Lecture on Research Methodology
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This document provides an overview of research methodology in public health and life sciences. It discusses key concepts like the meaning of research and health systems research. It outlines the importance of research, roles of health research, and desirable qualities of researchers. It also covers research phases, types of research like descriptive vs analytical and qualitative vs quantitative. It discusses classifying health research and finding research problems. The document aims to introduce important foundations for conducting research in public health.
![Research problemResearch problem
• A research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the
best solution for it.
• A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about
an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be
eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in
theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does
not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or
present a value question.
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Lecture on Research Methodology
- 1. Notes on Research Methodology in Public Health and Life ScienceNotes on Research Methodology in Public Health and Life Science Presented by Prof. Dr. Md. Nazrul Islam MondalProf. Dr. Md. Nazrul Islam Mondal Department of Population Science and Human Resource Development University of Rjshahi Rajshahi-6205, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected] Presented to the Seminar onPresented to the Seminar on Importance of Research Methodology in Public Health & Life Science University of South Asia Banani, Dhaka-1213, Bangladesh 1
- 2. OutlinesOutlines – Meaning of research and research methodology – Research objectives – Motivation of research – Research phases – Desirable qualities of research – Types of research – Research problem and ways to find out – Justifying the merit of research proposal – Research design – Data collection – Article structure – Issues of health research 2
- 3. Meaning of research and research methodologyMeaning of research and research methodology ResearchResearch A scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc. It is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate new knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem. Health research Health research is the application of principles of research on health. It is the generation of new knowledge using scientific method to identify and deal with health problems. 3
- 4. Health system researchHealth system research • It is an important component of health research • Health systems support is a core focus of the SDGs. • This is reflected by the fact that UHC is central to the overall health goal as set out in the SDG declaration, and is assigned a specific target (3.8) under the SDG health goal. 4
- 5. ImportanceImportance of researchof research • Research teaches scientific and acceptable thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization. • Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in the economic system. • Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of health system, business and industry. • Research is equally important for health scientists in studying health factors’ relationships and in seeking answers to various health problems. 5
- 6. Roles of health researchRoles of health research • The public health research aims to provide all aspects of information necessary for planning and the effective implementation of a health system. For all communities, whether rich or poor, health research is the top priority. • The research questions are challenging: how to join with policy makers and communities in assessing priority needs, planning, financing and implementing programs, and evaluating them in terms of coverage, efficiency and effectiveness. 6
- 7. ResearchResearch mmethodologyethodology • A way to solve the research problem systematically and scientifically. • The instruction of the acceptable ways of doing research • Defines: –How to proceed –How to measure progress –What constitutes a success 7
- 8. A methodology aims at answering the questionsA methodology aims at answering the questions i. What kind of people were interviewed? ii. How the research problem has been defined? iii. In what way and why the research hypothesis has been formulated? iv. How many individuals provided the answers on which the researcher’s conclusions were based? v. What categories and techniques were used to analyze data? vi. What level of evidence was used to determine whether or not to reject the stated hypothesis? 8
- 9. Objectives of researchObjectives of research The main aim of a research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not ben discovered yet. • To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. • To illustrate accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. • To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else. • To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies). 9
- 10. Motivation of researchMotivation of research What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. So, the possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: oTo get research degree along with its consequential benefits oTo face the challenge in solving unsolved problems oTo get intellectual joy of doing some creative works oTo be of service to society oTo get respectability 10
- 12. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivationIntrinsic and extrinsic motivation • Intrinsic motivation - the love of the work itself. Intrinsic motivations include: interest; challenge; learning; meaning; purpose; creative flow. • The higher levels of intrinsic motivation are strongly linked to outstanding creative performance. • Extrinsic motivation - rewards for good work or punishments for poor work. Extrinsic motivations include: money; fame; awards; praise; status; opportunities; deadlines; commitments; bribes; threats. • Too much focus on extrinsic motivation can block creativity. 12
- 13. Personal and interpersonal motivationPersonal and interpersonal motivation • Personal motivation - individual values, linked to personality. Examples include: power; harmony; achievement; generosity; public recognition; authenticity; knowledge; security; pleasure. • Each of us prioritizes some values over others; understanding your own values and those of people around you is key to motivating yourself and influencing others. • Interpersonal motivation - influences from other people. Much of our behavior is a response to people around us, such as: copying; rebellion; competition; collaboration; commitment; encouragement. 13
- 14. Thus, all four of those factors are important to get success in a research activity 14
- 15. Researchers’ characteristicsResearchers’ characteristics • A strong foundation for the research is the querying/asking attitude. • Everything and anything is questionable and these questions make way for a research. So a researcher should carry out the research continuously. • Knowledge in the arena of proposed research topic, analytical/ numerical/experimental skills are the prerequisites for a researcher. • The hard work, consistency and immense patience are a few desirable qualities of a researcher apart from the skills and knowledge . • A researcher needs to be committed to the research work to find fruits in the research. 15
- 16. Phases of researchPhases of research – Idea-generating phase – Problem-definition phase – Procedures-design phase – Observation phase – Data-analysis phase – Interpretation phase – Communication phase 16
- 17. Types of Research Library research Fileld research Laboratory research Again it has been classified as: • Descriptive vs. Analytical • Applied vs. Fundamental • Quantitative vs. Qualitative • Conceptual vs. Empirical 17
- 18. Classification of health researchClassification of health research • Health research is the application of principles of research on health. • In most cases, health research has been divided into three overlapping groups: – i. Essential health research – Ii. Clinical health research – Iii. Biomedical research 18
- 19. 19 Discussion of the types of research 1. Descriptive vs. analytical research • Descripetive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquires of different kinds. The major purpose of it is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. • In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the materials.
- 20. 20 2. Applied vs. fundamental • Research can be either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (or basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization. • The fundamentamental research is mainly concentrated with generatizations and with the formulation of a theory.
- 21. 21 3. Qualitative vs. quantitative • Qualitative research is based on the measurement of ammount. It is applicable to the phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. • Qualitative research is concerened with qualitative phenomenon. • It is especially important in the behavioral siences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. • Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with: why? How? In what way? • Quantitative researchQuantitative research, on the other hand, is more concerned with questions about: how much? How many? How often? To what extent? etc.
- 22. 22 4. Conceptual Vs. emperical • Conceptual research involves investigation of thoughts and ideas and developing new ideas or interpreting the old ones based on logical reasoning. • In contrast empirical research is based on firm verifiable data collected by either observation of facts under natural condition or obtained through experimentation.
- 23. Research problemResearch problem • A research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for it. • A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question. 23
- 24. Ways of finding a problem • Brain storming is the best way of finding a research problem; • Problems are raised in the current news papers and professionals journals; • Many reseach papers, theses and dissertations raise many issues which could not solve. These may be used as good sources of problems; • Seminars, wrkshops and conferences disuss many social, political, economic and other problems, • Some organizations ask for dealing with specific problems; • Problems are raised in encyclopedia; • Problems are also raised in the books of relavant subjects and so on. 24
- 25. Desirable qualities of research proposalDesirable qualities of research proposal • Purpose clearly defined • Research process detailed • Research design planned • Ethical issues considered • Limitations revealed • Adequate analysis ensured • Findings unambiguously presented • Conclusion justified • Researcher’s experiences reflected 25
- 26. Justifying the merit of a research proposalJustifying the merit of a research proposal i. Relevance ii. Avoidance of duplication iii. Feasibility iv. Political acceptability v. Applicability vi. Urgency of data need, and vii. Ethical acceptability. 26
- 27. Evaluating the proposed research 1. Relevance Scores i. Not relevant 1 ii. Relevant 2 iii. Very relevant 3 27
- 28. 2.2. Avoidance of duplicationAvoidance of duplication ScoresScores i. Sufficient information already available 1 ii. Some information available but major issues not covered 2 iii. No sound information available to base problem solving 3 28
- 29. 3.3. FeasibilityFeasibility ScoresScores i. Not feasible considering available resources 1 ii. Feasible considering available resources 2 iii. Very feasible considering available resources 3 29
- 30. 4. Political AcceptabilityPolitical Acceptability ScoresScores i. Not acceptable to high level policymakers 1 ii. More or less acceptable 2 iii.Fully acceptable 3 30
- 31. 5. ApplicabilityApplicability ScoresScores i. No chance of recommendations being implemented 1 ii. Some chance of recommendations being implemented 2 iii.Good chance of recommendations being implemented 3 31
- 32. 6.Urgency Scores i. Information not urgently needed 1 ii. Information could be used right away but a delay of some months would be acceptable 2 iii.Data very urgently needed for decision making 3 32
- 33. 7.7. Ethical acceptabilityEthical acceptability ScoresScores i. Major ethical problems 1 ii. Minor ethical problems 2 iii.No ethical problems 3 33
- 34. Research designResearch design It is an arrangement of conditions for collecting and analyzing data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Specifically, a research design will be aimed at answering broadly the following questions: i. What techniques will be used to gather data? ii. What sampling methods will be employed? 34
- 35. 35 Research design satisfy the following questionsResearch design satisfy the following questions i. What is the study about? ii. Why is the study being made? iii. Where will the study be carried out? iv. What type of data is required? v. Where can the required data be found? vi. What periods of time will the study include? vii. What will be the sample design? viii. What techniques of data collection will be used? ix. How will the data be analyzed? x. In what style will the report be prepared?
- 36. Methods of data collectionMethods of data collection Types of Data Data are the raw materials for research. Investigators generates data through some processes of measurement, counting or observations. The tools and techniques to be employed to collect data depend largely on the objectives of the study. There are two types of data: i Primary Data The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happened to be original in character. ii. Secondary Data The secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. 36
- 37. Method of collection of primary data There are four methods of collection of primary data: (i) Observation Method (ii) Interview Method (iii) Questionnaire Method (iv) Schedule Method 37
- 38. Sources of secondary dataSources of secondary data There are seven sources of secondary data: (i) Various publications of local and central government (ii) Various publications of foreign government or international bodies (iii) Technical and trade journal (iv) Books, magazine and news papers (v) Reports and publications of various association connected with business and industry, bank, stock exchange etc. (vi) Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economist etc. (vii) Public report and statistics, historical documents and other published documents. 38
- 39. Data analytical tools and softwareData analytical tools and software • To analyze the data some statistical tools are used. • Central tendency, dispersion, correlation, Chi- squared test, regression analysis (simple, multiple, logistic, etc.), path analysis, etc. • Software: SPSS, STATA, R, MATLAB, MedCal, etc. 39
- 40. Research at a glanceResearch at a glance • Article structure 40
- 41. Article structureArticle structure • -Title: Factors Affecting Child Malnutrition in Bangladesh • Authors with institutions, Field of study, Corresponding author with full address • Abstract • Background: • Methods: • Results: • Conclusions: • Keywords: 41
- 42. Introduction •Brief description of the study field •Global situation •Country situation and study area situation (set up arguments to select the study area) •Literature review (related to the study field, study area; most recent articles are suggested) •Importance of the study (rationale of the study) •Identify the research gaps •Objectives •Expected benefits 42
- 43. Data and methodsData and methods • Data sources • Sapling design (sample size, sample size determination technique, data collection techniques, time frame, Ethical consideration, …) • Variables selection (Dependent, independent variables selection, cofactors, … ) • Statistical tools (brief description) • Statistical software with reference 43
- 44. • Results • Presentation the results in Tables • Indicate the most important results (only significant results) • Discussion • Explain the results and compare the results with previous studies • Give a brief description and raise the arguments in favor the results obtained • Explain why these results differ (if any) from others • Limitations of the study and further study • Conclusions • Conclusion would the summary of the results • Recommendations would be on the basis of the results 44
- 45. • Acknowledgements: • Authors’ contributions: • Conflict of interest: • Abbreviations: • References: • Tables • Figures • Appendix 45
- 46. Recent issues of public health researchRecent issues of public health research 46 i. Over population ii. Higher and lower fertility iii. Higher life expectancy and healthy life expectancy iv. Trade name versus generic name of drugs v. Polypharmacy vi. Healthcare management vii. Health system viii. Drug ingredients ix. Street foods x. Obesity xi. Caesarian section xii. Antibiotic consumption xiii. Late marriage or less marriage xiv. HTN xv. Infertility, etc
- 47. 47
- 48. World Population Trend/Population Dynamics: 2000 years ago 250 million population 1800 978 million 1900 1650 million 1950 2.5 billion 1970 3.6 billion 1980 4.4 billion 1985 4.8 billion 2000 6 billion 2016 7.4 billion
- 49. Rank Country Highest TFR Country Lowest TFR 1 Niger 7.6 Korea, South 1.2 2 South Sudan 6.7 Romania 1.2 3 Congo Dem. Rep 6.5 Singapore 1.2 4 Chad 6.4 Taiwan 1.2 5 Somalia 6.4 Bosnia-Herzegovina 1.3 6 Burundi 6.1 Greece 1.3 7 Angola 6.0 Moldova 1.3 8 Mali 6.0 Poland 1.3 9 Mozambique 5.9 Portugal 1.3 10 Uganda 5.8 Spain 1.3 49 Top 10 countries with the highest and lowest TFR, 2016
- 50. Rank Country 2015 population (in millions) Country 2050 population (in millions) 1 China 1376 India 1705 2 India 1311 China 1348 3 USA 322 Nigeria 399 4 Indonesia 258 USA 389 5 Brazil 206 Indonesia 321 6 Pakistan 189 Pakistan 310 7 Nigeria 182 Brazil 238 8 Bangladesh 161 Bangladesh 202 9 Russian Federation 143 Dem. Rep. of the Congo 195 10 Mexico 127 Ethiopia 188 50 Top 10 countries with the largest populations, 2015-2050
- 51. Rank Country Population density (Number of people/km2 ) 1 Macau 20,848.01 2 Monaco 15,254 3 Singapore 7,987.52 4 Hong Kong 6,442.65 5 Gaza Strip 5,045.5 6 Gibraltar 4,490 7 Holy See (Vietnam City) 1,913.64 8 Bahrain 1,729.06 9 Maldives 1,320.79 10 Malta 1,305.87 51 Top 10 densely populated countries
- 52. 52 Effects of overpopulation • High birth rates • Lower life expectancies • Lower levels of literacy • Child poverty • Higher rates of unemployment, especially in urban • Poor diet with ill health and diet-deficiency diseases (e.g. rickets) • Low per capita GDP • Increasingly unhygienic conditions • Government stretched economically • Increased crime rates resulting from people stealing resources to survive
- 53. Top ten highest IMR countries, 2015 1 Afghanistan 112.80 2 Mali 100.00 3 Somalia 96.60 4 Central African Republic 88.40 5 Guinea-Bissau 87.50 6 Chad 87.00 7 Niger 82.80 8 Angola 76.50 9 Burkina Faso 73.80 10 Nigeria 71.20 53
- 54. Population clock, 2016Population clock, 2016 World More developed countries Less developed countries PopulationPopulation 7,418,151,841 1,254,309,821 6,163,84,2020 Births perBirths per Year 147,183,065 13,714,857 133,468,215 Day 403,241 37,575 365,666 Minute 280 26 254 Death perDeath per Year 57,387,752 12,580,616 44,807,108 Day 157,227 34,467 122,759 Minute 109 24 85 NaturalNatural increaseincrease Year 89,795,313 1,134,242 88,661,107 Day 246,015 3,108 242,907 Minute 171 2 169 InfantInfant deaths perdeaths per Year 5,226,233 65,229 5,160,998 Day 14,318 179 14,140 Minute 10 0.1 10 54
- 55. World population highlightsWorld population highlights 2.8 million Metric tons of carbon emitted by China in 2013, almost four times the level of 1992 50% Percentage of the population in Niger that is less 15 years old $600 GNI per capita of the Central African Republic 54% Percentage of the world’s population living in urban areas 4.9 Average TFR in Eastern African countries 729 million Projected population of Europe, down from 740 in 2016 38 Infant deaths per 1000 live births in Bangladesh 34% Percentage of people in the lest-developed countries with access to electricity, compared to 85% globally 8.3 years Suffering from disability, since global LE (71.4 years) and HLE (63.1 years) 55
- 56. 1360 per1360 per 100,000100,000 Highest maternal mortality in Sierra Leone and in Bangladesh 176 2.1 million2.1 million New HIV infection 17.0 million living with HIV 10.5 million10.5 million Living with TB globally 4.5 million In South-East Asia 362,000 people newly TB infected in 2015 in Bangladesh takes place 7th 31 % Deaths occurred by CVD globally 212 million Malaria cases and 429 000 deaths in 2015 56