Machines and signs

Chapter 3
The First Steps

3.1 Introduction

Prehistoric man was the first “designer”: to kill an animal, he needed a branch of a
tree. In this operation, the abovementioned prehistoric man searched for a branch
with a form useful for the necessary function (in the modern “methodic design”
such an operation is called “design for function”, i.e. to realize a given object with
a configuration suitable to perform the wanted function), with a useful diameter (not
too little for strength requirements and not too big for need for gripping). In the
choice of the dimension, our ancestor realized an optimization process, without the
knowledge, of course, of the definition of “optimization”! The branch, also, had to
be easy to find: our ancestor solved a problem of “design for manufacturing” (such
an operation, in the modern “methodic design” is intended as the realization of an
object with a configuration suitable to be realized easily and economically). A big
problem in the development of an industrial product is to realize such a product with
a configuration able to perform a wanted function and at the same time easy to be
manufactured. Our ancestor had to solve this problem.
Of course, all the above mentioned operations had to be performed in a very short
time: this is an example of an application of the modern concept of “time to market”.
It is interesting to observe that representation is an important mean for overcoming
cultural diversities. From the “space point of view”, graphical representation is
common to all cultures and languages and fulfills the role of a universal language.
From the “time point of view”, ancient representations of technical objects are
important keys to reading the history of life, of work, of the social organizations of
the respective times.
In space: a graphical sign can be read by persons of all cultures. For example,
consider road signs. Very often, in many countries, road signs have textual information

E. Rovida, Machines and Signs, History of Mechanism and Machine Science 17, 19
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5407-2_3, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

20 3 The First Steps

Fig. 3.1 The superiority of
the graphical in relation to
the textual communication: to
the left a road sign observed
in Milan and to the right the
proposed graphical
translation

written in the language of the country. Such information is not easily read by
persons without at least a rudimentary knowledge of the language of the
country.
In Fig. 3.1, it is possible to observe a comparison, in the case of road signs,
between textual and graphical communication. The much better comprehensi-
bility of the image is evident. To the left is a road sign observed in Milan: the
sign means interdiction of transit except for people to the church, or private
houses, or also for bicycles. To the right, a proposal of substitution of the textual
information with images in accordance with research of the author (Ballardin
et al. 2005).
It is important to observe that, until the Renaissance, designers often realized
very important machines and products: for example, the lifting machines necessary
to build gothic churches. But such realizations are only based on experiences and
observations of the designers, without theoretical speculations: scientists and tech-
nicians lived and worked on different levels, without reciprocal contact: e.g., the old
Greek carpenters were able to build very efficient ships, but, very probably, without
the knowledge of Archimedes and of his “principle”. In other words, the constructor
of ships was not able to express why the very well built ships sailed.
The realizations were very important, but, without a connection to scientific prin-
ciples, and consequently the development was very slow.
Our ancestors often represented the drawing of the realized products: in pre-
historic and ancient times, such a drawing is only a means of documenting the
realization, very often with artistic aims, but without technical objectives. Some
examples that can be considered as sufficient documentation about the first steps
of the representations of technical objects are presented and explained here.

3.2 Prehistoric Age 21

3.2 Prehistoric Age

Representation in the prehistoric Age was often realized by engravings on stones
or rocks, where our ancestors described everyday life. Such representations, of
course, have only artistic aims and, for us, are important to know the life and the
work of prehistoric men. Figure 3.2 (Rovida 1999; Chirone and Colosi 1984), for
example, is a description of prehistoric agriculture: prehistoric men used plows
pulled by deer.
Figure 3.3 (Rovida 1999; Chirone and Colosi 1984) represents an Italian
stone engraving from 850 to 700 AC: the object of the representation is a cart

Fig. 3.2 Prehistoric engraving on stone, representing a plow pulled by deer

Fig. 3.3 Engraving on stones from Valcamonica (Italy) (850–700 BC) representing a cart pulled
by horses


pulled by horses. The representation is very beautiful and elegant: it is possible
to observe confusion in the planes of observation. The body of the cart is seen
from a vertical viewpoint, while the wheels and the horses are seen from a hori-
zontal one This engraving is interesting, because it gives us information about
the transportation technique: e.g. the construction of carts, the use of horses to
pull a cart.

3.3 Ancient Times

In ancient times, also, the representations of technical objects had only documen-
tary and artistic aims, without technical intentions. The technician works from
experience and has no need, in general, for drawings. The ancient representations
are interesting as documents to read the history.
In this section, some examples of ancient representations of technical objects are
presented: these representations have only “artistic” aims and are interesting docu-
ments to “read” ancient life.
Figure 3.4 (Singer et al. 1958) represents an ancient Egyptian potter’s workshop.
This representation is an interesting document about the activity of construction of
vessels. It is possible to recognize some machines, such as the potter’s wheel to the
right of the figure and all the phases of the manufacturing.
In Fig. 3.5 (Rovida 1999; Chirone and Colosi 1984), for example, an old Egyptian
manufacture of a wheel is represented: it is possible to recognize how the wheels
were manufactured, the workers, the utilized tools.
Similar considerations could be made for the representations of Figs. 3.6 (Singer
et al. 1958), 3.7 (Rovida 1999; Chirone and Colosi 1984), and 3.8 (Rovida 1999; Chirone
and Colosi 1984), relative, respectively, to Greek and Roman technical products.
Figure 3.6 (Singer et al. 1958), from an ancient Greek vessel, represents the work-
shop of the blacksmith and, in particular, the activity of god Hefaestus. This is another
document about ancient activities: in this case, manufacturing in the metallurgical
field of ancient Greeks. It is easy to recognize that the man to the left has , with pincers,
a piece of iron on the fire. The man to the right has a hammer and is getting ready to
forge the iron.
Figure 3.8 (Rovida 1999; Chirone and Colosi 1984), particularly, is relative to a
Roman lifting machine, the “rota calcatoria”, i.e. a wheel actuated by men (in this

Fig. 3.4 Potter’s workshop of ancient Egypt

3.3 Ancient Times 23

Fig. 3.5 Egyptian bas-relief showing the manufacture of wheels (ca 1500 BC)

Fig. 3.6 Blacksmith’s workshop

case) or animals, that, with their weight, allow rotation of the wheel, that, through a
rope, moves the weight to be lifted.
Figure 3.9 (Singer et al. 1958) represents a moment of work and particularly a
group of miners. The chief (to the left) has a pair of tongs; before him, a miner has
a pickaxe and another has a lamp.


Fig. 3.7 Oil press from a Greek vase (ca 600 BC)

Fig. 3.8 Roman lifting machine (second century AC)

3.4 Middle Ages

The “technical” representations of the Middle Ages are not very different from
the representations of ancient times. The cultural interest of the medieval technical
representations is very similar to the interest of ancient representations.
The following ﬁgures are valid examples.
Figure 3.10 (Rovida 1999; Chirone and Colosi 1984) is relative to a medieval
drawing. The particularities of such a drawing are some technical characters of the

Fig. 3.9 Relief representing miners (South of Spain, ﬁrst or second century AC)

Fig. 3.10 Representation of the top view and side view: superimposed, layout of water pipes
(Prior of Canterbury – ca 1150)


Fig. 3.11 Seal of Middle
Ages, with the representation
of a ship with stern rudder
(Elbing, Poland, ca 1242)

Fig. 3.12 Building works (thirteenth century)

representation, i.e., the drawing of the building is viewed from the top and the side
view is superimposed. In this way, with only a drawing, it is possible to represent the
two principal views (top and side) of the wanted object , according to the horizontal
and vertical direction of observation. In such a drawing also the layout of water pipes
and the tank for fish farming (in Latin, “piscina”, from the word “piscis”, that means
“fish”) is also interesting.
Figure 3.11 (Singer et al. 1958) represents a seal with a ship that is interesting to
give information about the use in Middle Ages of the stern rudder.
Figure 3.12 (Singer et al. 1958) represents two different moments in a building
project. The mechanical interest of the above mentioned figures is in the lifting
machines that are being utilized. To the left, the lifting of stones is obtained through a
barrow actuated by two men; it is also possible to observe the use of a wheel-barrow.
To the right, instead, the lifting is realized by a fixed pulley. It is also interesting to
observe the use of a plumb-line.

3.4 Middle Ages 27

Fig. 3.13 “Perpetuum
mobile” by Villard
d’Honnecourt

A very interesting medieval ﬁgure is the scientist, artist, architect Villard de
Honnecourt (Erlande-Brandenburg et al. 1987). He lived in France in the thir-
teenth century and may have been an itinerant master builder in Picardy, in
northern France. Villard de Honnecourt realized a collection of 33 sheets, with
about 250 drawings, now conserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale in Paris.
Villard had a great interest in practical problems and, particularly, in machines
and mechanisms. Many sketches of machines and mechanisms are present in the
abovementioned collection. For example, in Fig. 3.13 (Erlande-Brandenburg
et al. 1987) a “perpetuum mobile” is represented, which is a mechanism that
attempted to reach perpetual motion, the aim of many studies from the Middle
Age, until the eighteenth century. The principle of the mechanism proposed by
Villard is a system of weights hinged to a wheel: the impossibility of such a
mechanism functioning is recognized, however the drawing is an interesting
attestation to the effort of many medieval scientists. It is to observe that the


Fig. 3.14 Saw by Villard d’Honnecourt

perpetual motion was demonstrated as impossible by the physical scientiﬁc theories:
in the eighteenth century, the French Academy of Sciences rejected all “inventions”
of perpetual motion. Nevertheless, today also, sometimes some “inventors” of
perpetual motion appear.
In Fig. 3.14 (Erlande-Brandenburg et al. 1987; Ceccarelli 1998) a saw to cut trees
is represented. The vertical saw is guided by a tree trunk acting as a spring: in this
way the cutting motion is obtained. This drawing is an attestation that in the Middle
Ages, the elastic trunk of a tree begins to be used as a spring, particularly to obtain
the return movement, e.g. of mechanisms or machines. The extension of the cut is
obtained by the rotation of a shaft.
Figure 3.15 (Singer et al. 1958) represents a medieval cart, with four wheels,
driven by horses and very useful for long travels. The cart is characterized by supe-
rior cover and lateral shieldings. The environment of the representation is a gothic
building, with a rampant arc.

References 29

Fig. 3.15 Cart driven by horses (From a French manuscript, relative to the legend of St. Denis
(1317))

3.5 Conclusions

The abovementioned examples could be considered as sufficient samples to understand
the importance, from the cultural and documentary points of view, of the first “tech-
nical” representations. The number of examples could be vastly enlarged by consul-
tation of the sources indicated in the bibliography: this search would be only a
confirmation of the role of these “first steps”.

References

Ballardin D, Bruno D, Rovida E (2005) Some observations about the semantic and syntax of road
signs. Traffic Engineering and Control TEC Magazine, p 6
Ceccarelli M (1998) Mechanism schemes in teaching: a historical overview. J Mech Des
120(4):533


Chirone E, Colosi G (1984) Alcune note sull’evoluzione del disegno meccanico. Meeting Il dis-
egno industriale ed i suoi collegamenti con attività progettuali, costruttive, funzionali, Bari –
XLVIII Fiera del levante, 14 September 1984
Erlande-Brandenburg, Pernaud AR, Gimpel J, Bechmann R (1987) Villard de Honnecourt. Disegni,
Jaca Book, Milano
Rovida E (1999) Dallo scalpello al mouse. Paravia, Torino
Singer C et al. (eds) (1958) A history of technology. Oxford University Press, Oxford. (1965)
Storia della tecnologia (italian translation) Paolo Boringhieri, Torino

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