Manifestations and pathophysiology of diseases PDF

Manifestations and pathophysiology of diseases PDF

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  1 | Pa g e Manifestations and pathophysiology of diseases Diabetes Diabetes is a chronic condition associated with abnormally high levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood. Insulin produced by the pancreas lowers blood glucose. Absence or insufficient production of insulin, or an inability of the body to properly use insulin causes diabetes. Symptoms of diabetes 1) increased urine output, 2) excessive thirst, 3) weight gain or loss, 4) blurred vision 5) hunger, 6) fatigue, 7) skin problems 8) slow healing wounds, 9) yeast infections Cause of diabetes 1) High blood pressure 2) Destroys the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas. 3) High blood triglyceride (fat) levels 4) Gestational diabetes or giving birth to a baby weighing more than 9 pounds 5) High-fat diet 6) Genetic – diabetes tends to run in families 7) High alcohol intake 8) Sedentary lifestyle 9) Obesity or being overweight 10) Ethnicity 11) Aging Management of diabetes Diabetes is a chronic disease, Management concentrates on keeping blood sugar levels as close to normal. This can usually be accomplished with a healthy diet, exercise, weight loss, and use of appropriate medications. 1. Healthy diet  Dietary fat should provide 25-35% of total intake of calories but saturated fat intake should not exceed 10% of total energy. Cholesterol consumption should be restricted and limited to 300 mg or less daily.  Protein intake can range between 10-15% total energy (0.8-1 g/kg of desirable body weight). Requirements increase for children and during pregnancy. Protein should be derived from both animal and vegetable sources.
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  2 | Pa g e  Carbohydrates provide 50-60% of total caloric content of the diet. Carbohydrates should be complex and high in fibre.  Excessive salt intake is to be avoided. It should be particularly restricted in people with hypertension and those with nephropathy. 2. Life style People with diabetes can benefit from education about the disease and treatment, good nutrition to achieve a normal body weight, and exercise, with the goal of keeping both short-term and long- term blood glucose levels within acceptable bounds. 3. Exercise Physical activity promotes weight reduction and improves insulin sensitivity, thus lowering blood glucose levels. 4. Medications Medications used to treat diabetes do so by lowering blood sugar levels. Oral Anti-Diabetic Agents 1) Sulfonylureas - glimepiride, glipizide, glyburide, glimepiride, gliclazide 2) Biguanides - metformin. 3) Thiazolidinediones (Tzd) - pioglitazone, rosiglitazone , troglitazone. 4) Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors – Acarbose, nateglinide, voglibose 5) Meglitinides - repaglinide, miglitol. Insulin Therapy  Rapid-acting insulin  e.g. Insulin lispro and insulin aspart  Short-acting insulin  e.g. Regular insulin  Intermediate-acting insulin  e.g. NPH and Lente insulin  Long-acting insulin  e.g. Insulin Glargine  Mixture of insulin can provide glycemic control over extended period of time e.g. Humalin 70/30 (NPH + regular)
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  3 | Pa g e Asthma Asthma is a chronic (long-term) lung disease that inflames and narrows the airways. Asthma causes recurring periods of wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, and coughing. The coughing often occurs at night or early in the morning. Symptoms of asthma 1) Coughing, especially at night, during exercise or when laughing 2) Difficulty breathing 3) Chest tightness 4) Shortness of breath 5) Wheezing 6) Trouble sleeping caused by shortness of breath. 7) Difficulty speaking 8) Tightness in neck muscles 9) Slight gray or bluish color in lips and fingernail beds. Causes of asthma Exposure to various irritants and substances that trigger allergies (allergens) can trigger signs and symptoms of asthma. Asthma triggers are different from person to person and can include: 1) Airborne substances, such as pollen, dust mites, mold spores, pet dander or particles of cockroach waste 2) Respiratory infections, such as the common cold 3) Physical activity (exercise-induced asthma) 4) Cold air 5) Air pollutants and irritants, such as smoke 6) Certain medications, including beta blockers, aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) and naproxen (Aleve) 7) Strong emotions and stress 8) Sulfites and preservatives added to some types of foods and beverages, including shrimp, dried fruit, processed potatoes, beer and wine 9) Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), a condition in which stomach acids back up into throat. Management of asthma While there is no cure for asthma, symptoms can typically be improved. Some medication & life style modification can manage the symptoms.
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  4 | Pa g e Medication of asthma Quick-relief (rescue) medications are used as needed for rapid, short-term symptom relief during an asthma attack — or before exercise if your doctor recommends it. Types of quick- relief medications include: 1) Short-acting beta agonists- These inhaled, quick-relief bronchodilators act within minutes to rapidly ease symptoms during an asthma attack. E.g- albuterol and levalbuterol. 2) Oral and intravenous corticosteroids. These medications relieve airway inflammation caused by severe asthma. E.g- prednisone and methylprednisolone. Long-term asthma control medications generally taken daily, are the cornerstone of asthma treatment. Types of long-term control medications include: 1) Inhaled corticosteroids. These anti-inflammatory drugs include fluticasone, budesonide, flunisolide, beclomethasone, mometasone and fluticasone furoate are used for several days to weeks before they reach their maximum benefit. 2) Leukotriene modifiers. These oral medications — including montelukast, zafirlukast and zileuton — help relieve asthma symptoms for up to 24 hours. 3) Long-acting beta agonists. These inhaled medications, which include salmeterol and formoterol open the airways. 4) Theophylline. Theophylline is a daily pill that helps keep the airways open by relaxing the muscles around the airways. Peptic Ulcer disease (PUD) Peptic Ulcer is defined as ulceration of the gastrointestinal mucosa occurring in areas exposed to acid and pepsin and most often caused by Helicobacter pylori infection. Causes of PUD 1) Helicobacter pylori 2) Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs 3) Steroid therapy 4) Smoking 5) Excess alcohol intake 6) Genetic factors 7) Zollinger Ellison syndrome – rare syndrome caused by gastrin-secreting tumour
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  5 | Pa g e 8) Blood group O 9) Hyperparathyroidism Symptoms of PUD 1) Chronic GI bleeding 2) Iron-deficiency anemia 3) Progressive unintentional weight loss 4) Progressive dysphagia 5) Persistent vomiting 6) Epigastric mass 7) Epigastric pain 8) Nausea 9) Oral flatulence, bloating, distension and intolerance of fatty food 10) Heartburn 11) Pain radiating to the back Management of PUD  Lifestyle changes Quit smoking, avoid alcohol, aspirin, and NSAID.  Dietary modification Avoidance of spicy or greasy foods was recommended.  Adequate rest Adequate rest helps to lower the risk of peptic ulcer disease.  Medications 1) Antibiotics to kill Helicobacter pylori 2) Acid blockers (like cimetidine, ranitidine, or famotidine) 3) Proton pump inhibitors (such as omeprazole) 4) Medications that protect the tissue lining (like Bismuth, sucralfate)
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  6 | Pa g e  Triple therapy I. Drug: Rabeprazole/ Esomeprazole/ Omeprazole 20mg Twice daily (1+0+1) II. Drug: Clarithromycin 500mg Twice daily (1+0+1) III. Drug: Amoxicillin 500 Mg Twice daily (1+0+1)  Quadruple Therapy I. Bismuth subsalicylate—480-mg tablets 3-4x/day II. Metronidazole—One 400-mg tablet 4x/day III. Tetracycline—One 500-mg capsule 4x/day IV. Proton pump inhibitor (Rabeprazole/ Esomeprazole/ Omeprazole - 20mg) 2x/daily Hypertension Hypertension also known as high blood pressure, is a long term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms. Long term high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, vision loss, and chronic kidney disease. Cause of Hypertension 1) Obstructive sleep apnea 2) Kidney problems 3) Adrenal gland tumors 4) Thyroid problems 5) Certain defects in blood 6) Certain medications, such as birth control pills, cold remedies, decongestants, over- the-counter pain relievers and some prescription drugs 7) Illegal drugs, such as cocaine and amphetamines 8) Alcohol abuse or chronic alcohol use Symptoms of hypertension 1) Severe headache. 2) Fatigue or confusion. 3) Vision problems. 4) Chest pain. 5) Difficulty breathing. 6) Irregular heartbeat. 7) Blood in the urine. 8) Facial flushing 9) Pounding in chest, neck, or ears
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  7 | Pa g e Management of hypertension  Lifestyle modification, including: 1) Eating a healthier diet with less salt 2) Exercising regularly 3) Quitting smoking 4) Limiting the amount of alcohol drinking. 5) Maintaining a healthy weight or losing weight if overweight or obese.  Medications 1) Thiazide diuretics: Hydrochlorothiazide, Chlorthalidone etc. 2) Beta blockers: Acebutolol, Atenolol etc. 3) Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors: Lisinopril, Benazepril, Captopril etc. 4) Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs): Candesartan, losartan. 5) Calcium channel blockers: Amlodipine, Aranidipine, Azelnidipine etc. 6) Renin inhibitors. Aliskiren. 7) Vasodilator: Glyceryl trinitrate. Anemia Anemia is usually defined as a decrease in amount of red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood. Symptoms of Anemia 1) Pale skin 2) Dizziness 3) Weakness 4) Colds hands and feet 5) Headaches 6) Lack of concentration 7) Palpitation Infection 8) Usually rapid heartbeat 9) Easy fatigue & energy loss Causes of Anemia 1) Iron deficiency 2) Vitamin deficiency 3) Certain diseases — such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, rheumatoid arthritis, kidney disease, Crohn's disease. 4) Impaired RBC production
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  8 | Pa g e 5) Reduction of hemoglobin level 6) Blood loss 7) Inherited condition Management of Anemia  Diet 1) Iron: Iron-rich foods include beef and other meats, beans, lentils, iron-fortified cereals, dark green leafy vegetables, and dried fruit. 2) Folate: This nutrient, and its synthetic form folic acid, can be found in fruits and fruit juices, dark green leafy vegetables, green peas, kidney beans, peanuts, and enriched grain products, such as bread, cereal, pasta and rice. 3) Vitamin B-12: Foods rich in vitamin B-12 include meat, dairy products, and fortified cereal and soy products. 4) Vitamin C: Foods rich in vitamin C include citrus fruits and juices, peppers, broccoli, tomatoes, melons and strawberries. These items help increase iron absorption.  Medication 1. Iron supplements: A. Oral preparations- 1. Ferrous sulphate-200-600 mg/day 2. Ferrous gluconate-300-1200 mg/day B. Parenteral preparation- 1. Iron dextran-1.5mg/5ml/day 2. Vitamin-V12 Supplements A. Cyanocobalamin (injection)-1mg/ml B. Hydroxocobalamin (injection)-1mg/ml 3. Folic acid supplements A. Folic acid – 5mg
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  9 | Pa g e Interpretation of Clinical Laboratory tests Blood chemistry test Blood chemistry Test can provide important information about the function of the kidneys and other organs. This common panel of blood tests measures levels of important electrolytes and other chemicals, including – glucose, hemoglobin, Creatinine etc. Purpose of Blood Chemistry Screen/Tests 1) To screen for a wide range of problems, including kidney, liver, heart, adrenal, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and neuromuscular disorders 2) To monitor people who have hypertension (high blood pressure) or hypokalemia (low levels of potassium) 3) To detect problems with the way body is working 4) To measure chemical substances in the blood 5) Evaluate a person’s general health status 6) Evaluate organ function 7) Evaluate the body’s electrolyte balance 8) Identify potential organ damage or injury 9) Identify damaged tissues that secrete chemicals into the blood Methodology for blood chemistry test A blood chemistry test is usually done in a private laboratory or hospital laboratory. Preparation depends on the type of test being done. 1. Fasting overnight may be required, especially if certain chemicals (such as glucose or lipid levels) are being tested. 2. Blood is usually taken from a vein in the arm. 3. A tourniquet or elastic band is wrapped around the upper arm to apply pressure to the area and make the vein swell. 4. The person may be asked to open and close the first to make the veins stand out more. 5. The skin is cleaned and disinfected. 6. A needle is inserted into the vein and a small amount of blood is removed. 7. The sample is collected in a tube and labelled with the person’s name and other identifying information. 8. The tourniquet is removed and the needle is withdrawn. 9. Pressure is applied to the area where the needle was inserted until bleeding stops. 10. A band aid may be applied. 11. For some tests, the blood sample is allowed to clot and the clear yellow fluid (serum) that forms above the clot is carefully separated and removed for analysis. 12. The sample is sent to a laboratory to be analyzed by special machines, examined under a microscope or both.
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  10 | Pa g e Hematology test Hematology is the branch of medicine concerning the study of blood, the blood-forming organs, and blood diseases. Hematology tests include laboratory assessments of blood formation and blood disorders. E.g- White blood cell count (WBC), Red blood cell count (RBC), Platelet count. Purpose of Hematology Tests 1) To aid in diagnosing anemia, 2) To diagnose certain cancers of the blood 3) To diagnose inflammatory diseases 4) To monitor blood loss and infection 5) To evaluate bleeding and clotting disorders Methodology of Hematology test Current hematology analyzers use a combination of light scatter, electrical impedance, fluorescence, light absorption, and electrical conductivity methods to produce complete red blood cell, platelet, and leukocyte analyses. All the widely used automated instruments analyze cells in flow and are essentially highly specialized flow cytometers. Testing is performed with automated hematology analyzer, the ADVIA 2120. The CBC provides white blood cell results (white blood cell count, differential cell count and leukocyte morphology), red cell results (red cell count, hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, red cell indices and red cell morphology), platelet results (platelet count, mean platelet volume and smear estimate), total protein (by refractometer) and plasma appearance. A reticulocyte count is automatically added to a CBC. It also provide an absolute reticulocyte count, which gives a more accurate assessment of the bone marrow response to anemia than the reticulocyte percentage in these species. Urinalysis Urine analysis, also called Urinalysis – one of the oldest laboratory procedures in the practice of medicine. A urinalysis is a test of urine. A urinalysis is used to detect and manage a wide range of disorders, such as urinary tract infections, kidney disease and diabetes etc. A urinalysis involves checking the appearance, concentration and content of urine. Abnormal urinalysis results may point to a disease or illness. For example, a urinary tract infection can make urine look cloudy instead of clear. Purpose urine analysis  General evaluation of health  Diagnosis of disease or disorders of the kidneys or urinary tract  Diagnosis of other systemic disease that affect kidney function  Monitoring of patients with diabetes
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  11 | Pa g e  Screening for drug abuse (eg. Sulfonamide or aminoglycosides) Methodology urine analysis A urinalysis test is performed by collecting a urine sample from the patient in a specimen cup. Usually only small amounts (30-60 mL) may be required for urinalysis testing. The sample can be either analyzed in the medical clinic or sent to a laboratory to perform the tests. Urinalysis is abbreviated UA. UA is in general easily available and relatively inexpensive. It is also a simple test and can provide many useful information about various diseases and conditions. Some physicians refer to urinalysis as "a poor man's kidney biopsy" because of the plethora of information that can be obtained about the health of the kidney or other internal diseases by this simple test. Urine can be evaluated by its physical appearance (color, cloudiness, odor, clarity), also referred to as a macroscopic analysis. It can be also analyzed based on its chemical and molecular properties, including microscopic assessment. For a urinalysis, urine sample is evaluated in three ways: visual exam, dipstick test and microscopic exam. Stool test A stool test involves the collection and analysis of fecal matter to diagnose the presence or absence of a medical condition. Purpose of stool tests 1. Identify diseases of the digestive tract, liver, and pancreas. 2. Help find the cause of symptoms affecting the digestive tract, including prolonged diarrhea, bloody diarrhea, an increased amount of gas, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, bloating, abdominal pain and cramping, and fever. 3. Screen for colon cancer by checking for hidden (occult) blood. 4. Look for parasites, such as pinworms or Giardia. 5. Look for the cause of an infection. This may be from bacteria, a fungus, or a virus. 6. Check for poor absorption of nutrients by the digestive tract (malabsorption syndrome) Methodology of stool tests A stool analysis is a series of tests done on a stool (feces) sample to help diagnose certain conditions affecting the digestive tract. These conditions can include infection (such as from parasites, viruses, or bacteria), poor nutrient absorption, or cancer. For a stool analysis, a stool sample is collected in a clean container and then sent to the laboratory. Laboratory analysis includes microscopic examination, chemical tests, and microbiologic tests. The stool will be checked for color, consistency, amount, shape, odour, and the presence of mucus. The stool may be examined for hidden (occult) blood, fat, meat fibres, bile, white blood cells, and sugars called reducing substances. The pH of the stool also may be measured. A stool culture is done to find out if bacteria may be causing an infection.
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  12 | Pa g e Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF) Analysis Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is a set of laboratory tests that examine a sample of the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Purpose of Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF) Analysis The purpose of a CSF analysis is to diagnose medical disorders that affect the central nervous system. Some of these conditions are:  meningitis and encephalitis, which may be viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections  metastatic tumors (e.g., leukemia) and central nervous system tumors that shed cells into the CSF  syphilis, a sexually transmitted bacterial disease  bleeding (hemorrhaging) in the brain and spinal cord  multiple sclerosis, a degenerative nerve disease that results in the loss of the myelin coating of the nerve fibers of the brain and spinal cord  Guillain-Barre syndrome, a demyelinating disease involving peripheral sensory and motor nerves.