Metro Train Automation & display System

CONTENTSCONTENTS
 Photograph
 Abstract
 Flow chart
Chapter 1: Introduction
 Block Diagram
 Block Diagram Description
Chapter 2: Principle/Theory/Concept
Chapter 3: Circuit Details
 Circuit Description
 Circuit Layout
 Component list
Chapter 4: Breadboard Implementation
 Connections on Breadboard
Chapter 5: Working
Chapter 6: PCB details
 PCB Layout component side
 PCB Layout solders side
Chapter 7: Assembling and Testing
Chapter 8: Components Details
 Resistors
 Sensor & LED
 Capacitors
 Transistors& IC

Metro Train Automation
 Transformer
Chapter9: Shortcoming and limitations
Chapter 10: Future Applications and Scope
Chapter 11: Project Cost
Chapter 12: Reference and Bibliography
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LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURES
1.1. FLOWCHARTFLOWCHART
1.11.1 BLOCK DIAGRAMBLOCK DIAGRAM
3.1 CIRCUIT LAYOUT3.1 CIRCUIT LAYOUT
4.1 BREADBOARD DESIGN4.1 BREADBOARD DESIGN
8.1 EXAMPLE OF RESISTOR8.1 EXAMPLE OF RESISTOR
8.2 RESISTOR CIRCUIT SYMBOL8.2 RESISTOR CIRCUIT SYMBOL
8.3 RESISTOR COLOUR CODE8.3 RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
8.4 EXAMPLE OF CAPACITORS8.4 EXAMPLE OF CAPACITORS
8.5 TRANSISTORS CIRCUIT SYMBOLS8.5 TRANSISTORS CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
8.6 TRANSISTORS B182, B1088.6 TRANSISTORS B182, B108
8.7 DIODE SYMBOL8.7 DIODE SYMBOL
8.8 PIN DIAGRAM OF 89C518.8 PIN DIAGRAM OF 89C51
8.9 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 89C518.9 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 89C51
8.10 RELAY IN0078.10 RELAY IN007
8.11 TRANSISTOR BC5488.11 TRANSISTOR BC548
8.12 IC LM78058.12 IC LM7805
8.13 IC LM3868.13 IC LM386
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LIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 PROJECT SPECIFICATIONTABLE 1 PROJECT SPECIFICATION
TABLE 2 COMPONENT LISTTABLE 2 COMPONENT LIST
TABLE 3 COLOUR CODETABLE 3 COLOUR CODE
TABLE 4 PORT 3 PIN TABLETABLE 4 PORT 3 PIN TABLE
TABLE 5 RATINGS OF BC548TABLE 5 RATINGS OF BC548
TABLE 6 PROJECT COSTTABLE 6 PROJECT COST
PHOTOGRAPHPHOTOGRAPH
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metro train automation & display system
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ON-CONDITIONON-CONDITION
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RF-TRANSMITTERRF-TRANSMITTER
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ABSTRACTABSTRACT
In this project, we are designing a remote control information displaying system with the facility of
voice, which is capable of measuring travelled distance and detecting obstacles.
For line tracking,we are using an IR led and the photodiode pair, which analyses the reflected
infrared rays from the wheels that performs the measurement of distance here.
For remote controlling, to provide wireless communication between vehicle and station , we are
implementing asynchronous serial communication through RF.
The voice chip requires large current , but the microcontroller cannot provide that much current.
Hence to control the large currents by the pulses provided by microcontroller.
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FLOWCHARTFLOWCHART
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Start
Initialize SFR’s
Clear Counter
Display information taking counter as Pointer
Display Distance taking counter as Measure
Check Distance for intermediate Stations
If
Matc
h
Operate Voice Generator
Check for Last Station
If
Matc
h
Idle Loop
Yes No
Yes No
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CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
A problem faced by every one during the traveling is that there is always an uncertainty of the next
station and time to arrive or distance between stations, that causes tension to the passengers. To
overcome this problem we started working on a circuit that can display the passed station,
upcoming station, total distance between stations and distance traveled even it should announce
the station’s name. the things we have discussed above are the non technical feature to make it
applicable on train and local transport areas it should also full fill some technical limitation, like
operable by battery, low power consumption, should work on largely fluctuating power supply,
rouged structure and low cost.
At the end we achieved all the goals of our project perfectly.
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1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:
I R
D E T E C T O R
B U Z Z E R
R F R X
M I C R O
C O N T R O L L E R
B L O C K D I A G R A M
L C D 1 6 X 2
R E L A Y V O I C E C H I P A U D I O
A M P S P E A K E R
Fig 1.1
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CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2
PRINCIPLE/THEORY/CONCEPTPRINCIPLE/THEORY/CONCEPT
The objects of the project are:
1. Designing of a remote control Information displaying system with the facility of Voice.
2. Measurement of distance.
To fulfill all these requirements we need the following blocks:
1. For tracking :--
Analyzing the reflected infrared rays from the wheels performs the measuring of the distance
here. (The line created by special ink will reflect the IR ray in much greater amount then rest
of the surface.)
To do this, an IR LED & the photodiode pair is best suitable option. The IR LED generates
IR light, which is traveled towards surface, & the photodiode is placed in such a position that
only the reflected part of the light reaches it. Which causes the rise in the reverse current
through the diode using a resistor this change of current can be transformed into change in
voltage & then it is compared with a predefined threshold voltage. If it crosses the threshold
value comparator provides the high output, which confirms the presence of the line. For
proper tracking two IR detector required to track the line from both corners.
2. Micro-Controller :--
This is the heart of the circuit, which controls all the devices (Blocks) connected to it. Here we
use the controller 89C51 manufactured by Atmel. We prefer this Micro controller because it
has 4 full I/O 8 bit ports, which is our basic requirement to control all the blocks.
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3. Remote Controlling :--
To provide wireless communication between vehicle and station many methods are available
but we are implementing the asynchronous serial communication through RF.
For proper RF communication following blocks is required:
RF receiver: - We are using here the Radio Frequency as communication medium because of
its better reception in long range communication. To make the receiver perform better it is
designed to recognize the switching RF of particular wavelength.The wave length and
switching frequency can be taken from the manufacturers data sheets
RF transmitter:- It generates the RF waves to modulate the DATA the frequency of the
T/X depend upon the module used
4. Relays Array: --
The voice chip required large current, but the micro controller cannot provide that much
current. Hence to control the large currents by the pulses provided by micro controller.
relays
Fig 2.1
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CHAPTER 3CHAPTER 3
CIRCUIT DETAILSCIRCUIT DETAILS
1. IR DETECTOR:- To do this, an IR LED & the photodiode pair is best suitable option. The
IR LED generates IR light, which is traveled towards surface, & the photodiode is placed in
such a position that only the reflected part of the light reaches it. Which causes the rise in the
reverse current through the diode using a resistor this change of current can be transformed
into change in voltage & then it is compared with a predefined threshold voltage. If it crosses
the threshold value comparator provides the high output else low.
2. LCD Display:- Display plays an important role whenever we want a user friendly system
because user can see & read the information from display & can get better understanding
about the system.
Since we want to display alphabets for massages & digits for readings we required
aalphanumeric LCD display so we use a 16 character , 2 line display best suitable for our
requirement because our massage length to not greater then 16 character, so they can be
displayed on single line only.
3. Indications & Beeper:- Although we are using here a LCD display to display the
information but it is still requirement of a system that it should create the special attention of
user to read same specific information on LCD this is done by this block. It generates a
beeping sound on over loading & reserve mode. So that user need not to read the meter
frequently (when not required).
4. Micro-Controller:- This is the heart of the circuit, which controls all the devices (Blocks)
connected to it. Here we use the controller 89C51 manufactured by Atmel. We prefer this
Micro controller because it has 4 full I/O 8 bit ports, which is our basic requirement to
control all the blocks.
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5. R.F. transmitter:- for communication we are using radio frequency hence we required a R.F.
transmitter. Here we use the transmitter transmitting at 315 Mhz using the Frequency
Modulation technique.
6. Key Pad:- to provide the input by user we are using here four push to on switches
Receiving Side
7. R.F. receiver:- It receives the R.F. signals since we are using the FM here we use the FM
receiver tuned to demodulate the 315MHz signals.
8. TTL to RS232: - We are using here serial port of pc, which follows the RS232, standard
hence we use a Level Converter.The first level converter converts the TTL signals in to RS232
signals.
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3.23.2 CIRCUIT LAYOUTCIRCUIT LAYOUT
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SERIAL PORT PC CONVERTER
FIG 3.1
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3.33.3 COMPONENT LISTCOMPONENT LIST
• Number Quantity Rate/P.
• ICs
o AT89C51 1 150.00
o MAX232 1 98.00
o LM358 1 22.00
o LM386 1 20.00
o LM7805 2 10.00
• Transistors
• BC548B 8 3.00
• Light Emitting Diodes (LED’s)
• LED 4 30.00
• Diodes
o 1N4007 6 1.50
• Sensors
• RF Module 1 550.00
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• Crystal
• 12 MHz 1 30.00
• Electrolytic Capacitors
o 1000µF/25V 1 7.00
o 100µF/25V 1 4.00
o 10µF/25V 1 3.00
o 1µF/25V 4 3.00
• Ceramic Capacitors
o 33pf 2 1.00
• Carbon Resistors (0.25W)
o 10K 15 0.25
o 6.8k 3 0.25
o 4.7k 2 0.25
o 2.2k 2 0.25
o 1K 6 0.25
• Buzzer
• 12V 1 30.00
• Transformers
o 9/0/9 500mA 1 40.00
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• Display
o LCD16x2 1 250.00
• PCB
o 6” X 8” 2 90.00
• Miscellaneous
• IC Base (40 pin) 1 14.00
• IC Base (8 pin) 2 5.00
• IC Base (16 pin) 1 3.00
• Mains Cable 1 15.00
• Ferric Cloride 100gms. 40.00
• Soldering Wire 20gms. 12.00
• Connecting wires 3mtrs. 10.00
• Soldering Paste 10gms. 5.00
• 9pin connector 1 20.00
• voice recorder 4 90.00
Table 2
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CHAPTER 4CHAPTER 4
BREAD BBREAD BOARD IMPLEMENTATIONOARD IMPLEMENTATION
A breadboard (solder less breadboard, protoboard, plug board) is a reusable sometimes solder less
device used to build a (generally temporary) prototype of an electronic circuit and for
experimenting with circuit designs. This is in contrast to strip board (overboard) and similar
prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to build more permanent soldered prototypes
or one-offs, and cannot easily be reused. A variety of electronic systems may be prototyped by
using breadboards, from small analogy and digital circuits to complete central processing units
(CPUs).
The term breadboard is derived from an early form of point-to-point construction: in particular,
the practice of constructing simple circuits (usually using valves/tubes) on a convenient wooden
base, similar to a cutting board like the kind used for slicing bread with a knife. It can also be
viewed as bread with a large number of pores (holes for connection); like the bread most
commonly used in America and Europe, a modern prototyping board is typically white or off-
white.
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Bread board
Fig 4.1
Connection on Breadboard
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Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most
components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with
their notch or dot to the left.
Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the standard size).
Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a hole and it may damage
the board if strands break off.
The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across as shown by the red and
black lines on the diagram. The power supply is connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V
(zero volts) at the bottom.
I suggest using the upper row of the bottom pair for 0V, then you can use the lower row for the
negative supply with circuits requiring a dual supply (e.g. +9V, 0V, -9V).
The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the centre as shown by the
blue lines on the diagram.
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CHAPTER 5CHAPTER 5
WORKINGWORKING
As the circuit is powered micro controller checks the status of inputs from IR sensor and serialRX
pin ,If it found serial RX data it ignores the o/p from the IR sensors & wait for the serial data
from the IR Receiver section & works according to the serial data.
For distance counting it checks the signals from the o/p of the LM358 which is working here as a
comparator & compares the voltage across the photodiode with a predefined threshold voltage
provided by a variable resistor (preset).
As in the circuit we have used one sensor pair for counting, so if micro controller senses that the
sensor is detecting reflected light it means that the line is placed at the Wheel now if station
reached the micro controller sets the relay array in such a pattern that it sets the particular voice
chip on.
All these things are done by programme feeded in the micro controller’s ROM.
The communication circuit works in the following way :-
RF transmitter:-
as we know that Receiver module only detects 433MHz RF signals so we
modulate the data at this frequency using OOK.
To perform this we use the RF T/X module & components are selected such that it produces
a 433MHz pulse train.
Working of Module (internal detail):-
The ckt. works as the charging of capacitor (which decide the on time) is done by the 1K resistor
& 6.8K resistor although another resistor of 22K is connected but due to the diode connected in
series with this resistor, it does not affects in charging because during charging diode gets reverse
biased so behave as open circuit. During the discharging of capacitor the 6.8K resistors gets
disconnected from the ckt. due to the reverse biasing of diode connected with this resistor.
Now to modulate these pulses we apply the modulating signal at the pin 4 of IC this pin is used to
reset the IC hence when ever we apply a low pulse at this pin the IC’s O/P immediately switch to
low state & remain at that state until the pulse does not changes its state.
RF receiver:-
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In this section we are use RF module of 433Mhz which detects the RF of switching rate maximum
4Khz, as it detects this light its output gets low or we can say that its O/P is active low.
PC Unit:-
The transmitting & receiving unit of this section work in same way as in card but here we use the
PC to show the details.
In our project we are using the serial port to communicate with PC & as we know that on serial
communication mode it uses the RS232 standard for which logic 1 is assigned to a voltage less
than –3V & logic 0 to greater than +3V because Rx.,Tx. Sections & microcontroller provides the
O/P at TTL level, we use here MAX232 as level converter which have two TTL to RS232
converter & two RS232 to TTL converter hence the O/P of serial port available at pin3 is applied
to one of the two RS232 to TTL converter & I/P to serial port is fed through TTL to RS232
converter
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CHAPTER 6CHAPTER 6
PCB DETAILSPCB DETAILS
6.1 PCB Designing
The main purpose of printed circuit is in the routing of electric currents of electric currents and
signal through a thin copper layer that is bounded firmly to and instating base material some time
called the base. This base is manufactured with integral bounded layers of thin copper foil which
has to be partly etched of other wise remove to arrive at a pre designed pattern to suite the circuit
connections or whatever other application is noted
The term printed circuit board is derived from the original method where by a printed pattern is
used as the mask over be wanted areas of copper. The PCBprovides an ideal; base board upon
which to assemble and hold firmly most of the small components.
From the constructors point to view the main attraction of using PCB is its role as the mechanical
support for small components. There is less need for complicate and time consuming metal work
of chassis contraception except perhaps in providing the final enclosure Most straight forward
circuit designs can be easily covered in to printed wiring layer the thought required to carry out the
inversion cab footed high light an possible error that would otherwise be missed in conventional
point to point wiring. The finished project is usually neater and truly a work of art.
Actual size PCB layout for the circuit shown is drawn on the copper board, while the help of a
material inactivate of FeCl3 solution. The hoard is then immersed in FeCl3 solution for 12 hours,
in this process only the hidden copper portion that is etched out by the solution.
Now the paint is washed out by the petrol. Now the copper layout on PCB is rubbed with a
smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only the oxide layers over the Cu is removed. Now
the holes are drilled at the respective places according to component layout.
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6.2 Layout Design :-
When designing the layout one should observe the minimum size(component body length and
weight) Before starting to design the layout have all the required components to hand so that an
accurate assessment of space can be made it is often necessary to mount these so thwart the body
is clear of the board to allow adequate air flow. Other space consideration might also include from
case mounted components over the printed circuit board or to access path to present components
in the case.
It might be necessary to turn some components round to a different angular position so that
terminals are closer to the connections of the components. The scale can be checked be
positioning the components on the squared paper. If any connection crosses, then one can reroute
to avoid such condition. All common or earth lines should ideally be connected to a common line
routed around the perimeter of the layout this will act as the ground plane. If possible try to route
the outer supply line ground plane. If possible try to route the other supply lines around the
opposite edge to the layout to through the center. The first set is to tearing the circuit eliminates
the crossover with out altering the circuit detail in any way.
Plan the layout as if looking at the top side to this board first this should be translated inverse later
for the etching pattern large areas rate recommended to maintain good copper adhesive it is
impotent be bear in mind always that cooper track width must be atlas to the recommended
minimum dimensions and allowance must be made fort increased width where termination holes
are need from this aspect if can become little tricky to negotiate the route for connects to small
transistors. There are basically two ways one can effect the copper interconnections pattern in the
under side to the board. The first is the removal of only the amount of copper necessary to isolate
the junction to the components to each other resulting in the large areas of copper. The second is
to make the interconnection pattern looking more like conventional point wiring by routing
uniform width of copper from component to component.
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6.3 Etching :-
Etching process requires the use of chemicals acid resistant dishes and running water supply Ferric
chloride is maximum used solution but other enchants such as ammonium per sulfate can be used.
Nitric acid can be used but in general it is not used due to poisonous fumes.
The pattern prepared is print on to the copper surface of the board using screen printing or the
marker. Before going to next stage, check the whole gotten and cross cheek against the circuit
diagram check for any freeing matte on the copper. The etching bath should be in a galls or
enamel disc. If using crystal of ferric- chloride these should be thoroughly dissolved in water to the
proportional suggested. There should be 0.5 Lt. Of water for 125 Gm of crystal.
Waste liquid should be thoroughly deflated and druid in water land; never pour down the drain.
To prevent particles of copper hindering further etching, agitate the solutions carefully be gently
twisting or rocking the tray.
The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is needed to remove just the right
amount of copper. In spite of there being a resist coating there is no protection against etching
away through exposed copper edges; this leads to over etching. Have running water ready so that
etched board can be removed properly and rinsed; this will halt etching immediately.
6.4 Material Required:-
1. Copper clad laminate PCB board cut into required size
2. Iron(III) chloride (ferric chloride)crystals 50 grams
3. Dilute HCL
4. Thinner or Acetone
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Chemistry of PCB etching :-
Iron(III) chloride is etching copper in two-step redox reaction to copper(I) chloride and then to
copper(II) chloride in the production of printed circuit boards.
FeCl3 + Cu → FeCl2 + CuCl
FeCl3 + CuCl → FeCl2 + CuCl2
Precautions :-
Iron(III) chloride is toxic, highly corrosive and acidic. The anhydrous material is a powerful
dehydrating agent. In secondary/high schools all around the world, where Design and technology
is a subject taught, Ferric Chloride used for PCB etching is usually diluted with water. Despite this,
hands and other surfaces that have contacted it should still be washed immediately after one
finishes with it.
6.5 Drilling :-
Drilling is one of those operations that call for great carebecause most of the holes will be made a
very small drill. For most purposes a 1mm drill is used Drill all holes with this size first those that
need to be larger can be easily drilled again with the appropriate lager size. Drilling of a PCB is
done after the PCB has been itched by the circuit layout using the PCB drill machine or a simple
hand driller. Now your PCB is ready for mounting of the components.
6.6 Soldering :-
Soldering is an important part of electronics, and it is used almost everywhere, and it is good to
know how to solder if you are in electronics, no matter what your level of experience. In order to
solder you will need the proper type of solder, and a soldering iron (pencil), gun, station, or if
there is no power available, a soldering torch. In most electronics a simple 15-40 watt soldering
iron will do fine, any higher wattage can damage components or circuit board traces. But for larger
jobs, like soldering together two very large pieces of metal or a wire to a large chassis, a soldering
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gun may be used. But normally soldering guns should not be used in electronics because of their
very high wattage, and because they generate their heat by running a current through the tip. This
could cause voltages from the tip to destroy components. And for static sensitive components, a
soldering iron with anti-static control and wrist straps should be used, and maybe even an anti-
static mat.
The solder used should be 60/40, 50/50, or 40/60 with a rosin core. 60/40 is the ratio of tin-to-
lead in the solder, so in 60/40 solder there is 60% tin and 40% lead. I think that 60/40 is the best
in electronics, but any of the three will do. And rosin is a type of flux (flux is used to clean the
metal so the solder will stick), and it is what is used in electronics. But only rosin flux should be
used, any other type of flux will corrode and destroy components, component leads, and circuit
board traces. The size of the solder is not too important, but you might want to use a thin solder
so that you don't apply too much.
Before you solder, you will need to tin the tip of your iron. Tinning the tip is just putting a coat of
solder on the tip. This can be done by applying some solder to the tip, and then wiping it off on a
damp sponge or rag. The tip of the iron should then be nice and shiny.
6.6.1 Soldering to PCB :-
First you should clean the PCB (printed circuit board) with steel wool or a PCB cleaner that can be
found at most electrical part suppliers. Clean the pads (part where component will be soldered to)
so that it becomes shiny, but be careful not to rip the pad off the board. Using a pencil eraser
sometimes works to get the oxidation off the pads. You should also clean the component leads
with steel wool or sand paper to ensure a good connection.
After everything is clean you can start to put components in. It is a good idea to put in the smaller
components first, to make it easier. Bend the leads of the component if necessary to fit in place.
Then put them through the board, and bend the leads to about 45° so they stay in place, and then
you can begin to solder it. Take the tip of the iron and touch it to the pad and the lead to heat
them both up. Then on the opposite side begin to apply solder. Be careful not to apply too much
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solder. The solder should spread all over the joint, and make a shiny connection. Remove the
solder and then the iron. If the joint was not heated properly the solder will bubble, and make
what is called a cold joint. Any cold joints will need to be disordered, and then soldered again. It is
sometimes easier to solder to the PCB when the pads are tinned. To tin the PCB pats, heat the pad
with the soldering iron, then apply a small amount of solder, just enough to coat the pad. Then
using disordering braid, remove the excess solder. Heat sinks are good to use when soldering
semiconductors and other components that can be easily damaged by heat. Heat sinks are just
aluminum clips that absorb some of the heat going to the component, and help prevent damaging
the component from too much heat. To use a heat sink clip it onto the lead between the
component and joint to be soldered. When soldering ICs you may want to put in a socket, so you
won’t have to worry about the IC overheating from soldering it in place, and it makes it easy to
replace the IC if it ever breaks.
6.6.2 Soldering Wires to Wires/Component Leads :-
First you may want to clean off the wires and component leads with steel wool or sandpaper.
Then twist the wires together, and heat the joint with the soldering iron. On the opposite side
begin to apply solder, but not too much. The solder should flow all around the joint, making a
good connection. Remove the solder, and then the iron.
You may wish to cover the joint with heat shrink tubing, to insulate the joint. To use heat shrink
tubing, find the smallest tube that can still fit over all the wires. Put the tubing over one side of the
wires, solder the joint, and allow it to cool. Then move the tubing over the joint. Using a lighter or
match (the soldering iron will not work well) heat the tubing so that it shrinks completely, and
tightly covers the joint. When heating the tubing, don't put the flame too close, or the tubing will
burn a little, even though they are usually fire resistant.
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6.6.3 Soldering Wires to Component Terminals :-
Clean off the wire(s) and terminal to be soldered. Then put the wire(s) through the hole in the
terminal, or if there is no hole wrap the wire(s) around the terminal. Then heat the terminal and
wire(s) with the tip of the iron, and begin to apply solder on the opposite side, but not too much.
The solder should spread all over the terminal and wire(s) and create a good connection. Then
remove the solder, and then the iron. To insulate the joint, you may want to use heat shrink
tubing. To use the heat shrink tubing, first find the smallest tube that can still fit over the terminal
and wire(s). Put the tubing over the wire(s), and solder the joint. Allow the joint to cool, then
move the tubing over the joint. Using a lighter or match (the soldering iron will not work well)
heat the tubing so that it shrinks completely, and tightly covers the joint. When heating the tubing,
don't put the flame too close, or the tubing will burn a little, even though they are usually fire
resistant.
6.7 Tips to Remember :-
• Keep everything clean.
• Use a wattage only necessary for the job
• Heat the joint, not the solder
• Use only rosin core solder, 60/40, 50/50, or 40/60
• Don't heat the joint too long
• Don't put on too much solder
• Solder smaller components first.
• Use heat sinks
• Use sockets
• Tin the PCB pads
• Cover joints with heat shrink tubing
• Use thin solder
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6.8 Precautions of soldering :-
The development engineer indicates any specific electrical requirements that may be influenced by
the production process and the chemical compatibility of the chosen components. When these are
decided, the designer must know the processing, especially for SMT circuits. SMT components
having different types of footprints are ideally suited for wave soldering, infrared fusion,
thermoses fusion, and vapors phase fusion, irrespective of whether cleaning is done or not.
Cleaning of SMDs is not easy because of the small clearances under the components and the
closure of the side spaces by the solder fillets. To maximize the ingress of the cleaning solution or
solvent, it is necessary to maximize the clearance and to minimize the width of the solder fillets.
As the component leads are generally fixed, the only recourse is to make the soldering pads (lands)
as narrow as possible, consistent with satisfactory soldering.
The orientation of the components is also very critical and must be optimized, in conjunction with
the method of cleaning, to maximize the penetration of fluid under the components.
If a no-clean soldering technique is used, the parameters can be optimized to obtain the maximum
soldering quality. For example, quad flat packs and similar devices with soldering lands on all four
sides should be placed at 45° to the soldering axis, if these are to be wave soldered. Robber lands
on the lee side of the device may also be useful to aid the drainage of excess solder from the
region of the connections, thereby reducing the risk of short-circuits and consequent retouches.
For all solder paste fusion methods, orientation is usually less critical, except where subsequent
cleaning takes place, so optimization may be concentrated on the style and size of the pad. This is
especially so with vapors phase fusion, but this soldering method is discouraged on environmental
grounds. With infrared fusion, care must be taken to ensure that the heat distribution is sufficient
for all different-sized components, and that all vias are well separated from the pads by a thin
conductor to prevent the molten solder from being removed from the solder zone by capillary
action.
The fan-out feature of the router will control this. Internal power planes must be connected
through thermal breaks. It is also a good practice to use annular rings (or squares), rather than
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solid discs, for the artwork, where no connection is to be made to the power plane. This ensures
that there is a pad on all layers and thus a constant build-up at all plated-through holes and visa.
Particularly when there are many layers, the lack of internal layers can physically distort the board
at the most critical point. This may result into de-lamination or conductive anodic filaments.
But it is advisable to leave a 1mm gap between the power planes and the edge of the board for a
number of reasons. This gap should never exceed 2.5 mm, as it may result into resin starvation
and de-lamination. Multilayer boards should be cut always with a routing tool or a diamond saw,
to have a clean edge. Never shear, stamp, or score rigid multilayers. Printed circuit design can have
a colossal effect on the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of an electronic assembly. There may
be radiation from oscillators on the board or high-speed logic switching, susceptibility to picking
up external radiation from a nearby source (such as a poorly maintained commentator motor, cell
phone, and local high-power transmitter), crosstalk from poorly matched characteristic
impedances, etc.
The designer can reduce these effects to a minimum by using an appropriate design. Critical tracks
can be prioritized into the shortest possible length, placed between power planes, surrounded by
ground planes, designed for good characteristic impedance matching, etc.
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CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 7
ASSEMBLINGASSEMBLING
Assembling means :-
• To bringor call togetherinto a group or whole: assembled the jury.
• To fit together the parts or pieces of: assemble a machine; assemble data.
• We design this useful circuit considering the knowledge of electronics and use of
this project.
The following steps have been followed in carrying out the project:-
• Understand the working of the circuit.
• Prepare the circuit diagram.
• Prepare the list of the components along with their specification.
• Estimate the cost and procure them after carrying out market survey.
• Plan and prepare PCB for mounting all the components.
• Fix the components on the PCB and solder them.
• Test the circuit for desired performance.
• Trace and rectify faults if any.
• Give a good finish to the unit.
• Prepare the project report.
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CHAPTER 8CHAPTER 8
COMPONENTS DETAILSCOMPONENTS DETAILS
8.1 Resistors
Example: Circuit symbol:
Fig 8.1 Fig 8.2
Function
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a light-
emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.
Connecting and soldering
Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering.
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The Resistor
Colour Code
Colour Number
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
36

Table 3
8.1.1 Resistor values - the resistor colour code
Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is an omega .
1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M .
1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 .
Resistor values are normally shown using colours bands.
Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.
Most resistors have 4 bands:
The first band gives the first digit.
The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for
almost all circuits but further details are given
Fig 8.3
Resistor colour code
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This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 ohms =270 k ohms.
The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small values two
special colours are used for the third band: gold which means × 0.1 and silver which means
× 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.
8.1.2 Resistors in series and parallel
For information on resistors connected in series and parallel please see the resistance page,
Power Ratings of Resistors :-
Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through a resistor. Usually the effect is
negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a large current may
pass making the resistor become noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the
heating effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the standard
power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher power is required it
should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors (less than
about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).
8.1.3 Classification Of Resistors
Shows the classification of resistors in the form of a family tree. The resistors are basically of two
types, namely linear resistors and non- linear resistors. Each type is further subdivided into many
types as shown in the figure.
Linear resistors:-
The resistors, through which the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage, are called
linear resistors. Such resistors have a property that their resistance value does not change with the
variation in applied voltage, temperature or light intensity. The linear resistors are of two types
namely fixed resistors and variable resistors.
Non-linear:-
The resistors, through which the current is not directly proportional to the applied voltage, are
called non-linear resistors. Such resistors have a property that their resistance values change with
variation in applied voltage, temperature of light intensity. The non-linear resistors are of three
namely thermostat, photo resistor and varistor.
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Fixed Resistors :-
The fixed resistors are those whose do not change with the variation in applied voltage,
temperature and light intensity. Such resistors are available in various shapes and sizes, with both
axial and radial leads as shown in Fig.7.2. In addition to this, the fixed resistors are available with
sugs for installation by soldering or mounting with screws and rivets. The fixed resistors are of the
following types:
Carbon composition resistors :-
These resistors are made by mixing carbon powder and insulating binders to produce the desired
value of resistance. The resulting resistance values are within + 10% of the desired value.
However, the resistors with + 5% tolerance are also obtained through special techniques. Usually,
the resistance element is a simple rod of carbon powder, which is enclosed in a plastic case for
insulation and mechanical strength as shown in Fig.7.3.(a). The two ends of the carbon resistance
element are joined to metal caps with leads of tinned wire. The leads are provided for soldering
the resistor into a circuit. The carbon composition resistors are available in resistance values
ranging 1 Ω to 22 MΩ and power ratings of 1/8, 1/4,1/2,1 and 2 watts. The size of these resistors
varies with the power ratings as shown in Fig.7.3 (b). These days, the carbon composition resistors
with power rating of 1 W of less are widely used in electronic equipments.
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8.2 Capacitors
Function :-
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuit because it takes time
for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a
reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC
(changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
8.2.1 Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so
prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):
µ means 10-6
(millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F
n means 10-9
(thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
p means 10-12
(million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with
different labelling systems!
Polarized capacitors (large values, 1µF +)
Examples: Circuit symbol:
Capacitors
Fig 8.4
Small value capacitors are unpolarized and may be connected either way round. They are not
damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high
voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these
small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labeling systems Many
small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use
experience to work out what the multiplier should be .
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8.2.2 Classification of Capacitors
The capacitors are commonly classified on the basis of dielectric material used for their
manufacturing. it is because of the fact that characteristics of a capacitor are mainly due to the
properties of a dialectic. Figure 7.23 shows different types of capacitors manufactured these days.
The capacitors may be divided into two classes, namely fixed capacitors and variable capacitors.
Each type is further subdivided in to many types as shown in the figure.
Fixed Capacitors :-
The capacitors, in which the capacitance value cannot be varied by any means (i.e., either by
changing plate separation or area) are called fixed capacitors. These capacitors are broadly of two
types namely electrostatic (or non-electrolytic) and electrolytic capacitors. Both these capacitor
types are discussed in the following pages.
Electrostatic Capacitors :-
These capacitors are made up of two metal conductors (called plates) separated by a dielectric.
Theyare characterized by very low leakage current and high leakage resistance. Following are
the various types of electrostatic capacitors:
Ceramic capacitors :-
These capacitors are made by using various ceramic materials as dielectrics. Usually, a powdered
mixture of barium-strontium-titan ate is used can have values from less than 10 pF to more than 1
uf. These capacitors have a very high dielectric constant and therefore are usually smaller in size
than paper or mica capacitors for the same capacitance value. However, ceramic capacitors have
lower breakdown voltage than that of mica or paper type capacitors. The leakage resistance in
ceramic capacitors is very high. But it is not as high as that of paper or mica type. These capacitors
are available in both disc and tubular types and are used as bypassing and coupling capacitors in
electronic circuits. The ceramic capacitors are cheaper than paper or mica type capacitors and have
excellent performance up to 200 MHz
Mica capacitors :-
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These capacitors are available in capacitance values ranging from 1 pF to 10000 pF. These
capacitors are expensive but have a stable capacitance value even at a frequency of 200 MHz
These capacitors are able to withstand very high voltage (about 500V) due to thigh dielectric
constant. The mica capacitors are widely used in radio and telecommunication applications.
Plastic film capacitors :-
These capacitors are made by using plastic materials as a dielectric. The plastics used for this
purpose are polyester, (Mylar), polypropylene, polystyrene, Teflon etc. But in actual practice,
polyester and polystyrene materials are more commonly used. The polyester capacitors, from 5 pF
to 0.05 uF. The Teflon capacitors may be operated up to 250º C. The polystyrene capacitors have
very low leakage and good high frequency properties. The plastic film capacitors provide a wide
choice in cost versus performance.
Paper capacitors :-
These capacitors are made by using strips of aluminum foil with treated paper as a dielectric. The
foil and the paper is rolled in a ribbon form. The leads are connected to the aluminium foil and
taken out at each end. The capacitor may be sealed in a wax paper or plastic. The paper capacitors
are available with capacitance values ranging from 0.001 uF to 1 uF. These capacitors have
excellent high voltage characteristics. Their working voltage may be as high as 2000.
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8.2.4 Electrolytic Capacitors
These capacitors are made up of metal plates, which have a definite polarity separated by a thin
metal oxide dielectric as shown in Fig. 7.24. The metal oxide is a conductive compound having
dielectric constant between 8 and 25. Usually, it is in a paste form, though it can be in a liquid
form also. The plate acts as a positive electrode or anode. The capacitor is formed by using either
a conducting electrolyte as a second electrode or a semiconductor such as manganese dioxide. The
electrolyte used is either in a liquid form or in the form of a paste, which saturates a paper or a
gauge. The capacitor is packed in metal cylinder.
The cathode is connected to the cylinder. The cylinder is usually, enclosed in a paper tube or
cardboard tube, in order to insulate it form outside.
When a voltage of correct polarity is applied to a capacitor, a very thin insulating layer of oxygen
atoms forms between the anode and the oxide layer. A reversal of polarity removes the insulating
layer, thereby allowing very high currents. Thus electrolytic capacitors are known as polarized
capacitors. They must be connected in a circuit according to the 'plus' (+) and 'minus' (-) markings
on the body of a capacitor. If the capacitor is connected with a reverse polarity, it will act as a
short circuit and get overheated, due to excessive leakage current, and it can explode also. Some
electrolytic capacitors are made with two capacitors in one cylinder. These capacitors are internally
connected in series in an inverse arrangement, so that one of them is always working as a
capacitor. This prevents the high leakage current, when operated with reverse polarity. Such
capacitors are known as non-polarized electrolytic capacitors. The electrolytic capacitors possess a
large value of capacitance ranging form 1 uFto 10000 uF in very compact sizes. The electrolytic
capacitors are used in a variety of specialized applications. Such application include their uses in
starting motors, blocking D.C. current, passing A.C. current, filtering unwanted signals, tuning
currents to a specific frequency, coupling and bypassing signals etc.
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8.3 TRANSISTOR
A transistor consists of two junctions by sandwiching either p-type of n-type semiconductor
between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly, there are two types of transistors namely;
(1) n-p-n-transistor (2) p-n-p-transistor
An n-p-n-transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin section of p
type. However a p-n-p-transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section of n-type.
In each type of transistor the following points may be noted. These are two p-n junctions.
Therefore a transistor may be regarded as combination of two diodes connected back to back.
There are three terminals taken from each type of semiconductor. The middle section is a very
thin layer. This is the most important factor in the function of a transistor.
Transistor as an Amplifier :-
A transistor raised the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. The weak signal is
applied between emitter base junction and output is taken across the load Rc connected in the
collector circuit in order achieve faithful amplification the input circuit should always remain
forward biased. This D.C. Voltage V EE is applied in the input in addition to the signal. This D.C.
Voltage is known as bias voltage and magnitude is such that is always keeps the input circuit
forward besides regardless of the polarity to the signal. As the input circuit has low resistance
therefore a small change in signal voltage caused an appreciable change emitter current. This
caused almost the same change in collector current due to transistor action. The collector current
flowing through a high load resistance Re-produced a large voltage across it. Thus a weak signal
applied in the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit it is in this way
that a transistor acts as an amplifier.
Function:-
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output current from
a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a
resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being
used to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no
current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
For further information please see the Transistor circuits page.
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8.3.1 Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with
different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of
semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to
make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by
learning how to use NPN transistors.
Fig 8.5
The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor butthey are not much help in
understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels.
A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are
usually referred.
Fig. 8.6: Transistors
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Transistor circuit symbols
45

8.4 TRANSFORMER
Definition :-
The transformer is a static electro-magnetic device that transforms one alternating voltage
(current) into another voltage (current). However, power remains the some during the
transformation. Transformers play a major role in the transmission and distribution of ac power.
Principle :-
Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. A transformer consists of laminated
magnetic core forming the magnetic frame. Primary and secondary coils are wound upon the two
cores of the magnetic frame, linked by the common magnetic flux. When an alternating voltage is
applied across the primary coil, a current flows in the primary coil producing magnetic flux in the
transformer core. This flux induces voltage in secondary coil.
Transformers are classified as: -
(a) Based on position of the windings with respect to core i.e.
(1) Core type transformer
(2) Shell type transformer
(b) Transformation ratio:
(1) Step up transformer
(2) Step down transformer
(a) Core & shell types: Transformer is simplest electrical machine, which consists of windings
on the laminated magnetic core. There are two possibilities of putting up the windings on
the core.
(1) Winding encircle the core in the case of core type transformer
(2) Cores encircle the windings on shell type transformer
(b) Step up and Step down: In these Voltage transformation takes place according to whether
the primary is high voltage coil or a low voltage coil.
(1) Lower to higher-> Step up
(2) Higher to lower-> Step down
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8.5 DIODES
+ _
Fig 8.7 Diode Symbol
It is a two terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either of Ge or Si crystal. The P
and N type regions are referred to as anode and cathode respectively. Commercially available
diodes usually have some means to indicate which lead is P and which lead is N.
8.6 RELAY
In this circuit a 12V magnetic relay is used. In magnetic relay, insulated copper wire coil is used to
magnetize and attract the plunger .The plunger is normally connected to N/C terminal. A spring is
connected to attract the plunger upper side. When output is received by relay, the plunger is
attracted and the bulb glows.
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8.7 IC- AT895C1
PIN CONFIGURATION
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Fig 8.8 pin diag of 89c51
Features :-
• Compatible with MCS-51
• 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
– Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
• Three-level Program Memory Lock
• 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
• 32 Programmable I/O Lines
• Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
• Six Interrupt Sources
• Programmable Serial Channel
• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
Description :-
The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of
Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device
Flash is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is
compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip
Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile
memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash
AT89C51 on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides
a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.
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TABLE 4TABLE 4
PORT 0PORT 0
Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As anoutput port, each pin can sink eight
TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs.
Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses
to external pro-gram and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pullups.
Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during
program verification. External pullups are required during program verification.
PORT 1PORT 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the
internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 1 also receives the low-order
address bytes during Flash programming and verification.
PORT 2
internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 2 emits the high-order address
byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory
that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pullups
when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @
RI), Port 2 emits the
contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and
some control signals during Flash programming and verification.
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PORT 3
internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various
special features of the AT89C51 as listed above.
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Fig 8.9
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8.88.8 RELAY IN4007RELAY IN4007
Fig 8.10
Features
• Low forward voltage drop.
• High surge current capability.
8.98.9 TRANSISTOR BC548CTRANSISTOR BC548C
Fig 8.118.11
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This device is designed for use as general purpose amplifiers and switches requiring collector
currents to 300 mA.
TABLE 5TABLE 5
8.108.10 IC LM7805IC LM7805
Fig 8.12
The LM78LXX series of three terminal positive regulators is available with several fixed output
voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. When used as a zener diode/resistor
combination replacement, the LM78LXX usually results in an effective output impedance
improvement of two orders of magnitude, and lower quiescent current. These regulators can
provide local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single point
regulation. The voltages available allow the LM78LXX to be used in logic systems,
instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment.
The LM78LXX is available in the plastic TO-92 (Z) package, the plastic SO-8 (M) package and a
chip sized package (8-Bump micro SMD) using National’s micro SMD package technology. With
adequate heat sinking the regulator can deliver 100 mA output current. Current limiting is included
to limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistors is
provided to limit internalpower dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the
heat sinking provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from
overheating.
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Features
• LM78L05 in micro SMD package
• Output voltage tolerances of ±5% over the temperature
range
• Output current of 100 mA
• Internal thermal overload protection
• Output transistor safe area protection
• Internal short circuit current limit
• Available in plastic TO-92 and plastic SO-8 low profile
packages
• No external components
• Output voltages of 5.0V, 6.2V, 8.2V, 9.0V, 12V, 15V
8.118.11 IC LM358IC LM358
Features
• Available in 8-Bump micro SMD chip sized package.
• Internally frequency compensated for unity gain
• Large dc voltage gain: 100 dB
• Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1 MHz
• temperature compensated
• Wide power supply range:
— Single supply: 3V to 32V
— or dual supplies: ±1.5V to ±16V
• Very low supply current drain (500 µA)—essentially
independent of supply voltage
• Low input offset voltage: 2 mV
• Input common-mode voltage range includes ground
• Differential input voltage range equal to the power
supply voltage
• Large output voltage swing: 0V to V+-1.5V
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8.12 IC LM386
Fig 8.13
Features
• Battery operation
• Minimum external parts
• Wide supply voltage range: 4V–12V or 5V–18V
• Low quiescent current drain: 4mA
• Voltage gains from 20 to 200
• Ground referenced input
• Self-centering output quiescent voltage
• Low distortion: 0.2% (AV = 20, VS =6V,RL =8Ω,PO =
125mW, f = 1kHz)
• Available in 8 pin MSOP package
Applications
• AM-FM radio amplifiers
• Portable tape player amplifi
• Intercoms
• TV sound systems
• Line drivers
• Ultrasonic drivers
• Small servo drivers
• Power converters
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CHAPTER 9CHAPTER 9
SHORTCOMING AND LIMITATIONSSHORTCOMING AND LIMITATIONS
• No feedback correction.
Applications of metro train automation & display system
• Passenger guiding system.
• Distance meter.
• Automatic announcement system
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CHAPTER 10CHAPTER 10
FUTURE, APPLICATION & SCOPEFUTURE, APPLICATION & SCOPE
• Feedback arrangement to correct the error.
• Connectivity with stations.
• It can be used for Survey Vehicle, Remote monitoring etc.
• In industries it can be used as self guided robotic vehicle.
• System can be used in industries, banks, workshops etc. for monitoring of workers by
officers.
• In security system
• .Highly relative compound container monitoring where excess temperature, smoke, or
flame can cause explosion.
• Robotics
• Many railways are planning on using ATO in the future. It has been partially implemented
on the Delhi Metro with plans of full ATO operations by the year 2013. ATO has been
recently introduced on the London Underground's Northern line in 2013. Although ATO
may also be used on the future Crossrail and Thameslink trains, it has not yet been
implemented on any UK mainline railways.
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PROJECT COSTPROJECT COST
Sno. Component Description Quantity Cost per
piece
Total
Cost
1
TRANSISTOR
BC548
09 03 30
2
VARIABLE RESISTORS 0303 0505 1515
33
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS 0303 1313 3939
44
CERAMIC CAPACITORS 0606 0101 0606
55
CARBON RESISTOR 2626 1.251.25 32.532.5
66
77
ICIC
AT89C51,LM324,1738,LM7805,LM555AT89C51,LM324,1738,LM7805,LM555
DIODESDIODES
0505
0909
140,40,35,10,10140,40,35,10,10
1.51.5
235235
13.513.5
88
LEDLED 0606 1.51.5 0909
99
ZENER DIODESZENER DIODES 0303 0404 1212
1010
CRYSTALCRYSTAL 0101 3030 3030
1111
RELAYRELAY 0606 2525 150150
1212 PCBPCB 0101 9090 9090
1313 MISCELLANIOUSMISCELLANIOUS
IC BASE(40PIN,20 PIN,16PIN,8PIN )IC BASE(40PIN,20 PIN,16PIN,8PIN )
0404 2828 112112
1414 SOLDERING AND CONNECTINGSOLDERING AND CONNECTING
WIRES AND SOLDERING PASTEWIRES AND SOLDERING PASTE
20mtrs,2mtrs,20mtrs,2mtrs,
10gms10gms
22,522,5 2727
1515 FERRIC CHLORIDEFERRIC CHLORIDE 100gms100gms 4040 4040
Table 6
Total Cost = Rs841
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REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHYREFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reference For Technical Information From Following Books:
1. Micro Processor Architecture by Ramesh S. Gaonkar .
2. Communication System by Tob& Shilling.
3. Micro controller by K. J. Ayala.
4. Integrated Electronics by Millman&Hawlkiwas.
5. Let us C by YashwanKanitker.
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Metro Train Automation & display System

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