say. The
name Buquitnon and also Buquidnon in Mindanao means mountaineers,
upland forest dwellers, yet are the Buquitnon, of Negros, and the
Buquidnon, of Mindanao, to be strongly distinguished from each other.
Buriks.—Under this name figures a pretended Igorot people in all
publications devoted to the Igorots, but Dr. Hans Meyer found that Burik
applies to any Igorot who is tattooed in a certain manner. I did not believe
this until a Philippine friend, Eduardo P. Casal, wrote that the Igorots in the

Philippine Exposition in Madrid, in 1887, had confirmed the statement of
Dr. Meyer.
Busaos.—From Spanish accounts the Busaos are a separate division of
Igorots. Dr. Hans Meyer has reported that the Basaos, or Bisaos, through
manner, costume, and custom, are to be numbered rather with the Guiaanes
and Bontok-Igorots than with the Igorots proper.
Cafres.—No native people by this name. The Papuan slaves brought to
Manila by the Portuguese at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of
the seventeenth century were so called. (The abolition of slavery under
Philip II arrested this traffic.)
Cagayanes.—A Malay language group. Their dwelling places are the Rio
Grande de Cagayan (Luzon) from Furao to the mouth, the Babuyanes and
Batanes islands, although the people of the last named are by some authors
made an independent stock. (Compare Batan.) The Cagayanes had at the
time of the Spanish discovery a civilization of their own. They are
Christians. Their language is Ibanag. From them are to be sharply
discriminated the people of Cagayan, in Mindanao, belonging to the
Visayan stock.
Calaganes.—A small Malayan people who live on the Casilaran Creek
(Bay of Davao, Mindanao). Partly converted to Christianity.
Calamiano.—Buzeta and Bravo understand by Calamiano a Visaya dialect
which was made up of Tagalog mixed with Visaya and spoken by the
Christians of northern Palawan (Paragua) and Calamianes islands. Pere Fr.
Juan de San Antonio has preached in Calamiano and composed in it a
catechism. The existence of the Calamiano language should therefore be
unassailable, but A. Marche has declared that it does not exist.
Calauas (pronounced Calawas).—A Malay people, heathen and peaceable.
They live near Malauec, in the valleys of the Rio Chico de Cagayan
(Luzon), and on the strip of land called Partido de Itavés. Their language is
called Itavés also, but others declare their speech to be identical with the
Malauec. The portion of the Calauas who hold the Itavés land are by some

authors called Itaveses. I am not sure whether there may not have been a
misunderstanding here.
Calibuganes.—So are called in western Mindanao the mixtures of Moros
and Subanos.
Calingas.—(1) In northern Luzon, Calinga is the collective designation for
“wild” natives, independent heathen, as, in northwestern Luzon, the word
Igorot is applied. (2) This term is specially attached (a) to that warlike
people of Malay descent who live between Rio Cagayan Grande and Rio
Abulug, and are marked by their Mongoloid type; (b) according to Semper,
also the Irayas. (See Die Calingas, by Blumentritt, in Das Ausland, 1891,
No. 17, pp. 328–331.)
Camucones, Camocones.—Name of the Moro pirates who inhabit the little
islands of the Sulu group east of Tawi-Tawi, and the islands between these
and Borneo; but on the last the name Tirones is also conferred.
Cancanai, Cancanay.—Igorot dialect spoken in the northwest of Benguet.
Caragas.—In older works are so named the warlike and Christian
inhabitants of the localities subdued by the Spaniards on the east coast of
Mindanao, and, indeed, after their principal city, Caraga. It has been called,
if not a peculiar language, a Visaya dialect, while now only Visaya (near
Manobo and Mandaya) is spoken, and an especial Caraga nation is no
longer known. I explain this as follows: Already at that time newly arrived
Manobos and Mandayas were settled who spoke Visaya only imperfectly.
This Visaya muddle and the mixture of Visayas and newcomers are to be
identified with the Caraga, if in the end, under the first, the Mandaya is not
to be directly understood.
Variants: Caraganes†, Calaganes (to be distinguished from Calaganes of
Davao), Caragueños (now the name of the inhabitants of Daraga la Nueva
and Caraga.)
Carolanos.—Diaz Arenas so designates the heathen and wild natives who
inhabit the mountain lands of Negros, especially the Cordillera, of Cauyau.

They appear to be of Malay stock, transplanted Igorots from Negros.
Practically nothing is known concerning them. Compare Buquitnon.
Castilas.—Native name for Spaniards and other Europeans in the
Philippine Islands.
Catalanganes.—A Malay people of Mongoloid type. They live in the flood
plain of the Catalangan river (province of Isabela de Luzon). They are
heathen and peaceable, and have the same language as the Irayas. (Half
Tagala and half Chinese, Brinton, American Anthropologist, 1898, XI, p.
302.)
Cataoan.—A dialect spoken by the Igorots of the district of Lepanto, living
in the valley of the Abra River.
Catubanganes, or Catabangenes.—Warlike heathen, settled in the
mountains of Guinayangan, in the province of Tayabas (Luzon). Through
lack of available information nothing can be said about their race
affiliations, whether they be pure Malay or Negrito-Malay. They are
probably Remontados mixed with Negrito blood and gone wild.
Cebuano.—Dialect, Visaya.
Cimarrones.—This characterization (“wild,” “gone wild”) is given to
heathen tribes of most varied affiliations, living without attachment and in
poverty, chiefly posterity of the Remontados. (See note by A. B. Meyer,
1899, p. 12.—Translator.)
Coyuvos.—The natives of Cuyo archipelago (province of Calamianes), with
exception of those who belong to the stock of Agutainos. According to A.
Marche, the Coyuvos appear to be Christianized Tagbanuas. For that reason
would the idiom called official Coyuvo be the Tagbanua.
Culamanes.—Another name for the Manobos, who live on the southern
portion of the east coast of Davao Bay, the so-called coast of Culaman.

Dadayag.—A Malay people, who occupy the mountain wilds in the western
part of Cabagan (province of Cagayan). They have a language of their own
and are warlike heathen as well as head-hunters.
Variant: Dadaya.
Dapitan (Nacion de)†.—Title conferred in the sixteenth century on the
Visayas of the present comandancia of Dapitan (province of Misamis,
Mindanao).
Dayhagang†.—According to S. Mas, before the arrival of the Spaniards,
the progeny of Borneo-Malays and Negrito women were so called.
Dulanganes.—This heathen people occupy the southern part of the district
of Davao. The name signifies “wild men.” It is not known whether they are
pure bloods or Malays with infusion of Negrito blood. I believe that the
Malay type predominates. Since they also bear the name of Gulanganes,
perhaps, more properly, it is to be suspected that they form with the
Mangulangas, Manguangas, and Guiangas (q. v.) a single linguistic group,
or at least a stock closely related to them. This is merely a conjecture. By
the Moros they are called Bangal-Bangal.
Dumagat.—A name conferred on the Negritos of the northeast coast of
Luzon and by older non-Spanish writers on coast dwellers of Samar, Leyte,
and Mindoro. Latterly it has come about that the Tagal name Dumagat
(from dagat, “sea,” “dweller on the strand,” “skillful sailor,” etc.) has been
taken for the name of a people. (A. B. Meyer, 1899, p. 11, calls the
Dumagates Negrito half-breeds of the island of Alabat, quoting Steen Bille,
Reise der Galathea, 1852, Vol. I, p. 451.—Translator.)
Durugmun.—The Manguianes of Mongoloid type are so called who occupy
the highest portions of the mountains around Pinamalayan (Mindoro). They
are called also Buchtulan.
Etas, see Negritos.

Gaddanes.—A Malay head-hunting people, with a language of their own,
settled in the provinces of Isabela and Cagayan, but especially in the
comandancia of Saltan (Luzon). The Gaddanes of Bayombong and Bagabag
are Christians; the rest are heathen.
Gamungan, Gamunanganes.—A Malay people having their own idiom, and
inhabiting the mountain provinces in the eastern and northeastern portions
of Tuao (province of Cagayan, Luzon). They are heathen.
Guiangas, Guangas.—A Malay people in the northeastern and northern part
of Davao (Mindanao). They are heathen and do not differ greatly from the
Bagobo, their neighbors; on the other hand, according to the accounts of the
Jesuit missionaries, their speech differs totally from those of the heathen
tribes near by, and for that reason it is difficult to learn. On account of their
wildness they are much decried. The variants, Guanga and Gulanga, which
mean “forest people,” give rise to the bare suspicion that they are a
fragment of the little-known tribe who, according to location, lived
scattered in southern Mindanao under the names: Manguangas,
Mangulangas, Dulanganes.
Guimbajanos (pronounced Gimbahanos).—The historians of the
seventeenth century, under this title, designated a wild, heathen people,
apparently of Malay origin, living in the interior of Sulu Island. Their name
is derived from their war drum (guimba). Later writers are silent concerning
them. In modern times the first mention of them is by P. A. de Pazos and by
a Manila journal, from which accounts they are still at least in Carodon and
in the valley of the Loo; it appears that a considerable portion of them, if
not the entire people, have received Islam.
Variants: Guinbajanos, Guimbanos, Guimbas, Quimpanos.
Guinaanes (pronounced Ginaanes).—A Malay head-hunting people
inhabiting the watershed of the Rio Abra and Rio Grande de Cagayan
(Luzon), as well as the neighboring region of Isabela and Abra. They are
heathen; their language possesses the letter f.

Variants: Guianes, Ginan, Quinaanes, Quinanes. (See A. B. Meyer, with A.
Schadenberg, Volume VIII, folio series, Royal Ethnographic Museum,
Dresden, 1890.)
Gulanga, see Guianga.
Gulanganes, see Dulanganes.
Halaya†.—A Visaya dialect spoken in the interior of Panay.
Haraya.—A Visaya dialect spoken in the interior of the island of Panay,
nearly identical with the foregoing.
Hiliguayna†.—A Visaya dialect spoken on the coast of the island of Panay.
Variants: Hiligueyna, Hiligvoyna.
Hillunas, Hilloonas, see Illanos.
Ibalones†.—Ancient name of Bicols, especially those of Albay.
Ibanag.—Name of the language spoken by the Cagayanes. They possess the
letter f.
Idan, Idaan.—The Idan, sought by non-Spanish authors on the islands of
Palawan (Paragua) and Sulu, have not been found.
Ifugaos.—A dreaded Malay head-hunting people who inhabit the provinces
of Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela and the lately formed comandancia of
Quiangan. To them belong the Quianganes, Silipanos, etc. They are
heathen. Their language possesses the sound of f.
Ifumangies.—According to Diaz Arenas, this name applies to a tribe of
Igorots who were then (1848) in the province of Nueva Vizcaya. The f in
their name leads to the suspicion that they are Ifugaos.
Ibilaos.—A Malay head-hunting people, having also apparently Negrito
blood in their veins. They are heathen and inhabit the border lands of Nueva
Vizcaya and Nueva Ecija.

Igorots.—With the name Ygolot the first chroniclers characterized the
warlike heathen who now inhabit Benguet, therefore the pure Igorots. Later,
the name extended to all the head-hunters of northern Luzon; still later it
was made to cover the Philippine islanders collectively, and to-day the title
is so comprehensive that the name Igorot is synonymous with wild.
According to Hans Meyer, the name applies only to the Igorots of Lepanto
and Benguet, who speak the dialects Inibaloi, Cancanai, Cataoan, and a
fourth (Suflin?), that of the Berpe Data.
Variant: Ygolot, Ygulut.
(A Chinese-Japanese Tagala group. Brinton, Amer. Anthropologist, 1898,
XI, p. 302. Consult A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg, in Vol. VIII, folio
series of the Royal Ethnographic Museum, in Dresden, 1890; and Die
Igoroten von Pangasinan, F. Blumentritt, in Mittheil. T. K. K. Geogr.
Gesellschaft in Wien, 1900. hft. 3 u. 4.)
Ilamut.—Name of an Igorot tribe always mentioned together with that of
Altsanes. If this tribe really exists, its home is in the Cordilleras which
separate Benguet from Nueva Vizcaya, and is to be sought, indeed, in the
last-named province, especially in Quiangan. They may be identical with
the Alimut.
Ilanos, Illanos.—The Moros dwelling in the territory of Illano, Mindanao.
Their name should be connected with Lanao, “lake,” since their land
incloses Lake Dagum, or Lanao. This conjecture is strengthened through the
names Lanun, Lanaos, Malanaos, existing in the neighborhood. (Consult A.
B. Meyer, 1899, p. 18, on the Hillunas, “Correcting Quatrefages and Hamy
Crania Ethnica,” 1882, p. 178, where they are called Negrito.—Translator.)
Ileabanes.—According to Diaz Arenas there existed an Igorot tribe of this
name (1848) in the province of Nueva Vizcaya.
Ilocanos.—A Malay people, with language of their own. At the discovery
they had their peculiar culture and an alphabet. They inhabit the provinces
of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Union, and form the civic population of Abra,
whose Tinguian peasants they Ilocanise. Since they are fond of wandering,

their settlements are scattered in other provinces of Luzon, as Benguet,
Pampanga, Cagayan, Isabela de Luzon, Pangasinan, Zambales, and Nueva
Ecija. They are to be found as far as the east coast of Luzon. They are
Christians and civilized. (The Ilocanos of the northwest are markedly
Chinese in appearance and speech. Brinton, Amer. Anthropologist, 1898,
XI, p. 302. Consult A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg, in Vol. VIII, folio
series, of the Royal Ethnographic Museum in Dresden, 1890.)
Ilongotes.—A Malay people of apparent Mongoloid type, inhabiting the
borders of Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, and Principe, and known also in Nueva
Ecija. They are bloodthirsty head-hunters. (In the eastern Cordillera, a
rather pure but wild Tagala horde. Brinton, American Anthropologist, 1898,
p. 302.)
Indios.—Under this title the Spanish understand the non-Mohammedanized
natives of Malay descent, especially those Christianized and civilized.
Infieles.—Heathen, uncivilized peoples of Malay descent; were so named
by the Spaniards.
Inibaloi.—Name of the dialect spoken by the Igorots Agnothales.
Insulares.—Spaniards born in the Philippine Archipelago.
Irapis.—After Mas, a subdivision of Igorots.
Irayas.—A Malay people mixed with Negrito blood, who dwell south of the
Catalanganes and in the western declivities of the Cordillera of Palanan
(Luzon). They speak the same language as the Catalanganes, and are
likewise heathen. Their name seems to mean “dwellers on the plains,”
“owners of plains.” To them the collective name Calinga is applied.
(Consult A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg, in Vol. VIII, folio series, of the
Royal Ethnographic Museum in Dresden, 1890.)
Isinays (Isinayas, Isinay).—In the eighteenth century the heathen
population of the then mission province of Ituy were so called, which
includes the present communities of Aritao, Dupax, Banibang, Bayombong

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