Manet

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
Tutorial at CIT’2000
Bhubaneshwar, Dec 20-23
Sridhar Iyer
IIT Bombay
http://www.it.iitb.ernet.in.in/~sri
sri@it.iitb.ernet.in

Acknowledgements
 Many figures, slides and reference citations are taken from
Nitin Vaidya’s MobiCom’2000 tutorial
 Nitin’s tutorial is available online at
http://www.cs.tamu.edu/~vaidya/seminars

Outline
 Introduction
 Medium Access Control
 Routing (unicast)
– Reactive Protocols
– Proactive Protocols
– Hybrid Protocols
 Transport Issues
 Summary and Conclusions

Wireless Networks
 Need: Access computing and communication services, on the move
 Infrastructure-based Networks
– traditional cellular systems (base station infrastructure)
 Wireless LANs
– Infrared (IrDA) or radio links (Wavelan)
– very flexible within the reception area; ad-hoc networks possible
– low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s)
 Ad hoc Networks
– useful when infrastructure not available, impractical, or expensive
– military applications, rescue, home networking

Cellular Wireless
 Single hop wireless connectivity to the wired world
– Space divided into cells
– A base station is responsible to communicate with hosts in its cell
– Mobile hosts can change cells while communicating
– Hand-off occurs when a mobile host starts communicating via a
new base station

Multi-Hop Wireless
 May need to traverse multiple links to reach destination
 Mobility causes route changes

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)
 Host movement frequent
 Topology change frequent
 No cellular infrastructure. Multi-hop wireless links.
 Data must be routed via intermediate nodes.
A
B A
B

Why Ad Hoc Networks ?
 Setting up of fixed access points and backbone
infrastructure is not always viable
– Infrastructure may not be present in a disaster area or war zone
– Infrastructure may not be practical for short-range radios;
Bluetooth (range ~ 10m)
 Ad hoc networks:
– Do not need backbone infrastructure support
– Are easy to deploy
– Useful when infrastructure is absent, destroyed or impractical

Many Applications
 Personal area networking
– cell phone, laptop, ear phone, wrist watch
 Military environments
– soldiers, tanks, planes
 Civilian environments
– taxi cab network
– meeting rooms
– sports stadiums
– boats, small aircraft
 Emergency operations
– search-and-rescue
– policing and fire fighting

Challenges in Mobile Environments
• Limitations of the Wireless Network
• packet loss due to transmission errors
• variable capacity links
• frequent disconnections/partitions
• limited communication bandwidth
• Broadcast nature of the communications
• Limitations Imposed by Mobility
• dynamically changing topologies/routes
• lack of mobility awareness by system/applications
• Limitations of the Mobile Computer
• short battery lifetime
• limited capacities

Effect of mobility on the protocol stack
 Application
– new applications and adaptations
 Transport
– congestion and flow control
 Network
– addressing and routing
 Link
– media access and handoff
 Physical
– transmission errors and interference

Medium Access Control in MANET

Motivation
 Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks?
 Example CSMA/CD
– Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
– send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a
collision occurs (original method in IEEE 802.3)
 Medium access problems in wireless networks
– signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
– sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the
receiver
– sender may not “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work
– CS might not work, e.g. if a terminal is “hidden”

 Hidden terminals
– A sends to B, C cannot receive A
– C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
– collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
– A is “hidden” for C
 Exposed terminals
– B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
– C senses carrier, finds medium in use and has to wait
– A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not
necessary
– C is “exposed” to B
Hidden and Exposed Terminals
BA C

Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)
[Karn90]
 MACA uses signaling packets for collision avoidance
– RTS (request to send)
• sender request the right to send from a receiver with a short
RTS packet before it sends a data packet
– CTS (clear to send)
• receiver grants the right to send as soon as it is ready to receive
 Signaling packets contain
– sender address
– receiver address
– packet size
 Variants of this method are used in IEEE 802.11

 MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
– A and C want to
send to B
– A sends RTS first
– C waits after receiving
CTS from B
 MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals
– B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
– now C does not have
to wait, as it cannot
receive CTS from A
MACA Solutions [Karn90]
A B C
RTS
CTSCTS
A B C
RTS
CTS
RTS

MAC: Reliability
 Wireless links are prone to errors. High packet loss rate is detrimental
to transport-layer performance.
 Solution: Use of acknowledgements
– When node B receives a data packet from node A, node B sends an
Acknowledgement (Ack).
– If node A fails to receive an Ack, it will retransmit the packet
– This approach adopted in many protocols [Bharghavan94, IEEE 802.11]
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless MAC
– Distributed and centralized MAC components
• Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
• Point Coordination Function (PCF)
– DCF suitable for multi-hop ad hoc networking

IEEE 802.11 DCF
 Uses RTS-CTS exchange to avoid hidden terminal
problem
– Any node overhearing a CTS cannot transmit for the duration of
the transfer
 Uses ACK to achieve reliability
 Any node receiving the RTS cannot transmit for the
duration of the transfer
– To prevent collision with ACK when it arrives at the sender
– When B is sending data to C, node A will keep quiet
A B C

MAC: Collision Avoidance
 With half-duplex radios, collision detection is not possible
 Collision avoidance: Once channel becomes idle, the node waits for a
randomly chosen duration before attempting to transmit
 IEEE 802.11 DCF
– When transmitting a packet, choose a backoff interval in the range
[0,cw]; cw is contention window
– Count down the backoff interval when medium is idle
– Count-down is suspended if medium becomes busy
– When backoff interval reaches 0, transmit RTS
 Time spent counting down backoff intervals is a part of MAC
overhead
 large cw leads to larger backoff intervals
 small cw leads to larger number of collisions

MAC: Congestion Control
 IEEE 802.11 DCF: Congestion control achieved by
dynamically choosing the contention window cw
 Binary Exponential Backoff in DCF:
– When a node fails to receive CTS in response to its RTS, it
increases the contention window
• cw is doubled (up to an upper bound)
– When a node successfully completes a data transfer, it restores cw
to CWmin

MAC: Energy Conservation
 Proposals typically suggest turning the radio off when not
needed
 Power Saving Mode in IEEE 802.11 (Infrastructure Mode)
– An Access Point periodically transmits a beacon indicating which
nodes have packets waiting for them
– Each power saving (PS) node wakes up periodically to receive the
beacon
– If a node has a packet waiting, then it sends a PS-Poll
• After waiting for a backoff interval in [0,CWmin]
– Access Point sends the data in response to PS-poll

MAC Protocols: Summary
 Wireless medium is prone to hidden and exposed terminal
problems
 Protocols are typically based on CSMA/CA
 RTS/CTS based signaling
 Acks for reliability
 Contention window is used for congestion control
 IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN standard
 Fairness issues are still unclear

Traditional Routing
 A routing protocol sets up a routing table in routers
 A node makes a local choice depending on global
topology

Distance-vector & Link-state Routing
 Both assume router knows
– address of each neighbor
– cost of reaching each neighbor
 Both allow a router to determine global routing
information by talking to its neighbors
 Distance vector - router knows cost to each destination
 Link state - router knows entire network topology and
computes shortest path

Distance Vector Routing: Example


2


Routing and Mobility
 Finding a path from a source to a destination
 Issues
– Frequent route changes
• amount of data transferred between route changes may be
much smaller than traditional networks
– Route changes may be related to host movement
– Low bandwidth links
 Goal of routing protocols
– decrease routing-related overhead
– find short routes
– find “stable” routes (despite mobility)

Mobile IP
Router
1
Router
3
Router
2
S MH
Home
agent

Mobile IP
Router
1
Router
3
Router
2
S MH
Home agent
Foreign agent
move
Packets are tunneled
using IP in IP

Unicast Routing Protocols
 Many protocols have been proposed
 Some specifically invented for MANET
 Others adapted from protocols for wired networks
 No single protocol works well in all environments
– some attempts made to develop adaptive/hybrid protocols
 Standardization efforts in IETF
– MANET, MobileIP working groups
– http://www.ietf.org

Routing Protocols
 Proactive protocols
– Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols
– Maintain routes between every host pair at all times
– Based on periodic updates; High routing overhead
– Example: DSDV (destination sequenced distance vector)
 Reactive protocols
– Determine route if and when needed
– Source initiates route discovery
– Example: DSR (dynamic source routing)
 Hybrid protocols
– Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive
– Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)

Protocol Trade-offs
 Proactive protocols
– Always maintain routes
– Little or no delay for route determination
– Consume bandwidth to keep routes up-to-date
– Maintain routes which may never be used
 Reactive protocols
– Lower overhead since routes are determined on demand
– Significant delay in route determination
– Employ flooding (global search)
– Control traffic may be bursty
 Which approach achieves a better trade-off depends on the traffic and
mobility patterns

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) [Johnson96]
 When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does
not know a route to D, node S initiates a route discovery
 Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)
 Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ

Route Discovery in DSR
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S
M
N
L

B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Represents transmission of RREQ
Z
Y
Broadcast transmission
M
N
L
[S]
[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ

B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors:
potential for collision
Z
Y
M
N
L
[S,E]
[S,C]

B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward
it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
Z
Y
M
N
L
[S,C,G]
[S,E,F]

B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
M
• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D
• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their
transmissions may collide
N
L
[S,C,G,K]
[S,E,F,J]

B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D
is the intended target of the route discovery
M
N
L
[S,E,F,J,M]

 Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route
Reply (RREP)
 RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route
appended to received RREQ
 RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was
received by node D

Route Reply in DSR
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
M
N
L
RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
Represents RREP control message

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
 Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route included in
the RREP
 When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is
included in the packet header
– hence the name source routing
 Intermediate nodes use the source route included in a
packet to determine to whom a packet should be forwarded

Data Delivery in DSR
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
M
N
L
DATA [S,E,F,J,D]
Packet header size grows with route length

DSR Optimization: Route Caching
 Each node caches a new route it learns by any means
 When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S
also learns route [S,E,F] to node F
 When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for
node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S
 When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D],
node F learns route [F,J,D] to node D
 When node E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route
[E,F,J,D] to node D
 A node may also learn a route when it overhears Data
 Problem: Stale caches may increase overheads

Dynamic Source Routing: Advantages
 Routes maintained only between nodes who need to
communicate
– reduces overhead of route maintenance
 Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead
 A single route discovery may yield many routes to the
destination, due to intermediate nodes replying from local
caches

Dynamic Source Routing: Disadvantages
 Packet header size grows with route length due to source
routing
 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in
the network
 Potential collisions between route requests propagated by
neighboring nodes
– insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ
 Increased contention if too many route replies come back
due to nodes replying using their local cache
– Route Reply Storm problem
 Stale caches will lead to increased overhead

Location-Aided Routing (LAR) [Ko98Mobicom]
 Exploits location information to limit scope of route
request flood
– Location information may be obtained using GPS
 Expected Zone is determined as a region that is expected to
hold the current location of the destination
– Expected region determined based on potentially old location
information, and knowledge of the destination’s speed
 Route requests limited to a Request Zone that contains the
Expected Zone and location of the sender node

Request Zone
 Define a Request Zone
 LAR is same as flooding, except that only nodes in request
zone forward route request
 Smallest rectangle including S and expected zone for D
S
Request Zone
D
Expected Zone
x
Y

Location Aided Routing (LAR)
 Advantages
– reduces the scope of route request flood
– reduces overhead of route discovery
 Disadvantages
– Nodes need to know their physical locations
– Does not take into account possible existence of obstructions for
radio transmissions

Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing
(AODV) [Perkins99Wmcsa]
 DSR includes source routes in packet headers
 Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade
performance
– particularly when data contents of a packet are small
 AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining
routing tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not have
to contain routes
 AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are
maintained only between nodes which need to
communicate

AODV
 Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner similar
to DSR
 When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a
reverse path pointing towards the source
– AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links
 When the intended destination receives a Route Request, it
replies by sending a Route Reply (RREP)
 Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up when
Route Request is forwarded

Route Requests in AODV
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S
M
N
L

B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Represents transmission of RREQ
Z
Y
Broadcast transmission
M
N
L

B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Represents links on Reverse Path
Z
Y
M
N
L

Reverse Path Setup in AODV
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward
it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
Z
Y
M
N
L

B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
M
N
L

B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D
is the intended target of the RREQ
M
N
L

Forward Path Setup in AODV
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
M
N
L
Forward links are setup when RREP travels along
the reverse path
Represents a link on the forward path

Route Request and Route Reply
 Route Request (RREQ) includes the last known sequence number for
the destination
 An intermediate node may also send a Route Reply (RREP) provided
that it knows a more recent path than the one previously known to
sender
 Intermediate nodes that forward the RREP, also record the next hop to
destination
 A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged after a
timeout interval
 A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged if not used
for a active_route_timeout interval

Link Failure
 A neighbor of node X is considered active for a routing table entry if
the neighbor sent a packet within active_route_timeout interval which
was forwarded using that entry
 Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello message
 When the next hop link in a routing table entry breaks, all active
neighbors are informed
 Link failures are propagated by means of Route Error (RERR)
messages, which also update destination sequence numbers

Route Error
 When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to node D)
on link (X,Y), it generates a RERR message
 Node X increments the destination sequence number for D cached at
node X
 The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR
 When node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery for
D using destination sequence number at least as large as N
 When node D receives the route request with destination sequence
number N, node D will set its sequence number to N, unless it is
already larger than N

AODV: Summary
 Routes need not be included in packet headers
 Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only for
routes that are in active use
 At most one next-hop per destination maintained at each
node
– DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination
 Sequence numbers are used to avoid old/broken routes
 Sequence numbers prevent formation of routing loops
 Unused routes expire even if topology does not change

Other Protocols
 Many variations of using control packet flooding for route discovery
 Power-Aware Routing [Singh98Mobicom]
– Assign a weight to each link: function of energy consumed when
transmitting a packet on that link, as well as the residual energy level
– Modify DSR to incorporate weights and prefer a route with the smallest
aggregate weight
 Associativity-Based Routing (ABR) [Toh97]
– Only links that have been stable for some minimum duration are utilized
– Nodes increment the associativity ticks of neighbors by using periodic
beacons
 Signal Stability Based Adaptive Routing (SSA) [Dube97]
– A node X re-broadcasts a Route Request received from Y only if the
(X,Y) link has a strong signal stability
– Signal stability is evaluated as a moving average of the signal strength of
packets received on the link in recent past

Signal Stability Routing (SSA)

Link Reversal Algorithm [Gafni81]
A FB
C E G
D

Link Reversal Algorithm
A FB
C E G
D
Maintain a directed acyclic
graph (DAG) for each
destination, with the destination
being the only sink
This DAG is for destination
node D
Links are bi-directional
But algorithm imposes
logical directions on them

Link (G,D) broke
A FB
C E G
D
Any node, other than the destination, that has no outgoing links
reverses all its incoming links.
Node G has no outgoing links

A FB
C E G
D
Now nodes E and F have no outgoing links
Represents a
link that was
reversed recently

A FB
C E G
D
Now nodes B and G have no outgoing links
Represents a
link that was
reversed recently

A FB
C E G
D
Now nodes A and F have no outgoing links
Represents a
link that was
reversed recently

A FB
C E G
D
Now all nodes (other than destination D) have an outgoing link
Represents a
link that was
reversed recently

A FB
C E G
D
DAG has been restored with only the destination as a sink

 Attempts to keep link reversals local to where the failure
occurred
– But this is not guaranteed
 When the first packet is sent to a destination, the
destination oriented DAG is constructed
 The initial construction does result in flooding of control
packets

 The previous algorithm is called a full reversal method
since when a node reverses links, it reverses all its
incoming links
 Partial reversal method [Gafni81]: A node reverses
incoming links from only those neighbors who have not
themselves reversed links “previously”
– If all neighbors have reversed links, then the node reverses all its
incoming links
– “Previously” at node X means since the last link reversal done by
node X

Link Reversal Methods
 Advantages
– Link reversal methods attempt to limit updates to routing tables at
nodes in the vicinity of a broken link
• Partial reversal method tends to be better than full reversal
method
– Each node may potentially have multiple routes to a destination
 Disadvantages
– Need a mechanism to detect link failure
• hello messages may be used
– If network is partitioned, link reversals continue indefinitely

Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm
(TORA) [Park97Infocom]
 Route optimality is considered of secondary importance; longer routes
may be used
 At each node, a logically separate copy of TORA is run for each
destination, that computes the height of the node with respect to the
destination
 Height captures number of hops and next hop
 Route discovery is by using query and update packets
 TORA modifies the partial link reversal method to be able to detect
partitions
 When a partition is detected, all nodes in the partition are informed,
and link reversals in that partition cease

Asymmetric Algorithms
 Clusterhead Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)
– All nodes within a cluster communicate with a clusterhead
– Routing uses a hierarchical clusterhead-to-gateway approach
 Core-Extraction Distributed Ad Hoc Routing (CEDAR)
[Sivakumar99]
– A subset of nodes in the network is identified as the core
– Each node in the network must be adjacent to at least one node in
the core
– Each core node determines paths to nearby core nodes by means of
a localized broadcast

CEDAR
B
A
C E
JS K
D
F
H
G
A core node
Node E is the dominator
for nodes D, F and K

Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)
[Perkins94Sigcomm]
 Each node maintains a routing table which stores
– next hop, cost metric towards each destination
– a sequence number that is created by the destination itself
 Each node periodically forwards routing table to neighbors
– Each node increments and appends its sequence number when sending its
local routing table
 Each route is tagged with a sequence number; routes with greater
sequence numbers are preferred
 Each node advertises a monotonically increasing even sequence
number for itself
 When a node decides that a route is broken, it increments the sequence
number of the route and advertises it with infinite metric
 Destination advertises new sequence number

Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)
 When X receives information from Y about a route to Z
– Let destination sequence number for Z at X be S(X), S(Y) is sent
from Y
– If S(X) > S(Y), then X ignores the routing information received
from Y
– If S(X) = S(Y), and cost of going through Y is smaller than the
route known to X, then X sets Y as the next hop to Z
– If S(X) < S(Y), then X sets Y as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is
updated to equal S(Y)
X Y Z

Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
[Jacquet00ietf]
 Nodes C and E are multipoint relays of node A
– Multipoint relays of A are its neighbors such that each two-hop
neighbor of A is a one-hop neighbor of one multipoint relay of A
– Nodes exchange neighbor lists to know their 2-hop neighbors and
choose the multipoint relays
A
B F
C
D
E H
G
K
J
Node that has broadcast state information from A

Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
 Nodes C and E forward information received from A
 Nodes E and K are multipoint relays for node H
 Node K forwards information received from H
A
B F
C
D
E H
G
K
J
Node that has broadcast state information from A

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) [Haas98]
 ZRP combines proactive and reactive approaches
 All nodes within hop distance at most d from a node X are
said to be in the routing zone of node X
 All nodes at hop distance exactly d are said to be
peripheral nodes of node X’s routing zone
 Intra-zone routing: Proactively maintain routes to all nodes
within the source node’s own zone.
 Inter-zone routing: Use an on-demand protocol (similar to
DSR or AODV) to determine routes to outside zone.

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
Radius of routing zone = 2

Routing Summary
 Protocols
– Typically divided into proactive, reactive and hybrid
– Plenty of routing protocols. Discussion here is far from exhaustive
 Performance Studies
– Typically studied by simulations using ns, discrete event simulator
– Nodes (10-30) remains stationary for pause time seconds (0-900s) and
then move to a random destination (1500m X300m space) at a uniform
speed (0-20m/s). CBR traffic sources (4-30 packets/sec, 64-1024
bytes/packet)
– Attempt to estimate latency of route discovery, routing overhead …
 Actual trade-off depends a lot on traffic and mobility patterns
– Higher traffic diversity (more source-destination pairs) increases overhead
in on-demand protocols
– Higher mobility will always increase overhead in all protocols

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Studies comparing different routing protocols for MANET typically
measure UDP performance
 Several performance metrics are used
– routing overhead per data packet
– packet delivery delay
– throughput/loss
 Many variables affect performance
– Traffic characteristics
– Mobility characteristics
– Node capabilities
 Difficult to identify a single scheme that will perform well in all
environments
 Several relevant studies [Broch98Mobicom, Das9ic3n,
Johansson99Mobicom, Das00Infocom, Jacquet00Inria]

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Reliable ordered delivery
– Reliability achieved by means of retransmissions if necessary
 End-to-end semantics
– Receiver sends cumulative acknowledgements for in-sequence packets
– Receiver sends duplicate acknowledgements for out-of-sequence packets
 Implements congestion avoidance and control using sliding-window
– Window size is minimum of
• receiver’s advertised window - determined by available buffer space
at the receiver
• congestion window - determined by the sender, based on feedback
from the network
– Congestion window size bounds the amount of data that can be sent per
round-trip time

Detection of packet loss in TCP
 Retransmission timeout (RTO)
– sender sets retransmission timer for only one packet
– if Ack not received before timer expiry, the packet is assumed lost
– RTO dynamically calculated, doubles on each timeout
 Duplicate acks
– sender assumes packet loss if it receives three consecutive
duplicate acknowledgements (dupacks)
 On detecting a packet loss, TCP sender assumes that
network congestion has occurred and drastically reduces
the congestion window

TCP in MANET
Several factors affect TCP performance in MANET:
 Wireless transmission errors
– may cause fast retransmit, which results in
• retransmission of lost packet
• reduction in congestion window
– reducing congestion window in response to errors is unnecessary
 Multi-hop routes on shared wireless medium
– Longer connections are at a disadvantage compared to shorter
connections, because they have to contend for wireless access at
each hop
 Route failures due to mobility

Impact of Multi-hop Wireless Paths
TCP throughput degrades with increase in number of hops
 Packet transmission can occur on at most one hop among
three consecutive hops
– Increasing the number of hops from 1 to 2, 3 results in increased
delay, and decreased throughput
 Increasing number of hops beyond 3 allows simultaneous
transmissions on more than one link, however, degradation
continues due to contention between TCP Data and Acks
traveling in opposite directions
 When number of hops is large enough (>6), throughput
stabilizes [Holland99]

mobility causes
link breakage,
resulting in route
failure
TCP data and acks
en route discarded
Impact of Node Mobility
TCP sender times out.
Starts sending packets again
Route is
repaired
No
throughput
No throughput
despite route repair
TCP throughput degrades with increase in mobility but not always
Larger route repair
delays are especially
harmful

Improved Throughput with Increased Mobility
Low speed: (Route from A to D is broken for ~1.5 seconds)
•When TCP sender times after 1 second, route still broken.
•TCP times out after another 2 seconds, and only then resumes
High speed: (Route from A to D is broken for ~0.75 seconds)
•When TCP sender times out after 1 second, route is repaired
TCP timeout interval somewhat (not entirely) independent of speed
Network state at higher speed may sometimes be more favorable than lower
speed
C
B
D
A
C
B
D
A
C
B
D
A

Impact of Route Caching
TCP performance typically degrades when caches are used for route
repair
 When a route is broken, route discovery returns a cached route from
local cache or from a nearby node
 After a time-out, TCP sender transmits a packet on the new route.
However, typically the cached route has also broken after it was
cached
 Another route discovery, and TCP time-out interval
 Process repeats until a good route is found
timeout due
to route failure
timeout, cached
route is broken
timeout, second cached
route also broken

Caching and TCP performance
 Caching can result in faster route repair
– Faster does not necessarily mean correct
– If incorrect repairs occur often enough, caching performs poorly
 If cache accuracy is not high enough, gains in routing
overhead may be offset by loss of TCP performance due to
multiple time-outs
 Need mechanisms for determining when cached routes are
stale

Impact of Acknowledgements
 TCP Acks (and link layer acks) share the wireless bandwidth with
TCP data packets
 Data and Acks travel in opposite directions
– In addition to bandwidth usage, acks require additional receive-send
turnarounds, which also incur time penalty
 Reduction of contention between data and acks, and frequency of
send-receive turnaround
 Mitigation [Balakrishnan97]
– Piggybacking link layer acks with data
– Sending fewer TCP acks - ack every d-th packet (d may be chosen
dynamically)
– Ack filtering - Gateway may drop an older ack in the queue, if a new ack
arrives

TCP Parameters after Route Repair
 Window Size after route repair
– Same as before route break: may be too optimistic
– Same as startup: may be too conservative
– Better be conservative than overly optimistic
– Reset window to small value; let TCP learn the window size
 Retransmission Timeout (RTO) after route repair
– Same as before route break: may be too small for long routes
– Same as TCP start-up: may be too large and respond slowly to
packet loss
– new RTO could be made a function of old RTO and route lengths

Improving TCP Throughput
 Network feedback
– Network knows best (why packets are lost)
– Need to modify transport & network layer to receive/send feedback
- Need mechanisms for information exchange between layers
 Inform TCP of route failure by explicit message
 Let TCP know when route is repaired
– Probing
– Explicit notification
– Better route caching mechanisms
 Reduces repeated TCP timeouts and backoff

In Conclusion
Issues other than routing have received much less attention
Other interesting problems:
 Applications for MANET
 Address assignment
 QoS issues
 Improving interaction between protocol layers

Manet

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