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Measurement and scales
- 1. Measurement and Scaling Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules. • One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being measured. • The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly. • Rules must not change over objects or time.
- 2. Scale Characteristics Description By description, we mean the unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate each value of the scale. All scales possess description. Order By order, we mean the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is denoted by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.
- 3. Scale Characteristics Distance The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the scale descriptors are known and may be expressed in units. Origin The origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or true zero point.
- 4. Measurement and Scaling Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.
- 5. Primary Scales of Measurement Scale Fig. 8.1 Nominal Numbers Assigned Finish to Runners 7 8 3 Ordinal Rank Order Finish of Winners Third Second First place place place Interval Performance 8.2 9.1 9.6 Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale 15.2 14.1 13.4 Ratio Time to Finish in Seconds
- 6. Primary Scales of Measurement Table 8.1 Scale Basic Common Marketing Permissible Statistics Characteristics Examples Examples Descriptive Inferential Nominal Numbers identify Social Security Brand nos., store Percentages, Chi-square, & classify objects nos., numbering types mode binomial test of football players Ordinal Nos. indicate the Quality rankings, Preference Percentile, Rank-order relative positions rankings of teams rankings, market median correlation, of objects but not in a tournament position, social Friedman the magnitude of class ANOVA differences between them Interval Differences Temperature Attitudes, Range, mean, Product- between objects (Fahrenheit) opinions, index standard moment Ratio Zero point is fixed, Length, weight Age, sales, Geometric Coefficient of ratios of scale income, costs mean, harmonic variation values can be mean compared
- 7. A Classification of Scaling Techniques Figure 8.2 Scaling Techniques Comparative Noncomparative Scales Scales Paired Rank Constant Q-Sort and Continuous Itemized Comparison Order Sum Other Rating Scales Rating Scales Procedures Likert Semantic Stapel Differential
- 8. A Comparison of Scaling Techniques • Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties. • In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.
- 9. Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales • Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected. • Same known reference points for all respondents. • Easily understood and can be applied. • Involve fewer theoretical assumptions. • Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.
- 10. Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using Paired Comparisons Fig. 8.3 Instructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of shampoo brands. For each pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use. Jhirmack Finesse Vidal Head & Pert Recording Form: Sassoon Shoulders Jhirmack 0 0 1 0 Finesse 1a 0 1 0 Vidal Sassoon 1 1 1 1 Head & Shoulders 0 0 0 0 Pert 1 1 0 1 Number of Times 3 2 0 4 1 Preferredb a A 1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. bThe number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.
- 11. Paired Comparison Selling The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self- perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumer’s purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke. A paired comparison taste test
- 12. Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling • Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. • It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. • Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. • Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling.
- 13. Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling Fig. 8.4 Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10. No two brands should receive the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.
- 14. Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling Fig. 8.4 cont. Form Brand Rank Order 1. Crest _________ 2. Colgate _________ 3. Aim _________ 4. Gleem _________ 5. Sensodyne _________ 6. Ultra Brite _________ 7. Close Up _________ 8. Pepsodent _________ 9. Plus White _________ 10. Stripe _________
- 15. Comparative Scaling Techniques Constant Sum Scaling • Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance. • If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. • If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. • The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.
- 16. Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Using a Constant Sum Scale Fig. 8.5 cont. Form Average Responses of Three Segments Attribute Segment I Segment II 8 Segment III 2 4 1. Mildness 2 4 17 2. Lather 3 9 7 3. Shrinkage 53 17 9 4. Price 9 0 19 5. Fragrance 7 5 9 6. Packaging 5 3 20 7. Moisturizing 13 60 15 8. Sum Cleaning Power 100 100 100
- 18. Noncomparative Scaling Techniques • Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for this reason non-comparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales. • Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating scales.
- 19. Continuous Rating Scale Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably. How would you rate Wal Mart as a department store? Version 1 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best Version 2 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Version 3 Very bad Neither good Very good nor bad Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
- 20. Itemized Rating Scales • The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief description associated with each category. • The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and the respondents are required to select the specified category that best describes the object being rated. • The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.
- 21. Likert Scale The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects. Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly disagree agree nor agree disagree 1. Sears sells high-quality merchandise. 1 2X 3 4 5 2. Sears has poor in-store service. 1 2X 3 4 5 3. I like to shop at Sears. 1 2 3X 4 5 • The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total (summated) score can be calculated. • When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.
- 22. Semantic Differential Scale The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. SEARS IS: Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned • The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right. • This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels. • Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.
- 23. A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self- Concepts, Person Concepts, and Product Concepts 1) Rugged :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate 2) Excitable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm 3) Uncomfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable 4) Dominating :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive 5) Thrifty :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent 6) Pleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant 7) Contemporary :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete 8) Organized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized 9) Rational :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional 10) Youthful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature 11) Formal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal
- 24. Stapel Scale The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically. SEARS +5 +5 +4 +4 +3 +3 +2 +2X +1 +1 HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE -1 -1 -2 -2 -3 -3 -4X -4 -5 -5 The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic differential data.
- 25. Basic Noncomparative Scales Table 9.1 Scale Basic Examples Advantages Disadvantages Characteristics Continuous Place a mark on a Reaction to Easy to construct Scoring can be Rating continuous line TV cumbersome Scale commercials unless computerized Itemized Rating Scales Likert Scale Degrees of Measurement Easy to construct, More agreement on a 1 of attitudes administer, and time-consuming (strongly disagree) understand to 5 (strongly agree) scale Semantic Seven- point scale Brand, Versatile Controversy as Differential with bipolar labels product, and to whether the company data are interval images Stapel Unipolar ten - point Measurement Easy to construct, Confusing and Scale scale, - 5 to +5, of attitudes administer over difficult to apply without a neutral and images telephone point (zero)
- 26. Summary of Itemized Scale Decisions Table 9.2 1) Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number, traditional guidelines suggest that there should be between five and nine categories 2) Balanced vs. unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain objective data 3) Odd/even no. of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible for at least some respondents, an odd number of categories should be used 4) Forced vs. non-forced In situations where the respondents are expected to have no opinion, the accuracy of the data may be improved by a non-forced scale 5) Verbal description An argument can be made for labeling all or many scale categories. The category descriptions should be located as close to the response categories as possible 6) Physical form A number of options should be tried and the best selected
- 27. Balanced and Unbalanced Scales Fig. 9.1 Jovan Musk for Men is: Jovan Musk for Men is: Extremely good Extremely good Very good Very good Good Good Bad Somewhat good Very bad Bad Extremely bad Very bad
- 28. Rating Scale Configurations Fig. 9.2 Cheer detergent is: 1) Very harsh --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Very gentle 2) Very harsh 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very gentle 3) . Very harsh . Cheer . . Neither harsh nor gentle . . . Very gentle 4) ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Very Harsh Somewhat Neither harsh Somewhat Gentle Very harsh harsh nor gentle gentle gentle -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 5) Very Neither harsh Very harsh nor gentle gentle
- 29. Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations Fig. 9.3 Thermometer Scale Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonald’s hamburgers by coloring in the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level that best indicates how strong your preference is. Like very 100 much 75 50 25 Dislike 0 very much Smiling Face Scale Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the Barbie Doll. If you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked it very much, you would point to Face 5. 1 2 3 4 5
- 30. Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing Table 9.3 CONSTRUCT SCALE DESCRIPTORS Attitude Very Bad Bad Neither Bad Nor Good Good Very Good Importance Not at All Important Not Important Neutral Important Very Important Satisfaction Very Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Neither Dissat. Nor Satisfied Satisfied Very Satisfied Purchase Intent Definitely will Not Buy Probably Will Not Buy Might or Might Not Buy Probably Will Buy Definitely Will Buy Purchase Freq Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very Often
- 31. Assignment Time Odd Group List some major secondary sources of information for the following situations: 3.Marketing research manager of a national soft drink manufacturer has to prepare a comprehensive report on the soft drink industry. 4.Mr. Balu has several ides for instant cake mixes and is considering entering this industry. He needs to find the necessary background information to assess its potential. 5.Mr. Wahid has heard that the profit margins in the fur business are high. The fur industry has always intrigued him and he decides to do some research to determine if the claim is true. 6.A recent graduate hears that condominiums are once again a good investment. She decides to collect some information on the condominium market. Even Group Develop a semantic differential scale to measure the images of two major airlines that fly to your city. Administer this cale to a pilot sample of 10 people known to you. Based on your pilot study, which airline has a more favorable image.
- 32. Assignment Time Your Choice : Develop a likert scale for measuring the attitude of students toward the internet as a source of general information. Administer your scale to a small sample of 10 students and refine it. Descriptive Assignment: -Highlight 10 major challenges to the Industry in India. -Global Players in Industry -Impact of Global Crisis on Industry